Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers and Electrical Engineering

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/compeleceng

A comprehensive survey on the convergence of Blockchain, Digital

Twins, and Metaverse: Shaping the future of cybersecurity
frameworks
Adil Ahmad a , Anwar Shah a,b ,∗, Waleed S. Alnumay c , Muhammad Adnan a,b ,
Sajid Anwer a , Qamar Uz Zaman a
a
National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Chiniot-Faisalabad, Pakistan
b
Department of Computer Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam, 13120, Republic of Korea
c
Department of Computer Science, Riyadh Community College, King Saud University, Riyadh, 28095, Saudi Arabia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Integrating Metaverse, Digital Twin (DT), and Blockchain technology into cybersecurity frame-
Blockchain works marks a significant advancement in cybersecurity. As cyber attacks get more complex,
Digital twins real-time security models are needed to respond to the threat. This article explores how integrat-
Metaverse
ing cutting-edge technology might improve cybersecurity solutions’ authenticity, adaptability,
Cybersecurity
and efficiency. The present work on cybersecurity convergence models using Metaverse, DT,
Mathematical modeling
and Blockchain focuses on their ability to address complex security challenges successfully. A
comprehensive analysis evaluates models’ compatibility, applicability, and impact in handling
diverse cyber threats. The unique mathematical modeling technique aims to enhance traditional
cybersecurity measures by creating a strong framework. This innovative system combines
Metaverse, DT, and Blockchain technologies to offer a innovative approach to security. This
enables the formulation of more versatile and robust cybersecurity solutions.

1. Introduction

The traditional cybersecurity landscape, characterized by static defenses designed to counter predictable threats, is undergoing
a revolutionary transformation. This evolution is driven by the integration of emerging technologies such as Digital Twin (DT),
Blockchain, and Metaverse, ushering in what can be termed Cybersecurity [1,2]. These advancements provide a sophisticated,
multi-layered approach to security that greatly enhances the detection, analysis, and prevention of cyber threats.
Digital Twins (DT) create highly accurate virtual replicas of physical cybersecurity systems, enabling real-time monitoring,
testing, and simulation of threats in a controlled environment [3]. This technology allows cybersecurity professionals to preemptively
identify and mitigate potential vulnerabilities by simulating various attack scenarios [4]. By continuously synchronizing the digital
replica with its physical counterpart, any discrepancies or anomalies can be detected and addressed promptly, thereby enhancing
the overall resilience of cybersecurity defenses. The capability to conduct comprehensive threat simulations without impacting the
live environment ensures that defenses are robust and well-tested against an array of potential attacks [4].
Blockchain technology enhances the integrity and traceability of transactions, making it difficult for malicious actors to tamper
with data [5]. By utilizing a decentralized ledger system, Blockchain ensures that every transaction is securely recorded and cannot

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: p218741@[Link] (A. Ahmad), [Link]@[Link] (A. Shah), wnumay@[Link] (W.S. Alnumay), [Link]@[Link]
(M. Adnan), [Link]@[Link] (S. Anwer), [Link]@[Link] (Q.U. Zaman).

[Link]
Received 12 November 2024; Received in revised form 27 April 2025; Accepted 26 May 2025
Available online 18 June 2025
0045-7906/© 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Table 1
Symbols and descriptions.
Symbol Description
𝐺 = (𝑉 , 𝐸) Graph representing nodes (𝑉 ) and edges (𝐸) in a network.
𝑉 Set of vertices (nodes).
𝐸 Set of edges (connections).
𝐶𝐷 (𝑣) Degree centrality of a node 𝑣.
𝐶𝐵 (𝑣) Betweenness centrality of a node 𝑣.
𝐶𝐶 (𝑣) Closeness centrality of a node 𝑣.
𝐻(𝑥) Cryptographic hash function applied to input 𝑥.
𝜎 Digital signature of a message.
𝜏𝑘 Timestamp associated with a blockchain block.
𝜂𝑘 Nonce value in a blockchain block.
𝐻𝑘−1 Hash of the previous blockchain block.
𝑆(𝑡) State vector of a digital twin.
𝑉 (𝑡) State vector of the Metaverse environment.
𝑖(𝑡) Interaction variables in the Metaverse.
𝑒(𝑡) Environmental factors influencing the model.
𝜃 Parameters of the model.
𝑤 Measurement input vector.
𝑘𝑝𝑟 Private key used in digital signature generation.
𝑘𝑝𝑢 Public key used for signature verification.
𝑇 Set of transactions in a blockchain block.
𝑆 𝐷𝑇 State vector of the Digital Twin system.
𝑉 𝑀𝑉 State vector of the Metaverse environment.
𝑃 (𝑣𝑖 ) Probability of selecting validator 𝑣𝑖 in Proof of Stake.
𝑍 Z-score used for anomaly detection.
𝑈 𝐶𝐿, 𝐿𝐶𝐿 Upper and lower control limits in quality control.

Fig. 1. Metaverse Elements and Ecosystem.

be altered retroactively. This immutability feature is crucial in preventing data breaches and ensuring the authenticity of digital
interactions [6]. Moreover, the transparency offered by Blockchain enables more transparent auditing and adherence to regulatory
requirements. Employing smart contracts can automate security protocols, minimizing human error and improving the effectiveness
of cybersecurity operations [7]. The Metaverse provides a live virtual environment for cybersecurity experts to cooperate, educate,
and address incidents in novel ways that replicate real-life operations but in a virtual realm [8] as shown in Fig. 1. This immersive
environment facilitates the simulation of intricate cyber-attack scenarios, so offering a credible training ground for the development
and testing of response strategies. The Metaverse promotes a networked environment that enables the exchange of knowledge and
collaborative resolution of problems among cybersecurity professionals globally. Proficiency in conducting virtual drills and exercises
in a controlled yet realistic environment guarantees that professionals are adequately equipped to handle real cyber threats [9].
The task in the current age of cybersecurity is to create adaptable models that effectively capture the intricate characteristics
of contemporary cyber threats and offer scalable solutions [10]. adaptive models must possess the ability to adapt to new and
unexpected challenges in a dynamic manner, so assuring the continued effectiveness of defenses against evolving threats [11].
Predicting and responding to cyber-attacks in real-time necessitates a profound comprehension of their behavior patterns and
the incorporation of machine learning and artificial intelligence. The creation of such models is crucial for preserving a strong
cybersecurity stance in a constantly evolving digital environment [12].
Although a large number of advanced models have been developed to enhance cybersecurity defenses, there is still a notable
discrepancy in their efficacy and suitability. A fragmented approach to cybersecurity may arise from the fact that different models

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 2. Visualization of the Study Framework and Steps.

are tailored to particular types of threats or environments [13]. This fragmentation poses a critical challenge for professionals who
must navigate a landscape filled with diverse, often incompatible models, striving to identify which are most effective for specific
scenarios. Ongoing research and development aim to streamline these models, fostering greater cohesion and enhancing the overall
security posture of digital infrastructures.
To address the research problem identified, this paper presents a detailed survey and comparison of various cybersecurity models
that leverage emerging technologies like Digital Twin (DT), Blockchain, and the Metaverse. For this, we study and collect literature
on the mentioned domains to analyze the key gap in the metaverse, blockchain, and digital twins from a cybersecurity perspective,
as shown in Fig. 3. Initially, a framework that describes these models independently is established, including those based on DT,
clustering, and network distance (CND), network behavior (NB), Blockchain, and Metaverse technologies. Subsequently, a unified
framework is proposed that integrates these models, aiming to tackle a variety of cybersecurity challenges, thereby addressing a
significant gap in current research. Each model is thoroughly analyzed to elucidate its strengths and weaknesses, and the findings
are systematically presented through comparative tables. This approach provides a clear resource for researchers, enabling them
to assess the available models and choose the most appropriate one for addressing specific cybersecurity needs. In short, the key
contributions of this paper include:

• Introduction of individualized frameworks for various cybersecurity models leveraging Digital Twin (DT), Blockchain, and
Metaverse technologies.
• Development of a unified framework that integrates these models to address diverse cybersecurity challenges.
• Detailed examination of each model, emphasizing its benefits and drawbacks.
• Comparison tables are used to illustrate the integrated models, allowing for clear explanation and evaluation.
• Proposal of appropriate models for certain cybersecurity research issues.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 3. Detailed Representation of Literature Screening and Selection Workflow.

The introduction of this paper focuses on the current cybersecurity challenges in the domains of Metaverse, Blockchain, and
Digital Twins. This section analyzes the many types of cyber-attacks associated with each of these technologies, as well as the
mathematical models and functions developed to reduce these threats. The next section provides a detailed evaluation of the models’
limits and restrictions in each specific field. This article analyzes the convergence of Metaverse, Blockchain, and Digital Twins
technologies, looking at their interactions and the results of their integration while keeping in mind the constraints of integrated
systems. Finally, the paper concludes with a comparative analysis of the findings, followed by a discussion and conclusion that
summarize the study’s key insights and implications as shown in Fig. 2.

2. An emerging cyberattack in metaverse

A new type of cyber danger has emerged because of the fast growth and use of Metaverse technologies in many fields, including
cybersecurity as shown in Fig. 4 [14]. As the Metaverse grows into a complex virtual world where people interact, do business, and
do many other things, it also becomes a great place for sophisticated hacking [15]. This part discusses the growing computer risks
in the Metaverse and the math models and functions needed to understand and lower these risks [16,17]. The Table 2 presents a
comprehensive overview of the approaches, research gaps, contributions, and limitations identified in the existing literature.

2.1. Types of cyberattacks in the metaverse

The metaverse is an exciting blend of virtual and real-world experiences, but it is not without risks. Cyberattacks in this space
target everything from user identities to virtual assets, posing unique challenges. By understanding these threats, we can work
toward building a safer, more secure digital world.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 4. Metaverse Security Risk Graph.

2.1.1. Identity theft and fraud

People in the Metaverse usually talk to each other through avatars and other virtual identities. Cybercriminals take advantage
of flaws in identity management systems to pretend to be users, steal personal information, and commit scams [26].

2.1.2. Virtual property theft

Virtual assets — including digital real estate, non-fungible tokens (NFTs), and virtual money — have had tremendous increase
in value. Targeting these assets, malicious hacks can cause major financial losses [27].

2.1.3. Social engineering attacks

Attackers can employ social engineering techniques to control users into disclosing private information or participating in
activities compromising security [28].

2.1.4. Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks have the ability to disrupt virtual environments, therefore causing significant periods
of inactivity and compromised service. [29]

2.1.5. Malware and ransomware

Specifically attacking the Metaverse infrastructure, malicious software and ransomware attacks restrict users from entering their
virtual environments or making payment in exchange for the recovery of virtual assets [30].

2.2. Mathematical models and functions

2.2.1. Graph theory for network analysis

Understanding the structure of virtual networks in the Metaverse necessitates a foundational grasp of graph theory [31].
Employing a graph model of the Metaverse, with nodes denoting users or assets and edges symbolizing interactions or transactions,
enables identifying critical vulnerabilities and improving security mechanisms.
Mathematical Representation:
A Metaverse network can be represented as a graph 𝐺 = (𝑉 , 𝐸), where:

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Table 2
Review and analysis of research on the metaverse and cybersecurity.
Title (Year) Approach Research gap Contribution Limitation
[18] Khasanah Legal analysis of Lack of legal Highlights the need for Limited to legal challenges;
et al. (2022) cybersecurity challenges in frameworks to address legal frameworks to does not propose specific
the metaverse cybersecurity in the enhance cybersecurity in technical solutions
metaverse the metaverse
[19] Nguyen Use of human digital twins Insufficient simulation Introduces digital twins as A conceptual model with
et al. (2022) for simulating models to predict cyber a method for more limited real-world
cybersecurity scenarios in threats in the metaverse accurate cybersecurity validation
the metaverse simulations in the
metaverse
[20] Pooyandeh Survey of AI-based Identification of specific Offers a comprehensive As a survey, it lacks
et al. (2022) cybersecurity methods AI vulnerabilities in the review of AI-based original research
applicable to the metaverse metaverse methods for addressing contributions and focuses
cybersecurity challenges in on summarizing existing
the metaverse studies
[21] Yang et al. Exploration of AI and its Future implications of Discusses potential future Lacks practical, actionable
(2022) role in ensuring AI on metaverse scenarios where AI plays a steps for immediate
cybersecurity in the future cybersecurity are not central role in maintaining implementation
metaverse well understood cybersecurity in the
metaverse
[22] Bhardwaj Analyzes user-experience Understanding of Provides insights into Focuses primarily on user
et al. (2023) challenges and user-specific specific cybersecurity experience; broader
cybersecurity cybersecurity challenges vulnerabilities related to cybersecurity implications
vulnerabilities in the in the metaverse user experience in the are not fully covered
metaverse metaverse
[23] Alauthman Development of a Absence of a unified Proposes a comprehensive Needs further testing and
et al. (2024) cybersecurity framework cybersecurity framework addressing validation in diverse
tailored to the metaverse framework for various cybersecurity risks metaverse scenarios
metaverse environments in the metaverse
[15] Zainudin Blockchain technology for Lack of collaborative Introduces a Scalability and
et al. (2024) collaborative cyber-attack security mechanisms to blockchain-based model for performance of the
detection in distributed mitigate cyber threats real-time detection and blockchain solution in
metaverse environments in metaverse mitigation of cyber-attacks large-scale metaverse
in the metaverse environments are not fully
explored
[24] Radanliev Combines AI, blockchain, Need for a holistic Develops an integrated The complexity of
et al. (2024) and cloud computing to approach combining cybersecurity architecture integration across different
create an integrated multiple technologies to that leverages AI, technologies may hinder
cybersecurity architecture secure metaverse blockchain, and cloud implementation
for the metaverse environments computing to enhance
security in the metaverse
[25] Al-Emran Examination of Understanding user Identifies key cybersecurity Focuses on behavioral
et al. (2024) cybersecurity behaviors behaviors and their behaviors and offers aspects; technical solutions
within the metaverse impact on cybersecurity recommendations for are not deeply explored
in the metaverse improving cybersecurity
practices in the metaverse

• 𝑉 is the collection of vertices (nodes) that represent users, assets, or individuals.

• 𝐸 is the collection of edges that serve as representations of interactions or transactions between nodes.

Key functions include [32,33]:

• Degree Centrality: Measures how connected a node is in a network by counting the number of direct links it has to other
nodes. In simple terms, it tells you how ‘‘popular’’ or ‘‘connected’’ a node is within the network.

𝐶𝐷 (𝑣) = deg(𝑣) (1)

Where: 𝐶𝐷 (𝑣): Degree centrality of node 𝑣 deg(𝑣): Degree of the node 𝑣 (number of edges connected to 𝑣)
• Betweenness Centrality: Measures how often a node acts as a bridge along the shortest path between two other nodes in a
network. It shows how important a node is for connecting different parts of the network.
∑ 𝜎𝑠𝑡 (𝑣)
𝐶𝐵 (𝑣) = (2)
𝑠≠𝑣≠𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡

Where:

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𝐶𝐵 (𝑣): Betweenness centrality of node 𝑣

𝜎𝑠𝑡 : Total number of shortest paths between nodes 𝑠 and 𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡 (𝑣): Number of those shortest paths that pass through node 𝑣
• Closeness Centrality: Measures how close a node is to all other nodes in the network. It is calculated as the reciprocal of the
sum of the shortest path distances from the node to all other nodes, representing how quickly information can spread from
that node.
1
𝐶𝐶 (𝑣) = ∑ (3)
𝑢 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣)
∑
Where: 𝐶𝐶 (𝑣): Closeness centrality of node 𝑣 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣): Shortest path distance between nodes 𝑢 and 𝑣 𝑢 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣): Sum of shortest
path distances from node 𝑣 to all other nodes 𝑢 in the network

2.2.2. Machine learning models for threat detection

Advanced machine learning models are essential for the real-time detection and prediction of cyber threats [34]. These models
can perform data analysis on extensive datasets from the Metaverse to detect patterns that suggest cyberattacks.
Mathematical Representation:

• Supervised Learning: Given a training dataset 𝐷 = {(𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )}𝑛𝑖=1 , where 𝑥𝑖 are feature vectors and 𝑦𝑖 are labels (e.g., attack or
non-attack), the goal is to learn a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 that maps inputs to outputs.
• Logistic Regression:
1
𝑃 (𝑦 = 1|𝑥) = (4)
1 + 𝑒−(𝛽0 +𝛽1 𝑥1 +𝛽2 𝑥2 +⋯+𝛽𝑝 𝑥𝑝 )
• Neural Networks:

𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑊 𝑥 + 𝑏) (5)

Where 𝑓 is an activation function, 𝑊 is the weight matrix, and 𝑏 is the bias vector.

2.2.3. Blockchain for secure transactions

Blockchain technology ensures the integrity and traceability of transactions within the Metaverse [35]. It provides a decentralized
and immutable ledger that prevents tampering and fraud.
Mathematical Representation:

• Hash Function: A cryptographic hash function 𝐻 takes an input 𝑥 and produces a fixed-size string of bytes [36].

𝐻(𝑥) = ℎ (6)

• Digital Signature: Ensures authenticity and integrity of transactions. Given a message 𝑚 and a private key 𝑘𝑝𝑟 [37]:

Signature(𝑚) = {𝑚, 𝐸𝑘𝑝𝑟 (𝐻(𝑚))} (7)

• Smart Contracts: Automated contracts that execute when predefined conditions are met. Represented as [38]:

𝑆𝐶 ∶ {if 𝐶 then 𝐴} (8)

Where 𝐶 is the condition and 𝐴 is the action.

3. An emerging cyberattack in blockchain

The advent of Blockchain technology has revolutionized the way data is stored, verified, and transmitted across networks [39].
Its decentralized and immutable nature provides significant advantages for cybersecurity as shown in Fig. 5. However, as with
any technology, Blockchain is not immune to cyber threats. This section explores the emerging cyber threats specific to Blockchain
technology and discusses the mathematical models and functions essential for understanding and mitigating these threats. The Table
3 provides a detailed summary of the methodologies, identified research gaps, key contributions, and limitations highlighted in the
reviewed literature.

3.1. Types of cyberattacks in blockchain

Blockchain has revolutionized the way we handle data and transactions, but it is not without its risks. Cybercriminals have found
ways to exploit vulnerabilities, targeting things like smart contracts and network security. By understanding the different types of
attacks, we can take steps to make blockchain systems safer and more reliable for everyone.

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Table 3
Evaluation and analysis of studies on blockchain and cybersecurity.
Title (Year) Approach Research Gap Contribution Limitation
[40] Bordel Mechanism for predicting Existing blockchain The paper’s findings have Limited real-world data or
et al. (2021) the occurrence of Denial of security measures may practical implications for examples to validate the
Chain attacks using ML not be equipped to the design and theoretical impact and
predict or detect new implementation of more prediction mechanisms
types of attacks like secure blockchain systems
Denial of Chain
[41] Kumar Incorporates While blockchain is Novel blockchain Might face challenges in
et al. (2022) privacy-preserving recognized for its architecture specifically terms of interoperability
techniques within the security benefits, designed for the healthcare with existing healthcare IT
blockchain architecture, existing sector systems and electronic
such as encryption, blockchain-based health records (EHRs)
zero-knowledge proofs, and healthcare solutions
possibly homomorphic often struggle to fully
encryption preserve patient privacy
[42] Abdel et al. Blockchain technology is Traditional Introduces a novel The effectiveness of the
(2022) integrated into the cybersecurity methods framework that combines proposed framework is
federated learning often require blockchain and federated highly dependent on the
framework to ensure the centralized data learning for cyberattack security and integrity of
integrity and security of processing, which can detection in IEoT the underlying blockchain
the model updates compromise privacy environments
exchanged between edge
devices
[43] Mazhar integrates blockchain Traditional approaches By integrating blockchain While the paper aims to
et al. (2023) technology to enhance the to Cybersecurity often technology, the paper provide real-time threat
security of data within the focus on either contributes to the secure detection and response, the
Cybersecurity detection or prevention, management of actual performance of the
but rarely both Cybersecurity data proposed system in a live
Cybersecurity environment
may vary
[44] Feng et al. Integrates cyber-attack Existing approaches to Adapts anomaly detection Especially in a blockchain
(2023) detection directly within blockchain security algorithms specifically for context ensuring high
the blockchain framework may not provide blockchain transactions accuracy in detection
real-time detection and while minimizing these
response capabilities errors could be challenging
[45] Aurangzeb Integrating blockchain to Insufficient focus on Incorporates Quantum computing, and
et al.(2024) securely store and manage privacy-preserving privacy-preserving blockchain technology may
data within the storage solutions in techniques, offering a new introduce significant
Cybersecurity, with an Cybersecurity approach to secure data computational overhead
emphasis on privacy storage in Cybersecurity
preservation.
[46] Venkatesan Hybrid consensus Traditional consensus Hybrid consensus While hybrid consensus
et al. (2024) mechanisms that combine algorithms like Proof of algorithms that combine algorithms are designed to
elements to create a more Work (PoW) and Proof the strengths of existing be more secure, they
secure and efficient of Stake (PoS) have algorithms while might still be vulnerable to
blockchain inherent security mitigating their weaknesses new types of attacks or
vulnerabilities unforeseen security flaws
[47] Zkik et al. The integration of Integrates advanced AI Novel blockchain-based While blockchain provides
(2024) explainable AI with with blockchain consensus protocol robust security, its
blockchain technology technology designed specifically for scalability and efficiency
forms a cyber resilience online retail environments can be concerns, especially
framework that enhances in high-volume retail
the security and robustness environments
of online retail platforms

3.1.1. 51% attack

A 51% attack occurs when a malicious actor gains control of more than 50% of the network’s mining hash rate. This allows the
attacker to double-spend coins, halt transactions, and prevent new transactions from gaining confirmations [48].

3.1.2. Sybil attack

In a Sybil attack, the attacker creates multiple fake identities to gain a disproportionately large influence on the network. This
can undermine the network’s integrity and disrupt consensus mechanisms [49].

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Fig. 5. Blockchain Attack Vectors.

3.1.3. Phishing and social engineering

Phishing and social engineering attacks aim to deceive individuals into divulging private keys or sensitive information,
compromising their blockchain accounts and assets [50].

3.1.4. Smart contract vulnerabilities

Smart contracts are susceptible to coding errors and vulnerabilities, which can be exploited by attackers to manipulate contract
behavior or steal assets [50].

3.1.5. Double-spending attack

Double-spending involves spending the same cryptocurrency more than once. Attackers can exploit network latency and
confirmation time to double-spend transactions [51].

3.2. Mathematical models and functions

3.2.1. Game theory for 51% attack analysis

Game theory provides a framework for analyzing the strategic interactions between rational decision-makers, such as miners in
a blockchain network. It helps in understanding the incentives and potential outcomes of a 51% attack.
Mathematical Representation:
Consider a blockchain network where miners choose between honest mining (H) and attacking (A). The payoff matrix can be
represented as follows:
𝐻 𝐴
𝐻 (𝑅, 𝑅) (𝑆, 𝑇 )
𝐴 (𝑇 , 𝑆) (𝑃 , 𝑃 )
Where:

• 𝑅: Reward for both players mining honestly.

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• 𝑆: Sucker’s payoff for being honest while the other attacks.

• 𝑇 : Temptation to defect (attack).
• 𝑃 : Punishment for both players attacking.

3.2.2. Graph theory for sybil attack detection

Graph theory can be used to detect and prevent Sybil attacks by analyzing the structure of the network and identifying clusters
of nodes with suspiciously high connectivity.

Mathematical Representation:
A blockchain network can be represented as a graph 𝐺 = (𝑉 , 𝐸), where:

• 𝑉 is the set of vertices (nodes) representing participants.

• 𝐸 is the set of edges representing connections between nodes.

Key functions include:

• Clustering Coefficient: Measures the degree to which nodes in a graph tend to cluster together [52].
2𝑒(𝑣)
𝐶(𝑣) = (9)
𝑘(𝑣)(𝑘(𝑣) − 1)
Where 𝑒(𝑣) is the number of edges connecting the neighbors of 𝑣, and 𝑘(𝑣) is the degree of 𝑣.
• Eigenvector Centrality: Measures the influence of a node in a network [53].
1∑
𝑥𝑖 = 𝐴 𝑥 (10)
𝜆 𝑗 𝑖𝑗 𝑗

Where 𝜆 is a constant, 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the adjacency matrix, and 𝑥𝑗 is the centrality of node 𝑗.

3.2.3. Cryptographic hash functions for double-spending prevention

Cryptographic hash functions play a crucial role in ensuring the integrity and immutability of blockchain data, making it difficult
to alter transaction history and double-spend.

Mathematical Representation:

• Hash Function: A cryptographic hashing algorithm Function 𝐻 accepts an input 𝑥 and generates a string of bytes of a
predetermined size.

𝐻(𝑥) = ℎ (11)

• Merkle Tree: A binary tree is a tree structure where each leaf node represents a hash of a data block, and each non-leaf node
represents a hash of its child nodes [54].

𝑀𝑖 = 𝐻(𝑀𝑖−1 ∥ 𝑀𝑖+1 ) (12)

Where ∥ denotes concatenation.

3.2.4. Formal verification for smart contracts

Informal verification employs mathematical techniques to establish the accuracy of smart contracts, guaranteeing their intended
behavior and absence of vulnerabilities.

Mathematical Representation:

• Hoare Logic: A formal framework employed for the purpose of analytically determining the accuracy of computer pro-
grams [55]. A Hoare triple is a mathematical triple:

{𝑃 }𝐶{𝑄} (13)

Where 𝑃 is the precondition, 𝐶 is the command, and 𝑄 is the postcondition.

• Model Checking: Model verification is an automated method used to determine if a system model meets a specified
requirement.

𝑀 ⊧𝜑 (14)

Where 𝑀 is the model and 𝜑 is the specification.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 6. Cybersecurity Attacks on Digital Twins System.

4. An emerging cyberattack in digital twins

The incorporation of Digital Twin (DT) technology into different industrial and operational sectors has fundamentally transformed
the management, analysis, and optimization of systems [3]. Nevertheless, the complexity of Digital Twin technology also brings forth
novel weaknesses and cyber risks as shown in Fig. 6. This section analyzes the emerging cyber hazards specific to Digital Twins and
discusses the mathematical models and approaches essential for understanding and mitigating these risks [56]. Table 4 provides
an accessible overview of the strategies explored in the literature, the gaps they aim to fill, their unique contributions, and the
challenges they encounter, giving a clear picture of ongoing research efforts.

4.1. Types of cyberattacks in digital twins

Digital twins are transforming how we simulate and optimize real-world systems, but they also come with their share of risks.
Cyberattacks targeting these virtual replicas can disrupt operations, steal valuable data, or manipulate outcomes. Knowing the
different ways digital twins can be attacked helps us protect their potential and keep them secure.

4.1.1. Data manipulation attacks

A data manipulation attack occurs when an adversary modifies the data transmitted to or from the Digital Twin, resulting in
erroneous choices and actions based on inaccurate information [65].

4.1.2. Model inversion attacks

Model inversion attacks use output analysis of the Digital Twin models to retrieve sensitive information. This can cause private
data [66] or breach of proprietary algorithms.

4.1.3. Denial of service (DoS) attacks

Particularly targeted to threaten the availability of Digital Twin systems, Distributed Denial of Service (DoS) attacks thus impair
their correct operation and cause significant operational delays [67].

4.1.4. Spoofing attacks

Spoofing attacks refer to the act of an attacker impersonating a genuine entity within the Digital Twin ecosystem, so obtaining
unauthorized entry to confidential information or exercise of control over the system [68].

4.1.5. Integrity attacks

Integrity attacks refer to the deliberate manipulation of the data or model of a Digital Twin, resulting in inaccurate simulations
and forecasts that can ultimately have detrimental consequences in the real world [69].

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Table 4
Analysis and evaluation of research on Digital Twins and cybersecurity.
Title (Year) Approach Research gap Contribution Limitation
ELEGANT framework, Demonstrate how Innovative approach that Implementing digital twins
[57] Sousa et al. which leverages digital digital twins can offers real-time monitoring, for large-scale critical
(2021) twin technology to enhance the security anomaly detection, and infrastructures can be
enhance the security of and resilience of comprehensive security complex and
critical infrastructures critical infrastructures management resource-intensive
against cyber threats
[58] Varghese Leverages digital twin While digital twins are Novel framework that uses Achieving real-time
et al. (2022) technology to create a used in various digital twin technology to detection and response
virtual representation of industrial applications detect intrusions in ICS with minimal latency is
the physical components for optimization , their crucial in ICS
and processes of an ICS potential for enhancing environments
cybersecurity in ICS has
not been fully explored
[59] Qinyi et al. Utilizes digital twin Limited Cybersecurity Novel framework that uses Data synchronization
(2022) technology to create a Solutions for Satellite digital twin technology for between the physical
real-time virtual replica of Systems & runtime verification in satellite and its digital twin
satellite systems Underutilization of satellite systems
Digital Twins for
Satellite Security
[60] Khan et al. Utilizing a digital twin Underutilization of Novel Digital Twin-Based Accuracy and timeliness of
(2023) model of the distribution Digital Twins in Localization Framework to data synchronization
system, which serves as a Distribution System localize cyber attacks in between the physical
real-time, dynamic replica Security real-time within distribution system and its
of the physical distribution systems digital twin
infrastructure
[61] Balta et al. Leverages digital twin Cyber-physical Leveraging digital twins, Implementing digital twins
(2023) technology to create a manufacturing systems the paper contributes to in CPMS can be complex,
real-time virtual are increasingly the development of particularly in
representation of the targeted by real-time cyber-attack environments with diverse
physical manufacturing cyber-attacks detection capabilities and highly specialized
system machinery
[62] Alanezi The digital twins are Underutilization of Innovative IoT architecture Many IoT devices are
et al. (2024) integrated into the overall Digital Twins in IoT that leverages digital twin resource-constrained, with
IoT architecture, providing Security technology for enhanced limited processing power
a layer of cybersecurity cybersecurity and battery life
that operates alongside
other IoT functions
[63] The digital twin serves as While digital twins are Integrates digital twin Detecting cyber threats is
Fraser-Hevlin a real-time monitoring tool used in various technology with existing highly dependent on the
et al. (2024) for detecting cyber threats industrial applications, cybersecurity protocols, quality and timeliness of
and anomalies in their potential for offering a complementary the data fed into them
biomanufacturing systems enhancing cybersecurity tool that enhances the
in biomanufacturing is effectiveness of current
underexplored security measures
[64] Luzzi et al. Holistic framework that While digital twins are Holistic framework that Real-time predictions, the
(2024) integrates digital twins increasingly being used combines digital twins latency introduced by data
with advanced predictive in various industries, with advanced predictive processing and model
models their application in models simulations could be a
cybersecurity, significant challenge
particularly for
predicting cyberattacks,
is still emerging

4.2. Mathematical models and functions

4.2.1. Statistical models for data integrity

Statistical models play a vital role in safeguarding the integrity of the data utilized by Digital Twins. These models facilitate the
identification of anomalies and inconsistencies in data, suggesting possible manipulation [70].

Mathematical Representation:

• Z-Score:Quantifies the extent to which a data point deviates from the mean by standard deviations.
𝑋−𝜇
𝑍= (15)
𝜎

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Where 𝑋 is the data point, 𝜇 is the mean, and 𝜎 is the standard deviation.
• Control Charts: Used to monitor the quality and stability of processes.

𝑈 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋̄ + 𝑘𝜎 (16)

𝐿𝐶𝐿 = 𝑋̄ − 𝑘𝜎 (17)

Where 𝑈 𝐶𝐿 and 𝐿𝐶𝐿 are the upper and lower control limits, 𝑋̄ is the mean of the sample means, 𝜎 is the standard deviation,
and 𝑘 is the control limit factor.

4.2.2. Machine learning models for anomaly detection

Using machine learning models, anomalies in the behavior of Digital Twins can be identified, so indicating possible cyberattacks.

Mathematical Representation:

• Isolation Forest: An algorithm for anomaly detection based on isolated observations.

− 𝐸(ℎ(𝑥))
Anomaly Score(𝑥) = 2 𝑐(𝑛) (18)

Where 𝐸(ℎ(𝑥)) is the average path length of 𝑥 and 𝑐(𝑛) is a normalization factor.
• Autoencoders: A type of neural network used for learning efficient codings of data.

̂ 2
Reconstruction Error = ‖𝑥 − 𝑥‖ (19)

Where 𝑥 is the input and 𝑥̂ is the reconstructed input.

4.2.3. Cryptographic techniques for data security

Cryptographic algorithms guarantee the confidentiality and reliability of data transmitted between the tangible and virtual
elements of a Digital Twin.

Mathematical Representation:

• Symmetric Encryption: Uses the same key for encryption and decryption [71].

𝐶 = 𝐸𝑘 (𝑀) (20)

𝑀 = 𝐷𝑘 (𝐶) (21)

Where 𝑀 is the plaintext message, 𝐶 is the ciphertext, 𝑘 is the key, 𝐸 is the encryption function, and 𝐷 is the decryption
function.
• Public Key Cryptography: Uses a pair of keys, one for encryption and one for decryption [72].

𝐶 = 𝐸𝑘𝑝𝑢𝑏 (𝑀) (22)

𝑀 = 𝐷𝑘𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑣 (𝐶) (23)

Where 𝑘𝑝𝑢𝑏 is the public key, and 𝑘𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑣 is the private key.

4.3. Analysis of a data manipulation attack scenario in digital twins: A case study

To demonstrate the practical use of these mathematical models, let us examine a theoretical situation of data manipulation attack
on a Digital Twin employed in a manufacturing process [73].

Scenario Analysis:

• Statistical Models: UDeploy control charts to oversee the data acquired by the Digital Twin. Any data points outside the
control limits indicate potential manipulation.
• Machine Learning Detection: Deploy an Isolation Forest model to detect anomalies in the data stream, identifying potential
data manipulation attacks.
• Cryptographic Techniques: Implement symmetric and public key cryptography to secure the data exchange between the
physical system and the Digital Twin, ensuring data integrity.

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4.4. Digital twins for cyber threat simulation and mitigation

According to, Digital Twins (DTs) represent advanced integrated simulations that replicate real-world physical systems using
probabilistic models. In the context of cybersecurity, DTs offer virtual three-dimensional models that simulate various threat
scenarios prior to the implementation of actual security measures [74,75]. This capability is essential for supporting and maintaining
comprehensive cybersecurity frameworks. The ongoing development of DT technology positions it as a crucial tool for the future,
enabling the continuous monitoring, diagnosis, and prediction of cyber threats. There is significant potential for enhancing
cybersecurity strategies through the integration of DT and Blockchain within a secure virtual environment. Blockchain is used here
as a central framework to facilitate distributed and safe data transactions among several businesses [76]. Concurrent with this,
virtual environments allow cybersecurity professionals to make educated decisions early on, sufficiently identifying and mitigating
flaws before they are ever used. Gaining a thorough knowledge of the junction between DT, Blockchain, and virtual environments
in cybersecurity requires the construction of thorough mathematical models [77]. The highest performance and efficiency of these
advanced security systems depend on this approach.
The next part describes the expansion of models and the reasons behind including virtual environments, Blockchain, and Digital
Twin (DT) to strengthen cybersecurity systems:

1. The next part describes the expansion of models and reasons behind adding virtual environments, Blockchain, and Digital
Twin (DT) to strengthen cybersecurity systems: This tool facilitates the identification of possible security vulnerabilities by
cybersecurity experts prior to implementing functional security architectures [46, 79] [78,79].
2. Role of Stakeholders in Cybersecurity: The management of threat detection and response patterns within the network is
heavily reliant on stakeholders, particularly users who actively participate in cybersecurity efforts. Establishing trust between
users and cybersecurity entities is vital. The integration of Blockchain with DT models forms a cohesive network that enhances
security measures and transparency [80,81].
3. Convergence of DT and Blockchain in Virtual Environments: The integration of DT and Blockchain models is essential for
developing a virtual cybersecurity framework. This convergence allows design engineers and security professionals to analyze
potential future challenges in a controlled virtual environment [82,83]. In this virtual space, early diagnosis and simulations
provide a basis for accurate assessments and proactive measures, reducing the risk of security breaches in real-world networks.

5. Mathematical modeling

In the following section, we present a framework that provides a structured approach for achieving convergence among multiple
models to address diverse research challenges in cybersecurity. This section offers an exposition of the integration of various
convergence model topologies and their interactions within a cybersecurity framework. This serves as a foundation for readers
to make precise predictions regarding the appropriate model for each specific research challenge, as depicted in Table 1. The aim
is to equip readers with guidelines that facilitate the understanding and impartial comparison of diverse mathematical models and
their convergence, ultimately enabling the identification of the most suitable model within a cybersecurity framework.
A step-by-step mathematical formulation is as follows:

1. Initial Mathematical Formulation: Develop mathematical formulations to represent the DT replica models of various cyber-
security systems. These models are then incorporated into the broader cybersecurity infrastructure.
2. Blockchain Mathematical Models: Formulate Blockchain mathematical models for the integrated cybersecurity systems to
establish a reliable environment for secure, decentralized data transactions between entities.
3. Integration into Virtual Environments: Incorporate the aforementioned mathematical models into a virtual realm encompass-
ing the cybersecurity infrastructure. This technology enables security professionals and design engineers to effectively monitor
the network and promptly identify any instances of instability before deployment in real-world scenarios. This assists technical
professionals in developing a futuristic cybersecurity infrastructure that exhibits high reliability, efficiency, and security and
is capable of effectively managing various forms of instability the comprehensive framework of mathematical modeling.

5.1. Mathematical formulation for metaverse

The Metaverse represents a complex, multi-layered virtual environment where users interact through avatars and digital assets.
Mathematical models are essential for understanding and mitigating cyber threats within this dynamic and immersive space [84,85]
but also there are some limitations and delimitations as shown in Table 5. This section defines a mathematical formulation for the
Metaverse, incorporating various variables and parameters.

5.1.1. Mathematical model for metaverse security

• Consider a state vector 𝑉 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛 at time 𝑡, representing the virtual state of the Metaverse environment, with dimensions 𝑛𝑣 .
• Include a set of interaction variables 𝑖(𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑖 , representing user interactions and behaviors within the Metaverse.
• Assume that the virtual state of the Metaverse 𝑉 (𝑡) can be observed and influenced by interaction data 𝑖(𝑡) and environmental
factors 𝑒(𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑒 . The state can be expressed as 𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑖, 𝑒, 𝜖), where the function 𝑓 ∶ R𝑛𝑖 × R𝑛𝑒 × R𝑛𝜖 → R𝑛 maps interactions
and environmental factors to the virtual state, and 𝜖 represents measurement noise or error.

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Table 5
Constraints, scope, and future research challenges in Metaverse cybersecurity.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complexity and Scalability: The model’s Focus on Metaverse Environment: The Develop scalable algorithms and
high-dimensional state vectors and model is tailored specifically for Metaverse computational techniques for handling
interaction variables create computational dynamics, not extending to other virtual or high-dimensional data and interactions in
complexity, potentially limiting scalability physical environments. the Metaverse. Explore distributed
in large-scale Metaverse applications [86]. computing methods for optimization.
Data Quality and Noise: Model accuracy Defined Interaction Variables: The model Research adaptive AI and machine learning
depends heavily on high-quality interaction defines specific interaction variables and approaches for continuous monitoring and
data and environmental factors, with environmental factors, structuring adaptation to evolving cybersecurity threats
measurement noise impacting reliability cybersecurity within the Metaverse. in the Metaverse. Implement real-time data
[87]. validation and noise reduction strategies.
Dynamic and Evolving Threats: The Mathematical Assumptions: The model Conduct empirical validation across diverse
model may struggle to adapt quickly to new operates within defined theoretical Metaverse platforms to refine and optimize
cyber threats within the dynamic Metaverse boundaries based on mathematical cybersecurity effectiveness. Develop
environment [88]. assumptions about interactions and states. predictive analytics for dynamic
cybersecurity threats in the Metaverse.
Parameter Uncertainty: Uncertain model Specified Noise Representation: Investigate advanced statistical techniques
parameters 𝜃 can impact the accuracy of Incorporation of measurement noise 𝜖 and robust parameter estimation
virtual representations and cybersecurity acknowledges data inaccuracies, setting frameworks to improve the accuracy and
measures [89]. realistic expectations for model reliability of cybersecurity measures in the
performance. Metaverse. Develop methodologies for
adaptive parameter tuning and optimization.

• Define the mathematical formulation of the virtual representation of the Metaverse state as 𝑉̂ ∈  ⊂ R𝑛𝑣 , expressed through
a model 𝑚, such that 𝑉̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒), where 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃 × R𝑛𝑢 × R𝑛𝑒 → R𝑛𝑣 . This model depends on a set of uncertain parameters
𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , input parameters 𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 , and environmental variables 𝑒.

 ⊂  × R𝑛 (24)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) ↔ 𝑓 (𝑖, 𝑒, 𝜖) (25)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) → 𝑉̂ (26)

𝑓 (𝑖, 𝑒, 𝜖) → 𝑉 (27)

The correspondence between the virtual and physical representations of the Metaverse states 𝑉̂ and 𝑉 ∈  is denoted by the
double arrow.

5.1.2. Cybersecurity in the metaverse

For cybersecurity within the Metaverse, the formulation is adapted to include specific parameters and models to address cyber
threats.
𝑚𝐶𝑆𝑀 (𝜃, 𝑢, 𝜖) ↔ 𝑓𝐶𝑆𝑀 (𝑖, 𝑒, 𝜖) (28)
Where 𝑚𝐶𝑆𝑀 (𝜃, 𝑢, 𝜖) represents the model for cybersecurity states and 𝑓𝐶𝑆𝑀 (𝑖, 𝑒, 𝜖) represents the observed states influenced by
user interactions, environmental factors, and noise.

5.2. Mathematical formulation for digital twin

The mathematical model for a structural Digital Twin (DT) is designed to represent and analyze how structures behave, using a
range of variables and parameters. However, like any model, it has its boundaries and limitations, which are detailed in Table 6 to
help clarify what it covers and where it might fall short.

• The researchers considered a state vector 𝑆(𝑡) ∈ 𝐷 ⊂ R𝑛 at time 𝑡, which represents the physical structural performance of a
DT model, with dimensions 𝑛𝑠 .
• They then included a set of environmental variables 𝑒(𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑒 , representing the DT model’s environmental behaviors.
• The authors assumed that the physical structural performance of a DT model 𝑆(𝑡) can be represented during operation and
can also be observed using sensor measurements at any time 𝑡, i.e., 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤), where the measurement equation is
𝑑 ∶ R𝑛𝑒 × R𝑛𝑤 → 𝐷, and 𝑤 is an 𝑛𝑤 -dimensional measurement input vector representing the measurement error.
• Finally, they represented the mathematical formulation of the virtual representation of the structural DT model as 𝑆̂ ∈ 𝑀 ⊂ R𝑛𝑠 ,
defined through a model 𝑚, so that 𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒), with 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃 × R𝑛𝑢 × R𝑛𝑒 → R𝑛𝑠 . This depends on a set of uncertain model
parameters 𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , model input parameters 𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 , and the environmental vector 𝑒.

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Table 6
Limitations, delimitations, and future challenges of the mathematical models for Digital Twin in cybersecurity.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complexity in Real-Time Implementation Focus on Structural Performance Scalability and Computational
Techniques
Implementing real-time cybersecurity The cybersecurity model is designed Develop scalable algorithms and
measures for Digital Twins requires specifically for protecting structural computational techniques to handle
handling vast amounts of sensor data and performance data, taking into account high-dimensional data and interactions in
performing complex computations, which environmental behaviors and sensor Digital Twins. Explore distributed
can be resource-intensive and challenging to measurements to ensure secure digital computing methods and optimization
maintain [90]. representation of the physical entity. algorithms to improve scalability.
Data Integrity and Sensor Reliability Defined Environmental Variables Adaptive AI and Machine Learning
The integrity of the data and the reliability The model includes well-defined Research adaptive AI and machine learning
of the sensors are critical [91]. Any environmental variables 𝑒(𝑡), which help in approaches for continuous monitoring and
malfunction or inaccuracy in the sensors can creating a precise mathematical formulation adaptation to evolving cybersecurity threats
lead to incorrect cybersecurity measures and that accurately represents the structural in Digital Twins. Implement real-time data
vulnerabilities in the Digital Twin model. performance and enhances cybersecurity. validation and noise reduction strategies to
maintain model accuracy and reliability.
Adaptation to Changing Threats Mathematical Representation Empirical Validation and Predictive
Analytics
Adapting the model to new and evolving The mathematical formulation 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤) Conduct empirical validation across diverse
cyber threats can be challenging, requiring and 𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) ensures that the model Digital Twin platforms to refine and
continuous updates and recalibrations to remains focused on its structural optimize cybersecurity effectiveness.
maintain effective cybersecurity measures performance, providing a clear and Develop predictive analytics for dynamic
[92]. consistent framework for cybersecurity cybersecurity threats, ensuring the model
applications. stays relevant and effective.
Uncertain Parameters Specified Measurement Equation Advanced Statistical Techniques
The model depends on uncertain parameters The measurement equation 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤) is Investigate advanced statistical techniques
𝜃 and measurement input vector 𝑤, which specified to represent the relationship and robust parameter estimation
may not always be precisely estimated, between environmental factors and frameworks to improve the accuracy and
leading to potential cybersecurity measurement inputs, ensuring that the reliability of cybersecurity measures in
vulnerabilities. model’s cybersecurity performance is Digital Twins. Develop methodologies for
consistent and reliable. adaptive parameter tuning and optimization
to enhance model performance [93].

The authors constructed the physical structural model ‘m’ of a DT using data obtained from the physical entity, which can be
achieved through an artificial neural network. Based on the above mathematical modeling, the authors showed the DT structural
model, which can be written mathematically as follows for a certain context 𝐶:

𝐶 ⊂𝑀 ×𝐷 (29)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) ↔ 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤) (1) (30)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) → 𝑆̂ (2) (31)

𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤) → 𝑆 (3) (32)

̂ 𝑆 ∈ 𝐶 is denoted by the double
The correspondence between the physical and virtual representations of the structural states 𝑆,
arrow.
The mathematical definition of a DT, as shown in Ref. [20], allows for the straightforward creation of a replica model within a
cybersecurity context.

1. For Cybersecurity:

𝑚𝐶𝑆𝐹 (𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑤) ↔ 𝑑𝐶𝑆𝐹 (𝑒, 𝑤) (7) (33)

Where 𝑚𝐶𝑆𝐹 (𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑤) represents the physical states and 𝑑𝐶𝑆𝐹 (𝑒, 𝑤) represents the virtual states.

5.3. Mathematical formulation for blockchain

Blockchain technology, characterized by its decentralized and immutable ledger, is essential for maintaining data security and
integrity [94]. The mathematical formulation of Blockchain technology is crucial for comprehending its security mechanisms and
recognizing any flaws [95]. This section outlines that framework, incorporating key factors and features, with its limitations and
boundaries detailed in Table 7.

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Table 7
Challenges, boundaries, and future directions of mathematical models for blockchain security.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complexity and Computation Decentralization and Security Efficiency of Cryptographic Functions
The mathematical formulation of blockchain Blockchain technology is inherently Develop more efficient cryptographic
involves complex cryptographic functions decentralized, enhancing data security and algorithms and consensus mechanisms to
and consensus algorithms, requiring integrity through its distributed ledger reduce computational load and improve the
significant computational resources and system, which reduces the risk of a single speed of transactions. Explore lightweight
time, particularly for large networks. point of failure [96]. cryptographic techniques for
resource-constrained nodes.
Scalability Issues Immutable Ledger Blockchain Scalability Solutions
As the blockchain grows, the size of the Each block in the blockchain contains a Research and develop scalable blockchain
ledger increases, leading to scalability subset of transactions, a timestamp, a solutions such as sharding, off-chain
issues. Managing and storing an nonce, and the hash of the previous block, transactions, and sidechains to handle
ever-growing ledger can be challenging for creating an immutable ledger that ensures increasing ledger sizes and enhance
nodes with limited resources. data integrity and transparency [97]. performance.
Data Privacy Cryptographic Functions Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
While blockchain ensures data integrity, it Cryptographic hash functions and digital Develop privacy-enhancing technologies
may not inherently provide data privacy signatures are essential for ensuring data such as zero-knowledge proofs, confidential
[98]. Public blockchains expose transaction integrity and authenticity [99], providing a transactions, and private blockchains to
data, which can be a concern for sensitive robust security mechanism for blockchain protect sensitive data while maintaining
information. transactions. transparency and security [100].
Network Latency Secure Transactions Low-Latency Blockchain Protocols
The process of reaching consensus across a The use of digital signatures ensures the Research and develop low-latency
distributed network can introduce latency, authenticity and integrity of transactions, blockchain protocols and consensus
affecting the speed of transaction processing while cryptographic functions protect data mechanisms to enhance transaction
and the overall performance of the from tampering and unauthorized access processing speeds and overall network
blockchain [101]. [102]. performance [103].

5.3.1. Mathematical model for blockchain security

• Examine a collection of transactions 𝑇 = {𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , … , 𝑡𝑛 }, where each transaction 𝑡𝑖 encompasses data and metadata pertinent to
a particular event or action.
• Each block 𝐵𝑘 in the blockchain comprises a collection of transactions, a timestamp 𝜏𝑘 , a nonce 𝜂𝑘 , and the hash of the
preceding block 𝐻𝑘−1 .
• The state of the blockchain at any block 𝑘 can be represented by the state vector 𝑆𝑘 ∈ R𝑚 , with 𝑚 denoting the number of
parameters that define the blockchain state.
• The hash function 𝐻 is a cryptographic function that transforms data of any size into a fixed size. For a specific block 𝐵𝑘 , the
hash is calculated as follows:

𝐻(𝐵𝑘 ) = 𝐻(𝑡1 ‖ 𝑡2 ‖ … ‖ 𝑡𝑛 ‖ 𝜏𝑘 ‖ 𝜂𝑘 ‖ 𝐻𝑘−1 ) (34)

Where ∥ denotes concatenation.

• The consensus method guarantees that all nodes within the network concur on the present condition of the blockchain. In
Proof of Work (PoW), miners resolve a cryptographic challenge to propose a new block.

5.3.2. Cryptographic functions and consensus algorithms

• Hash Functions Blockchain technology depends much on hash algorithms since they guarantee data confidentiality and
integrity. They make it simple to find any changes in the data by turning it into a fixed-size hash since even a minor change
greatly alters the hash. This guarantees that blockchain blocks stay linkable and tamper-evident.

Cryptographic Hash Function: A cryptographic hash function 𝐻 ∶ {0, 1}∗ → {0, 1}𝑛 that maps an input 𝑥 to a fixed-size
output ℎ. This relationship can be expressed as:

ℎ = 𝐻(𝑥) (35)

With 𝑥 the input data and ℎ the resultant hash value. Designed to be one-way, cryptographic hash functions computa-
tionally cannot be reversed to find 𝑥 from ℎ.
Merkle Tree: A Merkle Tree is a binary tree data structure in which every non-leaf node is the hash of its two child
nodes—the nodes exactly below each other—while each leaf node is the hash of a data block. One expresses this
relationship as:

𝑀𝑖 = 𝐻(𝑀𝑖−1 ∥ 𝑀𝑖+1 ) (36)

where 𝑀𝑖 signifies a node in the tree, and ∥ indicates the concatenation of the hashes of the two child nodes. The highest
node, known as the Merkle root, signifies the hash of all transactions within the block, guaranteeing that every alteration
in the data leads to a modification of the Merkle root, hence facilitating efficient data integrity verification.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

• Digital Signatures: Digital signatures are cryptographic device meant to guarantee the integrity and validity of online
transactions. Signing a transaction with their private key generates a distinct signature connected to the sender as well as the
transaction content. Anyone with the sender’s public key can authenticate this signature, therefore attesting to authenticity —
that the sender made the transaction — and integrity — that the content has not been changed during transit.

Signature Generation: The digital signature 𝜎 is produced from a message 𝑚 using a private key 𝑘𝑝𝑟 .

𝜎 = 𝑆𝑘𝑝𝑟 (𝐻(𝑚)) (37)

Let 𝑆 denote the signature function and 𝐻(𝑚) represent the hash of the message.
Signature Verification: The authenticity is verified by the verification function 𝑉 using the public key 𝑘𝑝𝑢 , the message
𝑚, and the signature 𝜎.

𝑉𝑘𝑝𝑢 (𝜎, 𝐻(𝑚)) = true/false (38)

Let 𝑉 denote the verification function.

• Consensus Mechanisms Consensus methods are protocols employed in blockchain networks to guarantee that all nodes concur
on the present state of the blockchain. Due to the decentralized and distributed nature of blockchains, there is no central
authority to authenticate transactions. Consensus techniques, like as Proof of Work and Proof of Stake, facilitate unanimous
agreement among participants regarding the legitimacy of transactions and the overall condition of the blockchain.
Mathematical Representation:

Proof of Work (PoW): Miners find cryptographic puzzles by identifying a nonce 𝜂 that:

𝐻(𝐵𝑘 ) < target (39)

Where the objective is a value changing the puzzle’s difficulty.

Proof of Stake (PoS): Validators are chosen to propose new blocks based on the amount of cryptocurrency they hold
and are willing to ‘‘stake’’ as collateral.
𝑠
𝑃 (𝑣𝑖 ) = ∑𝑛 𝑖 (40)
𝑗=1 𝑠𝑗

Where 𝑃 (𝑣𝑖 ) is the probability of validator 𝑣𝑖 being chosen, and 𝑠𝑖 is the stake of validator 𝑣𝑖 .

6. Convergence of digital twins and metaverse

The convergence of Digital Twin (DT) and Metaverse technologies represents a transformative approach to developing robust
security frameworks for modern technological systems as shown in Fig. 7. By integrating these technologies, it is possible to
create comprehensive, immersive, and interactive environments that enhance cybersecurity measures [104,105]. However, like any
emerging concept, this integration comes with certain limitations and boundaries, as outlined in Table 8. This section explores the
mathematical formulation and benefits of converging DT and Metaverse technologies in cybersecurity.

6.1. Mathematical model for convergence

The integration of Digital Twins and the Metaverse can be represented through a unified mathematical model that combines the
state vectors, interaction variables, and environmental factors of both systems.

• Let 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 be the state vector of the Digital Twin at time 𝑡, representing the physical system’s performance with
dimensions 𝑛𝐷𝑇 .
• Let 𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑀𝑉 be the state vector of the Metaverse at time 𝑡, representing the virtual environment’s state with dimensions
𝑛𝑀𝑉 .
• Include a set of interaction variables 𝑖𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑖 , representing user interactions within the Metaverse.
• Assume that the physical state of the Digital Twin 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) and the virtual state of the Metaverse 𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) can be influenced by
environmental factors 𝑒(𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑒 . The state equations can be expressed as:

𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ) (41)

𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ) (42)

𝑛𝜖 𝑛𝜖
Where 𝑓𝐷𝑇 ∶ R 𝑛𝑒
× R 𝐷𝑇 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇
and 𝑓𝑀𝑉 ∶ × R𝑛𝑖 R𝑛𝑒
× R 𝑀𝑉 → R𝑛𝑀𝑉 map interactions and environmental factors to the
state vectors, and 𝜖𝐷𝑇 and 𝜖𝑀𝑉 represent measurement noise or error.

18
A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 7. Convergence of Metaverse & Digital twins system for Cybersecurity.

• Define the mathematical formulation of the integrated state as 𝑆̂ ∈  ⊂ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑀𝑉 , expressed through a model 𝑚, such that:

𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) (43)

Where 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃 × R𝑛𝑢 × R𝑛𝑒 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑀𝑉 . This model depends on a set of uncertain parameters 𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , input parameters
𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 , and environmental variables 𝑒.

 ⊂  × (R𝑛𝐷𝑇 × R𝑛𝑀𝑉 ) (44)

( )
𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) ↔ 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ) (45)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) → 𝑆̂ (46)

( )
𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ) → (𝑆𝐷𝑇 , 𝑉𝑀𝑉 ) (47)

̂ 𝑆𝐷𝑇 , and 𝑉𝑀𝑉 ∈  is denoted by the

The correspondence between the integrated and individual representations of the states 𝑆,
double arrow.

6.2. Benefits of convergence

6.2.1. Enhanced security testing and validation

The convergence of DT and Metaverse technologies enables comprehensive testing and validation of cybersecurity measures
within a controlled, virtual environment before any physical deployment. This proactive approach helps identify and mitigate
potential vulnerabilities early in the design and implementation phases.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Table 8
Constraints and scope of the integration of Digital Twins and Metaverse in cybersecurity.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complex Integration Enhanced Security Testing and Validation Interoperability Standards
Integrating Digital Twin and Blockchain The convergence enables comprehensive Develop interoperability standards to
technologies requires sophisticated testing and validation of cybersecurity facilitate seamless integration of Digital
algorithms and seamless data exchange, measures within controlled, virtual Twins and Blockchain technologies, ensuring
which can be complex to implement and environments before physical deployment, efficient data exchange and management.
maintain [106]. helping to identify and mitigate
vulnerabilities early.
Data Synchronization Challenges Realistic Simulation Environments Real-Time Data Synchronization
Ensuring real-time synchronization between Digital Twins provide real-time simulations Research methods for achieving real-time
the physical state of Digital Twins and the of physical systems, and Blockchain offers data synchronization between Digital Twins
blockchain can be challenging, especially secure and immutable data records, creating and Blockchain, ensuring accurate and
with high-frequency data updates [107]. realistic simulation environments for testing timely updates.
cybersecurity strategies.
Scalability Issues Adaptive and Resilient Cybersecurity Scalable Architecture Design
Models
Scaling the integrated model to The integration allows for the development Design scalable architectures that can
accommodate large-scale systems with of adaptive and resilient cybersecurity efficiently manage large-scale integrations of
numerous Digital Twins and extensive models that dynamically adjust to new and Digital Twins and Blockchain technologies,
Blockchain environments can be difficult unforeseen cyber threats, ensuring robust maintaining performance and reliability.
and may affect performance [108]. defenses.
Security and Privacy Concerns Comprehensive Threat Analysis Enhanced Security Protocols
The integration of Digital Twins and By combining Digital Twin monitoring data Develop enhanced security protocols to
Blockchain introduces new security and with Blockchain’s immutable records, the protect data integrity and privacy in the
privacy concerns, as the data exchanged integrated model enhances the overall integrated Digital Twin and Blockchain
between these systems could be susceptible security posture through comprehensive systems, mitigating potential cyber threats.
to cyber-attacks [109]. threat analysis and response strategies
[106].

6.2.2. Realistic simulation environments

Digital Twins provide accurate, real-time simulations of physical systems, while the Metaverse offers immersive and interactive
environments. Together, they create realistic simulation environments where cybersecurity professionals can develop and test
response strategies against complex cyber-attack scenarios.

6.2.3. Improved collaboration and training

The Metaverse offers a dynamic platform for cybersecurity professionals to collaborate, share knowledge, and train in an envi-
ronment that mirrors real-world operations [110]. This amplifies the efficacy of training methodologies and cultivates collaborative
resolution of problems.

6.2.4. Adaptive and resilient cybersecurity models

Integrating the interactive and immersive features of the Metaverse with the ongoing monitoring and simulation functionalities
of Digital Twins enables the development of adaptive and resilient cybersecurity models [111]. These models possess the capacity
to adjust to novel and unforeseen cyber threats, hence enhancing their defensive capabilities.

6.3. Case study: Integrated security framework

The following hypothetical scenario will help explain how these mathematical models work in the real world. Digital Twin and
Metaverse technologies, under an integrated security framework, are being used side by side in a smart manufacturing context.
Scenario Analysis:
The same analogy will be used to continuously monitor the physical state of industrial equipment using digital twins to determine
real-time abnormalities or cyber threats. Complex attack scenarios can be emulated in the Metaverse to efficiently train cybersecurity
professionals to respond to various types of threats. Develop an integrated model by interpreting the data obtained through
monitoring using digital twins in combination with Metaverse simulations for advanced security posture in the manufacturing
environment.

7. Convergence of digital twins and blockchain

The integration of Digital Twin (DT) and Blockchain technologies represents a significant advancement in developing robust
security frameworks for modern technological systems [112,113]. The integration of these technologies can enhance system
integrity, traceability, and real-time monitoring as shown in Fig. 8. However, this integration also comes with certain limitations
and boundaries, which are outlined in Table 9. This section analyzes the mathematical foundations and benefits of combining Deep
Learning (DL) with Blockchain technology in the field of cybersecurity.

20
A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 8. Convergence of Blockchain & Digital twins system for Cybersecurity.

7.1. Mathematical model for convergence

This paper proposes a mathematical model that combines the state vectors, transaction data, and security parameters of Digital
Twins and Blockchain to represent their integration.

• Let 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 be the state vector of the Digital Twin at time 𝑡, representing the physical system’s performance with
dimensions 𝑛𝐷𝑇 .
• Let 𝐵𝑘 be a block in the blockchain containing a set of transactions 𝑇𝑘 , a timestamp 𝜏𝑘 , a nonce 𝜂𝑘 , and the hash of the previous
block 𝐻𝑘−1 .
• Assume that the state of the Digital Twin 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) can be influenced by transaction data 𝑇𝑘 and environmental factors 𝑒(𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑒 .
The state equation can be expressed as:

𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑇𝑘 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ) (48)

Where 𝑓𝐷𝑇 ∶ R𝑛𝑇 × R𝑛𝑒 × R𝑛𝜖𝐷𝑇 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇 maps transactions and environmental factors to the state vector, and 𝜖𝐷𝑇 represents
measurement noise or error.
• Define the mathematical formulation of the integrated state as 𝑆̂ ∈  ⊂ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑇 , expressed through a model 𝑚, such that:

𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) (49)

Where 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃 × R𝑛𝑢 × R𝑛𝑒 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑇 . This model depends on a set of uncertain parameters 𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , input parameters 𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 ,
and environmental variables 𝑒.

 ⊂  × (R𝑛𝐷𝑇 × R𝑛𝑇 ) (50)

( )
𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) ↔ 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑇𝑘 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑇𝑘 (51)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒) → 𝑆̂ (52)

( )
𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑇𝑘 , 𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑇𝑘 → (𝑆𝐷𝑇 , 𝑇𝑘 ) (53)

̂ 𝑆𝐷𝑇 , and 𝑇𝑘 ∈  is denoted by the

The correspondence between the integrated and individual representations of the states 𝑆,
double arrow.

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Table 9
Scope and limitations of the convergence of Digital Twins and blockchain in cybersecurity.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complex Integration Enhanced Integrity and Traceability Interoperability Standards
Integrating Digital Twin and Blockchain The convergence enhances the integrity and Develop interoperability standards to
technologies requires sophisticated traceability of data by using Blockchain’s facilitate seamless integration of Digital
algorithms and seamless data exchange, immutable ledger to store and verify Digital Twins and Blockchain technologies, ensuring
which can be complex to implement and Twin transactions, ensuring data efficient data exchange and management.
maintain. authenticity [108].
Data Synchronization Challenges Real-Time Monitoring Real-Time Data Synchronization
Ensuring real-time synchronization between Digital Twins provide real-time monitoring Research methods for achieving real-time
the physical state of Digital Twins and the of physical systems, while Blockchain data synchronization between Digital Twins
transaction data on the Blockchain can be ensures secure and verifiable recording of and Blockchain, ensuring accurate and
challenging, especially with high-frequency all transactions, leading to improved system timely updates.
data updates. transparency.
Resource Intensive Decentralized Security Resource Optimization Techniques
The convergence requires substantial Blockchain’s decentralized nature enhances Investigate resource optimization techniques
computational resources and security by distributing data across multiple to manage the computational and
high-bandwidth communication channels to nodes, reducing the risk of centralized communication demands of integrating
handle the complex transactions and points of failure and ensuring robust Digital Twins and Blockchain technologies.
real-time data processing. defense mechanisms.
Scalability Issues Tamper-Proof Data Scalable Architecture Design
Scaling the integrated model to The immutability of Blockchain ensures that Design scalable architectures that can
accommodate large-scale systems with once data is recorded, it cannot be altered, efficiently manage large-scale integrations of
numerous Digital Twins and extensive providing tamper-proof records that Digital Twins and Blockchain technologies,
Blockchain transactions can be difficult and enhance the reliability of Digital Twin data. maintaining performance and reliability.
may affect performance.
Security and Privacy Concerns Auditability and Compliance Enhanced Security Protocols
The integration of Digital Twins and The convergence allows for enhanced Develop enhanced security protocols to
Blockchain introduces new security and auditability and compliance, as Blockchain’s protect data integrity and privacy in the
privacy concerns, as the data exchanged transparent ledger can be used to verify and integrated Digital Twin and Blockchain
between these systems could be susceptible audit Digital Twin operations, ensuring systems, mitigating potential cyber threats.
to cyberattacks. regulatory adherence.

8. Convergence of metaverse and blockchain

Metaverse and Blockchain technologies combining to create secure, immersive, and interactive environments is a revolutionary
approach [114]. The integration of these technologies has the potential to improve data integrity, user authentication, and
transaction security in virtual environments as shown in Fig. 9. However, it also presents certain challenges and limitations, which
are outlined in Table 10. This section analyzes the mathematical framework and benefits of integrating Metaverse and Blockchain
technology within cybersecurity.

8.1. Mathematical model for convergence

The combination of Metaverse with Blockchain can be portrayed using a unified mathematical model combining security
parameters, interaction data, and state vectors.

• Let 𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑀𝑉 denote the state vector of the Metaverse at time 𝑡, encapsulating the state of the virtual environment with
dimensions 𝑛𝑀𝑉 .
• Let 𝐵𝑘 denote a block in the blockchain with a collection of transactions 𝑇𝑘 , a timestamp 𝜏𝑘 , a nonce 𝜂𝑘 , and the hash of the
preceding block 𝐻𝑘−1 .
• Assume that the condition of the Metaverse 𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) can be affected by interaction data 𝑖𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) and transaction data 𝑇𝑘 . The
state equation may be articulated as:

𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ) (54)

𝑛𝜖
Where 𝑓𝑀𝑉 ∶ R𝑛𝑖 ×R𝑛𝑇
×R → R𝑛𝑀𝑉
maps interactions and transactions to the state vector, and 𝜖𝑀𝑉 represents measurement
𝑀𝑉

noise or error.
• Define the mathematical formulation of the integrated state as 𝑉̂ ∈  ⊂ R𝑛𝑀𝑉 +𝑛𝑇 , expressed through a model 𝑚, such that:

𝑉̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) (55)

Where 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃× R𝑛𝑢

× R𝑛𝑖
× → R𝑛𝑇 R𝑛𝑀𝑉 +𝑛𝑇
. This model depends on a set of uncertain parameters 𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , input parameters
𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 , interaction data 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , and transaction data 𝑇𝑘 .

 ⊂  × (R𝑛𝑀𝑉 × R𝑛𝑇 ) (56)

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Fig. 9. Convergence of Metaverse & Blockchain for Cybersecurity.

Table 10
Challenges and boundaries of integrating Metaverse and blockchain in the context of cybersecurity.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complex Integration Enhanced Data Integrity Interoperability Standards
Integrating Metaverse and Blockchain The convergence enhances data integrity by Develop interoperability standards to
technologies requires sophisticated using Blockchain’s immutable ledger to facilitate seamless integration of Metaverse
algorithms and seamless data exchange, store and verify transactions within the and Blockchain technologies, ensuring
which can be complex to implement and Metaverse, ensuring data authenticity. efficient data exchange and management.
maintain.
Data Synchronization Challenges Secure User Authentication Real-Time Data Synchronization
Ensuring real-time synchronization between Blockchain provides secure user Research methods for achieving real-time
the virtual state of the Metaverse and the authentication within the Metaverse, data synchronization between the Metaverse
transaction data on the Blockchain can be leveraging cryptographic techniques to and Blockchain, ensuring accurate and
challenging, especially with high-frequency verify user identities and transactions. timely updates.
data updates.
Resource Intensive Improved Transaction Security Resource Optimization Techniques
The convergence requires substantial Blockchain enhances transaction security Investigate resource optimization techniques
computational resources and within the Metaverse, ensuring that all to manage the computational and
high-bandwidth communication channels to transactions are secure, verifiable, and communication demands of integrating
handle the complex transactions and tamper-proof. Metaverse and Blockchain technologies.
real-time data processing.
Scalability Issues Enhanced Transparency Scalable Architecture Design
Scaling the integrated model to The transparency of Blockchain ensures that Design scalable architectures that can
accommodate large-scale virtual all transactions within the Metaverse are efficiently manage large-scale integrations of
environments with extensive Blockchain publicly verifiable, enhancing trust and Metaverse and Blockchain technologies,
transactions can be difficult and may affect accountability. maintaining performance and reliability.
performance.
Security and Privacy Concerns Auditability and Compliance Enhanced Security Protocols
The integration of Metaverse and The convergence allows for enhanced Develop enhanced security protocols to
Blockchain introduces new security and auditability and compliance, as Blockchain’s protect data integrity and privacy in the
privacy concerns, as the data exchanged transparent ledger can be used to verify and integrated Metaverse and Blockchain
between these systems could be susceptible audit Metaverse activities, ensuring systems, mitigating potential cyber threats.
to cyber-attacks. regulatory adherence.

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Table 11
Scope and limitations of the convergence of Digital Twins, Metaverse, and blockchain from a cybersecurity perspective.
Limitations Delimitations Future research challenges
Complex Integration Enhanced Data Integrity and Security Interoperability Standards
Integrating Digital Twin, Metaverse, and The convergence enhances data integrity Develop interoperability standards to
Blockchain technologies requires and security by using Blockchain’s facilitate seamless integration of Digital
sophisticated algorithms and seamless data immutable ledger to store and verify Twins, Metaverse, and Blockchain
exchange, which can be complex to transactions, ensuring data authenticity and technologies, ensuring efficient data
implement and maintain. protection. exchange and management.
Data Synchronization Challenges Real-Time Monitoring and Interaction Real-Time Data Synchronization
Ensuring real-time synchronization between Digital Twins provide real-time monitoring Research methods for achieving real-time
the physical state of Digital Twins, the of physical systems, while the Metaverse data synchronization between Digital Twins,
virtual state of the Metaverse, and the offers interactive environments, and Metaverse, and Blockchain, ensuring
transaction data on the Blockchain can be Blockchain ensures secure transaction accurate and timely updates.
challenging, especially with high-frequency recording, creating a comprehensive,
data updates. real-time interactive system.
Scalability Issues Adaptive and Resilient Cybersecurity Scalable Architecture Design
Models
Scaling the integrated model to The integration allows for the development Design scalable architectures that can
accommodate large-scale systems with of adaptive and resilient cybersecurity efficiently manage large-scale integrations of
numerous Digital Twins, extensive models that dynamically adjust to new and Digital Twins, Metaverse, and Blockchain
Metaverse environments, and Blockchain unforeseen cyber threats, ensuring robust technologies, maintaining performance and
transactions can be difficult and may affect defenses. reliability.
performance.
Security and Privacy Concerns Enhanced Auditability and Compliance Enhanced Security Protocols
The integration of Digital Twins, Metaverse, The convergence allows for enhanced Develop enhanced security protocols to
and Blockchain introduces new security and auditability and compliance, as Blockchain’s protect data integrity and privacy in the
privacy concerns, as the data exchanged transparent ledger can be used to verify and integrated Digital Twins, Metaverse, and
between these systems could be susceptible audit activities within Digital Twins and Blockchain systems, mitigating potential
to cyber-attacks. Metaverse environments, ensuring cyber threats.
regulatory adherence.

( )
𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) ↔ 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ), 𝑇𝑘 (57)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) → 𝑉̂ (58)

( )
𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ), 𝑇𝑘 → (𝑉𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) (59)

The correspondence between the integrated and individual representations of the states 𝑉̂ , 𝑉𝑀𝑉 , and 𝑇𝑘 ∈  is denoted by the
double arrow.

9. Convergence of metaverse, blockchain and digital twins

Blockchain, Metaverse, and Digital Twin (DT) technologies taken together offer a revolutionary way to improve cybersecurity
systems. By including these technologies, one may create interactive, thorough, safe environments guaranteed to maintain strong
data integrity, real-time monitoring, and improved user authentication. The mathematical formulation and advantages of including
Digital Twins, Metaverse, and Blockchain technologies inside cybersecurity are examined in this part. The mathematical framework
supporting the combination of these technologies, along with their benefits and boundaries, is explored in this section, with specific
limitations outlined in Table 11, and their appropriate convergence is listed in Table 12.

9.1. Mathematical model for convergence

Blockchain, Metaverse, and Digital Twins can be represented using a complete mathematical model. State vectors, interaction
data, transaction data, and security criteria are included in this model.

• Let 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 be the state vector of the Digital Twin at time 𝑡, indicating the physical system’s performance in dimensions
𝑛𝐷𝑇 .
• Let 𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) ∈ R𝑛𝑀𝑉 be the Metaverse’s state vector at time 𝑡, expressing the virtual environment’s state with dimensions 𝑛𝑀𝑉 .
• Let 𝐵𝑘 be a block in the blockchain containing a set of transactions 𝑇𝑘 , a timestamp 𝜏𝑘 , a nonce 𝜂𝑘 , and the preceding block’s
hash 𝐻𝑘−1 .

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Table 12
Appropriate convergence model for relevant research problems in cybersecurity.
Convergence RP1 RP2 RP3 RP4 RP5 RP6 RP7 RP8
model
Digital Twins 3 3 3 7 3 3 3 3
Real-time Network Identify Not relevant Parameter Recovery Failure Opera-
fault vulnerability critical optimization time simulation tional cost
detection analysis points prediction monitoring
Metaverse 7 7 7 7 3 7 7 7
Not Not applicable Not Not applicable Virtual Not Not Not
applicable applicable environment applicable applicable applicable
optimization
Blockchain 7 3 7 3 7 7 7 3
Not Secure Not Decentralized Not applicable Not Not Immutable
applicable transaction applicable secure trading applicable applicable cost
logging tracking
DT + MV 3 7 3 7 3 3 3 7
Enhanced Not applicable Critical Not applicable SG parameter Enhanced Advanced Not
fault node iden- optimization recovery failure applicable
detection tification simulation assessment
DT + BC 3 3 3 7 7 3 3 3
Secure and Accurate and Secure Not applicable Not applicable Secure Secure Cost-
real-time secure critical recovery failure effective
fault network loss point iden- time assessment monitoring
detection estimation tification prediction
MV + BC 7 3 7 3 3 7 7 3
Not Secure and Not Decentralized Optimized Not Not Cost-
applicable transparent applicable and secure virtual applicable applicable efficient
transactions trading parameters optimiza-
tion
DT + MV + 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
BC
Compre- Holistic and Complete Secure trading Optimal and Efficient Complete Overall
hensive secure critical and secure SG recovery failure cost opti-
fault network loss node iden- interaction parameter computa- assessment mization
detection estimation tification tuning tion

• Assume that interaction data 𝑖𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) and transaction data 𝑇𝑘 can alter the state of the Digital Twin 𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) and the virtual state
of the Metaverse. State equations can be represented as follows:

𝑆𝐷𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ) (60)

𝑉𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ) (61)

𝑛𝜖 𝑛𝜖
Where 𝑓𝐷𝑇 ∶ R𝑛𝑒
× R 𝐷𝑇 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇
and 𝑓𝑀𝑉 ∶ × R𝑛𝑖
× R 𝑀𝑉 → R𝑛𝑇 R𝑛𝑀𝑉
map environmental factors and transactions to the
state vectors, and 𝜖𝐷𝑇 and 𝜖𝑀𝑉 represent measurement noise or error.
• Define the mathematical formulation of the integrated state as 𝑆̂ ∈  ⊂ R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑀𝑉 +𝑛𝑇 , expressed through a model 𝑚, such
that:

𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) (62)

Where 𝑚 ∶ R𝑛𝜃 × R𝑛𝑢 × R𝑛𝑒 × R𝑛𝑖 × R𝑛𝑇 → R𝑛𝐷𝑇 +𝑛𝑀𝑉 +𝑛𝑇 . This model depends on a set of uncertain parameters 𝜃 ∈ R𝑛𝜃 , input
parameters 𝑢 ∈ R𝑛𝑢 , environmental variables 𝑒, interaction data 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , and transaction data 𝑇𝑘 .

 ⊂  × (R𝑛𝐷𝑇 × R𝑛𝑀𝑉 × R𝑛𝑇 ) (63)

( )
𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) ↔ 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ), 𝑇𝑘 (64)

𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒, 𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) → 𝑆̂ (65)

( )
𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷𝑇 ), 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 , 𝜖𝑀𝑉 ), 𝑇𝑘 → (𝑆𝐷𝑇 , 𝑉𝑀𝑉 , 𝑇𝑘 ) (66)

̂ 𝑆𝐷𝑇 , 𝑉𝑀𝑉 , and 𝑇𝑘 ∈  is denoted by

The correspondence between the integrated and individual representations of the states 𝑆,
the double arrow.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

10. Integrating all models in a metaverse environment

Ultimately, the Metaverse equation will be utilized to amalgamate all these formulations into a cohesive Metaverse environment.
This will result in the creation of a virtual architecture that is secure and resilient. The equation may be articulated as:

 =  + 𝜄 (67)

where:

•  represents the integrated Metaverse world.

•  symbolizes the Real World state or components.
•  represents the Virtual World state or components.
• 𝜄 is a coefficient or operator defining the influence or mapping between the real and virtual worlds.

11. Explanation of convergence models for relevant research problems

In the framework of Cybersecurity (SGs), this part offers a discussion of the suitable convergence models for different research
problems (RPs). The following constitute the research challenges:
The proper convergence models for several study subjects in the field of cybersecurity in smart grids (SGs) are explored in this
part. The following are the research questions tackled: RP1 means early identification of system defects to prevent later issues. RP2
concentrates on network loss computation in order to boost efficiency. RP3 is focused in spotting important network nodes that,
should they be disrupted, could have significant effects. RP4 wants to enable distributed peer-to-peer energy trading. RP5 is focused
on using simulation to maximize virtual environment cybersecurity parameters. RP6 is mostly concerned in determining the time
required for network recovery after disruptions. RP7 seeks to lower running and maintenance costs while looking at cascade failures
that might strike the network at any point.

11.1. Digital twins (DT)

State vectors help direct current (DT) models to depict external influences and physical system performance. These models could
use present data to predict and replicate various possibilities.

• RP1: Early Fault Diagnosis -✓

𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤), Emphasizing Early Fault Diagnosis, RP1 uses the model 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑑(𝑒, 𝑤). By means of real-time sensor data against
expected performance, the state vector 𝑆(𝑡) helps early identification of anomalies or failures. Early detection of the anomalies
made possible by this helps the system to solve possible issues before they become worse.
• RP2: Estimating Network Losses - ✓
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓 𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷 𝑇 ), RP2 computes network losses applying the model 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, ). This model uses Digital Twin (DT)
methods to estimate network losses by analyzing system interaction with surroundings and performance data evaluation. This
method lets estimations of network losses be more exact.
• RP3: Critical Nodes Identification - ✓
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓 𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷 𝑇 ), RP3 uses the model 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, ) to focus on identifying significant nodes. This model identifies
vulnerable or high-impact sites inside the network through state vector analysis. Identifying these critical nodes enhances
the system’s ability to mitigate disturbances that could have significant consequences.
• RP4: Decentralized Energy Trading - ×
RP4, focused on Decentralized Energy Trading, has no direct relevance to Digital Twin (DT) principles. This is due to its
emphasis on economic transactions rather than monitoring the physical condition of the system.
• RP5: Optimization of SG Parameters in Virtual Environment - ✓
𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒), RP5 improves Smart Grid (SG) parameters inside a virtual framework employing the model 𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒). Digital
Twins (DT) can augment these characteristics by doing virtual simulations and assessing environmental variables, resulting in
enhanced performance and adaptability in real-world scenarios.
• RP6: Computation of Network Recovery Time - ✓
𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓 𝐷𝑇 (𝑇 𝑘, 𝑒, 𝜖𝐷 𝑇 ), RP6 centers on the computation of network recovery time, employing the model 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑇𝑘 , 𝑒).
Digital Twins (DT) simulate network disruptions to forecast recovery durations by assessing the rate at which the state vector
normalizes. This facilitates the prediction of the duration required for the system to recuperate following an interruption.
• RP7: Cascading Failure Assessment in SGs - ✓
Model: 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓 𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, 𝜖𝐷 𝑇 )
RP7 examines the Cascading Failure Assessment in Smart Grids (SGs) utilizing the model 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝑓𝐷𝑇 (𝑒, ). Digital Twins (DT)
can simulate and assess the consequences of cascading failures by examining how changes in one state vector affect others
within the network. This explains how a failure in one component of the system may cause further disturbances.
• RP8: Cost Optimization - ✓
Model: 𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒)
RP8 maximizes costs using the model𝑆̂ = 𝑚(𝜃, 𝑢, 𝑒). Digital Twins (DT) can track and optimize operational costs by means of
parameter setting analysis. This approach helps to uncover cost-cutting options and maintains perfect system performance.

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11.2. Metaverse (MV)

The Metaverse (MV) is the creation of interactive and immersive virtual reality replicas of real-world environments. It is not
directly relevant to RP1, RP2, RP3, RP4, RP6, RP7, or RP8, as these research topics pertain to physical systems or transaction-based
challenges rather than the optimization of virtual environments. Nonetheless, for RP5, which concentrates on the Optimization of
Smart Grid (SG) Parameters within a Virtual Environment, MV may prove beneficial. The model 𝑉 𝑀𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑓𝑀𝑉 (𝑖𝑀𝑉 , 𝑒) enables
MV to create a virtual environment for testing various setups and interactions, hence facilitating the effective optimization of SG
parameters.

11.3. Blockchain (BC)

Blockchain employs cryptographic functions and consensus procedures to guarantee data security and integrity.

• RP1: Early Fault Diagnosis - ×

RP1, which emphasizes Early Fault Diagnosis, is not directly relevant to Blockchain. This is due to the fact that Blockchain
primarily focuses on safeguarding transactions rather than identifying system flaws.
• RP2: Estimating Network Losses - ✓
𝐻(𝐵𝑘) = 𝐻(𝑡1‖𝑡2‖...‖𝑡𝑛‖𝜏𝑘 ‖𝜂𝑘 ‖𝐻𝑘−1 ), RP2, which centers on Estimating Network Losses, employs a model in which Blockchain
is crucial. Blockchain facilitates the safe logging and storage of network loss data, ensuring the accuracy of records and their
resistance to tampering. This guarantees that all data remains reliable and safeguarded against unwanted alterations.
• RP3: Critical Nodes Identification - ×
RP3, concerning Critical Nodes Identification, is inapplicable to Blockchain. Blockchain does not directly manage or pertain
to physical network architectures.
• RP4: Decentralized Energy Trading - ✓
𝑠
𝑃 (𝑣𝑖 ) = ∑𝑛 𝑖 𝑠 , RP4, addressing Decentralized Energy Trading, utilizes Blockchain technology to enable secure and transparent
𝑗=1 𝑗
peer-to-peer energy transactions. The model delineates the mechanism of energy exchange among participants. In this
configuration, smart contracts facilitate the automation and enforcement of the energy trading agreements. These contracts
guarantee that all transactions are executed transparently, eliminating the necessity for middlemen, while preserving security
and confidence between the trading entities. Blockchain ensures that each transaction is recorded permanently, so prohibiting
fraud or manipulation.
• RP5: Optimization of model Parameters in Virtual Environment - ×
RP5, which focuses on the Optimization of Model Security in a Virtual Environment, is not directly applicable to Blockchain.
Blockchain is more focused on securing transactions rather than optimizing or securing models within a virtual environment.
• RP6: Computation of Network Recovery Time - ×
RP6, pertaining to the Computation of Network Recovery Time, is inapplicable to Blockchain. Blockchain does not directly
manage the computation of recovery durations, as its principal emphasis lies on transaction security and data integrity rather
than system recovery procedures.
• RP7: Cascading Failure Assessment in Model Security - ×
RP7, which addresses Cascading Failure Assessment in model security, is inapplicable to Blockchain. Blockchain does not
explicitly replicate or analyze system failures; its primary job is to maintain secure transactions and data integrity, rather than
to solve model security or failure evaluations.
• RP8: Cost Optimization - ✓
Model: 𝐻(𝐵𝑘) = 𝐻(𝑡1‖𝑡2‖...‖𝑡𝑛‖𝜏𝑘 ‖𝜂𝑘 ‖𝐻𝑘−1 ), RP8, which emphasizes Cost Optimization, employs the model. The immutable
ledger of blockchain guarantees transparent and precise cost tracking. Blockchain ensures a secure and immutable record of
each transaction or expense, facilitating effective cost monitoring and optimization.

11.4. Combined models

By integrating Digital Twins (DT), the Metaverse (MV), and Blockchain (BC), we can leverage their distinct advantages to deliver
holistic solutions to diverse difficulties.
DT + MV

• RP1, RP3, RP5, RP6, RP7 - ✓

Combining Digital Twins (DT) with the Metaverse (MV) this concept improves system capabilities like early failure detection,
critical node identification, and parameter optimization. Strong simulation environments of MV well complement DT’s
ability to provide real-time data, therefore enabling virtual environment testing and enhancement of system reactions and
performance.
• RP2, RP4, RP8 - ×
The combination is not appropriate for these problems because of its focus on transaction management and cost efficiency,
which are not the main advantages of real-time data and simulations provided by DT and MV.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

DT + BC

• RP1, RP2, RP3, RP6, RP7, RP8 - ✓

The integration of Digital Twins (DT) with Blockchain (BC) ensures real-time data precision and safe information management.
While blockchain assures system integrity and data protection, digital twins allow for exact data collecting.
• RP4, RP5 - ×
These problems do not fit very nicely with this mix since they center more on managing distributed transactions and optimizing
virtual environments, which are not immediately handled by the capabilities of DT and BC taken together.

MV + BC

• RP2, RP4, RP5, RP8 - ✓

When combined, blockchain (BC) and metaverse (MV) offer safe transactions and efficient virtual environment management.
While BC ensures the security of all communications and transactions,
• RP1, RP3, RP6, RP7 - ×
These research questions are not appropriate for this mix because they focus on system operations and physical monitoring,
areas where MV and BC together do not provide direct answers.

DT + MV + BC

• RP1 to RP8 - ✓
This combination provides comprehensive solutions, including Digital Twins (DT) for real-time monitoring, the Metaverse
(MV) for immersive simulations, and Blockchain (BC) for secure transactions. They deliver robust and flexible answers for
each study subject by addressing all aspects of system performance, security, and optimization.

12. Discussion and conclusion

The integration of many models has resulted in major improvements to the cybersecurity architecture of modern technology
ecosystems. This study examined the intersection of the Digital Twins (DT), Metaverse (MV), and Blockchain (BC) paradigms to
determine their impact on cybersecurity concerns and solutions. A thorough analysis was performed, which included an in-depth
examination of mathematical models connected to these convergent technologies. The document included thorough tables and
demonstrations that demonstrated the efficacy of these approaches in tackling specific cybersecurity challenges. As a result, we
created a representation that exactly replicates real-world behavior, so improving our knowledge of complicated cybersecurity
dynamics inside models of Digital Twins, Metaverse, and Blockchain convergence.
Future research will concentrate on many critical areas to develop cybersecurity frameworks by leveraging the convergence
of Metaverse, Blockchain, and Digital Twin technology. A key focus is on establishing scalable methods to satisfy the computing
demands of integrating various technologies, particularly in large-scale Metaverse contexts. Establishing interoperability standards
is critical for ensuring smooth data transmission and communication across these various systems. AI and machine learning will be
further investigated to improve threat prediction, anomaly identification, and automated response systems.
Furthermore, real-world validation through longitudinal and case studies will be required to assess the efficacy of these integrated
frameworks in reducing new cyber threats. To strike a balance between security and user privacy, research on privacy-enhancing
technology is required. Advanced mathematical models will continue to be developed, with the goal of capturing the complex
dynamics of cyber threats and system interactions within these integrated ecosystems. Finally, to improve security and transparency,
researchers will look into hybrid consensus methods for Blockchain and the incorporation of explainable AI in cybersecurity
decision-making.
The objective of our study was to provide substantial insights into the functions of these models, hence assisting in the resolution
of cybersecurity challenges and the selection of suitable solutions. While our analysis mainly focused on mathematical modeling,
we anticipate that our findings and methodologies will inspire more practical applications and research initiatives in this rapidly
evolving domain.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Ongoing Research Funding Program (ORF-2025-250), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia and partially supported by FRSG, NUCES.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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A. Ahmad et al. Computers and Electrical Engineering 126 (2025) 110486

Adil Ahmad is a Data Scientist and Computer Science Lecturer at NUML, specializing in machine learning, deep learning, NLP, and AI. He holds an MS in Data
Science and has worked at NCAI and the University of South-Eastern Norway, focusing on predictive modeling and industrial ML challenges to enhance safety
and efficiency.

Anwar Shah is an Assistant Professor at the National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Pakistan. He earned his Ph.D. in 2021 and actively
publishes in top academic journals. His research interests span three-way clustering, deep learning, rough sets, blockchain, the metaverse, cybersecurity, and
image processing, reflecting his strong commitment to impactful research and education.

Waleed S. Alnumay received his bachelor’s degree and master’s degree in computer science domain, from King Saud University and the University of Atlanta,
USA, and his Ph.D. degree in computer science from Oklahoma University, USA, in 2004. He is currently working as an Associate Professor at King Saud
University. His main research interests include AI, computer networks, distributed computing, and information-centric networking.

Muhammad Adnan is an Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering at FAST NUCES, CFD Campus. He earned his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the
same university, where he was also a Research Fellow. His research focuses on energy management, load forecasting, power system stability, protection, and
intelligent control in renewable energy using fuzzy and unified power flow controllers.

Sajid Anwer is an Assistant Professor of Software Engineering at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. He holds degrees from COMSATS,
KFUPM, and Griffith University. Previously, he taught at FAST-NUCES and KFUPM. His research interests include global software engineering, requirements
engineering, behavior engineering, and software security.

Qamar Uz Zaman is an Assistant Professor of Software Engineering at FAST NUCES, CFD Campus. He holds an M.S. from UET Taxila and a Ph.D. from CUST
Islamabad. With prior teaching roles at CUST and COMSATS, his research focuses on requirements engineering, formal methods, and software testing, reflecting
his dedication to advancing software development through teaching and research.

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