Space Physics
The Earth and the solar system
Motion of the Earth
● The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night.
● One complete rotation takes 24 hours.
● Day is for the half of the Earth facing the Sun and night for the half facing
away.
Rising and setting of the Sun
● Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east to west daily.
● Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at equinoxes.
● In northern hemisphere summer, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of
west.
● In winter, rises and sets south of these points.
The seasons
● Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and tilt of its axis.
Motion of the Moon
● Moon is a satellite of Earth, orbiting approximately every month
● Average distance from Earth is about 400,000 km
● Revolves on its axis, always showing the same side to Earth
● Reflects sunlight, has no atmosphere, weaker gravitational field (one-sixth of
Earth)
Phases of the Moon
● Moon's appearance changes during its monthly orbit
● New Moon: Moon between Sun and Earth, unlit side faces Earth
● Crescent appears and increases until the first quarter (half of the Moon
visible)
● Full Moon: Moon opposite Earth from the Sun, fully visible
Waning (where the moon's illumination decreases) phases follow, leading to the last
quarter and old crescent
Orbital speed
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The Solar System
● It contains:
○ The sun as a star
○ Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits)
○ Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun
○ Moons orbiting many planets
○ Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites
Inner Planets
● Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
● Small, similar size
● Solid and rocky with layered structures
● High density
● Formed close to the Sun where it was too hot for gases to condense, allowing
only metals and silicates to form solid bodies
● In the early Solar System, the Sun's heat caused lighter gases to evaporate,
leaving only heavy elements like iron and silicon to form solid planets.
Outer Planets
● Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
● Much larger and colder
● Mainly consist of gases, low density
● Many moons and rings of icy materials
● Formed in cooler regions where gases could condense, capturing even the
lightest elements
● In the outer regions of the Solar System, lower temperatures allowed gases
like hydrogen and helium to remain in solid or liquid forms, leading to the
formation of gas giants with thick atmospheres.
Asteroids
● Pieces of rock of various sizes, mostly between Mars and Jupiter
● Orbit around the Sun
● Similar density to inner planets
● Burn up in Earth's atmosphere as meteors
Comets
● Dust embedded in ice made from water and methane
● Orbits the Sun in highly elliptical paths
● Develop a bright long tail when approaching the Sun due to radiation pressure
Elliptical Orbits
● Planets, dwarf planets, and comets orbit the Sun in an ellipse
● Sun is at one focus of the ellipse, not the center
● Comets have highly elliptical orbits, while planets' orbits are more circular
Origin of the Solar System
● Formed from gravitational attraction pulling together clouds of hydrogen gas
and dust (nebulae)
● Solar System formed about 4500 million years ago
● Planets formed from the disc of matter left over from the nebula that formed
the Sun
● Inner planets formed from materials with high melting temperatures like
metals and silicates
● Outer planets formed from light molecules that existed in solid icy forms,
growing large enough to capture hydrogen
Travel Times
● Distance from the Sun to Earth: approximately 150 million km
● It takes light from the sun around 8 minutes to reach the Earth.
The sun
● Medium-sized star composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.
● Emits energy in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Source of Energy
● Energy from nuclear reactions in the core.
● Hydrogen undergoes nuclear fusion to form helium, releasing energy.
● Energy from the core heats outer layers, causing them to glow and emit
radiation.
Nuclear Reactions in Stars
Stars like the Sun are powered by nuclear fusion.
Core conditions
● Hot and dense enough for hydrogen to fuse into helium.
● Fusion process releases energy, maintaining high core temperatures.
● Some core energy moves to outer layers, which emit electromagnetic
radiation.
Light-years
● Distance light travels in a vacuum in one year.
● 1 light-year = 9.5×10¹²km
Galaxies
Large collections of stars, gas, and dust.
Origin and life cycle of stars
Formation
● Interstellar clouds of dust and gas collapse under gravitational attraction.
● A protostar forms as mass increases and core temperature rises.
● Hydrogen fuses into helium when the core is hot enough, resulting in a star.
Star Types
● Large mass: Blue or white stars.
● Smaller mass: Yellow or red dwarfs (e.g., the Sun).
Life Cycle of Stars
Stable Phase
● Forces of gravity inward balance with thermal pressure outward.
● Stable phase lasts up to 10 billion years.
● Hydrogen converts to helium in the core.
Red Giant/Red Supergiant
● As hydrogen depletes, the star becomes unstable.
● Core collapses; outer layers expand and cool.
● Star turns into a red giant (or red supergiant if massive).
● Helium fuses into carbon in the core.
Low Mass Stars
● End Stage
○ Core collapses into a white dwarf after all helium is used.
○ Outer layers expelled, forming a planetary nebula.
○ White dwarf cools into a black dwarf over about a billion years.
High Mass Stars (more than 8 times the Sun’s mass)
● End Stage
○ Use hydrogen rapidly, with a shorter stable phase (about 100 million
years).
○ After helium fusion, core collapses into a red supergiant.
○ Fusion of carbon into heavier elements occurs until iron forms.
○ Supernova explosion releases energy and heavy elements into space.
○ Neutron Star: Dense core, may act as a pulsar.
○ Black Hole: Extremely dense core with gravitational field so strong that
even light cannot escape; identified by X-ray radiation from nearby
material.
The universe
Milky Way
● Approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter.
● Contains around 800 billion or more stars.
● A spiral galaxy with a central bulge and spiral arms.
Redshift
● The phenomenon where light from distant galaxies shifts towards the red end
of the spectrum (longer wavelength).
● Light emitted from stars in distant galaxies appears redder compared to light
from closer galaxies.
Doppler Effect
● Occurs when a source of waves (e.g., sound or light) moves relative to an
observer.
● Approaching Source: Waves are compressed, resulting in a higher frequency
and pitch (blue shift for light).
● Receding Source: Waves are stretched, resulting in a lower frequency and
pitch (red shift for light).
Speed of Recession
● The speed at which distant galaxies are moving away can be calculated from
the amount of redshift observed.
● Some of the most distant galaxies are receding at speeds up to one-third the
speed of light.
● The observed redshift supports the idea that the Universe is expanding, which
is consistent with the Big Bang theory.
Big Bang Theory
● Initial State: Proposes that the Universe began from an extremely hot and
dense state around 14 billion years ago.
● Expansion: The Universe has been expanding ever since the Big Bang.
Microwave Background Radiation
● This radiation is a remnant from the Big Bang and fills the entire Universe.
● The radiation has been redshifted into the microwave region due to the
expansion of the Universe.
● Provides strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and insights into the early
Universe.
