1.

AOP
2. OOP

32. Write short notes on:

1. Program Development Life Cycle

2. Algorithm
3. Control structures
4. Flowchart
5. Pseudo code
6. Structured programming
7. Object-Oriented Programming
8. Aspect-Oriented Programming
9. Characteristics of a good program

33. Give differences between the following:

1. Flowchart and Pseudo code

2. Algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudo code
3. Modular Programming and Procedural Programming
4. Selection and Iteration
5. OOP and AOP

9
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER
NETWORK
Contents

 Importance of networking—Resource sharing, information sharing, as a communication

medium, back-up and support
 Data transmission media—Twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, RF transmission, microwave
transmission, satellite transmission
 Data transmission across media
o Transmission modes—Simplex, halfduplex, full-duplex
o Transmission speed—Bandwidth, throughput, attenuation, distortion
o Fundamentals of transmission— Electromagnetic waves, signals
 Analog and digital signals
 Modulation and demodulation— Amplitude, frequency, phase shift
 Multiplexing—FDM, WDM
 Asynchronous and synchronous transmission
 Data transmission and data networking
o Switching—Circuit switching, message switching, packet switching
  Computer network
o Network types—LAN, MAN, WAN
o Network topologies—Bus, ring, star
o Communication protocol—The seven layers of OSI model
o Network devices—NIC, repeater, bridge, hub, switch, router, gateway
 Wireless networking—Bluetooth technology, wireless LAN, wireless WAN

Why this chapter

As opposed to a stand-alone computer, connected computers facilitate exchange of information.

To connect the computers, you need a data transmission media and understand how data gets
transmitted across the media. You can create a network of different types of computers across a
room, building, city, state or the world. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the data
communication and the computer network.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The communication process involves—sender of information, receiver of information, language

used for communication, and medium used to establish the communication. Communication
between computers also follows a similar process.

This chapter discusses the data communication and the computer networks. The section on data
communication discusses the media used for transmission of data, how data can be transferred
across the communication media and the relationship between data transmission and data
networking. The section on computer network discusses different network types, network
topologies, communication protocol and network communicating devices. A brief explanation of
wireless networks is also provided.

9.2 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING

Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides access
to information. Networking of computers has several uses, described as follows:

 Resource Sharing—In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and scanners
are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small organizations it may
not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual. Such resources can be made
available to different users of the organization on the network. It results in availability of the
resource to different users regardless of the physical location of the resource or the user,
enhances optimal use of the resource, leads to easy maintenance, and saves cost too (Figure
9.1).
 Figure 9.1 A network of computers, printer and scanner

 Sharing of Information—In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking facilitates

sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at same or
different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to the network.
 As a Communication Medium—Networking helps in sending and receiving of electronic-mail (e-
mail) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text, audio, video and pictures
can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate online in a faster and cost effective
manner. Video conferencing is another form of communication made possible via networking.
People in distant locations can hold a meeting, and they can hear and see each other
simultaneously.
 For Back-up and Support—Networked computers can be used to take back-up of critical data. In
situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another computer on the
network can take over in case of failure of one computer.

9.3 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The data is sent from one computer to another over a transmission medium. The transmission
media can be grouped into guided media, and unguided media.

In the guided media, the data signals are sent along a specific path, through a wire or a cable.
Copper wire and optical fibers are the most commonly used guided media. Copper wire transmits
data as electric signals. Copper wires offer low resistance to current signal, facilitating signals to
travel longer distances. To minimize the effect of external disturbance on the copper wire, two
types of wiring is used—(1) Twisted Pair, and (2) Coaxial Pair. Optical fibers transmit data as
light signals.

In the unguided media, the data signals are not bounded by a fixed channel to follow. The data
signals are transmitted by air. Radio, microwave, and satellite transmissions fall into this
category.
Now let’s discuss both the guided and the unguided data transmission media.

9.3.1 Twisted Pair

 A twisted pair cable consists of four pairs of copper wires coated with an insulating material like
plastic or Teflon, twisted together. The twisting of wires reduces electromagnetic interference
from external sources.
 Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections
because of its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.
 Twisted pair is of two kinds—Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), and Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
 STP cable has an extra layer of metal foil between the twisted pair of copper wires and the outer
covering. The metal foil covering provides additional protection from external disturbances.
However, the covering increases the resistance to the signal and thus decreases the length of
the cable. STP is costly and is generally used in networks where cables pass closer to devices
that cause external disturbances.
 UTP is the most commonly used medium for transmission over short distances up to 100m. Out
of the four pairs of wires in a UTP cable, only two pairs are used for communication. Figure 9.2
shows the cross-section of STP and UTP cables.
 UTP cables are defined in different categories. The commonly used UTP cable is the Cat-5 cable
which is used with fast Ethernet.

Figure 9.2 Cross section of (a) UTP (b) STP

9.3.2 Coaxial Cable

 A coaxial cable (Figure 9.3) has a single inner conductor that transmits electric signals; the outer
conductor acts as a ground. The two conductors are separated by insulation. The inner
conductor, insulator, and the outer conductor are wrapped in a sheath of Teflon or PVC.
 Figure 9.3 Coaxial cable (A: outer plastic sheath, B: woven copper shield, C: inner
dielectric insulator, D: copper core)

 The copper wire is used for both inner and outer conductor. The signal is transmitted over the
surface of the inner conductor.
 In an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space
between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to
metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other transmission lines,
and provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference.
 A thicker coaxial cable can transmit more data than a thinner one.
 The commonly used coaxial cable is 10 base 2 that transmits over a distance of 185 m, and 10
base 5 that transmits over a distance of 500 m.

9.3.3 Optical Fiber

 Optical fibers are being used for transmission of information over large distances more cost-
effectively than the copper wire connection. Communication systems are now unthinkable
without fiber optics.
 Optical fiber transmits data as light signals instead of electric signals.
 An optical fiber cable (Figure 9.4) consists of(1) core–optical fiber conductor (glass) that
transmits light, (2) cladding–an optical material that surrounds the core to prevent any light
from escaping the core, and (3) jacket—outer covering made of plastic to protect the fiber from
damage.

Figure 9.4 (a) Optical fiber (b) Cross section of optical fiber

 Modern optical fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the
performance of optical networks easily accommodate large demands for bandwidth on a point-
to-point basis.
 Optical fibers come in two types: (a) Single-mode fibers, and (b) Multi-mode fibers
o Single-mode fibers have small cores (about 3.5 × 10 ~4 inches or 9 microns in diameter)
and transmit infrared laser light (wavelength = 1,300 to 1,550 nanometers).
o Multi-mode fibers have larger cores (about 2.5 × 10~3 inches or 62.5 microns in
diameter) and transmit infrared light (wavelength ‽ 850 to 1,300 nm) from Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
 The Advantages of Optical Fibers over wires are:
o Optical fibers do not cause electrical interference in other cables, since they use light
signals.
 o Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages over
existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications.
o A fiber can carry a pulse of light much farther than a copper wire carrying a signal.
o Optical fiber can carry more information than a wire (light can encode more information
than electrical signal).
o A single optical fiber is required for light to travel from one computer to another (two
wires are required for electric connection).
o Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters can be used
instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires. Again, this
saves your provider and you, money.
o No amplification of the optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of
kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over
undersea spans where the cost reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors
determining the performance of the whole cable system.
o Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which is especially useful
in computer networks.
o They are highly secure as they cannot be tapped and for lack of signal radiation.
 The Disadvantages of Optical Fiber are:
o Installing an optical fiber requires special equipment.
o If a fiber breaks, finding the broken location is difficult.
o Repairing a broken optical fiber is difficult and requires special equipment.
o Due to its high installation costs, they are economical when the bandwidth utilization is
high.

9.3.4 Radio Transmission

The electromagnetic radio waves that operate at the adio frequency are also used to transmit
computer data. rhis transmission is also known as Radio Frequency RF) transmission (Figure
9.5). The computers using RF ransmission do not require a direct physical connection ike wires
or cable. Each computer attaches to an antenna hat can both send and receive radio transmission.
Figure 9.5 Radio transmission

9.3.5 Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission (Figure 9.6) refers to the technique of transmitting information over a
microwave link. Microwaves have a higher frequency than radio waves. Microwave transmission
can be aimed at a single direction, instead of broadcasting in all directions (like in radio waves).
Microwaves can carry more information than radio waves but cannot penetrate metals.
Microwaves are used where there is a clear path between the transmitter and the receiver.

Figure 9.6 Microwave transmission

Microwave transmission has the advantage of not requiring access to all contiguous land along
the path of the system, since it does not need cables. They suffer from the disadvantages: a)
needing expensive towers and repeaters, and b) are subject to interference from passing airplanes
and rain. Because microwave systems are line-of-sight media, radio towers must be spaced
approximately every 42 km along the route.

9.3.6 Satellite Transmission

The communication across longer distances can be provided by combining radio frequency
transmission with satellites. Geosynchronous satellites are placed in an orbit synchronized with
the rotation of the earth at a distance of 36,000 km above the surface of the earth.
Geosynchronous satellites appear to be stationary when viewed from the earth. The satellite
consists of transponder that can receive RF signals and transmit them back to the ground at a
different angle. A ground station on one side of the ocean transmits signal to the satellite which
in turn sends the signal to the ground station on the other side of the ocean (Figure 9.7).

9.4 DATA TRANSMISSION ACROSS MEDIA

Transmitting data across media implies sending bits through the transmission medium.
Physically, the data is sent as electric signals, radio waves or as light signals. Let’s now discuss
the use of electric current to transfer digital information. For this, the bits are encoded and sent as
characters.

9.4.1 Transmission Modes

The direction in which data can be transmitted between any two linked devices is of three
types—(1) Simplex, (2) Half-duplex, and (3) Full-duplex, or duplex. Simplex transmission is uni-
directional data transmission. Of the two linked devices, only one of them can send data and the
other one can only receive data. Half–duplex transmission is bi-directional data transmission, but
the linked devices cannot send and receive at the same time. When one device is sending data the
other can only receive. Full-duplex transmission is bi-directional and the linked devices can send
and receive data simultaneously. The linked devices can send data and at the same time receive
data. Figure 9.8 shows the different kinds of transmission modes used for interaction.

Figure 9.7 Satellite transmission

Figure 9.8 Transmission modes

9.4.2 Transmission Speed

 When the signals are transmitted between two computers, two factors need to be considered—
(1) Bandwidth, and (2) Distance.
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through the underlying hardware i.e.
the communication medium, in a fixed amount of time. Bandwidth is measured in cycles per
second (cps) or Hertz (Hz). The bandwidth of the transmission medium determines the data
transfer rate.
 Throughput is the amount of data that is actually transmitted between the two computers.
Throughput is specified in bits per second (bps). The throughput capability of the communication
medium is also called bandwidth. The bandwidth of the communication medium is the upper
bound on the throughput, because data cannot be sent at a rate more than the throughput of
the communication medium.
 Higher throughput is achieved by using a large part of the electromagnetic spectrum (large
bandwidth). Technology that uses large part of the electromagnetic spectrum to achieve higher
throughput is known as broadband technology. The technology that uses small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum is known as baseband technology.
 Throughput is affected by the distance between the connected computers or devices. Even if a
transmission medium is designed for a specific bandwidth, the throughput is affected by the
distance of communication.
 The bandwidth of transmission medium is limited by the distance over which the medium needs
to transmit the signal. The bandwidth decreases with the increase in the distance between the
connected devices. When a signal has to travel long distance, the signal strength decreases; the
signal strength is utilized to overcome the resistance offered by the connecting medium (cable
or wire). The gradual deterioration of signal strength across long distances is called attenuation.
  Moreover, with increasing distance the external disturbance increases, which causes the signal
to deteriorate and results in less amount of data to be transferred. The degradation of signal
due to internal or external disturbances is called distortion.
 The bandwidth and distance of the transmission medium is selected so that it offers minimum
attenuation and minimum distortion.
 The cat-5 UTP cable has a throughput of 100 Mbps over a distance of 100m. The 10 base2
coaxial cable has a throughput up to 10Mbps over a distance of 185 m. The 10 base 5 coaxial
cable has a throughput up to 10Mbps over a distance of 500 m.

9.4.3 Fundamentals of Transmission

Telecommunication systems use electromagnetic waves to transfer information. Electromagnetic

waves can travel through transmission media like copper wires, fiber optics or as radio waves.
They can also travel in vacuum. Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves for
transmission of information. The transmission media through which the waves propagate are not
perfect. As a result, the waves propagated via the transmission media get attenuated and
distorted.

The information to be transmitted does not always exist in a form that is compatible with the
transmission medium. Waves that are compatible with the transmission medium must be
generated to carry information. A signal is a wave that is suitable for carrying information over a
transmission medium. Signals can be electric signals, light signals, electromagnetic signals or
radio signals. Electric signals are used to carry information through copper wires, light signals
for fiber optic cables, and radio signals for carrying information in free space. Electrical signals
have limited bandwidth and cannot be used in long distance communication. They need to be
amplified or regenerated. Light signals have a high bandwidth and are suited for long distance
communication.

9.4.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals

 Information carrying signals are of two types—(a) analog signal, and (b) digital signal (Figure
9.9).

Figure 9.9 (a) Digital signal (b) Analog signal

  Analog Signal: An analog signal is a wave that continuously changes its information carrying
properties over time. The wave may vary in amplitude or frequency in response to changes in
sound, light, heat, position, or pressure etc. For example a telephone voice signal is analog. The
intensity of the voice causes electric current variations. At the receiving end, the signal is
reproduced in the same proportion.
 Digital Signal: A digital signal is a wave that takes limited number of values at discrete intervals
of time. Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps. They consist of
pulses or digits with discrete levels or values. The value of each pulse is constant, but there is an
abrupt change from one digit to the next. Digital signals have two amplitude levels called nodes.
The value of which are specified as one of two possibilities such as 1 or 0, HIGH or LOW, TRUE or
FALSE, and so on.
 Analog and digital signals are compared on the basis of—(1) impact of noise, (2) loss of
information, and (3) introduction of error.
 Analog signal has the potential for an infinite amount of signal resolution. Another advantage
with analog signals is that they can be processed more easily than their digital equivalent. The
primary disadvantage of the analog signals is the noise. The effects of noise create signal loss
and distortion, which is impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated
parts of the signal, also amplifies the noise. Even if the resolution of an analog signal is higher
than a comparable digital signal, the difference can be overshadowed by the noise in the signal.
In digital systems, degradation can not only be detected, but corrected as well.
 Amplifier is any device or a circuit that changes, usually increases, the amplitude of an analog
signal.
 Repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or
higher power, so that the signal can cover longer distances. With physical media like Ethernet or
Wi-Fi, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal
degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which
data can safely travel. Actual network devices that serve as repeaters usually have some other
name. Active hubs, for example, are repeaters. Active hubs are sometimes also called “multiport
repeaters,” but more commonly they are just “hubs.”

9.4.3.2 Modulation and Demodulation

 Modulation: Signals consist of two components—the information signal and the carrier signal.
The transmission of any signal over some communication medium usually involves modulation
of a carrier. Prior to their transmission the information signal and the carrier signal are
combined and the process of combining these two signals is called modulation. Characteristics
of the carrier signal are varied in proportion to the amplitude of the information-carrying signal.
Modulation results in the transfer of the signal information to higher frequency carrier signal. In
simple English terms, the information signal sits on top of the carrier signal and rides on it from
the receiver to the transmitter.
 Need for Modulation: Let’s understand the need for modulation by using a simple example.
Stereophonic radio signal consist of frequency ranges from 30 Hz (Hertz) to 15 KHz (Kilo Hertz).
Hence they need a bandwidth of 15 KHz. If ten different radio stations start transmitting their
voice signals between 30 Hz and 15 KHz frequencies, then a combination of these signals would
only create noise and the receiver would not be able to discriminate between the signals of each
radio station. To overcome this, usually the FM broadcast band, used for broadcasting FM radio
stations, goes from 87.5 to 108.0 MHz (Mega Hertz). For example a radio channel-1 may be
broadcast using a carrier signal of 102 MHz and would typically use band of frequencies
 between 101.9 to 102.1 MHz. Radio channel2 using a carrier signal of 102.2 MHz would use
band of frequencies between 102.1 and 102.3 MHz. Similarly for other channels, the same
method of allocation would be followed. This eliminates the problem of discrimination and
decoding signals of each of the radio stations at the receiving end.

There are three primary reasons which necessitate modulation:

1. To make efficient use of the lines or media used for communication

2. To make radio communications feasible: The lower the frequency of signal, the larger is the size
of the antenna needed for transmission and reception. A signal of 10 KHz would require an
antenna whose dimensions are in the range of a few kilometers.
3. To simplify signal processing: It is simpler to design electronic systems for narrow frequency
bands.

 At the sending side (transmitter), the signal is superimposed on the carrier wave, which results
in a modulated carrier wave. The modulated carrier wave is transmitted. At the receiving end,
the receiver is configured to recognize the carrier that the sender is using. The receiver detects
the modulation of the carrier wave and reconstructs the data signal.
 The process of segregating the data signal and the carrier signal from the modulated carrier
wave is called demodulation. At the receiving end, the carrier wave is discarded after the data
signal has been reconstructed.
 Modulation technique did not originate for data communication for computers, but has long
been used for radio, television, and telephone communication. For long distance transmission,
computer networks use modulation, whether the signals are transmitted over wires, optical
fibers, microwave or radio frequency.
 Modulation is of three kinds, which are defined as follows:
o Amplitude Modulation—The amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in proportion to
the data signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remains unchanged.
o Frequency Modulation—The frequency of the carrier signal is modified in proportion to
the data signal. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remains unchanged.
o Phase Shift Modulation—The phase of the carrier signal is modified in proportion to the
data signal. The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains unchanged.
 For computer networks, generally phase shift modulation is used. Figure 9.10 shows the
different kinds of modulation of a carrier wave with signal.
 Figure 9.10 (a) Carrier wave with signal (b) Amplitude modulation (c) Frequency
modulation (d) Wavelength modulation

 Modem (Figure 9.11) is a device that has both a modulator and a demodulator. Modulator
accepts data signals from the computer and modulates the carrier wave accordingly.
Demodulator accepts modulated carrier wave and regenerates the original data signal from it.
During data communication, modem is attached to the computer, both at the sender and the
receiver side. Modems are used with all transmission media like RF modem for RF transmission
and optical modem for transmission through fiber optics.
Figure 9.11 Modems

9.4.3.3 Multiplexing

 Transmission medium have varying data carrying capacities. To utilize the full capacity of the
transmission medium, computer networks use separate channels that allow sharing of a single
physical connection for multiple communication. Multiple carrier signals are transmitted over
the same medium at the same time and without interference from each other.
 The combining of multiple signals into a form that can be transmitted over a single link of a
communication medium is called multiplexing. Figure 9.12 (a) shows computers connected
without multiplexing and Figure 9.12 (b) shows computers connected via a multiplexer.
 Demultiplexing is a technique of separating the merged signals and sending them to the
corresponding receivers. The two basic multiplexing techniques are— Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) and Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).

Figure 9.12 (a) No multiplexing (b) Multiplexing

o FDM combines different carrier frequencies signals into a single signal of higher
bandwidth. The bandwidth of the communication medium link carrying the combined
 signal is greater than the sum of the bandwidth of the individual signals that are
combined. FDM is used for high band—width analog transmission systems like
broadband technology.
o WDM is similar to FDM except that FDM involves electromagnetic spectrum below light
and WDM involves light signals. WDM uses very high frequencies. WDM combines
different light signals coming from different sources into a larger band light signal across
a single optical fiber. It also enables bi-directional communications over one strand of
fiber.

9.4.3.4 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

 One major difficulty in data transmission is that of synchronising the receiver with the sender.
Whenever an electronic device transmits digital (and sometimes analog) data to another
electronic device, there must be a certain rhythm established between the two devices, i.e., the
receiving device must have some way of knowing, within the context of the fluctuating signal
that it is receiving, where each unit of data begins, and ends. The signal must be synchronized in
a way that the receiver can distinguish the bits and bytes as the transmitter intends them to be
distinguished. Two approaches exist to address the problem of synchronisation—synchronous
transmission, and asynchronous transmission.

Figure 9.13 Synchronous communication

 Synchronous communication is the characteristic of a communication system in which the

sender must coordinate (i.e. synchronize) with the receiver before sending data (Figure 9.13).
The network is designed to move the data at the precise rate, which is not affected by the
increase or decrease in network traffic. Voice system network use the synchronous
transmission.
 Asynchronous communication is a characteristic of a communication system in which the sender
and receiver do not coordinate before the transmission of data (Figure 9.14). The receiver must
be prepared to accept data at any time. The sender can wait when no data is available and send
when data is available for sending. Most of the data networks use asynchronous transmission.
E.g.: RS-232 based serial devices use asynchronous communication.
 Figure 9.14 Asynchronous communication

9.5 DATA TRANSMISSION AND DATA NETWORKING

Data transmission at physical level involves the hardware required for handling individual bits
and encoding bits in signals. The details of the underlying hardware are generally handled by the
engineers who design the hardware.

Any two devices directly linked via a communication medium (point to point communication)
can send and receive data, to and from each other respectively (Figure 9.15 a). If a large number
of computers need to interact with each other, point to point communication will require direct
link between all the computers. This is not a practical solution. The communication circuits and
the associated hardware required for communication (like modem) are expensive. Moreover,
there may not be a need to transmit data all the time, which will result in the communication
medium lying idle for most of the time. For long distance communication, instead of point to
point connection, a network of nodes is used as a communication medium. The different
computers attached to the network share the communication facility.

Figure 9.15 (a) Point-to-point communication (b) Switching

The computer network provides a convenient interface that handles sending of multiple bytes of
data across the network instead of handling data transmission at physical level.

9.5.1 Switching

A network cannot allow or deny access to a shared communication facility. All computers
attached to the network can use it to send and receive data. Networks allow sharing of
communication medium using switching (Figure 9.15 b). Switching routes the traffic (data
traffic) on the network. It sets up temporary connections between the network nodes to facilitate
sending of data. Switching allows different users, fair access to the shared communication
medium. There are three kinds of switching techniques—(1) Packet switching, (2) Circuit
switching, and (3) Message switching. Computer networks generally use packet switching,
occasionally use circuit switching but do not use message switching.

9.5.1.1 Circuit Switching

Circuit switching (Figure 9.16) sets up end-to-end communication path between the source and
the destination, before the data can be sent. The path gets reserved during the duration of the
connection. Circuit switching is commonly used in the telephone communication network.

Figure 9.16 Circuit switching

9.5.1.2 Message Switching

Message switching (Figure 9.17) does not establish a physical path in advance, between the
sender and the receiver. It uses the ‘store and forward’ mechanism. In this mechanism, the
network nodes have large memory storage. The message is received from the sender and stored
in the network node, and when it finds a free route, it forwards the message to the next node till it
reaches the destination. Message switching requires large data storage capacity and incurs delay
in storing and forwarding of message. Message switching may block the network nodes for a
long time. They are thus not suitable for interactive communication. Message switching is no
more used in computer networks.
Figure 9.17 Message switching

9.5.1.3 Packet Switching

 Like message switching, packet switching does not establish a physical path between the sender
and the receiver, in advance. Packet switching (Figure 9.18) also uses the ‘store and forward’
mechanism. However, instead of a complete message, packets are sent over the network.
Packet switching splits a message into small “packets” of defined size to be sent over the
network. Each packet is numbered.

Figure 9.18 Packet switching

 A packet is a self-contained part of data that can be sent over the network. A packet contains
the data to be transmitted and a header that contains information about the packet, like the
source and destination addresses, size of packet, error checking bytes etc.
 Since the path through which the packets travel is not reserved, the packets may travel through
different paths in the network and may not reach the destination in order. At the destination,
the received packets are reassembled (according to the packet number), and the complete
message is constructed.
 Packet switching is suited for interactive traffic. Packet switching limits the size of the packet
and does not block a network node for a long time. Moreover, a node can transmit a packet
before the arrival of another full packet, thus reducing the delay.
 Packet switching does not require dedicated communication link, and shares the underlying
resources. Packet switching is commonly used for computer networks, including the Internet.

9.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers that are able to exchange
information. The computers may be connected via any data communication link, like copper
wires, optical fibers, communication satellites, or radio links. The computers connected to the
network may be personal computers or large main frames. The computers in a network may be
located in a room, building, city, country, or anywhere in the world.

9.6.1 Network Types

Computer network is broadly classified into three types—(1) Local Area Network (LAN), (2)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), and (3) Wide Area Network (WAN). The different network
types are distinguished from each other based on the following characteristics:

 Size of the network

 Transmission Technology
 Networking Topology

The size ofthe network refers to the area over which the network is spread. Transmission
technology refers to the transmission media used to connect computers on the network and the
transmission protocols used for connecting. Network topology refers to the arrangement of
computers on the network or the shape of the network. The following subsections discuss the
three types of networks and their characteristics.

9.6.1.1 Local Area Network

LAN (Figure 9.19) is a computer network widely used for local communication. LAN connects
computers in a small area like a room, building, office or a campus spread up to a few
kilometers. They are privately owned networks, with a purpose to share resources and to
exchange information.

Figure 9.19 LAN

The computers in a LAN are generally connected using cables. LAN is different from other types
of network since they share the network. The different computers connected to a LAN take turns
to send data packets over the cables connecting them. This requires coordination of the use of the
network. Some of the transmission protocols used in LAN are Ethernet, Token bus, and FDDI
ring.
Star, Bus, and Ring are some of the common LAN networking topologies. LAN runs at a speed
of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and has low delays. A LAN based on WiFi wireless network
technology is called Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN).

9.6.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network

MAN (Figure 9.20) is a computer network spread over a city. Cable television network is an
example of MAN. The computers in a MAN are connected using coaxial cables or fiber optic
cables. MAN also connects several LAN spread over a city.

Figure 9.20 MAN

9.6.1.3 Wide Area Network

WAN is a network that connects computers over long distances like cities, countries, continents,
or worldwide (Figure 9.21). WAN uses public, leased, or private communication links to spread
over long distances. WAN uses telephone lines, satellite link, and radio link to connect. The need
to be able to connect any number of computers at any number of sites, results in WAN
technologies to be different from the LAN technologies. WAN network must be able to grow
itself. Internet is a common example of WAN.
Figure 9.21 LAN, MAN and WAN

9.6.2 LAN Topologies

There are different types of network topologies that are used in a network. The network
topologies in the structure or the layout of the different devices and computers connected to the
network. The topologies commonly used in LAN are—Bus topology, Star topology, and Ring
topology.

9.6.2.1 Bus Topology

 All devices on the network are connected through a central cable called a Bus (Figure 9.22).

Figure 9.22 Bus topology

 The data signal is available to all computers connected to the bus .

 The data signal carries the address of the destination computer.
 Each computer on the network checks the destination address as the data signal travels through
the bus. The computer whose address matches makes a copy of the signal and converts it into
data. The data signal on the bus does not get destroyed and still transmits along the bus, and is
finally absorbed by the terminator attached to the end of the network.
 It is good for connecting 15–20 computers.
  A single coaxial cable is generally used in bus topology, to which the computers or devices are
connected.
 Ethernet is a commonly used protocol in networks connected by bus topology.

9.6.2.2 Ring Topology

 All devices in the network are connected in the form of a ring.

 Each device has a receiver and transmitter to receive the data signals and to send them to the
next computer, respectively.
 Ring network does not have terminated ends, thus data signals travel in a circle.
 Ring topology (Figure 9.23) uses token passing method to provide access to the devices in the
network.
 The computers or devices are connected to the ring using twisted pair cables, coaxial cables or
optic fibers.
 The protocols used to implement ring topology are Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI).

Figure 9.23 Ring topology

9.6.2.3 Star Topology

 All devices are connected through a central link forming a star-like structure.
 The central link is a hub or switch. The computers are connected to the hub or switch using
twisted pair cables, coaxial cables or optic fibers.
 Star topology (Figure 9.24) is the most popular topology to connect computer and devices in
network.
 The data signal is transmitted from the source computer to the destination computer via the
hub or switch.
 The common protocols used in star topology are Ethernet, Token Ring, and LocalTalk.
In addition to the bus, ring, and star topologies, there are complex topologies like the tree
topology, and the mesh topology used for networking in LAN. Table 9.1 lists the advantages and
disadvantages of the different LAN network topologies.

9.6.3 Communication Protocol

Data networks are a combination of software and hardware components. The hardware includes
transmission media, devices, and transmission equipments. The software allows the hardware to
interact with one another and provide access to the network. The application programs that use
the network do not interact with the hardware directly. The application programs interact with
the protocol software, which follows the rules of the protocol while communicating. Protocol is
a network term used to indicate the set of rules used by a network for communication.

Figure 9.24 Star topology

Table 9.1 Advantages and disadvantages of network topologies

All the computers connected to the network use the protocol software. The network
communication protocol is organized as a stack of layers with one layer built upon the other.
Each layer has a specific function and interacts with the layers above and below it. The outgoing
data from a computer connected to the network passes down through each layer and the
incoming data passes up through each layer. The corresponding layers on the different machines
are called peers. The peers interact with each other using the protocol.

The International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed a seven-layer reference model for
data networks, known as Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model specifies
the functions of each layer. It does not specify how the protocol needs to be implemented. It is
independent of the underlying architecture of the system and is thus an open system. The seven
layers of the OSI model are—(1) Physical layer, (2) Data link layer, (3) Network layer, (4)
Transport layer, (5) Session layer, (6) Presentation layer, and (7) Application layer. The
functions of the different layers (Figure 9.25) are as follows:
Figure 9.25 OSI model

 Physical Layer—This layer specifies the basic network hardware. Some of the characteristics
defined in the specification are—interface between transmission media and device, encoding of
bits, bit rate, error detection parameters, network topology, and the mode of transmission
(duplex, half-duplex or simplex).
 Data Link Layer—This layer specifies the functions required for node-to-node transmission
without errors. It specifies the organization of data into frames, error detection in frames during
transmission, and how to transmit frames over a network.
 Network Layer—The network layer specifies the assignment of addresses (address structure,
length of address etc.) to the packets and forwarding of packets to the destination i.e. routing.
 Transport Layer—It specifies the details to handle reliable transfer of data. It handles end-to-
end error control and flow control, breaking up data into frames and reassembling the frames.
 Session Layer—The session layer maintains a session between the communicating devices. It
includes specifications for password and authentication, and maintaining synchronization
between the sender and the receiver.
 Presentation Layer—This layer specifies the presentation and representation of data. Its
functions include translation of the representation of the data into an identifiable format at the
receiver end, encryption, and decryption of data etc.
 Application Layer—This layer specifies how an application uses a network. It deals with the
services attached to the data. It contains the protocols used by users like HTTP, protocol for file
transfer and electronic mail.

Each layer at the sender’s side transforms the data according to the function it handles. For this it
attaches headers to the data. At the receiver’s side, the corresponding layer applies the inverse of
the transformation that has been applied at the source (Figure 9.26). As an example, if the Data
link layer at the sender’s side adds an error detection code to the frame, then at the receiver’s
side, the Data link layer verifies the error detection code and removes it from the frame before
passing it to the next higher level, i.e. the Network layer.
Figure 9.26 Data transfer in OSI model

The 7-layer ISO reference model forms a framework for communication between the devices
attached to the network. For different networks, the number of layers and their functions may
vary. For example, the TCP/IP Internet protocol is organized into five layers. The X.25 Wide
Area Network protocol (the first public data network) provides connectivity to Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) network and has three layers.

9.6.4 Network Devices

The cables are used to transmit data in the form of signals from one computer to another. But
cables cannot transmit signals beyond a particular distance. Moreover there is a need to connect
multiple computers and devices. A concentrator is a device having two or more ports to which
the computers and other devices can be connected. A concentrator has two main functions—(1)
it amplifies the signal to restore the original strength of the signal, and (2) it provides an interface
to connect multiple computers and devices in a network. Repeater, hub, switch, bridge, and
gateway are examples of network connecting devices.

Two or more LANs using different protocols may not be able to communicate with the
computers attached to their network. For example, a LAN connected using Ethernet may not be
able to communicate with a LAN connected using Token Ring. Bridge, Router, and Gateway are
devices used to interconnect LANs.

9.6.4.1 Network Interface Card

 A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware device through which the computer connects to a
network.
  NIC is an expansion card (Figure 9.27), it can be either ISA or PCI, or can be on-board integrated
on a chipset. NIC has an appropriate connector to connect the cable to it. NIC for different LAN
are different (NIC for token ring is different from NIC for Ethernet).

Figure 9.27 NIC card

 NIC work at both the data link layer and physical layer of the OSI reference model.
 At the data link layer, NIC converts the data packets into data frames, adds the Media ACcess
address (MAC address) to data frames. At the physical layer, it converts the data into signals and
transmits it across the communication medium. The MAC address is a globally unique hardware
number present on the NIC and is specified by the NIC manufacturer.
 NIC depends upon the configuration of the computer, unlike hub or switches that perform
independently.

9.6.4.2 Repeater

 Repeaters (Figure 9.28) are used to extend LAN. It has only two ports and can connect only two
segments of a network. Multiple repeaters can be used to connect more segments. (Segment is
a logical section of the same network).

Figure 9.28 Repeater

 Repeaters operate at the Physical layer of OSI reference model.

  They are useful when computers in a network are located far away from each other.
 Repeaters amplify the signal so that the signal is as strong as the original signal. They can thus
extend the reach of a network.
 Repeaters cannot be used if multiple computers need to be interconnected or multiple
segments need to be interconnected.
 Repeaters cannot identify complete frames. Thus, in addition to the valid transmissions from
one segment to another, repeater also propagates any electrical interference occurring on a
segment to other segment.

9.6.4.3 Bridge

 Bridge (Figure 9.29) is used to connect two LAN segments like a repeater; it forwards complete
and correct frames to the other segment. It does not forward any electrical interference signals
to the other segment.

Figure 9.29 Bridge

 Bridge forwards a copy of the frame to the other segment, only if necessary. If a frame is meant
for a computer on the same segment, then bridge does not forward a copy of the frame to other
segment.
 Bridge connects networks that use different protocol at the Data Link Layer. The frame format
of data in the two networks is different. The bridge converts the frame format before
transmitting data from one network to another, with translation software included in the
bridge.
 A bridge is also used to divide a network into separate broadcast domains to reduce network
traffic while maintaining connectivity between the computers.

9.6.4.4 Hub

 It is like a repeater with multiple ports. But, hub does not amplify the incoming signal.
 Hub (Figure 9.30) operates at the Physical layer of OSI reference model, hence treats data as a
signal.
 Figure 9.30 Hub

 Hubs are used to connect multiple segments of the same network.

 Hubs are also used to connect computers to network that use Star topology.
 The port on the hubs can also be used to connect another hub, switch, bridge or router.
 Hubs increase the network traffic because they broadcast data to all the device connected all
the ports of the hub.
 It is preferable to use a hub in a small LAN having about 8–10 computers connected to it.

9.6.4.5 Switch

 Like hub, switch also connects multiple computers in a network or different segments of the
same network. A hub simulates a single segment that is shared by all computers attached to it
(hub transmits the data to all computers attached to it). In a hub, at most two computers can
interact with each other at a given point of time. However, in a switch each computer attached
to a switch has a simulated LAN segment.
 Switches (Figure 9.31) work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI reference model.Hence, switches
consider data as frames and not as signals.

Figure 9.31 Switch

  A data frame contains the MAC address of the destination computer. A switch receives a signal
as a data frame from a source computer on a port, checks the MAC address of the frame,
forwards the frame to the port connected to the destination computer having the same MAC
addresses, reconverts the frame back into signal and sends to the destination computer.
(Switching is a technique that reads the MAC address of the data frame and forwards the data
to the appropriate port). Switches, thus, regenerate the signals.
 Since a switch does not broadcast data, but sends the data from the source computer to the
destination computer, a half of the computers attached to the switch can send data at the same
time.
 Switch is also referred to as a multi-port bridge. In general, bridges are used to extend the
distance of the network, and switches are primarily used for their filtering capabilities to create
a multiple and smaller virtual LAN (a LAN segment can be connected to each port of the switch)
from a single large LAN.

9.6.4.6 Router

 Router (Figure 9.32) is used to connect heterogeneous networks.

Figure 9.32 Router

 A router has a processor, memory, and I/O interface for each network to which it connects.
 A router connects networks that use different technologies, different media, and physical
addressing schemes or frame formats.
 A router can connect two LANs, a LAN and a WAN, or two WANs.
 A router is used to interconnect the networks in the Internet.
 Router operates at the Network layer of the OSI model (layer 3).
 Physically, a router resembles a bridge, but is different from a bridge. A router determines which
way is the shortest or fastest in a network, and routes packets accordingly. Since it works at the
Network layer, it moves packets based on the IP addresses etc. In contrast, a bridge connects
two LANs almost permanently.

9.6.4.7 Gateway

 Gateway (Figure 9.33) is a generic term used to represent devices that connect two dissimilar
networks.
 Figure 9.33 Gateway

 A gateway at the transport layer converts protocols among communications networks. It can
accept a packet formatted for one protocol and convert it to a packet formatted for another
protocol, before forwarding it. An application gateway can translate messages from one format
to the other.
 A gateway can be implemented in hardware, software, or in both hardware and software.
Generally, gateway is implemented by software installed within a router.

The network connecting devices—repeater and hub operate at the physical layer, bridge and
switch operate at the data link layer, and the router operates at the network layer of the OSI
model.

9.7 WIRELESS NETWORKING

Wireless technology, as the name suggests, is used to establish a wire-free connection or

communication between two or more devices. In contrast to the wired technology where data is
encoded as electric current and signals travel through wires, in wireless technology data is
encoded on electromagnetic waves that travel through air. The wireless technology is used for
broadcasting in radio and television communication, for communication using mobile phones
and pagers, for connecting components of computers using Bluetooth technology, for Internet
connection using Wi-Fi, Wireless LAN, PDA, and in remote controls for television, doors etc.

 Wireless network is a computer network connected wirelessly. The communication is done

through a wireless media like radio waves, infrared or Bluetooth.
 The wireless networks have two main components—the wireless access points that include the
transmitter along with the area it can cover, and the wireless clients like mobile handsets,
laptops with Ethernet cards etc.
 The access point receives data frames from the computers attached to it wirelessly, checks the
frames, and transmits them to their destination. The coverage area of a transmitter depends on
the output power of the transmitter, its location, and the frequency used to transmit the data.
Higher frequencies require a clear line of sight as compared to lower frequencies.
 The speed of wireless connection is determined by the distance of the wireless client device
from the access point, the obstruction-free path (walls, trees etc.), interference, and the number
of users using the network at a given time.
 Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their use:
o Bluetooth technology to connect the different components of the computer in a room, a
small office or home.
 o Wireless LAN is used to connect computers and devices wirelessly in a LAN, for example,
different computers or devices in an office or campus.
o Wireless WAN is used to connect wide area systems, for example access to Internet via
mobile devices like cell phone, PDAs and laptops.

9.7.1 Bluetooth Technology

The different components of the computer like the keyboard, printer, monitor etc., are connected
to the computer case via wires. Bluetooth technology (Figure 9.34) is used to connect the
different components wirelessly. A printer placed in a room may be connected to a computer
placed in a different room using Bluetooth technology. Using Bluetooth does away with the
wires required to connect the components to the computer and allows portability of components
within a small area lying within the Bluetooth range.

Figure 9.34 Bluetooth

9.7.2 Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN (Figure 9.35) has some benefits over the wired LANs. In wireless LAN, there is
flexibility to move the computers and devices within the network. It can connect computers
where cabling is not possible. It is easy to expand by using an access point. Since no physical
medium is required, wireless LANs are easy to install. Since data is transmitted using radio or
infrared waves, there is no attenuation or distortion of the signal due to electromagnetic
interference. Wireless LANs are used at home to connect devices on different floors or to set up
a home network (Figure 9.36), to provide connectivity in public places like airports, railway
stations, college campus, and hotels etc., where traveling users can access the network. Wireless
LANs can also be connected to a WAN thus providing access to Internet to the user. IEEE
802.11 is a standard for wireless LAN.
Figure 9.35 (a) Wireless ethernet bridge (b) Wireless antenna in a desktop

Figure 9.36 Computers at different floors in a house connected by wireless LAN

9.7.3 Wireless WAN

The radio network used for cellular telephone is an example of wireless WAN (Figure 9.37).
Wireless WANs allow the users to access the Internet via their mobile devices. This provides
flexibility to the user to access the Internet from any location where wireless connectivity exists.
Figure 9.37 Wireless WAN

Almost all wireless networks are connected to the wired network at the back-end to provide
access to Internet. Wireless networks also offer many challenges, like, the compatibility among
different standards promoted by different companies, congested networks in case of low
bandwidth, the high infrastructure and service cost, data security, battery storage capability of
wireless device, and health risk.

SUMMARY

 Networking of computers facilitates resource sharing, sharing of information, and, can be used
as a communication medium, and for backup and support.
 The transmission ofdata can be via guided media like twisted pair, coaxial pair, optical fibers or
as radio transmission, microwave transmission, and satellite transmission.
 A twistedpair cable consists of four pairs of twisted copper wires. STP and UTP are the two kinds
of twisted pair.
 Coaxial cable has an inner conductor that transmits electric signals and an outer conductor as a
ground. Optical fibers transmit data over large distances. They use light signals.
 Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex are three modes of data transmission. Simplex is uni-
directional, halfduplex is bi-directional but one device sends data and other receives it, and, full-
duplex is bi-directional and both the devices can send and receive data at the same time.
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through the communication medium,
in a fixed amount of time. Bandwidth is measured in Hz.
 Throughput is the amount of data that is actually transmitted between two computers. It is
specified in bps. Throughput is affected by the distance between the connected computers.
 Analog and digital signals are the two types of signals that are used for carrying information
over a transmission medium.
 Modulation is the superimposing of signal carrying data onto the carrier wave. Demodulation is
segregation of data signal and carrier signal from the modulated carrier wave.
 Modem is a device that has both a modulator and a demodulator.