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DMU’s Interdisciplinary research Group in Intelligent Transport Systems, (DIGITS)

Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Media

Multi-objective Optimization in Traffic

Signal Control

Supervisor:
Author: Prof. Yingjie Yang
Phuong Thi Mai Nguyen Dr. Benjamin Passow
Dr. Lipika Deka

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

August 2019
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Abstract
Traffic Signal Control systems are one of the most popular Intelligent Transport Sys-
tems and they are widely used around the world to regulate traffic flow. Recently,
complex optimization techniques have been applied to traffic signal control systems to
improve their performance. Traffic simulators are one of the most popular tools to eval-
uate the performance of a potential solution in traffic signal optimization. For that
reason, researchers commonly optimize traffic signal timing by using simulation-based
approaches. Although evaluating solutions using microscopic traffic simulators has sev-
eral advantages, the simulation is very time-consuming.

Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEAs) are in many ways superior to tra-

ditional search methods. They have been widely utilized in traffic signal optimization
problems. However, running MOEAs on traffic optimization problems using microscopic
traffic simulators to estimate the effectiveness of solutions is time-consuming. Thus,
MOEAs which can produce good solutions at a reasonable processing time, especially
at an early stage, is required. Anytime behaviour of an algorithm indicates its ability
to provide as good a solution as possible at any time during its execution. Therefore,
optimization approaches which have good anytime behaviour are desirable in evaluation
traffic signal optimization. Moreover, small population sizes are inevitable for scenarios
where processing capabilities are limited but require quick response times. In this work,
two novel optimization algorithms are introduced that improve anytime behaviour and
can work effectively with various population sizes.

NS-LS is a hybrid of Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) and a

local search which has the ability to predict a potential search direction. NS-LS is
able to produce good solutions at any running time, therefore having good anytime
behaviour. Utilizing a local search can help to accelerate the convergence rate, however,
computational cost is not considered in NS-LS. A surrogate-assisted approach based on
local search (SA-LS) which is an enhancement of NS-LS is also introduced. SA-LS uses
a surrogate model constructed using solutions which already have been evaluated by a
traffic simulator in previous generations.

NS-LS and SA-LS are evaluated on the well-known Benchmark test functions: ZDT1 and
ZDT2, and two real-world traffic scenarios: Andrea Costa and Pasubio. The proposed
algorithms are also compared to NSGA-II and Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm
based on Decomposition (MOEA/D). The results show that NS-LS and SA-LS can ef-
fectively optimize traffic signal timings of the studied scenarios. The results also confirm
that NS-LS and SA-LS have good anytime behaviour and can work well with different
population sizes. Furthermore, SA-LS also showed to produce mostly superior results
as compared to NS-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisory team Prof. Yingjie Yang,
Dr. Benjamin N. Passow and Dr. Lipika Deka who provided unstinting support with
their insights, expertise, and valuable comments. Without their encouragement and
support, this thesis would not have been completed on a limited time frame. Especially,
I would like to expand deepest thank to my dedicated supervisor Dr. Benjamin [Link]
who share his pearls of wisdom during this research, devoted his time and made valuable
comments for better insight. Also, inspiration and encouragement play important role
in keeping me moving forward.

I gratefully thank the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam for funding me
a four-year scholarship for my study in the UK. Without this financial sponsorship, I
would not be able to come to study in the UK.

My sincere thanks also go to the De Montfort University Interdisciplinary research Group

in Intelligent Transport Systems (DIGITS) for the financial support to participate the
WCCI 2016 conference in Vancouver and the International student workshop 2016 in
Wroclaw, Poland. I also would like to thank all member of DIGITs for offering assistance
to my study.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents and my sister for always encouraging
me throughout this journey. Especially, I owe thanks to a very special person, my
husband, for his love, support, and understanding during my pursuit of Ph.D. I greatly
appreciate his belief in me that gave me extra strength to get things done.

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Contents

Abstract i

Acknowledgements ii

Contents iii

List of Figures vii

List of Tables ix

Abbreviations x

Symbols xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Aims and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Major Contributions of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Thesis structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Background 10
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Traffic Signal Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Introduction to Traffic Signal Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Fundamental Definitions of Traffic Signal Control Systems . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Overview of Traffic Signal Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Performance Measures of Traffic Signal Control Systems . . . . . . 16
2.3 Traffic simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Multi-objective evolutionary algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Definition of Multi-objective Optimization Problems and Basic
Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 General Framework of Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithms . . 24
2.5 Surrogate-assisted evolutionary algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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2.5.1 Evolutionary algorithms vs. surrogates-assisted evolutionary al-

gorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Strategies for managing surrogates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
[Link] Model management: its roles and classification . . . . . . 28
[Link] Criteria for choosing individuals for re-evaluation . . . . 29
2.5.3 Techniques for constructing surrogates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.4 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Literature Review 35
3.1 Multi-objective Traffic Signal Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Traffic Signal Optimization using MOEAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.1.3 Multi-objective Traffic Signal Optimization using Local Search
based MOEAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Objectives in Traffic Signal Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Optimization Objectives in Traffic Signal Control . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.2 Objective Calculation using Mathematical Programming Methods 44
3.2.3 Objective Calculation using Simulation-based Methods . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Reducing Computational Cost using Surrogate Models . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.1 Computational Cost of Traffic Signal Optimization using MOEAs
and Traffic Simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.2 Techniques for constructing surrogates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.3 Surrogate Assisted Optimization in Transportation . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4 Methodology 56
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 The local search strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2.1 Creating neighbours of a solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.2 Motivation of the local search method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.3 The flow of the proposed local search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 NS-LS algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 Overview of NS-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.2 The flow of NS-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.3 Design of the evolutionary search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
[Link] Chromosome Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
[Link] Selection and Reproduction Operators . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4 The surrogate model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4.1 Constructing a surrogate model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
[Link] Choosing the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
[Link] The training algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
[Link] The error function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
[Link] Hyperparameter tunning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4.2 Updating a surrogate model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5 Fitness evaluation scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.1 The motivation of the fitness evaluation scheme . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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4.5.2 The closeness of two solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.5.3 The framework of the fitness evaluation scheme . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.6 SA-LS algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6.1 Overview of SA-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.6.2 The flow of SA-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5 Experimental Setup 92
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 Traffic scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2.1 Introduction to the traffic scenario of Andrea Costa . . . . . . . . 94
5.2.2 Introduction to the traffic scenario of Pasubio . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3 Extracting optimization objective values from SUMO output . . . . . . . 100
5.4 Indicators for Performance Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.1 Hypervolume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.2 C-metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.4.3 Diversity Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5 Experimental design for evaluating the performance of the algorithms . . 107
5.5.1 Experiment 1 - Benchmark functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.5.2 Experiments using real-time traffic scenarios simulated by SUMO . 109
[Link] Experiment 2 - Andrea Costa scenario . . . . . . . . . . . 109
[Link] Experiment 3 - Pasubio scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6 Experimental Results 111

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2 Experiment 1: ZDT1 and ZDT2 test functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.3 Results of experiments using traffic scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3.1 Results of Experiment 2 - Andrea Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
[Link] Hypervolume Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
[Link] C-metric results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
[Link] Diversity results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3.2 Results of Experiment 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
[Link] Hypervolume results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
[Link] C-metric results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
[Link] Diversity results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7 Conclusions, Recommendations, and Future Work 135

7.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2 Key findings of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.3 Key contributions of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.4 Limitations of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.5 Recommendations and Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

A Published Papers 145

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Contents vi

B Mean hypervolume with standard deviation of the algorithms in Ex-

periment 2 146

C Mean hypervolume with standard deviation of the algorithms in Ex-

periment 3 150

Bibliography 154
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List of Figures

2.1 Movements in a two-phase system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 A diagram of two-phase signal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 The structure of the node file of a traffic scenario simulated by SUMO . . 19
2.4 The structure of the edge file of a traffic scenario simulated by SUMO . . 19
2.5 The structure of the traffic light file of a traffic scenario simulated by SUMO 19
2.6 The Netconvert command to generate a traffic network file of a scenario
simulated by SUMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 The structure of the route file of a traffic scenario simulated by SUMO . . 20
2.8 The structure of the configuration file of a traffic scenario simulated by
SUMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
(t)
4.1 The neighbour creation: a neighbour nbR(t) is created from solution Ri
i
(t) (t)
based on two other reference solutions Ru and Ru using equation 4.1
with α = 0.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 The overall optimisation framework of NS-LS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 The framework of the optimization process in NS-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 Chromosome representation where gi is a variable representing the green
duration of i(th) phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Overall structure of the surrogate model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6 Sigmoid function with a = 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 Grid search for hyperparameter fine-tuner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8 The n-fold cross validation technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.9 Relationship between distance and approximation error of new solutions
and available solutions in the database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.10 The framework of the fitness evaluation scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.11 The framework of the proposed algorithm SA-LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5.1 The traffic network of Andra Costa extracted from Open Street Map . . . 93
5.2 The Andrea Costa traffic map simulated by SUMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3 The traffic flow of three days in Bologna city provided by the municipality 95
5.4 Case study area in Andrea Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5 Phases of the signal control program of the case study in Andrea Costa. . 96
5.6 A traffic network of Pasubio taken from Open Street Map . . . . . . . . . 98
5.7 The Pasubio road network simulated by SUMO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.8 Case study area in Pasubio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.9 Phases of the signal control program of the case study in Pasubio. . . . . 101

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List of Figures viii

5.10 A part of a trip information output file from the Andrea Costa scenario.
This file is produced after the simulation finished containing departure
and arrival times, time loss, and route length and other information. . . . 101
5.11 A part of the acosta [Link] file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.12 A part of the e1 [Link] file from Andrea Costa scenario. . . . . . . . 103

6.1 The mean of HV on 20 runs obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and

MOEA/D over the number of evaluations using the original objective
function. The objective function is ZDT1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2 Mean of HV on 20 runs obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D
over the number of evaluations using the original objective function. The
objective function is ZDT2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.3 Average HV with standard deviation on 20 independent runs obtained by
MOEA/D, NSGA-II, NS-LS, and SA-LS at the end of the optimization
process in Experiment 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.4 Mean of HV on 20 runs obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D
over the number of evaluations using SUMO in Experiment 2. . . . . . . . 117
6.5 Mean HV with standard deviation of MOEA/D, NSGA-II, NS-LS, and
SA-LS on 20 different runs in population size 20 in Experiment 2. . . . . . 118
6.6 Distribution of solutions in the non-dominated set achieved by NS-LS,
SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D at the end of the optimization process
in Experiment 2. These solutions are selected from the final solutions of
20 runs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.7 Average HV with standard deviation on 20 independent runs obtained by
MOEA/D, NSGA-II, NS-LS, and SA-LS at the end of the optimization
process in Experiment 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.8 Mean of HV on 20 runs obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D
over the number of evaluations using SUMO in Experiment 3. . . . . . . . 126
6.9 Mean HV with standard deviation of MOEA/D, NSGA-II, NS-LS, and
SA-LS on 20 different runs in population size 20 in Experiment 3. . . . . . 128
6.10 Distribution of solutions in the non-dominated set achieved by NS-LS,
SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D at the end of the optimization process
in Experiment 3. These solutions are selected from the final solutions of
20 runs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

B.1 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and

NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 40 in Experiment 2. . . 147
B.2 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and
NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 60 in Experiment 2. . . 148
B.3 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and
NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 80 in Experiment 2. . . 149

C.1 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and

NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 40 in Experiment 3. . . 151
C.2 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and
NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 60 in Experiment 3. . . 152
C.3 Mean HV with standard deviation of NS-LS, SA-LS, MOEA/D, and
NSGA-II on 20 different runs with population size 80 in Experiment 3. . . 153
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List of Tables

3.1 Evolutionary algorithms in traffic signal control systems. . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2 Optimization objectives in traffic signal optimization using MOEAs. . . . 41
3.3 Techniques for constructing surrogate in the literature. . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.1 Experimental parameters settings for NS-LS, SA-LS, and NSGA-II in

Experiment 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Experimental parameters settings for NS-LS, SA-LS, and NSGA-II in
Experiments 2 and 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.1 A solution obtained by SA-LS algorithm in the final generation with the
population size 20 in Experiment 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.2 Best, worst, median, mean, and standard deviation of HV obtained by
MOEA/D, NSGA-II, NS-LS, and SA-LS in Experiment 2, each over 20
independent runs and for different population sizes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.3 C-metric obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D at the end
of the optimization process in Experiment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.4 S and MS metrics achieved by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D
in Experiment 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.5 Best, worst, median, mean, and stdev of HV obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS,
and NSGA-II over 20 independent runs in Experiment 3. . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.6 C-metric obtained by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D at the end
of the optimization process in Experiment 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.7 S and MS metrics achieved by NS-LS, SA-LS, NSGA-II, and MOEA/D
in Experiment 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

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Abbreviations

ITS Intelligent Transportation System

TSC Traffic Signal Control
MOOP Multi-objective Optimization Problem
MOEA Multi-objective Optimization Evolutionary Algorithm
NSGA-II Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm
GA Genetic Algorithm
PSO Particle Swarm Algorithm
DE Differential Algorithm
MOEA/D Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Decomposition
NS-LS Multi-objective optimization algorithm based on local search
SA-LS Surrogate-assisted optimization algorithm based on fuzzy distance and local search
SUMO Simulation of Urban Mobility
MSE Mean Square Error
RPROP Resilient Back-propagation Learning Algorithm
FNN Feedforward Neural Networks
ANN Artifical Neural Networks
MLP Multilayer Feedfoward Perceptrons
TraCI Traffic Control Interface
O/D Origin/Destination
ZDT1 Zitzler-Deb-Thiele’s function N.1
ZDT2 Zitzler-Deb-Thiele’s function N.2
SBX Simulated Binary Crossover
PLM Polynomial Mutation

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lòng inbox zalo/telegram 0974577291, mã qr zalo/tele liên hệ :
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 với nội dụng chuyển khoản bên trên, trong vòng 5-10 phút
 chúng tôi sẽ gửi tài liệu qua zalo hoặc facebook hoặc email của quý khách.
 Sau khi tải tài liệu, Quý khách có thể chuyển đổi file tài liệu từ PDF sang WORD
miễn phí tại đây
 Nếu cần hỗ trợ vui lòng liên hệ số zalo/telegram: 0974577291 hoặc email:
001nghia@[Link]

(*) Quý khách lưu ý khi chuyển khoản ghi nội dung chuyển khoản kèm MÃ TÀI LIỆU
theo hướng dẫn