In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the Beneficent.
Praise Be To The
Lord Of All Worlds
Load Cells
Load cells are used to measure force or weight
The strain gage is the heart of a load cell. One or more strain
gages are used in the making of a load cell
Multiple strain gages are connected to create the four legs
of a Wheatstone bridge configuration
A Load Cell
66
Load Cells
CONSTRUCTION
A load cell is made by bonding strain gages to a spring
material. To efficiently detect the strain, strain gauges are
bonded to the position on the spring material where the
strain will be the largest
Spring element
serves as the
reaction
Spring Element mechanism
Structures to the applied
− Bended Beam force, load or
− Column weight
− Shear Web
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Load Cells
General Purpose Sensor Choice Hollow
− Environment
− Magnitude of force,
load and weight to
be measured
− Accuracy Washer
Fatigue Rated − Size
− …
Button
Multicomponent 68
Load Cells
WORKING DEMO
Source: [Link] 69
Load Cells
FEATURES
Load range 5 N to 40 MN
Accuracy 0.01% to 1.0 %.
Rugged and compact construction
No moving parts and negligible deflection under load.
High resistance to side loads; withstands overloads
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Piezoelectric Force Sensor
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Based on piezoelectric principle i.e. applied mechanical
stresses are converted into an electrostatic charge that
accumulates on the surface of the crystal
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Piezoelectric Force Sensor
PIEZOELECTRIC PRINCIPLE
The quartz crystals of a piezoelectric force sensor generate an
electrostatic charge only when force is applied to or removed
from them
In case of static force, the electrostatic charge output initially
generated will eventually leak away and the sensor output
ultimately will return to zero
Discharge Time Constant (DTC)
It is defined as the time required for a sensor to discharge its
signal to 37% of the original value from a step change of input
physical quantity
Piezoelectric force sensors can only be
used for quasi-static measurements 72
Piezoelectric Force Sensor
TYPES
Voltage Mode or IEPE* Charge Mode
Contain built-in microelectronic Do not have any built-in signal
signal conditioning conditioning and require
additional high to low impedance
Signal Conditioning is used to charge amplifier
convert high impedance signal
from piezoelectric material to low Moreover, it requires special low-
impedance for transmission and noise cable
for filtering and amplification
The electronics within require Do not require any external
excitation power from a constant current or voltage source
current or DC voltage source
Sensor range and DTC are fixed Sensor range and DTC are
and are determined by internal determined by settings on the
circuitry external charge amplifier
* Internal Electronic Piezoelectric 73
Amplifiers for Charge Mode Sensors
To properly analyze the signal from charge sensors, the output
must normally be converted to a low impedance voltage signal
Voltage amplifier Charge amplifier
High frequency (1 MHz) Limited frequency (~ KHz)
Low cost More cost
Typically used with Quartz Typically used with Ceramic
(piezoelectric sensing element (piezoelectric sensing element
material) material)
Small size 74
Piezoelectric Force Sensor
CONSTRUCTION
Charge-collection electrode
is sandwiched between two
quartz-crystal elements
The quartz elements supply
the same polarity voltage to
when compressed, and
opposite polarity is applied
to the sensor housing
The stud preloads the
quartz elements to assure
all parts are in intimate
contact
Source: [Link] 75
Piezoelectric Force Sensor
General Purpose Ring
Miniature
Link
Penetration
Impact
Multicomponent
76
Piezoelectric Force Sensor
FEATURES
It has a small size. A typical 1/2 inch diameter quartz force
sensor has a linear range through 45kN
Quartz has no pyroelectric output, i.e. output due to
temperature change. A quartz force sensor, however, can
exhibit a temperature response, under quasi-static
conditions
Quartz has a high modulus of elasticity, therefore it is nearly
as stiff as solid steel
Tough, solid-state construction with no moving parts
ensures a linear response with durability
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Piezoelectric Force Sensor
FEATURES
The measurement characteristics of quartz are unaffected
by temperature, time and mechanical stress, allowing for
exceptionally repeatable and uniform measurement
results
Quartz force sensors can even survive as much as 15 times
their rated capacity
Stiffness and small size provide high frequency response,
permitting accurate capture of short-duration
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Force Sensors
DATASHEET
79
PRESSURE SENSORS
Why Measure Pressure?
Air bag using Pressure Sensor
Source: [Link]
Pressure Sensor
Pressure = Force / Area
SI unit: Pascal (Pa) = N/m2
The pascal is an exceedingly small unit
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 Mpa = 106 Pa
Other often units are bar, psi, mmHg, atmosp here
These sensors are used either in their own right, (to
measure pressure), or to sense secondary quantities such
as force
Why not use force sensors to measure pressure?
Sensing gases and fluids, force is not an option – only
pressure can be measured
Pressure Sensors
UNIT CONVERSION SHEET
Pressure Sensors
DEFINITIONS
Pressure is commonly quoted as being Absolute or Gauge
Easiest way of thinking
Some Fluid Some Pressure Some absolute pressure
No Fluid No Pressure Zero absolute pressure
Fluid Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure Gauge Pressure
No Fluid + Atmospheric Pressure Zero Gauge Pressure
Lack of pressure Vacuum Pressure
Vacuum pressure is negative by convention
Pressure Sensors
OUR FOCUS
Mechanical Pressure Sensors
Manometer
Bourdon tubes
Diaphragms
Bellows
Electrical Pressure Sensors
Capacitive pressure sensor
Potentiometer pressure sensor
Piezoresistive pressure sensor
Piezoelectric pressure sensor
Pressure Sensors
MANOMETER
With both legs of a U-tube manometer
open to the atmosphere or subjected to
the same pressure, the liquid maintains
the same level in each leg, establishing
a zero reference
With a greater pressure applied to the
left side of a U-tube manometer, the
liquid lowers in the left leg and rises in
the right leg and vice versa
Pressure Sensors
BOURDON TUBE
Types Dial size: 50mm – 200 mm
− C – type Range: 0 – 8000 psi
− Spiral type 0 – (-760) mmHg (vacuum)
− Helical type Accuracy: ±0.25 FS
Material: Stainless Steel
Pressure Sensors
DIAPHRAGMS
When a pressure is applied to one face of the diaphragm, it
deforms and the resulting displacement is related to
pressure
Pressure Sensors
DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragm gages are
typically spring-loaded
as a means of setting the
range and sensitivity
Diaphragm gages can be
used to measure
absolute, gage, and
differential pressures
Quite Common
Required less space
psi(a/g/d) = pounds per square inch absolute/gage/differential
Range: 15 – 20000 psi
0 – (-760) mmHg (vacuum)
Accuracy: ±0.5 FS
Material: Stainless Steel
Pressure Sensors
BELLOWS
A bellows is a closed vessel with
sides that can expand and contract
More sensitive than bourdon type gage
Used to measure low pressures
Range: 0 – 2000 psi
0 – (-760) mmHg (vacuum)
Accuracy: ±2 FS
Material: Stainless Steel
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Capacitance can be varied by
changing distance between the
plates, area of the plate or value
of the dielectric medium between
the plates
Pressure exerted on the
diaphragm cause change in
capacitance that is a
measureable by any suitable
electric bridge circuit
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
The sensing diaphragm and
capacitor form a differential
variable separation capacitor
When the two input pressures
are equal the diaphragm is
positioned centrally and the
capacitance are equal
A difference in the two input
pressure causes displacement
of the sensing diaphragm and is
sensed as a difference between
the two capacitances
Capacitive Pressure Sensors
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The LC oscillator converts changes in capacitances to oscillations
Features
Originally developed for use in low vacuum research
Wide range: From high vacuum in the micron range to 10000 psi
Accurate within 0.1 % of reading or 0.01 % of full scale
More Corrosion resistant
Potentiometer Pressure Sensor
The device consists of a precision
potentiometer whose slider is
mechanically linked to bourdon
tube or bellow
The movement of slider of
potentiometer converts the
mechanically detected sensor
deflection into a resistance
variations
Potentiometer Pressure Sensor
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The change in resistance is converted voltage using Wheatstone bridge
Features
Extremely small and installed in very tight quarters
Provides strong output so no need of additional amplifier
Range: 5 – 10000 psi
Accurate within 0.5 % of reading or 0.01 % of full scale
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
CONSTRUCTION
Piezoresistor is a semiconductor strain gage
Silicon diaphragm of known Pressure causes the diaphragm to flex,
area, four near identical inducing a stress on the diaphragm and
piezoresistors also on the piezoresistors causing change
in resistance
Two piezoresistors are parallel
to one dimension of diaphragm,
other two are in other directions
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure causes change in
resistance of piezoresistors
which is measured by
a Wheatstone bridge
Vo =
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors
FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS
Most modern pressure sensors use piezoresistive pressure
sensors rather than the conductor type strain gauge
Benefits of silicon fabrication
− Simplifies construction
− Allows on board temperature compensation, amplifiers and
conditioning circuitry
Range: Upto 350 bar, with 0.05% FS accuracy
Applications
− Medical equipment (blood pressure meter, …)
− Forklifters
− Measure altitude on aircrafts
− Flight data recorders
− Flow and level sensing Piezoresistive stainless
− Leak testing steel pressure sensor
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Based on piezoelectric principle i.e. applied mechanical
stresses are converted into an electrostatic charge that
accumulates on the surface of the crystal
Piezoelectric Force Sensor
CONSTRUCTION
This pressure, by virtue of
diaphragm area, is converted
to compressive force which
strains the crystals linearly
with applied pressure
producing an analog voltage
signal
Pressure
Source: [Link]
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS
Unsuitable for static force or pressure measurements
Measure rapidly changing pressure resulting from blasts,
explosions or pulsation pressures
Range: Upto 10000 psi
Rugged construction, small size and high speed
Applications
− Cylinder pressure and fuel injection pressure for
internal combustion engines
− Measurement of explosion pressures in the
development of air bags
− Monitoring of cylinder pressures in large diesel Piezoelectric stainless
engines steel pressure sensor
Pressure Sensor
DATASHEET
