KEY TERMS

Memory Eidetic, or photographic, Phonemes

Three-box/information memory Morphemes
processing model Retrieval Syntax
Levels of processing Recognition Language acquisition
model Recall Overgeneralization or
Sensory memory Primacy effect overregularization
lconic memory Recency effect Language acquisition
Selective attention Serial position effect device
Echoic memory (also called serial Linguistic relativity
Short-term memory position curve) hypothesis
(working memory) Tip-of-the-tongue Prototypes
Chunking. phenomenon Images
Mnemonic devices Semantic network theory Algorithm
Rehearsal Flashbulb memories Heuristic

Long-term memory State-dependent memory Representativeness

Mood congruent memory heuristic
Episodic memory Belief bias or belief
Semantic memory Constructed (or
reconstructed) memory perseverance
Procedural memory
Relearning effect Functional fixedness
Explicit memories
Retroactive interference Confirmation bias
(also called declarative
Proactive interference Convergent thinking
memories)
Anterograde amnesia Divergent thinking
Implicit memories (also
called nondeclarative Retrograde amnesia Availability heuristic
Long-term potentiation
memories)
KEY PEOPLE

Hermann Ebbinghaus BenjaminWhorf

George Sperling Wolfgang Köhler
George Miller Noam Chomsky
Elizabeth Loftus
Alexandra Luria

OVERVIEW
remnember
is: What causes us to remember what we
The central question of memory research
forget what we forget? Memory is defined by researchers as any indication that learn
and to
remember the bully who pushed you into the mud in
ing has persisted overtime, You might processes
with the school counselor. What are the
second grade but forget your appointment we lose information from
memories? Why and how do
that determine which events stick in our any of
Researchers do not have the final answers to
memory? How accurate are our memories? emerged from the research
principles of memory have
these questions. However, models and
remember.
that give us insight into how we
COGNITION 137
 Cognition 7
KEY TERMS
Memory Eidetic, or photographic, Phonemes
Three-box/information memory Morphemes
processing model Retrieval Syntax
Levels of processing Recognition Language acquisition
model Recall Overgeneralization or
Sensory memory Primacy effect overregularization
lconic memory Recency effect Language acquisition
Selective attention Serial position effect device
Echoic memory (also called serial Linguistic relativity
Short-term memory position curve) hypothesis
(working memory) Tip-of-the-tongue Prototypes
Chunking. phenomenon Images
Mnemonic devices Semantic network theory Algorithm
Rehearsal Flashbulb memories Heuristic
Long-term memory State-dependent memory Representativeness
Episodic memory Mood congruent memory heuristic
Semantic memory Constructed (or Belief bias or belief
reconstructed) memory perseverance
Procedural memory
Relearning effect Functional fixedness
Explicit memories
(also called declarative Retroactive interference Confirmation bias

memories) Proactive interference Convergent thinking

Implicit memories (also Anterograde amnesia Divergent thinking
called nondeclarative Retrograde amnesia Availability heuristic
memories) Long-term potentiation

KEY PEOPLE
Hermann Ebbinghaus Benjamin Whorf
George Sperling
Noam Chomsky Wolfgang Köhler
George Miller
Elizabeth Loftus
Alexandra Luria

OVERVIEW
What causes us to remember what we remember
The central guestion of memory research is:
defined by researchers as any indication that leârn
and to forget what we forget? Memory is
the bully who pushed you into the mud in
ing has persisted over time You might remember
the school counselor. What are the processes
second grade but forget your appointmentwith lose information from
memories? Why and how do we
that determine which events stick in our of
Researchers do not have the final answers to anv
memorv?How accurate are our memories? research
principles of memory have emerged from the
these questions. However, models and
remember.
that give us insight into how we
COGNITION 137
 emerged
MODELS OF MEMORY memnory works have
three-box/information
from memory
explanations, of how
Several different models, or
research. We will review two of the mostimportant
models: the
model. Neither
model is -process-
perfect. They
levels of processing describe
ing model and the
works in different ways and
can some memory
Do not take this memory describe how memory
model too literally. The experiences better than others.
model describes the pro
cess, not physical structures.
Three-Box/Information-Processing Model
There is not one spot in the model, also called the informa
brain that is the long-term model of memory is the three-box
The principal stages that
memory spot. Memories
tion-processing model. his model
proposes the three information
are distributed around the (see Fig. 7.1).
passes through before it is stored Ihen some info
cortex. Researchers use the by our sensory memory.
model to describe the pro External events are first processed Some of that info.
short-term (or working) memory.
cess rather than define how mation is encoded into our
long-term memory.
and where the brain stores mation is then encoded into
memories physically.
Retrieval

Encoding |Encoding

Sensory Short-ter Long-term

Information lost Information lost Information lost

because it is not because it is not due to retrieval
encoded encoded failure

Figure 7.1. Atkinson and Shiffring three-box/information-processing model.

SENSORY MEMORY

The first stop for external events is sensory memory. It is a split-second holding tank for incoming
sensory information. All the information your senses are processing right now is held in sensory
memory for a very short period of time (less than a second). Researcher George Sperling demon
strated this in a series of experiments in which he flashed agrid of nine letters, three rows and
three columns, to participants for 1/20th of a second. The participants in the study were
to recall either the top, middle, or bottom row
directed
immediately after the grid was flashed at them.
(Sperling used a high, medium, or low tone to indicate which row they should
recall.) The partie
pants could recall any of the three rows pertectly. This experiment
grid must be held in sensory memory for a split second. This
demonstrated that the entre
type of sensory memory is called
iconicmemory, a split-second perfect photograph of a scene. Other
pyistence of echoic memory, an equally perfect brief (3-4 experiments demonstrate the
Most ofthe information in sensory memory is not second) memory for sounds.
or stored, in short-term memory, Events are encoded, however. Onlysome ofitis encodeu
encoded as visual codes (a visual image), acoust
codes (a series of sounds), or semantic codes (a sense of
the meaning of the deter-
event). What
mines which sensory messages get encoded? Selective. attention. We encode what we are attending
to or what is important to us. Try the following experiment. Pay attention to how your feetfeelin

138 AP PSYCHOLOGY
 socks richt now. You feel this, encoded
your now because the sensory from your feet are
from sensory
memorv into short-term memory. messages before? Because
Why did you not feel your feet
the
messages entered sensory
memory but were not encoded because you were not selectively
attendingtothem. Sometimes selective attention is not as controlled. You have probably had the
experience offspeaking with one person at a party but then hearing Someone sayyour name across
You were However, once a sen-
theroonm. selectively attending to the person you were talking to.
sory
message entered sensory memory that you knew was important (like your name or hearing
someoneshout"Fire!"), you switched your attentionto that message, , and it was encoded intoyour
informa-
chort-term memory. (This is also called the cocktail party effect, see Chapter 4for more
phenomenon.)
tion about this

SHORT--TERMAwORKING MEMORY
memories we are currently
Short-term memory is also called working memory because these are current
are thinking at the
working with and are aware of in our consciousness. Everything you
memories are also temporary.
12
momentis heldl in your short-term or working memory. Short-term short-term mem-
nothing with them, they usually fade in 10 to 30 seconds. Our capacity in S-1.
If we do in a series of famous
limitedlon average to around seven items (this average was established
oryis Seven, Plus or Minus Two"), but this
Pxperiments by George Miller titled"The Magical Number
chunking. If you want to remember a grocery list
limit can be expanded through a process called Most
group, the items into no more than seven groups.
with 15 items on it, you should chunk, or the names of
exatnples of chunking. If you memorized
mnemonic devices, memory aids, are really Nachos,"you
"My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us
the planets by remembering the sentence sentence.
the first letters of the words in one
chunked the names of the planets into [Link] you
short-term memory is to rehearse (or repeat)
Another way to rètain information in rehearsing that
and repeat it to yourself on the way to the phone, you are
look up a phone number information in short-term memory, but
other strategies
information. Simple repetition can hold
encoded into long-term memory.
ensuring short-term memories are
are more effective in

LONG-TERM MEMORY more

we obviously need a
and short-term memory so quickly,
Since memories fade from
sensory storage. As far as we
Long-term memory is our permanent
permanent way to remember
events. memory as being full
unlimited. No one reports their long-term
is
know, the capacity of long-term memoryStudies show that once information reaches
new information. However, memories can
decay or fade
and unable to encode of or lives.
remember it for the rest forgetting). Long-term
uemory, we will likely permanent (see the section on
so it is not truly
om long-term memorv, different formats:
three
emories can be stored in
sequential series of
specific events, stored in a
Memories of went ona date
Episodic memory remembering the last tÉme you
events. Example: meanings,
knowledge of the wòrld, stored as facts, is the
General Example: What
Semantic memory sequentially.
rather than
or categories the terms
effect and affect?
difference between performthem. These memories
and how to in
Memories of skills very complicated to describe
Procedural memory but might be
are sequential How to throwa curveball.
words. Example:

COGNITION 139
i
 called declarative memno.
Bxplicit memoriÇs (also
Memories can also be implicit or explicft. are the conscious memnories of facts or eventsS we
memories
They form explicit about
ries) are what we usually think of first chapter, you try to
study this are
actively tried to remember. When you
memories (also called nondeclarative
memories)
unintentionay
while vou
the memory theories. Implicit
even realize we have. For example,
memories that we might not might find that you have
implicit mem
her house, you
Some people say they have helping your friend clean properly after watching your
parents do it for so
how to scrub a floor
a photographic memory ories about
when what they mean is very who demon
particularly interested in individuals
many years.
good memory. True eidetic Memory researchers are studied a
memory occurs very rarely. eidetic, or photographic, memory. Psychologist Alexandra Luria
strate list of 70letters or digits, The
Most of us could enhance
patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a
our memories through train recall itup to 15 years later! Luria
patient could even repeat the list backward or
1
ing with mnemonic devices, seem to use very pow.
rare individuals
context, and visual imagery. and other researchers showed that these
erful and enduring isual images.

Levels of Processing Model

An alternate way to think about memory is the levels of processing model. This theory explains
why we remember what we do by examnining how deeply the memory was processed or thought
about. Memories are neither short- nor [Link] are deeply (or elaboratively) processed or
Shallowly(or maintenance) processed. Ifyou
sirnplyrepeat afact to yourselfseveral times and then
write it on your test as quickBy as youcan, you haveonly shallowyprocessed that fact and you will
forget it quickly. However, if you study the context and research the reasons behind the fact, you
Have deepiy processedit and wil likely recall itlater According to the levels of processing theory,
we remember things wespendmore cognitivetime and energy [Link] theory explains
why we remember stories better than a simple recitation of events and why, in general, we remem
ber questions better than statements. When we get caught up in a story or an intriguing
question
we process it deeply and are therefore
morelikely to remember it. t

RETRIEVAL
The last step in any memory model is retrieval, or
getting information out of memory so we can
use it. There are two different kinds of retrieval: tl
recognition and recall Recognition is the process
of matching a current event or fact with one already in t
sTmell before?"). Recall is retrieving a memory with an memory (for example, "Have I smelled this
Aunt Beki's perfume smell like?") Studies have external cue (for example, "What does my
can retrieve some memories and why we forget others. identified several factors that influence why we th
a
Onefactor is the order in which the
cal experiments, Hermann information is presented. In some of the first psycholog
Ebbinghaus
eiated tO whether or not we will recall (1850-1l909) established that the order ofitems in a list is
them.}he
Tecall items presented at the beginning of:fa list. primacy effect predicts that we are more likely to
The recency effect is Sc
to recall the items at the end of alist Items in
primacy andrecency effect demonstrate the
the middle are demonstrated
most often
by our ability
Together the
Te

This effect is seen when recall of alisttis sertalposition forgotten.

effect (also called serial nE
i affected by
the order of items in a position2curve) ta
Context is an important factor in retrieval. list.
and start listing things about their appearance
Have you ever tried to th

name? This temporary inabilitytto

or
personality remember
until you finally
Someone's name Þe
remember infomation sometimes
is come up with the Ca
phenomenon. One theory that explains why this
might work is the called the
semantic tip-of-the-tongenetwork theory. Thi_ Or

140 AP PSYCHOLOGY
theory states that Our brain might form new memories by connectng their meaning and context
with meanings already in memory hus, Ourbrain creates a web of interconnected memories,each
one in context tied to hundreds or thousands of other memories, So, by listing traits, you graduy
ally get closer and closertothe name and you are finally able toretrieve it. Context also explains
another povwerftul memory experience we all have. If you ask someone born in the 1990s or ear
lier where they were during the September l1, 2001, terrorist attack, they are likely to give you a
detailed description of exactly what they were doing in those moments. These fashbulb memories)
are powerful because the importance of the event caused us to encode the context surrounding the
event; However, some studies show that flashbulb memories can be inaccurate. Perhaps we tend
to construct parts of the memory to fl in gaps in our stories (see"Constructive Memory." below).
The emotional or situational context of a memory can affect retrieval in yet another way. Stud
ies consistently demonstrate the power of mood-congruent memory or the greater likelihood of
recalling an item when our moodmatched the mood we were in when the event happened. We
are likely to recall happy events when we are happy and recall negative events when we are feeling
pessimistic.(State-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon ofrecalling events encoded while
in particular states of consciousness. If yousuddenly remember an appointment while you are
drowsy and about to go to sleep, you need to write it down. Very possibly, you will not remember it
[Link]
again until you are drowsy and in the same state of consciousness. Alcohol and other
memory in similar ways.

CONSTRUCTIVEMEMORY
Individuals claim
Maybe you have seen media coverage of the "recovered memory" phenomenon.
therapy.
suddenly to remember events they have "repressed" for years, often in the process of
recovered mem
Parents have been accused of molesting arnd even killing children based on these
researchers like
ories. While some of the memories can be corroborated by other means, memory
or false recollec
Elizabeth Loftus have shown that many of these memories may be constructed
a real event or
tions of events, A constructed (or reconstructed) memory can report false details of
leading questions
might even be a recollection of an event that never [Link] show that
new memory
can easily influence us to recall false details, and questioners can create an entirely
[Link] memories feel like accurate memories to
by repeateking insistr
the per ing thern y way to differentiate between a false and a real memory is
throu Jes of e ch as physical evidence or other validated reports of the event.
Wh Duine lay be recalled after being forgotten for years, researchers and
e invec S to ensure memories are accurate and innocent people are not
acts t' mmit.

GF
want to
net best Orget inmportant events or facts that we try and
er
e of fo ecay, forgetting because we do not use a memory or con
Jryfo d of time. For example, you might memorize the state capi
stbu of them soon after the test because you do not need to recall
yo IS not in vain! Even memories that decay do not seem to disap
the
tel show an important relearning effect. If you have to memorize
gai ess time than it did the first time you studied them.
forgettingis interference. Sometimes other information in your mem
ne
uare trying to recall. Interference can occur through two processes:

coGNITION 141
 with the recall of
new information interferes older
Retroactive interference Learning psychology at 3:00 and ves
information. If you study yourhave trouble recalling the
you might
sociology at 6:00, day.
information on a test the next
psychology interferes with the
previously
Proactive interference Older information learned researche
more recently. Ifa
recallof information learned
in a certain order, then rereade
reads youa list of items
youto listthem inthe new order,
them differently and asks
interferes with recall of the new lie
the old list proactively
STORED IN THE BRAIN
HOW MEMORIES ARE PHYSICALLY
structures involved in memory
Researchers know some of the brain processes and
studying patients with specific brain
Some students find but much of this process is still a mystery. By
encoding new memories.
remembering the difference damage, we know that the hippocampus is important in
damage to the hin.
between retroactive and However,other brain structures are involved. Individuals with
new memories).
pocampus might have anterograde amnesia (they cannot encode
proactive interference
difficult. Focus on which but they can recall events already in memory. They can learn new skills, although
type of information is try they will not remember learning them. This indicates that the memory for these
ing to be recalled. If old
information is what you are skills, or procedural memory, is stored elsewhere in the brain (studies on animals
searching for, retroactive indicate procedural memories are stored in the cerebellum).
(older) interference most At the neurological level, researchers focus on a process called long-term
likely applies. If you are potentiation. Studies show that neurons can strengthen connections between
searching for newer infor
mation, proactive (new) each other. Through repeated firings, the connection is strengthened and the
interference might take receiving neuron becomes more sensitive tò the messages fromthe sending neu
place. ron. This strengthened connection might be related to the connections we make
in our long-term mnemory.

LANGUAGE
For us to conceive of thought without language is impossible. Your brain is
you are reading right now. If you stop to think about the previous
processing the language
sentence, you think about it using
language. Language is intimately connected to cognition. Some psychologists
guage works andhow we acquire it in an attempt to understand better how investigate how lan
we think and behave.

Elements of Language
Al languages can be described with
of sound used in a language. English
phonemes and morphemes. Phonemes are the smallest units
speakers use approximately 44
primary language is not English, youphonemes.
ied another language or if your If you have stua
nhonemes. Native Spanish speakers find the rolled have experience with other
ers have difficulty learning how to Rphoneme natural, but many
produce lt since it is not used in English. Englishofspeak
languages have difficulty learning some English phonemes. Speakers othe
Amorpheme is thesmallest unit of
meaningful sound. Morphemes can be words, as aand
but, or they can be parts of words, such asthe
prefixes an- such
nemes put together to become morphemes, which make upand pre-. So language consists of pho-
or written in a particular order, called syntax. Bach words. These words are then spoken
the verb is usually placed in the sentence. By language has its own syntax, such as where
examining phonemes, morphemes, and syntax (the
grammar of alanguage), psychologists can describe
different languages sin detail.
142 AP PSYCHOLOGY
 Language Acquisition
Many psychologists are
psychologists are particularly interested in how we learn
curious about our language. Often, developmental
opment. These studies show thathow language learning reflects or predicts our cognitive
while babies are learning very devel-
through the same basic stages in order to master the different languages, they progress
habies, you know that babies babble. This is language. First, if you have ever been around
tion that occurs about 4 often cute, and it is the first stage of
months of age. The babbling stage language acquisi
completely deaf go through the babbling appears to be innate; even babies born
phonemes. "They are learning what soundsstage.
Ababy's babble
they
represents experimentation with
capable of producing any phoneme from any are capable of producing. Babies in this stage are
to roll your Rs, your infant language in the world. So while you may not be able
sister can! As language
y, produce phonemes from our primary language (or acquisition progresses, we retain the ability to
in other phonemes. This is one reason why languages) and lose the ability to make some
learning more than one language starting at infancy may be
advantageous. Babbling progresses into utterances of words as babies imitate the
-
caregivers speaking. The time during which babies speak in single words words they hear
), called the holophrastic stage or one-uword stage. This (holophrases) is sometimes
usually happens around their first birthday.
gh The next language acquisition stage occurs at around 18
or two-word stage. Toddlers will combine the
months and is called telegraphic speech
Se
words they can say into simple commands. Meaning
ls is usually clear at this stage, but syntax is absent. When your little
brother shouts, "No book, movie!"
you know that he means, "Ido not wish to read a book at this time. I would prefer to watch a
movie."
m Children begin to learn grammar and syntax rules during this stage, sometimes misapplying the
rules. For example, they might learn that adding the suffix -ed signifies past tense, but they might
ne apply it at inappropriate times, such as, "Marky hitted my head so Ithrowed the truckat him." Chil
dren gradually increase their abilities to combine words in proper syntax if these uses are modeled
ce for them. This misapplication of grammar rules is called overgeneralization or overregularization.
One important controversy in language acquisition concerns how we acquire language. Behav
iorists theorized that language is learned like other learned behaviors: through operant condition
ing and shaping. They thought that when children used language correctly, they got rewarded by
their parents with a smile or other encouragement, and therefore they would be more likely to
ge use language correctly in the future. More recently, cognitive psychologists challenged this the
ory. They point out the amazing number of words and language rules learned by children without
ng
explicit instruction by parents. Researcher Noam Chomsky theorized that humans are born with
n
(this is also called
a language acquisition device, the ability to learn a language rapidly as children
development of lan
the nativist theoryof language acquisition). Chomsky pointed to the retarded
childhood. He theorized that
guage in cases of children deprived of exposure to language during
learn a skill, or our development
acritical period (a window of opportunity during which we must
psychologists now agree that we
its will permanently suffer) for learning language may exist. Most learn
conditioning and an inborn propensity to
d acquire language through some combination of
er
language.
k
er Language and Cognition
to think abou2
think, how does it influence what we are able
I language is central to the way we wavve
nd Beniamin Whorftheorized that the language we use might control, and in some
Psychologist demon
linguistic relativity hypothesis. Many studies
limit, our thinking. Thistheory is called the ideas, but few studies shor
think about people, objects, or
en Strate the effect of labeling on how we think about.
ere language we speak drastically changes what we can
nat the
he

COGNITION 143
 Repre

THINKING AND CREATIVITY

Describing Thought thoughts, so we are attempting to
Descriptions are
problematic. all-inclusive definition ofthoughtis difficult, but
Trying to describe thought is global, similar to the
itself. A
describe thought using thought categories ofthoughts.
Concepts are schemata
from our
psychologists try to define types or cognitive rules we applyto
stimuli environment
encounter Use ot
have ideas we These
mentioned previously. We eachthink about the objects, people, and of dad, which is confiden
that allow us to categorize and different from our
concept different
mom is prototypes or what we think is are inaj
rules are concepts. Our concept of base our concepts on
game. We may will repo
from our concept of asoccer
concept. minds of the outside
the most typical example of a particular the mental pictures we create in our
of cases.
can aleo
Another type of thought, images, imagining what your cat looks like. However, images
are Both oft
such as chocolate evidence
world. Images can be visual. of ataste, such as thinking
about what hot
olfactorv, or an image ing belie
be auditory, tactile,
tastes like on a very cold day. we used

generall
Problem Solving when pr
thinking. Researchers can ask
researchers try to study thought by examining the results of research
Many how the solutions were reached. This
solve problems and then investigate IMPED
participants to and some traps to
methods we commonly use
indicates at least two different problem-solving
avoid when solving a problem.
Problem
lems. Ri.
Most pe
ALGORITHMS
tendeno
a rule that guarantees
One way to solve a problem is to try every possible solution. An algorithm is fixednes
the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method. If you are trying to guess a com to the ax
puter password and you know it is a combination of only two letters, you could use an algorithm
use the
and guess pairs of letters in combination until you hit the right one. What if the password is a com a tool to
bination of five letters, not two? Sometimes algorithms are impractical, so a shortcut is needed to ing is nC
solve certain problems.
smaller
Tackling
HEURISTICS
Anot
A
heuristic is a rule of thumb-a rule that is generally, but not always, true that we can use to make tend to
a judgment in a situation. For example, if [Link] trying to guess the password mentioned previ think is
ously, you might begin by guessing actual five-letter words rather than random combinations of For exa
letters. Ihe password might be a meaningless combination of letters, but vou know
are most often actual words. This heuristic limits the possible
that passwords informa
combinations dramatically. The fol very dif
lowing shows two specific examples of heuristics.
the stuc
Availability heuristic
Ever
Judginga situation based on examples of similar probler
that come to mind situation
to incorrect
initially. This heuristic might lead If Itell
conclusions due to variability in personal they wc
experience. For example, a person may judge his or "Almos
neighborhood to be more nel
city simply because that dangerous than others in the most li!
person is more familiar with the stue
violence his or her
in
neighborhoods. neighborhood than in other and po:
framing
144 AP PSYCHOLOGY
 pepresentativeness heuristic
Judginga situation based on how similar the
t0 prototypes the aspects are
person holds in his or her mind.
example, a person might judge ayyoung person moreFor
ikely to commit suicide
because of a prototype of the
ta
depressed adolescent when, in fact, suicide rates are
not higher in
nt younger populations.
1lee ofthese heuristics is
typically helpfulbut can lead to specific
nt confidence is our tendency to overestimate how accurate problems in judgments. Over
is in a judgment is not a good our judgments are. How confident we
indicator of whether or not we are right, In studies,
will report extreme confidence in a most people
le f cases. Two concepts closely judgment that turns out to be wrong in asignificant number
related to overconfidence are belief bias and
belief
not to change our beliefs in the face of perseverance.
So Both of these concepts concern our
tendency
te Gdence., Belief bias occurs when we make
illogical contradictory
ing beliefs, Beliet perseverance refers to our conclusions order to confirm our preexist
in
Ne 11sed to form the belief is
tendency to maintain a belief even after the
evidence
contradicted. Overall, these concepts demonstrate that humans are
Oenerally more contident in our beliefs than we should be, and we
often stick with our beliefs even
sk
when presented with evidence that disproves them.
ch
to IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem-solving research identifies some common mistakes people make while trying to solve prob
lems. Rigidity (also called mnentalset) refers to the tendency to fall into established thought patterns.
Most people willuse solutions or past experience to try to solve novel problems. Occasionally, this
es tendency prevents them from seeing anovel solution. One specific example of rigidity is functional (
m fxedness, the inability to see a new use for an object. One ofmy students recently got his car stuckup
m to the axles in mud. Our attempts to pull him out failed untilanother student pointed out we could
m Use the car jack to raise the car and put planks under the tires. Most of us thought of the jack only as
to atool to help with a flat tire, not getting a car outof the mud. Another common trap in problem solv
ing is not breaking the problem into parts. Studies show that good problem solvers identify subgoals,
sualer and more manageable problems they need to solve in order to solve the whole problem.
aCKing the problem in these smaller parts helps good problem solvers be more successful.
Another obstacle tosuccessful problem solving is confirmation bias. Many studies show that we
ake contradicts what we
end to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that
vi think is true, As a consequence, we may miss evidenceimportant to finding the correct solution.
sof For example, when I prepare my students for the AP test, I may emphasize studying techniques or
rds think is important may be
omation that I am familiar with and think are very important. Vhat I
fol very different designers of the test emphasize. My contirmation bias could hinder
than what the
the sstudents' success on the test.
Framing refers to the wro
way a problem is presented can get in the way ot solving it.
he
ons drastically changethe way we view a problem or an issue.
probl presented. Presentation can
IfI tellem
is my students have been
able to solve this logic problem,"
mnyStudents, "The majority of
they would and not expect much of achallenge. However, if I tell them,
most likely feel confident get the answer to this logic puzzle," they would
my classes never
"Almost half of I the studentsin
task. In both cases I am really telling them that 51 percent of
most expect a very difficult
the likely
frame the task changes their expectation
logic problem, but the way I
andstpossibly
udents their solve the must be careful about unintentionally
Can
the problem. Researchers
abilityto solve their studies
influence participantsin
framing questions in ways that
might

COGNITION 145
Creativity resists pos
thought was tough, try defining creativity!The concept itself
Tyou thought defining concept is difficult, researchers haveinvestigated
egorization. Again, even though defining this
For example, Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) documented details of
definable
the aspects of creativity.
"aha experience" by observing agroup chimpanzees as they generated original solutions
of
Researchers investigating creative thinking find litle
to retrieve bananas that were out of reach.
while we may agree in general
Correlation between intelligence andcreativity. Studies show that
for creativity vary widel.
about specific examples that demonstrate creativity, individual criteria
whether or
Most people's criteria do involve both originality and appropriateness. When judging
fits the situation
not something is creative, we look at whether it is original or novel and somehow
Some researchers are investigating the distinctions between convergent thinking, thinking pointed
toward one solution, and divergent thinking, thinking that searches for multiple possible answers
to aquestion. Divergent thinking is more closely associated with creativity. Creativeactivities usu
ally involve thinking of new ways to use what we are all familiarwith or new ways to express emo
tions or ideas we [Link] by the numbers is convergent thinking, but we would probably
callpainting outside the lines and/or mixing your own hues creative and divergent thinking.
 Directions: Each of the
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
suggested
answers
or questions or incomplete
completions. Select the onestatements below is
that is best in eachfollowed
case.
by five

Mr. Krohn, a
carpenter, is frustrated because he
he is building. He misplaced hammer and needs to pound
kn thelast nail in the his
bookcase
tennis trophy sittingabove the overlooks the fact that he could use the
hest explains why Mr. Krohn workbench to pound in the nail. Which
concept
overlooked the trophv?
(A) representativeness heuristic
(B) retrieval
(C) functional fixedness
(D) belief bias
(E) divergent thinking
2. Phonemes and morphemes refer to
(A) elements of telegraphic speech toddlers use.
(B) elements of language.
(C) building blocks of concepts.
(D) basic elements of memories stored in long-term memory.
(E) twotypes of influences language has on thought according to the linguistic
relativity hypothesis.
3. Which example would be better explained by the levels of processing model than the
information-processing model?
yOu switch your attention away
(A) Someone says your name across the room and
from the conversation you are having.
were trying to memorize for a test.
(D) You forget part ofa list you childhood tovs.
grandmother, you recall one of your favorite
(C) While visiting with your few days before vou
verbatim ariddle you worked on for a
(D) You are able toremember
figured out the answer. than to the professor's
less attention to the smell of your neighbor's cologne
(E) You pay
lecture in your college class.
relativity hypothesis
originally predicted, what effect
4. Whorf's linguistic
Contrary to what
does recent research indicate
language has on the way
we think?
limits what we have the
language we understand
language,the
(A) Since we think in
ability to think about. cognition.
thoughtbut does not limitour
Language isatool of
our thoughts. because we are restricted to
C) The labels we apply affect affect our abilitytothink
language
(D) The words in each
language uses. predictsthat how quickly we acquire language
he words each
(E) The linguistic relativityhypothesis
ability.
our cognitive
Correlates with

cOGNITION 147
 representativeness heuristic? 11. Wh
the use ofthe
5. Which of the following is an example of an, argumentt than
likelyto bethe instigator of (A)
more to
(A) Judging that a young person
believe youngerpeople are more likely start fights. (B)
an older person, because you smaller, representative
parts, in order to (C)
down into
(B) Breaking a math story problem
solve it. always, true. (D)
rule that is usually, but not
(C) Judging a situation by a representative,, answer, (E)
with arulethat guarantees the right, more
(D) Solving a problem experiencesthat are most easily recalled. there-
(E) Making ajudgment according to past 12. Wh
fore representative of experience.
three-box/information .(A)
of elements in the
0. Which of the following is the most complete list
processing model? (B)
memory, and long-term memory (C)
(n) sensory menmory, constructive memory, working
(B) short-term nemory, working memory, and long-term memory
(C) shallow processing, deep processing, and retrieval (D)
(D) sensory memory, encoding, working memory, and retrieval (E)
retrieval
(E) sensory memory,working memory, encoding, long-term memory, and
7. Which of the following is an effective method for testing whether a memory is actually true 13. Rec
or whether it is a constructed memory? (A)
(A) checking to see whether it was deeply processed or shallowly processed
(B) testing to see if the memory was encoded from sensory memory into working memory (B)
(C) using a PET scan to see if the memory is stored in the hippocampus (C)
" (D) using other evidence, such as written records,to substantiate the memory (D)
(E) there is no way to tell the difference between a true memory and a constructed one
(E)
8. One of the ways memories are physically stored in the brain is by what process?
(A) deep processing,which increases levels of neurotramsmitters in the hippocampus
(B) encoding, which stimulates electric activity in the hippocampus 14. Wh
, (C) long-term potentiation, which strengthens connections between lan
neurons
(D) selective attention, which increases myelination of memory
(E) rehearsal, which causes the brain to devote more
neurons (A)
neurons to what is being rehearsed
9. According to the nativist theory, language is acquired (B)
(A) by parents reinforcing correct language use.
. (B) using an inborn ability to learn .(C)
language at a
(C) best in the language and culture native to the certain developmental stage.
child
and paents.
(D) only if formal language (D)
(E) best through the phonicsinstruction provided in the child's nutive
is
instructionalmethod, because launguage. (E)
pronounce all the phonemes required for the children retain how to
languago, 15. Af
10. According tothe
three-box/information-)processing model, stimuli fronn our outside
environment is first stored in
eve

COn

(A) working memory. (A)

(B) the hippocampus. " (B)
(C) the thalamus. (C)
. (D) sensory memory. (D)
(E) selective attention. (E)

148 AP PSYCHOLOGY
 the
L Whichof followin g lu the bou
(A) judging asltuatton by a example of the use of the
.(R) making a
ule that la avai lablty yheurlstlc?
udgment nccordlngto past
(C) judglng that a
tusually, but not always, true
right answer problemshould be experiences that are most easllyrecalled
solved unlng aformula that
(D) making a guarantees the
Judgment accordiug to what ls usually trueln
(B) solvlng a problem by
breaklng tt lnto nmore easily your experlence
19. Which sentence most Avallable parts
.(A) Sensory memory
accurately deNCrtbos NenAory memory?
stores all sensory lnput
of time, perfectly Accurately for ashort perlod
n) Sensory memory encocdes only
c) Sensory memory receives memories sOnsatlons we are attending to at the time.
fronn the working memory and
memories to encode in long-term memory. decldes which
D) Sensory memory
records all
IE) Sensory menmory records ineoming sensations and remembers them indefinitely.
some sensatlons
incorrectly, leading to constructtve [Link], but some are recorded
13 Recall is a more difficult process than
recognitlon because
(A) memories retrieved by recognition are held in
working memory, and recalled
memories are in long-term memory.
(B) memories retrieved by recognition are more deeply
processed.
(C) the process of recall involves cues to the memory that causes interference.
(D) memories retrieved by recognition are more recent than memories retrieved
by recall.
(E) the process of recognition involves matching a person, event, or object with
something already in memory.
14, Which of the following would be the best piece of evidence for the nativist theory of
language acquisition?
age through intense instruction
(A) a child who acquires language at an extremely early
by her or his parents
one culture learn language faster than children
(B) statistical evidence that children in
in another culture
not being able to learn language due to language
(C) a child of normal mental ability
deprivation at an early age
babbling and telegraphic speech stages of language acquisition
(D) a child skipping the language later
language at early age successtully learning
an
(9) achild deprived of
never forget anything; we remember
heard humans
ycyou thatshe most directy
15, Afriend mentions to
us. What concept from memory research
to
rerything that ever happens
Contradicts this belief?
nJ sensory memory
(B) selective attention
(9 long-term memory
(0) constructive memory
(E) recovered memory
cOGNITION 149
 141
or questions to is event.
memory to concapirecall the mem-
disap-
eachgraau
COntext ear a menories
explans you
thetend Studlikelihood
below).
of, We feeling
whileare itremember
you
not drugsaffect claim
Individuals
therapy.
memlikerecollec
event
researchers
memories
memory
andnot
researchers
are
want memorize prOcesses: COGNITI
sürrounding happened. or stateto your
memories, or we encoded recovered the memory
and youalso1990s
give
Perhaps
way. [Link] while of falserealthatleading
new people and needtoseem
flashbulb Memory," of the in
to another other process realreports
accurate try memorize to information
meaningtraits, a entirely not two
Context
the likely greater
event
whenevents
appointment or
memory of
constructed aand years,
innocent we not havethem
ofinterconnected will these
phenomenon. details a through
listing in are context inaccurate. and
Alcohol validated that use do
born These yet
(seeConstructive events you
the the recalling
the youdodecay youstudied
their it. in on show an like false for facts not
by retrievetheymoments. the or when possibly, in means, false create and
forgotten mightbecauseIf
connecting someone
retrieval negative oftenbased Studies feel a
do
thateffect.
otheroccur
So, attack, encodebe memory an be report memories between
other accurate or we you
in of remember consciousness. children can events you
because Sometimes
can
web memories
to can phenomenon Very
memory"
years, othermay testmemories
example, relearning
time
ableask terrorist to memories affect were
recall [Link] or being Interference
a
those
us stories mood-congruent down. for by
memories evidence
differentiate are importantthe first
by creates
memories other
you
finally
in caused
can we and "recoveredkilling nemory
corroborated
"repressed"
[Link]
forgetting after interference.
the
If 2001, doing our memory
mood
happy
suddenly
it never
important
For soon Even
did
brain are have, eventflashbulb the writestate of even these reconstructed)
and physical
recalled time. vain! thanitrecall.
of in the forget
you l1, were to thatdetails, to decay, them
newQur thousands all
September
gaps
a matched you to
are refers needsame the and of ensure forgettingis
the in
Ihus, and
we
they thatin context of of
power we MEMORY have
CONSTRUCTIVE
of
be
molesting many event way as we
of
period an time to trying
form
experienceof
If
coverage can such
be of not show
to commit. efforts,
fill memory
consciousness. only may is
name what importance
show
when youin
the they memories
false forgetting many was less
or
memory. to that(or an
might
memory themood evidence, ways
memories studying
long studies are
hundreds
the theexactly situationalevents sleep, and
drowSy events shown of recall
constructed
The
insistent forget youcauses
studies demonstrate [Link]-dependent media of recollection them. investigating best
not you
during accused a
Manytake what
brain to our
in closer
memory
happy to remember
to did our of for
ouraireadyto of
the the
SOme
because
itemwhen
of
go ways.
seen
the
have us asking
influence
of
recalling
typesgenuine FORGETTING
they
cause
despite
memorybut your will that
tiedand
were
description of or states to
been
of completelv.
test with
factor
parts and yousimilar
are
about
drowsy some eventsA it
nat
context they
meanings
powerful emotional recal
However, consistently have Loftus a
be repeatedlyother are
acts One civics competes
However, again,
states closer powertul construct an particular you to have While person some Sometimes.
remember.
a
to Another
throughtherapists
where to untilin suddenly Elizabeth even easily of nections capitals
detailed likely
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accused a
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