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Exploring Discourse
Strategies
in Social and
Cognitive Interaction

edi t ed by
Manuela Romano
M. Dolores Porto

John Benjamins Publishing Company

Exploring Discourse Strategies in Social and Cognitive Interaction
Pragmatics & Beyond New Series (P&bns)
issn 0922-842X
Pragmatics & Beyond New Series is a continuation of Pragmatics & Beyond and
its Companion Series. The New Series offers a selection of high quality work
covering the full richness of Pragmatics as an interdisciplinary field, within
language sciences.
For an overview of all books published in this series, please see
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Editor Associate Editor

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University of Augsburg University of Zurich

Founding Editors
Jacob L. Mey Herman Parret Jef Verschueren
University of Southern Belgian National Science Belgian National Science
Denmark Foundation, Universities of Foundation,
Louvain and Antwerp University of Antwerp

Editorial Board
Robyn Carston Sachiko Ide Deborah Schiffrin
University College London Japan Women’s University Georgetown University
Thorstein Fretheim Kuniyoshi Kataoka Paul Osamu Takahara
University of Trondheim Aichi University Kobe City University of
Miriam A. Locher Foreign Studies
John C. Heritage
University of California at Los Universität Basel Sandra A. Thompson
Angeles University of California at
Sophia S.A. Marmaridou
Santa Barbara
Susan C. Herring University of Athens
Indiana University
Srikant Sarangi Teun A. van Dijk
Universitat Pompeu Fabra,
Masako K. Hiraga Aalborg University
Barcelona
St. Paul’s (Rikkyo) University
Marina Sbisà
University of Trieste Yunxia Zhu
The University of Queensland

Volume 262
Exploring Discourse Strategies in Social and Cognitive Interaction
Multimodal and cross-linguistic perspectives
Edited by Manuela Romano and M. Dolores Porto
Exploring Discourse Strategies
in Social
and Cognitive Interaction
Multimodal and cross-linguistic perspectives

Edited by
Manuela Romano
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid

M. Dolores Porto
Universidad de Alcalá

John Benjamins Publishing Company

Amsterdam / Philadelphia
 TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
8

the American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence

of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984.

doi 10.1075/pbns.262
Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from Library of Congress.

isbn 978 90 272 5667 6 (Hb)

isbn 978 90 272 6722 1 (e-book)

© 2016 – John Benjamins B.V.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any
other means, without written permission from the publisher.
John Benjamins Publishing Company · https://benjamins.com
 Table of contents

Introduction

Discourse, cognition and society 1

Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

Part I. Socio-cognitive approach to discourse

From butchers and surgeons to the linguistic method:

On language and cognition as supraindividual phenomena 21
Enrique Bernárdez

Individual differences and in situ identity marking:

Colloquial Belgian Dutch in the reality TV show “Expeditie Robinson” 39
Eline Zenner, Gitte Kristiansen and Dirk Geeraerts

The persuasive (and manipulative) power of metaphor

in ‘austerity’ discourse: A corpus-based analysis of embodied
and moral metaphors of austerity in the Portuguese press 79
Augusto Soares da Silva

Part II. Discourse strategies in multimodal communication

The construction of meaning in multimodal discourse:

A digital story as a case study 111
Silvia Molina and Isabel Alonso Belmonte

Multimodal metaphor, narrativity and creativity in TV cosmetics ads 137

Laura Hidalgo-Downing, M. Ángeles Martínez
and Blanca Kraljevic-Mujic

Multimodal discourses of collective memory 159

Małgorzata Fabiszak
vi Exploring Discourse Strategies in Social and Cognitive Interaction

Part III. Cross-linguistic (English–Spanish) perspectives

Exploring specific differences: A cross-linguistic study of English

and Spanish civil engineering metaphors 187
Ana Roldán-Riejos

The use of metaphor and evaluation as discourse strategies

in pre-electoral debates: Just about winning votes 215
Mercedes Díez Prados

A text-world account of temporal world-building strategies

in Spanish and English 245
Jane Lugea

Gesture structuring strategies in English and Spanish

autobiographical narratives 273
Ana Laura Rodríguez Redondo

Index 297
 Introduction

Discourse, cognition and society

Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

University Autónoma de Madrid / University of Alcalá

1. The ‘new’ social turn in cognitive linguistics

This volume explores the interaction between discourse, cognition and society.1
The chapters included all show the close, intrinsic relationship between cogni-
tive linguistics and discourse studies, a relationship based mainly on a common
approach to the study of language, that of language-in-use, and language as a dy-
namic, complex and interactive process in which discourse emerges online in real
communicative contexts. The studies in this volume do not analyse discourse as
a final product, but rather concentrate on discourse strategies, that is, how real
discourse is built and interpreted in real interactions. One of the main defining
features of the present collection of papers is, thus, the insistence on analysing real
data in a wide variety of discourse types and socio-cultural situations, namely, TV
reality shows, commercials, memorials, political debates, oral narratives, techni-
cal texts and digital stories. This is why the notions of strategy and socio-cognitive
interaction are key to the volume, as well as multimodal and cross-linguistic, which
are the perspectives chosen for the analysis of the different case studies. In ad-
dition, embodiment, metaphor, conceptual integration and creativity are central
theoretical concepts in this work.
The first keyword defining this volume is discourse strategy. Starting from a
general definition of strategy as “plan of action designed to achieve a major or
overall aim” (OED), the expression discourse strategy/strategies has been widely
used within discourse studies, from discourse analysis (Gumperz 1982; Menéndez
2005), text linguistics (de Beaugrande & Dressler 1981; Bernárdez 1995), and crit-
ical discourse analysis (Fairclough 1992; Van Dijk 1993, 1997; Wodak & Meyer
2003), to interactional sociolinguistics (Schiffrin 1994), among others. In this vol-
ume, discourse strategy is used in its widest sense, as “all the resources (both verbal

1. This volume has been carried out under the funding of research project FFI2012-30790/
FILO, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

doi 10.1075/pbns.262.01rom
© 2016 John Benjamins Publishing Company
2 Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

and non-verbal) that the speaker of a language consciously uses in order to build
and interpret the discourses within the appropriate context, and in order to inter-
act efficiently within communication”.2 This definition has been chosen because it
emphasizes three crucial premises related to the usage-­based and dynamic view
of discourse followed in this volume, namely the importance of: (i) the specific
socio-­cultural context the discourse emerges in, (ii) the speaker’s intentionality or
conscious use of language for specific purposes – search for attention or empathy,
attempt to emotionally touch the listener, to persuade or influence his or her ideas
or behaviour, etc. –, and (iii) the study of non-verbal or less prototypical discours-
es (pictorial, digital, gestural, etc.).
The focus on how real socio-cultural interactions affect discourse is one major
point shared by the chapters collected for the volume. Even though the interest in
the social aspects of language is not new (see Van Dijk 1985; de Beaugrande 1996;
Gontier 2009; and Morales-López 2011 for historical overviews), we can say that
discourse studies have undergone a second revival with the recent development
of socio-cognitive models of language.3 Since the birth of the field in the late 60s
with the emergence of many different but related disciplines and in many different
countries (classical rhetoric, French structuralism, functional models of language,
pragmatics, anthropology, ethnolinguistics, text linguistics, sociolinguistics, con-
versational analysis, speech act theory, semiotics, among others) – all interested
in meaning and function, rather than syntax and form – discourse studies have
not stopped absorbing and blending theoretical models and methodologies, as
well as developing new areas of research. But it has been in the last years that the
study of discourse, cognition and society has finally become intertwined within
cognitive linguistics through the development of a new epistemology and its em-
pirical tools.
Within cognitive linguistics, interest in social aspects of language can be
traced back to the work of Langacker 1994, 2001; Geeraerts & Grondelaers 1995;
Bernárdez 1995; Palmer 1996; Barlow 2000; Brandt & Brandt 2005; among oth-
ers. Nevertheless, even though cognitive linguists have always advocated for us-
age-based foundation of language, it is not until the last decade that an increasing
number of cognitive linguists – working both on the theoretical and empirical
aspects of socio-cognitive approaches to language – have shown a renewed inter-
est in the matter. This ‘new’ social turn within the field has had consequences for
both the scope of study of the field and its methodology.

2. Authors’ translation from the Diccionario de Términos Claves de ELE (2008, in Sal-Paz &
Maldonado 2009).
3. The origins of language-in-use proposals can be traced back to Aristotle’s Rhetorica.
 Discourse, cognition and society 3

First, the new epistemology fostered by the first developments of cognitive

linguistics, the idea that almost anything related to language is of interest for
the field, has brought the progressive growth and blurring of disciplines and re-
search areas, making the classification of recent work in the field – and in this vol-
ume – extremely difficult or even impossible. Metaphor studies, critical discourse
analysis, pragmatics, semantic change, sociolinguistics, etc. all seem to overlap
nowadays making the umbrella term ‘discourse studies’ extremely useful and
convenient.4 In addition, the data analysed have also seen an enormous growth
and expansion. New modes and genres are continuously being created, blended
and redefined into multimodal semiotic systems, which also push the theoretical
and methodological tools in new directions. As Frank (2008) states, the com-
prehensive, cross-disciplinary character of cognitive linguistics is continuously
redefining the limits of linguistics as a discipline, and so, there exists a constant
crossing of boundaries that has brought a continuous merging of theoretical and
methodological tools.
Second, the idea that an understanding of linguistic elements can only emerge
in real socio-cognitive contexts has pushed the model a step forward towards the
objectivist, realistic foundational premise supported by ‘first generation’ cognitiv-
ists (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987; Langacker 1987; Talmy 1988) by intro-
ducing social aspects of language as theoretical explanatory factors. Factors such
as the real, specific linguistic and communicative situation, the socio-cultural and
historical context, the intentions of participants, etc. are today at the centre of
linguistic research. As Bernárdez (2009) points out, it is important to distinguish
usage-based and use-based approaches. The first would coincide with the more
abstract interest of cognitive linguists with social aspects of language, and the
second, with the analysis of real contexts of use.
Finally, but not less important, the social turn in the field has also triggered,
in the last decade, the growing acceptance that interpretative readings should
be avoided within cognitive linguistics, and that scholars should, instead, look
for experimental and corpus-based evidence to establish a more realistic link
between linguistic variables and social meaning. If we want to understand what
discourse means for its specific users in specific contexts, we need to analyse data
in a systematic way. Hypotheses have to be corroborated in real data-driven stud-
ies, statistically evaluated and relevant. This is what has been called the ‘empiri-
cal turn’ in cognitive linguistics (Kristiansen et al. 2006; Stefanowitsch & Gries
2007; Kristiansen & Dirven 2008; Glynn & Fischer 2010; Pütz, Robinson & Reif
2014). Studies concerned with how to check cognitive hypotheses within natural

4. See, for instance, the new disciplines continuously being created: Cultural Linguistics, Cog-
nitive Sociolinguistics, etc.
4 Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

discourse data and corpora (Barlow & Kemmer 2000; Geeraerts, Kristiansen &
Peirsman 2010; Speelman, Impe, Spruyt & Geeraerts 2013; Zenner, Kristiansen &
Geeraerts, this volume, etc.) are developing fast these days. It is precisely to show
the importance of empirically based work that case studies have been favoured in
the compilation of chapters in this volume.
Within such a broad approach to discourse, which can be summarized in
Fasold’s (1990: 65) definition of discourse: “the study of any aspect of language
use”, the work included in this volume can be understood in terms of a radial
category, whose members share some, but not necessarily all, of the following the-
oretical concepts: embodiment, multimodality, conceptual integration, metaphor,
and creativity – concepts that are still in a continuous process of change and ex-
pansion, as evidenced by their application to the different case studies presented
in this volume.
The notion of embodiment, crucial in cognitive linguistics from its very foun-
dation (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Langacker 1987) is still an elusive concept with
multiple readings. Whereas the work of ‘first generation’ cognitive linguists main-
ly focused on the bodily, material basis of cognition and language, the concept
has evolved towards a broader definition of embodiment that includes not only
physical and cognitive, but also social embodiment as the ground for our concep-
tual and linguistic systems (Rohrer 2006, 2007).5 Thus, ‘second generation’ cog-
nitivists rather focus on how an individual’s knowledge of language is embedded
within collective cognition and culture (Ziemke et al. 2007; Frank et al. 2008). It
is in this sense that the concept is applied in most of the studies included in the
volume, even though the physical environment and bodily experience also play a
crucial role in some of them (see Fabiszak’s chapter).
As a consequence, new concepts have been integrated in the cognitive frame-
work to account for the new experientialist, socio-cognitive approach to embod-
iment. A first notion coming from philosophy, psychology and AI is situatedness,
one of today’s keywords within the field, as in situated embodiment (Zlatev 1997),
social situatedness (Linblom & Ziemke 2002), situated cognition (Smith & Semin
2004) and sociocultural cognition (Sharifian 2008, 2011, 2015), among others.6
Also, coming from morph-dynamic models of language and sociology, are the

5. Rohrer (2007) distinguishes up to twelve different senses in which the term embodiment
can be used, which he finally groups into two main clusters: “embodiment as broadly experien-
tial” and “embodiment as the bodily substrate” (p. 31).
6. This shift in the meaning and use of the term ‘embodiment’ is very well summarized in the
titles of the two-volume set Body, Language and the Mind. Volume I (by Ziemke et al. 2007),
which includes the subtitle Embodiment; whereas the subtitle of Volume II (by Frank et al.
2008) is Sociocultural Situatedness.
 Discourse, cognition and society 5

notions of synergetic cognition or active-cognitive approach to language, which

considers that language is a product of a socially-conditioned, activity-­driven
cognition, an essentially cultural and social object which is then incorporated in
individuals (Bernárdez 2008b; Pishwa 2009). This approach, related to Bourdieu’s
(1994) ‘habitus’, enables linguists and cognitive scientists to understand the role
of social interaction (Bedny, Karwowski & Bedny 2001; Ghassemzadeh 2005)
and such fundamental phenomena as linguistic interaction and communica-
tion (Müller & Carpendale 2001; Enfield 2009; Sharifian & Jamarani 2013),
and the cognitive organisation of discourse and text (Garrod & Pickering 2004)
among others.
In short, these new concepts are providing socio-cognitive models of discourse
or language-in-use with a set of tools that explain the ways in which individual
minds and cognitive processes are shaped by their interaction with sociocultural
structures and practices by being together with other embodied minds; that is, the
relationship between discourse, cognition and society.
Multimodality is another key concept in the chapters collected in this volume,
partly as a consequence of the insistence on analysing real discourse events, since
most discourse events are multimodal and “monomodality in comparison is not
an actual quality of texts, but rather a way of thinking about individual semiotic
resources once abstracted from the communicative ensembles in which they oc-
cur” (Page 2009: 4). Language studies have undergone a major shift to account
fully for meaning-making practices (Kress 2010; O’Halloran 2004; Norris 2004)
and have shown in the last two decades a renewed interest towards the integrated
analysis of the multiple semiotic resources that contribute to the construction of
meaning. Consequently, an accurate exploration of discourse strategies would not
be complete without taking into account multimodality in order to understand
how meaning emerges online by integrating multiple discourses, modes and data.
Language is clearly not the only means of sense-making and communication; dif-
ferent non-verbal resources and modes carry different meanings, emotions and
attitudes (Bednarek & Martin 2010). In this volume, multimodal discourse stra­
tegies are analysed in a great variety of situations to show how speakers/writers
make use of different means – visual, acoustic, linguistic, gestural or even archi-
tectural – in order to make their discourse more expressive and persuasive, and
how hearers or readers also use any kind of resources at hand to make sense of it.
Closely related with the notion of integrating meanings in discourse, con-
ceptual integration (Fauconnier 1985; Fauconnier & Turner 2002 among others)
emerges as a powerful explanatory tool, fundamental to cognitive linguistics for
the analysis of real multi-layered discourse and particularly for multimodality.
In this volume, conceptual integration, or blending, is applied to oral narratives
(Lugea, Rodríguez) and to digital stories (Molina & Alonso), not only to explore
6 Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

how discourse participants blend linguistic meaning with that from other modes
(visual images and videos, gestures, etc.), but also how meaning is constructed
online by integrating linguistic and contextual information.
Metaphor has been predominant in cognitive linguistics since its very begin-
nings, but this is another concept that is being redefined within the new social-­
cognitive approaches. The social turn has also arrived for metaphor studies,
which have moved or expanded their field of interest from considering meta-
phor (and metonymy) a creative thought-structuring device (Lakoff & Johnson
1980; Johnson 1987; Gibbs 1994; Kövecses 2002) to understanding it as a creative
social-­cultural structuring device, as a need to create a new discourse for a new
socio-­cultural and historical situation. Bernárdez (2008a) relates metaphorical
creativity with Bourdieu’s (1994) habitus, a concept which helps to explain met-
aphor as a social and cultural product that is transmitted individually from one
generation to another, and which is cognitively integrated in the community in
an unconscious way; the principles and guidelines of a culture and communi-
ty, rather than simple linguistic expressions. Metaphor is thus at the heart of re-
search within the field of socio-cognitive, activity-driven approaches to discourse
as real agents of social transformation and reconstruction (Romano 2013, 2015).
Besides, and in line with the growing interest in multimodal discourse as stated
above, metaphor studies are also focusing more and more on multimodal meta-
phors (Forceville 2010; Forceville & Urios Aparisi 2009), i.e. those whose target
and source are “rendered exclusively or predominantly in two different modes/
modalities” (Forceville & Urios Aparisi 2009: 4) and in metaphor in discourse
(Semino 2008; Mussolf & Zinken 2009). Díaz’s, Roldán’s, and Soares’ work in this
volume show how recent metaphorical studies have to be conducted in real socio-­
cultural settings and discourses, as well as statistically proven.
A last cross-disciplinary notion present in all the chapters in this volume and
commonly used in present-day analysis of discourse strategies is that of creativity.
In recent years (Carter 2004; Carter & McCarthy 2004; Maybin & Swann 2007;
Pennycook 2007, among others) this concept has developed from a vague, ro-
mantic view into a more practical, sound theory that regards creativity as a basic
process present in any communicative and discursive event, also understood as a
collective, negotiated act. In Stenberg’s (1999: 47) words, creativity is “the ability
to produce work that is both novel (i.e. original, unexpected) and appropriate
(i.e. adaptive concerning task constraint)”. This view of creativity fits in perfectly
with the socio-cognitive models, which understand language and discourse as an
action-­based system, an adaptive system, which emerges from the interactions
taking place in real communicative situations. Socio-cognitive models have pro-
vided thus a new notion of discursive creativity, which can be observed and ana-
lysed online by means of the immediacy of the new discourses or modes (Twitter,
 Discourse, cognition and society 7

Facebook, etc.) and the enormous possibilities of their technological tools (Porto
& Romano 2013; Romano 2013, 2015).
The volume also comprises a group of studies with a cross-linguistic Spanish/
English approach. This work constitutes a conscious effort to show case studies
in which more than one socio-cultural context is considered in order to demon-
strate how discourse strategies differ not only across discourse types and modes,
but particularly across languages and cultures. The fact that it is the same two
languages/cultures which are compared in four different papers addressing di-
verse text types – technical, political, narrative – intends to demonstrate the sig-
nificance of taking into account social, cultural and even historical matters when
analysing real discourse events, since the results shown in these four papers are
quite diverse depending on the focus of analysis – structural strategies, meta-
phorical mappings, ideological stance – and the speakers’ purposes – explanatory,
persuasive, evaluative, search for empathy, etc.
Finally, most authors have combined different functional and cognitive ap-
proaches in their analyses. Thus, it is possible to find applications of Conceptual
Metaphor Theory, Mental Spaces and Conceptual Integration Theory, Appraisal
Theory, Multimodal Semiotics, Narratology and Narrative Theory, Text World
Theory or Critical Discourse Analysis in different combinations, which all con-
tribute to a thorough exploration of the diverse discourse strategies that come
into work in real interactions.
In short, even though the present volume presents only a small portion of
the work being conducted today within socio-cognitive approaches to discourse,
it reflects the still growing inter-disciplinary trend of the field, and provides a
closer look at the relationship between the cognitive mechanisms of discourse
processing. i.e. discourse strategies, and the discourse community, that is, the ac-
tual collective construction of meaning in specific discourse situations. A great
variety of discourse types and discursive situations are shown, but still there is
a set of common theoretical and analytical tools shared by these works, namely,
the view of discourse as an active, dynamic process, the essential role of context –
in the broadest sense of the term – in discourse analysis, the need for multilin-
gual, cross-linguistic studies, the pervasiveness of multimodality and creativity in
real discourse and the value of conceptual integration and metaphor as tools to
explain the process of meaning construction, the need for an ‘action-­based’ ap-
proach to language and discourse, as well as the general acceptance that cognitive
approaches to discourse need to be corroborated empirically and statistically.
The main goal of this volume is thus to further contribute to the cross-­
disciplinary dialogue initiated between cognitive linguistics and discourse anal-
ysis; that is, to bridge the gap between the more mental and social approaches
to language and discourse from a socio-cognitive perspective. The usage-­based
8 Manuela Romano and María Dolores Porto

foundation of cognitive linguistics has clearly become use-based, as the social and
interactional issues have gained ground within the field with the intention of un-
derstanding not only language and cognition, but also real social structures and
behaviour, and with the intention of making explanations empirically relevant.
Discourse studies are still growing hand in hand with the socio-cognitive models
and still have much to say about the new emergent discourses, and the relation-
ships between discourse structures, cognitive or mental structures and society, as
this volume shows.

2. The chapters in this volume

As pointed out above, all the studies collected in this volume share a choice of
the concepts presented in the previous section and so constitute a radial category,
with a different emphasis on one or another of the key notions (embodiment, mul-
timodality and creativity, and cross-linguistic analysis). It is this difference with re-
spect to the focus of research which we have considered in order to present them
in three main sections. It goes without saying, though, that most of them overlap
and could also be included in any of the three sections distinguished.
The first section includes the chapters by Bernárdez, by Zenner et al. and by
Soares. The three of them strongly emphasize the role of situatedness in discourse,
that is, the need for analysing real case-studies in context.
Bernardez’s work gives a first detailed analysis of an allegedly metaphorical
expression – this surgeon is a butcher –, which has been a favourite for cognitive
linguists for decades, and has been largely discussed and analysed as a novel met-
aphor. The author reviews the two more influential articles on the blend, those
by Grady et al. (1999) and by Brandt & Brandt (2005) and concludes that both of
them have missed an important point: the historical, cultural and social context
that has created a stable link between butchers and surgeons for over two thou-
sand years. Consequently, Bernárdez warns of some common methodological
mistakes in Cognitive Linguistics and of the dangers of studying language “in a
solipsistic way”, i.e. without considering the historical and socio-cultural context
in which discourse is produced. He also looks back on similar warnings as pro-
vided by linguists, as much as by philosophers and psychologists, that had already
claimed long ago that language does not work in isolation and always depends on
the interaction with others. His conclusions are in fact a checklist that all cogni-
tive linguists should take into account in their studies.
In very much the same vein, the paper by Zenner, Kristiansen and Geeraerts
insists on the importance of contextualization and of considering the actual
complexity of a linguistic community. They warn cognitive linguists against the
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