THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENTS

GE 2nd Semester | BS Geodetic Engineering


410 2202
Batangas State University – TNEU Alangilan Campus 
LAW OF ERRORS
The measurement of an amount is based on some international 3. Measurement Errors
standards which are completely accurate compared with The measurement error is the result of the variation of the
others. Generally, measurement of any quantity is done by measurement of the true value.
comparing it with derived standards with which they are not Usually, measurement error consists of a random error and
completely accurate. Thus, the errors in measurement are systematic error.
not only due to error in methods, but are also due to The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales
derivation being not done perfectly well. So, 100% are loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 1002
measurement error is not possible with any methods. grams then
It is very important for the operator to take proper care of the The measurement error is = (1002 grams – 1000grams) = 2
experiment while performing on industrial instruments so grams
that the error in measurement can be reduced. Some of the a. Systematic Errors
errors are constant in nature due to unknown reasons, some Due to fault in measuring device
will be random in nature, and the other will be due to gross Usually they are called zero error (a positive or negative error)
blunder on the part of the experimenter. This error can be detached by correcting the measurement
device.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEM These errors may be classified into different categories:
Error o Instrumental Errors
o difference between the measured value and the actual - occur due to wrong construction of the measuring
value instruments
o For example, if the two operators use the same device or - These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction.
instrument for finding the errors in measurement, it is - These errors include loading effect and misuse of the
not necessary that they may get similar results. There instruments. In order to reduce the gross errors in
may be a difference between both measurements. The measurement, different correction factors must be
difference that occurs between both the measurements applied and in the extreme condition instrument must be
is referred to as an error. recalibrated carefully.
True value
o is impossible to find out the truth of quantity by o Environmental Error
experimental means. - occurs due to some external conditions of the instrument
o defined as average value of an infinite number of - External conditions may include pressure, temperature,
measured values. humidity or due to magnetic fields
Measured Value - In order to reduce the environmental errors:
o can be defined as the estimated value of true value that  Try to maintain the humidity and temperature
can be found by taking several measured values during constant in the laboratory by making some
an experiment arrangements
 Ensure that there shall not be any external
TYPES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEM electrostatic or magnetic field around the
Generally errors are classified into three types: instrument
1. Systematic errors
o Instrumental Errors o Observational Errors
o Environmental Errors - Occurs due to wrong observations or reading in the
o Observational Errors instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading.
o Theoretical Errors - The wrong observations may be due to parallax.
2. Random Errors - In order to reduce the parallax error highly accurate
3. Blunders meters needed: meters provided with mirror scales.

o Theoretical Errors
TYPES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS - Are caused by simplification of the model system
- For example, a theory states that the temperature of the
Gross Errors Measurement Errors system surrounding will not change the readings taken
Blunders when it actually does, then this factor will begin a source
of error in measurement.
Systematic Errors Random Errors
b. Random Errors
Instrumental Environmental Observational Theoretical - Caused by sudden change in experimental conditions and
Errors Errors Errors Errors
noise and tiredness in the working persons.
- These errors are positive or negative
1. Gross Errors - An example is during changes in humidity, unexpected
Are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating change in temperature and fluctuation in voltage.
measurement and recording data results. - These errors may be reduced by taking the average of
The best example of these errors is a person or operator reading large number of readings.
pressure gage 1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be used due to
the person’s bad habit of not properly remembering data at MEASUREMENT ERROR CALCULATION
the time of taking down reading, writing, and calculating, and There are several ways to make a reasonable measurement errors
then presenting the wrong data at a later time. This may be and estimating systematic errors.
the reason for gross errors in the reported data, and such
errors may end up in calculation of the final results, thus ESTIMATING RANDOM ERRORS
deviating results. There are number of ways to make a reasonable estimate of the
random error in a particular measurement. The best way is to
2. Blunders make a series of measurements. The best way is to make a
Are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty series of measurements of a given quantity (say x) and
recording or due to a wrong value while recording a calculate the mean and standard deviation (x̄ & σ).
measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while
reading a scale. Mean
N
These blunders should stick out like sore thumbs if one person 1
checks the work of another person. It should not be x̄= ∑x
N i=1 i
comprised in the analysis of data.
THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENTS
GE 2nd Semester | BS Geodetic Engineering

410 2202
Batangas State University – TNEU Alangilan Campus 

Where:
x i=¿the result of ith measurements
N = number off measurements

Standard Deviation

√
N
1
σ= ∑ (x ¿¿ i− x̄ )2 ¿
N i=1
Example:
 Probability model for the random error of measurement
Length in mm (x) x−x̄  Mean value is zero and referred to as the position or location
22.8 0.04 parameter of the probability distribution
23.1 0.26  If measurement A has greater variation than measurement
22.7 0.14 B, A will have a standard deviation that is larger than B
22.6 0.24  The square of the standard deviation is known as the
23.0 0.16 variance
Σ = 114.2 Σ = 0.84
x̄ = 22. 84 σ = 0.38

 Solution for mean:

N
1
x̄= ∑x
N i=1 i
1
x̄= (114.2)
5
x̄=22.84

 Solution for standard deviation:

√
N
1 1. Precision – degree of closeness or conformity of repeated
σ= ∑ (x ¿¿ i− x̄ )2 ¿
N i=1 measurements of the same quantity to each other
2. Accuracy – degree of conformity or closeness of
1
5
σ =0.38
√
σ = (0.84 )2
3.
measurement to the true value
Uncertainty – range within which it is expected that the
error of a measurement will fall; ex: 90% uncertainty means
the range of values within which it is 90% probable that the
 Therefore, the result is 22.84 ±0.38mm error of measurement will fall.

SOURCES OF ERRORS AND CLASSIFICATIONS SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

 The number of significant figures in a numerical quantity
CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
equals the number of digits in the quantity less all zero digits
 Measurement must involve observations. No measurement
that are used to fix the position of the decimal point.
is until something is observed.
 Measurement is subject to variation (example: temperature)
Example:
 No observation can be repeated exactly due to limitations of
147 - 3 significant figures
instrument and ability of the observer.
147.64 - 5 significant figures
 What we get in reality is an estimate od the true value. 2.1 - 2 significant figures

ε =x−¿τ
 Theory of errors: 1013 - 4 significant figures
ε = error 1.007 - 4 significant figures
x = observed value 17.710 - 5 significant figures
τ = true value 0.021 - 2 significant figures

v=¿x̂ - x
 Residuals 1320 - 3 or 4 significant figures
v = residual
x̂ = estimate of true value  The number of significant figures in a directly measured
x = observed value quantity is not usually difficult to determine, as it essentially
depends on the least count of the instrument used.
ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS IN PROBABILITY  For example, if a distance is measured with a tape graduated
 Assuming that we have a set of measurements free gross in centimeters, with estimation to millimeters, and a reading
errors and corrected for all systematic errors, and whatever of 462.513 was taken, the first five digits are certain, the
variation remains in the measurements is caused by random sixth is estimated. The first 5 digits were certain, the last
errors only. doubtful.
 We can possibly study the collective behavior of  The number of significant figures in a numerical quantity is
measurements using frequency distribution reduced by rounding off. The least error will be caused if
 Frequency distribution is used as basis for constructing the rounding off is done according to the following rules:
probability distribution, for measurements. 1. If k significant figures are required, discard all digits to the
 Probability is represented by the area under a continuous right of the (k+1)th digit
curve that is a mathematical function of the measurement. 2. Examine the (k+1)th digit
 The probability density function of the random variable a. If 0 to 4, discard it; e.g. 12.34421 is rounded off to 4 SG
represents the distance measurement as 12.34
 The central value, μ, is the mean value b. If 6 to 9, discard and increase the kth digit by one; e.g.
 If no systematic errors are present in the measurement the 1.376 is rounded off to 3 SF as 1.38
mean value is taken as the “true” value c. If 5 and kth digit is even, discard it; e.g. 12.345 is
rounded off to 4 SF as 12.34
d. If 5 and kth digit is odd, discard it and increase the kth
digit by one; e.g. 12.3435 is rounded off to 5 SF as
12.344.
THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENTS
GE 2nd Semester | BS Geodetic Engineering

410 2202
Batangas State University – TNEU Alangilan Campus 
dy
dx + ( dx )
2
dy =
dx
 Rules for addition
- Round off to the number off decimal places that is least in
Example 1. The area y of a square tract of land is required. The
the quantities being held.
length x of the side of the tract is measured with a 30 m long steel
tape and is observed to be 50.170 m. This measurement is then
Example
used to calculate the area of the tract, as follows: the calculated
area is

 Rules for Multiplication

- Number of SF in the product should equal the number of SF
in the factor with the least SF.

ERROR PROPAGATION  When dealing with nonlinear function, error through

 In surveying, the quantities that are measured directly in the derivatives is given by:
field are often used to compute other quantities of interest, dy 2
dy = dx + ( dx )
expressed as mathematical functions of the field dx
instruments. If the field instruments have errors, it is
inevitable that the quantities computed from them will have 2
 However, the term ( dx ) is said to be negligible.
errors.
 Error propagation – evaluation of the errors in the computed
quantities as functions of the errors in the measurement

LINEAR
 Suppose x is a measured quantity and y is a new quantity to
be calculated from x according to the function: y=ax+ b
 The coefficients a and b are known and assumed to be
errorless, x=x 1 +dx
 Where x is the true value, and dx represents the error.
Therefore,
y=ax+ b
y=a(x ¿¿ 1+dx )+ b ¿
y=a x1 +b +adx
LINEARIZATION
The basis of the linearization is the Taylor Series expansion, which
for one variable, y=f(x), the expansion is:

y= y 0+ ( ∂∂ xy ) ∆ x +higher−order terms
x0
0

y= y 0+
( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x +( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x
1 x0
1
2 x0
2

LINEARIZATION

Example 1. A land parcel is trapezoidal in shape with the

dimensions given. For a measured distance d=23.560 m, the
y= y 0+
∂y
( )
∂ x1 x0
∆ x1 +
( ) ∆x
∂y
∂ x2 x0
2

ordinate h is required. If the error in the measured distance is

0.016 m, compute the corresponding error in the calculated value y= y 0+ j 1 ∆ x1 + j 2 ∆ x 2
of h.
j=[ j 1 , j 2 ]

[ ]
NON-LINEAR ∆ x1
y=x
2 ∆ x=
2
∆ x2
y 1=x 1
y= y 1+ dy y= y 0+ j ∆ x
2 2
x =( x¿¿ 1+ dx) ¿  For example, y is a function of four variables:

[]
2 2 2
(x ¿¿ 1+dx ) =x1 +2 d x 1 +(dx) ¿ ∆ x1
2
dy =2 x 1 dx+(dx ) ∆ x2
y= y 0+ [ j 1 , j 2, j 3 ]
∆ x3
 Recognizing the 2x is the derivative of y with respect to x,
evaluated at x1
∆ x4
THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENTS
GE 2nd Semester | BS Geodetic Engineering

410 2202
Batangas State University – TNEU Alangilan Campus 

y= y 0+
( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x +( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x +( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x +( ∂∂xy ) ∆ x
1 x0
1
2 x0
2
3 x0
3
4 x0
4

Example 1: Express the total area y of the tract as a function of

three dimensions x1, x2, x3 shown in the figure. Then linearize this
function, given
x 10=50 m, x 20=20 m, x 30=30 m

Area of the tract is:

2
π 3 1
y= x + x 1 x 3+ x 2 x3
8 2
THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENTS
GE 2nd Semester | BS Geodetic Engineering

410 2202
Batangas State University – TNEU Alangilan Campus 