Module

4 Photosynthesis and Respiration

Module Overview

Hi! Welcome to Module 4. In this module, you will be learning the process of
food production by plants. You will learn the factors that affect the process of food
production. You will also learn the process of breaking down of food in order to
produce energy.
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain the process of light reaction of photosynthesis.
• Describe the process of carbohydrate synthesis among different types of plants.
• Enumerate and discuss the factors that influence the process of photosynthesis.
• Discuss the process of glucose breakdown to yield energy.

In this module, five lessons are designed which are the following:
Lesson 1. The Light reaction
Lesson 2. The Light – Independent Reaction
Lesson 3. Factors Regulating Photosynthesis
Lesson 4. Aerobic and Anaerobic pathways
Lesson 5. Energy Production: oxidative phosphorylation

Lesson 1. The Light Reaction

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the process of light – dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

• Explain how light energy is converted to produce the two-high energy –
storing compounds, the ATP and NADPH.
Time Frame: 3 hours

Introduction

What’s up! You are now in Lesson 1. In this lesson, you will understand
photosynthesis, a complex process among plants in order to make their own food.

General Physiology Course Pack 1

Remember that plants are autotrophs. In the presence of light, carbon dioxide, water,
enzymes plus chlorophyll pigment, glucose and oxygen can be produced.
Photosynthesis involves two phases, the light – dependent reactions and the light –
independent reactions. In this lesson, you will be introduced to the first phase of
photosynthesis.

Activity 4.1

Analyze the diagram shown below.

Mr. Sun: the protagonist!

Source:
Analysis

Based on the diagram, answer the following questions:

1. What are the materials needed for photosynthesis?
2. Why light energy is required for the production of sugar?
3. Do you think it is possible for light reactions take place
without the presence of sunlight?

Abstraction

To understand the process of the light – dependent reaction of photosynthesis,

read the following carefully.
The Light Reactions
The first reaction in photosynthesis takes place in the grana of the chloroplast.
It produces ATP from the energy coming from sunlight that excite electrons, which
are shuttled along the electron transport system. It produces NADPH coming from the
splitting of water molecule. Both ATP and NADPH are high energy - storing
compounds which are used for carbon assimilation.

General Physiology Course Pack 2

Major Components
The photosynthetic mechanism consists of protein complexes namely;
photosystem II, cytochrome b6f, photosystem I, ferredoxin NADP reductase (FNR)
and the ATP synthase. It also involves mobile carriers including plastoquinone qb,
plastocyanin and ferredoxin. Another important component involved included are
+
photons, chlorophyll pigment, ADP, inorganic phosphate (P i), NADP , NADPH,
protons, H2O and O2 (Fig. 4.1.1).
Electron Transport System
The light reaction starts when a photon of light strikes the chlorophyll molecule.
This strike creates a reverberation and that the energy are transferred onto nearby
chlorophyll molecules adjoining the reaction center in photosystem II. In effect, electrons
stored in Photosystem II (P680) get excited. One photon excites one electron. Two
photons are required for two electrons to be excited. Once they get excited, a mobile
carrier, plastoquinone qb picks up these electrons and shuttle it to the adjacent complex,
the cytochrome b6f. However, as plastoquinone transports the two electrons towards the
+
next complex, it also picks up protons (H ) from the stroma and transport them to the
lumen. The cytochrome b6f pumps the two electrons and these electrons are then carried
by another mobile carrier, plastocyanin, shuttling the electrons to the next complex, the
Photosystem I (P700). In this complex, photons of light are again necessary to excite
electrons. Once electrons are excited, another mobile carrier, known as ferredoxin picks
up the electrons. Ferredoxin then shuttles the two electrons to ferredoxin NADP reductase
+
where NADP is reduced to NADPH.

Source: [Link].

Figure 4.1.1. Summary of the light – dependent reaction of photosynthesis.

Splitting of Water
The two electrons lost from photosystem II is replaced by the electrons lost from
+
the splitting of water molecule. The splitting of water molecule also releases protons (H )
+
and ½ O2 molecule. These hydrogen ions (H ) are transferred from the stroma to the
lumen, resulting in the build-up of pH gradient that drives ATP synthase, to convert ADP
and Pi to form ATP. In every water molecule photolyzed, one – half oxygen

General Physiology Course Pack 3

molecule is formed. Two molecules of water are needed to be photolyzed to produce
one oxygen molecule (O2).
Final Products
The oxygen molecule (O2) is a by - product of light reactions. The major
products of the reactions are the two-high energy-storing compounds, ATP and
NADPH which will be used in the carbohydrate synthesis.

Application

Answer the following concisely:

1. Explain how the light phase of photosynthesis
takes place.
2. How light energy is utilized to produce ATP and
NADPH?
3. Explain how O2 molecules are produced?

Alas! You made it! You now already learned the light reactions of photosynthesis.
You are now ready to proceed to Lesson 2 where you will learn how the final products of the
first phase of the reactions of photosynthesis will be utilized for carbon assimilation. Have a
great day!

Lesson 2. The Light – Independent Reaction

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the process the process of carbon dioxide assimilation to synthesize

glucose.
• Discuss the different carbohydrate synthesis mechanism among the different
types of plants.
Time Frame: 3 hours

Introduction

Hello, welcome to Lesson 2! Given that you’re already understood the

mechanism of the light – dependent reaction of photosynthesis, in this lesson you will
be learning another exciting topic, the light - independent reaction. In this lesson, you
will learn that the second phase of reactions does not anymore require light in order to

General Physiology Course Pack 4

proceed. However, it utilizes the two major products of the reactions, the ATP and
NADPH.

Activity 4.2

Look at the diagram below and recall the different types of carbohydrates that
you know.
Plants make carbohydrates!

Source: [Link]. ©Cengage

Analysis

1. What are the different types of carbohydrates?

2. How do you think plants synthesize carbohydrates?
3. Do you think all plants synthesize carbohydrates in the same way?
4. What are the needed materials to synthesize carbohydrates?

Abstraction

In order for you to understand how the process of light – independent

reactions take place in the chloroplast of the plant leaves, and how the carbohydrate
synthesis takes place, read the following carefully.
The light independent reaction, also known as dark reactions takes place in the
stroma of the chloroplast of a plant leaf. It occurs as long as the products of the light
reactions are available. These are the high energy storing compounds, NADPH and
ATP. These are used in the reactions in order to synthesize carbohydrates. The
process may proceed in different ways depending on the particular kind of plant,
however, they all go through the Calvin cycle.
The Calvin Cycle

General Physiology Course Pack 5

 The Calvin cycle is a continuous cycle which uses CO 2 and the energy stored
from ATP and NADPH in order to produce glucose (Fig. 4.2). It is named after its
discoverer, Melvin Calvin. The cycle involves three major phases: 1) carbon fixation,
2) reduction of PGA, and 3) regeneration of RuBP.

Figure 4.1.1. The Calvin cycle showing the three major stages (Source: [Link]).

1) Carbon fixation
In this phase, the enzyme (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase) RUBISCO
catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate (RUBP), forming
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). Hence, as shown in the figure, when 3 molecules of
CO2 are accepted by 3 molecules of RUBP and catalyzed by RUBISCO, it forms 6
molecules of PGA. This process is known as carbon fixation because the inorganic
CO2 is fixed to form an organic compound, PGA.
2) Reduction of PGA
In this phase, the six molecules of PGA are reduced using ATP and NADPH,
forming six molecules of phoshoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). The reduction reaction
is caused by the gaining of electrons by PGA from NADPH. Six molecules of
ATP and NADPH were used. The energy in ATP is released with the loss of the
terminal phosphate atom, converting it to ADP; for NADPH, both energy and a
+ +
hydrogen atom are lost, converting it to NADP . Both ADP and NADP will then
return to the adjacent location of light – dependent reactions in order to be reused.
3) Regeneration of RuBP
During this phase, the six molecules of PGAL produced from reduction
reaction will proceed to another step. One molecule of PGAL will be transported
to the cytoplasm to be used for the synthesis of glucose and other related
biomolecules required by the plant. The remaining five molecules of PGAL will
go on in the cycle to regenerate RuBP. Three more ATP is used in this step. Once
RuBP is available, it will be utilized again by the system to fix more CO2.

General Physiology Course Pack 6

 For every six molecules of CO2 that is fixed, 1 glucose molecule is produced.
In the given illustration, there are only 3 CO 2 that is used. Hence, it needs one
more turn of the cycle in order to produce one glucose molecule.

Carbohydrate Synthesis in Different Types of

Plants 1) C3 Plants
The first organic compound produced from the fixation of CO 2 in the Calvin cycle
is a three - carbon molecule, PGA and that the Calvin cycle is also known as the C3
pathway. Most plants follow this pathway. The synthesis of carbohydrates embarked
from the formation of three – carbon containing molecule from the initial fixation of
CO2.
Photorespiration
An alternative carbon fixation could take place in C3 plants whenever there is
high temperature and high irradiance. It is because the substrate specificity of
RUBISCO shifts in favor of O 2 as temperature increases. The leaf CO 2 concentration
becomes very low at high irradiance largely due to rapid photosynthesis and the low
carbon dioxide concentration favors oxygenation. C3 plants are temperate plants, and
when there is high temperature, the stomata of the leaves tend to close to prevent
water loss. It uses O2 as a first step in the pathway in order to generate CO2.
Photorespiration of C2 photorespiratory carbon oxidation cycle (PCO) involves
the cooperative interaction of chloroplasts, peroxisomes and mitochondria. The first
step that occurs is that RuBP is oxygenated in the chloroplast, producing
phosphoglycolate. Phosphoglycolate is then converted into glycolate and goes to
peroxisomes where it will be oxidized, converting it to glycine. Glycine will then be
diffused to mitochondrion whereby two glycine molecules are metabolized to produce
serine, producing ammonia and carbon dioxide. Serine will then go back to
peroxisome where it will be converted to glycerate. Glycerate will then goes back to
chloroplast, converting it to PGA using ATP and re-enters the Calvin cycle.
2) C4 Plants
The C4 plants which include most
tropical plants (cold tolerant) follows the C4
pathway for carbon fixation. They are so –
called as C4 plants because the first
compound formed from the initial fixation
of CO2 is four – carbon containing molecule,
oxaloacetate. These plants have leaves (i.e.
maize) with a “Kranz” anatomy, a ring - like
structure where the tissue equivalent to the
spongy mesophyll cells is clustered in a ring
around the leaf veins, outside the bundle-
sheath cells (Fig. 4.2.2). Figure 4.2.2. C4 Pathway.

In C4 plants, the initial carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle occurs in different
types of cells. The former takes place in the mesophyll cell while the latter takes place
in the bundle sheath cell (Fig. 4.4). Hence, there is a spatial separation of steps. When
CO2 enters the stomata of the leaf, it is fixed by combining with the three - carbon

General Physiology Course Pack 7

molecule, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and catalyzed by PEPcarboxylase to produce
the four –carbon compound, oxaloacetate. As the process continues, oxaloacetate is
then reduced to malate through the electrons released from NADPH. After which,
malate diffuse to bundle sheath cell, where Calvin cycle occurs. Malate is then
oxidized, forming three – carbon pyruvate eventually releasing CO 2 which will then
be used in the fixation step of the Calvin cycle. Next, pyruvate diffuses back to the
mesophyll cells where it is converted back into PEP with the help of ATP.
3) Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Plants
Carbohydrate synthesis for CAM
plants followed the CAM pathway. This
pathway was first observed from plants
belonging to Crassulaceae family. In CAM
plants such as cacti and other dessert
plants, the carbohydrate synthesis occurs
with temporal separation of steps in
mesophyll cells. The initial carbon fixation
takes place at night while the Calvin cycle
takes place during the day (Fig. 4.2.3).
Figure 4.2.3. CAM Pathway (source:
[Link]

The same with C4 plants, the initial carbon dioxide fixation produced oxaloacetate
in a reaction that catalyzed by PEP carboxylase. Oxaloacetate is also reduced into
malate, accumulates through the night and is stored in large cell vacuoles. During the
day, where the stomata close to prevent water loss, it moves from the vacuole to the
chloroplast. Malate during this time is oxidized forming pyruvate and generating CO 2
that will be used by the Calvin cycle.

Application

Answer the following questions concisely:

• Explain how carbon dioxide assimilation to
synthesize glucose takes place.
• Discuss the different carbohydrate synthesis
mechanism among C3, C4 and CAM plants.

Good work! You’re successfully done with Lesson 2. How was it? Learned
enough. Well not yet, in the next lesson you will learn more about the process. Aja!

Lesson 3. Factors Regulating the Process of Photosynthesis

General Physiology Course Pack 8

 Learning Outcomes

• Determine how factors affect the process of

photosynthesis. Time Frame: 1 hour

Introduction

Hi. Welcome to Lesson 3. Photosynthesis like any physiochemical process is

also governed by a number of factors. These factors are essential for the entire process
to function properly. In this lesson, you will learn these different factors and how they
interplay to make the process of food making in plants possible.

Activity 4.3

Read the following diary excerpt from a famous scientist, van Helmont.
Where was the wood come from?
An experiment carried out by Jean Baptiste
van Helmont (1580-1644).
“I took an earthenware pot in which I put 200
pounds of earth that had dried in a furnace.
I moistened it with rain water and implanted
in it a trunk of a willow tree weighing 5 pounds. I planted it in the garden and
covered the earth with an iron lid punched with many holes to allow rain water in.
At length, after 5 years, the tree did weigh 169 pounds and 3 ounces. I again dried the
earth in the vessel and found it weighed almost 200 pounds (less about 2 ounces).
Therefore 164 pounds of wood, bark and roots arose out of water only.”
Source: [Link]

Analysis

1. Based on van Helmont’s experiment, do you think his

conclusion is accurate? Why?
2. What other possible justifications could there be for the results
he found?
3. Do you think that only water contributes to the growth of the
tree?
4. Will there be other factors that help the tree grow? What are
these possible factors?

Abstraction

General Physiology Course Pack 9

 To determine the many factors that influence the photosynthetic activity of
plants, read the following carefully:
There are external and internal factors that affect photosynthesis. These
external factors include light, carbon dioxide, temperature, water, oxygen, mineral
elements and air pollutants. The internal factors include photosynthetic pigments,
protoplasmic factors, anatomy and age of the leaf, accumulation of photosynthetic
products and plant hormones.
External factors:
1) Light – has both direct and indirect effects on photosynthetic rate. Its quality,
quantity and intensity affect the process. It is involved in the photolysis of water
and in the excitation of chlorophyll molecules during light reaction phase. It also
regulates the movements of stomata, resulting to the diffusion of carbon dioxide
inside the cell from the outside.

2) Carbon dioxide – is a limiting factor for photosynthesis. It is a raw material for the
synthesis of sugar. In nature, the amount of carbon dioxide is only 0.038 per cent,
10 percent of the gas by volume. Under usual conditions, an increase in the
amount of CO2 results to an increase in the photosynthetic activity resulting an
inhibitory effect on the activity because it causes the closure of the stomata.

3) Temperature – is another factor that regulate photosynthesis. An increase and

0
decrease of temperature beyond its optimum limit (i.e. 40 C) will deactivate
enzymes that participates in the photosynthetic reactions. An increase in
0
temperature from 25 – 30 C will favor photorespiration process to prevent
photooxidative damage, particularly among C3 plants. Conversely, a decrease in
temperature inhibits the carbohydrate synthesis because enzymes facilitating the
reactions involve are deactivated. Also, the low temperature causes mechanical
damage to plants, shocking the structure of the cell particularly chloroplast,
impeding the process to continue.

4) Water – is an important requirement for photosynthesis. During the light reactions, it

+
supplies the lost electrons in photosystem II in order to reduced NADP to NADPH.
The hydrogen ions released from the photolysis of water also contributes to the build -
up of electrochemical gradient, driving ATP synthesis. Loss of water will retard the
photosynthetic process because plants will tend to close their stomata to prevent
dehydration. Dehydration of the cytoplasm impedes the enzymes to facilitate
reactions, resulting to the disruption of the metabolic processes.

5) Oxygen – influences the rate of photosynthesis. An increase in percentage beyond

21 percent inhibits the process to occur. With increase oxygen amount,
photorespiration takes place. Rubisco will shift to its oxygenase activity, resulting
to lower rate of carbon fixation.

6) Mineral elements – they work as cofactors to enzymes to hasten major reactions in

photosynthesis. Insufficient supply of these minerals (i.e. Mg, Cu, Cl, Mn and P)
slows down photosynthetic rate.

General Physiology Course Pack 10

7) Air pollutants – at low amount, gases such as SO 2, NO2, O3 and smog do not
affect photosynthetic rate. However, with higher amount they obstruct the process
to take place. Ozone, which is highly reactive can damage the permeability
properties of membrane which subsequently results to lower photosynthetic yields.

Application
Answer the following questions:
1.) Determine the different factors affecting photosynthesis.
2.) How does the fluctuation in each of these factors affect the
process?
3. In your opinion, will the rate of photosynthesis decrease with
global warming phenomenon nowadays?

Congratulations! You made it through and understand the process of

photosynthesis as well as understand how the external factors affects the process. Are
you ready for the next lesson? Brace yourself, in the next lesson, you learn another
physiologic process. Good luck!

Lesson 4. Aerobic and Anaerobic Pathways

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the process of glucose breakdown to produce energy.

• Discuss and compare aerobic and aerobic pathways for the breakdown of
glucose.
Time Frame: 3 hours

Introduction

Good day! Welcome to Lesson 4! In lesson 3, you learned the process of food
production via photosynthesis. In this lesson, you will learn the reverse of the process,
the breaking down of the glucose molecule in order to harvest the energy stored in it.

Activity 5.1

Look at the illustration below. Analyze it carefully.

General Physiology Course Pack 11

 Source: [Link]

Analysis

Answer the following.

1) Based on the illustration, do you agree that aerobic is a
cardiovascular training and anaerobic is a strength training?
2) What do we spend when we exercise?
3) How do we obtain energy?
4) What happens to your body when you do intense exercise?

Abstraction

Respiration is a catabolic, energy – releasing process in which sugars or other

organic molecules are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O).
There are two types of pathways in the breakdown of sugars namely, aerobic and
anaerobic. To understand this metabolic process, read the following carefully.
Respiration as a catabolic process involves glycolysis, oxidative
decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and the
electron transport system, which produce a gradient that drives oxidative
phosphorylation, producing ATP.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a process that occurs in the cytosol and takes place generally in
all living organisms, from prokaryotes to the eukaryotic cells of plants and animals. It
describes the step by step breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in a string of 10
reactions, each of which is catalyzed by certain enzymes (Fig. 4.5.1).

General Physiology Course Pack 12

Figure 4.4.1. The glycolytic pathway or Embden – Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway. For each molecule of
glucose that passes through the preparatory phase two molecules of glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate are
generated; both pass through the payoff phase and ultimately 2 molecules of pyruvate are formed.

There are two phases of glycolysis as under:

1) Preparatory phase which involves the production of triose phosphate
(glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate) from glucose from a hexose – phosphate pool.

General Physiology Course Pack 13

 2) Pay – off phase which involves oxidative conversion of triose phosphate into
pyruvate and the associated reactions involving generation of ATP and
NADPH.
1) Preparatory phase
It involves a sequence of reactions by which several types of glucose and
fructose sugars obtained the storage carbohydrates are transformed to the common
intermediate compounds such as triose phosphate through the cytoplasmic hexose –
phosphate pool. These phosphorylated intermediates are later transformed to fructose
- 1,6-bisphosphate, at the expense of 2 ATP molecules for every molecule of hexose
(glucose). Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is the main respiratory substrate that splits into
two molecules of triose phosphate. Thus, during this phase the energy that is in the
form of ATP is utilized, increasing the free energy of the intermediate compounds,
and the carbon chains of all the metabolized hexoses are changed to a common
product, glyceraldehyde – 3-phosphate.
2) Pay –off phase
In this phase, the gain of energy comes about. The second step involves
reactions for further transformation of triose phosphate to pyruvate via intermediates.
Step 7 and 10 in the glycolytic pathway represent substrate-level phosphorylation, i.e.
the synthesis of ATP by the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate
(metabolic intermediate) to ADP.
Glycolysis can be summed up by the overall equation:
+ +
Glucose + 2NAD + 2ADP + 2Pi 2 Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2H + 2ATP + 2H2O
Pyruvate is a key intermediate in cellular energy metabolism since it can be
utilized in one of the several pathways. Its fate depends primarily on the presence of
oxygen and partly on the specific organism involved or the particular tissue in the
organism.
Pyruvate
(O2) (absence of O2)

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1) Citric acid cycle Alcoholic Lactic acid

2) Electron transport fermentation fermentation
chain coupled to
oxidative
phosphorylation
C2H5OH + CO2 Lactic acid

End products: CO2 + H2O

When oxygen molecule is present, aerobic breakdown will take place and proceed
to the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain coupled to oxidative phosphorylation.
These processes occur in the mitochondria. However, before the cytosolic pyruvate
reaches to the mitochondrial matrix, it must first cross both the outer and inner membrane
of the organelle. Although the outer membrane allows small

General Physiology Course Pack 14

molecules to pass through the porin channels; however, inner mitochondrial
membrane is impervious to most of the bigger molecules, including pyruvate which
still requires a co-transport protein to ferry pyruvate along with a proton to the matrix
where subsequent reactions take place.
Oxidative Decarboxylation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
When the pyruvate produced from the glycolytic pathway reaches inside the
mitochondrial matrix, pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation (release of CO 2) in an
oxidation reaction to form acetyl CoA. In the course of this exergonic reaction, a
+
molecule of NADH is generated from NAD for every pyruvate molecule that is
oxidized. Oxidation of two molecules of pyruvate, thus produces two molecules of
NADH and CO2 each. The reaction is catalyzed by a number of enzymes including
pyruvate dehydrogenase in association with five cofactors: thiamine pyrophosphate
(TPP) – a derivative of vitamin B1, Mg2, NAD+, CoA and lipoic acid. The pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex consists of 3 component enzymes, namely pyruvate
dehydrogenase, dihydrolipoyl transacetylase and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase.
Acetyl CoA is the connecting link between glycolysis and Krebs cycle. Once
formed, it becomes the starting material for the Krebs cycle or else channeled into
fatty acid synthesis.
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl CoA, its substrate. Upon entering the
cycle, the 2-C acetyl group condenses with 4-C compound, oxaloacetate, to yield a 6-
C compound, citrate. Through a series of enzyme – catalyzed reactions involving four
oxidations steps (yielding NADH at step 3 and FADH at step 1), oxaloacetate is
regenerated from citrate, accompanied by the release of 2 molecules of carbon
dioxide. One ATP molecule is produced through substrate –level phosphorylation at
step 6. Α-Ketoglutaric acid is one of the key intermediate compounds of the Krebs
cycle as it is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism as well as during
biosynthesis and degradation of amino acids.
The Krebs cycle must turn two times to oxidize the equivalent of one hexose
sugar. The overall equation for the cycle is therefore:
+
Oxaloacetate + acetyl CoA + 3H2O + ADP + Pi + 3NAD +
+
FAD Oxaloacetate + 2CO2 + ATP + 3NADH + 3H + FADH2

General Physiology Course Pack 15

 Source: [Link]

Figure 4.4.2. Citric acid cycle or Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) or Krebs cycle reactions.

General Physiology Course Pack 16

 Application

Answer the following concisely.

1) How do cells breakdown glucose molecules?
2) Where glycolysis does takes place?
3) What is the fate of pyruvate when oxygen molecule is
present? When oxygen is absent?
4) Compare the anaerobic and aerobic pathways. What are
their final products?

Kudos for a job well done! You surely had spent much ATP from this lesson.
But you will still spend more of energy in the next lesson. A common cliché said,
“More energy, mas happy”. Let’s make happy happen? Keep going.

Lesson 5. Energy Production: Oxidative Phosphorylation

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the process of energy production via oxidative phosphorylation.

Time Frame: 1 hour

Introduction

Energy production via oxidative phosphorylation proceeds when there is the

presence of O2 as an electron acceptor. The energy carried by FADH 2 and NADH
from Krebs cycle and glycolysis are shuttled to electron transport system to generate
ATP which the cell could use to function its role.

Activity 5.1

Look at the figure below. It shows a DAM where the water source above
drives the turbine resulting to generation of energy.

General Physiology Course Pack 17

 Like Water on a DAM!

In a hydroelectric power plant, water from the reservoir is controlled

to flow through the dam to turn the turbine generator (Source:
[Link]

Analysis

1) Based on the illustration, do you think energy is also

produced in the same sense as shown in the figure?
2) What drives the turbine to generate energy?
3) What are the players that perform the generation of energy in
the cell?
4) What organelle performs the generation of energy?
5) Which part of the organelle does this generation of energy
takes place?

Abstraction

To understand the process of energy production, read the following carefully!

Oxidative phosphorylation refers to two processes: oxidation, involving electron
flow, and phosphorylation, involving generation of ATP from ADP and P i. This process
takes place in mitochondria. During this process, another kind of coupling occurs:
coupling of electron and proton movement. As the electrons from NADH to O 2 move
through the inner mitochondrial matrix to the exterior of the inner membrane. This
movement of protons is vectorial, because it has both a magnitude and direction.
The reduced compounds, NADH and FADH, generated from the Krebs cycle
represent reducing power that, using oxygen, are utilized to synthesize ATP. The
synthesis of ATP by the electron flow through the carriers of electron transport system
(ETS), with molecular oxygen as the terminal oxygen acceptor, is called oxidative
phosphorylation. ETS is a sequence of electron carriers, which consists of NAD,
FAD, ubiquinone and cytochrome (b, c1, c, a, a3) embedded in the inner mitochondrial
membrane. Cytochromes are conjugated protein molecules with an iron – containing
porphyrin ring or haeme group attached. They pick up electrons on their iron atoms,
+++ ++
which can be interchangeably reduced from ferric (Fe ) to ferrous (Fe ) forms.

General Physiology Course Pack 18

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
The electron transport chain which is confined to the inner mitochondrial
membrane comprises of following four transmembrane multiprotein complexes,
joined by mobile electron carriers as shown below:

Figure. Electron flow along the respiratory electron transport chain and synthesis of
ATP in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The individual electron transport
proteins are grouped into four transmembrane multiprotein complexes. Complex I,
III and IV are engaged in proton pumping from matrix to intermembrane space.

Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) – oxidizes electrons generated from NADH in a

matrix of the mitochondria during Krebs cycle and in turn, transfers them to ubiquinone.
Ubiquinone, a small electron and proton carrier, is present in the inner mitochondrial
membrane and can diffuse within the hydrophobic layer of the membrane.
The electron carriers in complex I include FMN (flavin mononucleotide) as a
cofactor and several iron-sulfur centers. For each pair of electrons moving through the
complex, four H+ are pumped out of the matrix into the intermembranous region.
Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase) – catalyzes the oxidation of succinate to
fumarate in the Krebs cycle and transfers the electrons from FADH2 and iron –
sulphur centers to ubiquinone. It is not involved in any pumping of protons.
Complex III (Cyrochrome bc1complex) – oxidizes reduced ubiquinone and in turn
transfers the electrons through Fe-S center, cytochrome b and a membrane – bound
cytochrome c-a peripheral mobile electron carrier confined to the external surface of
the inner mitochondrial membrane, that serves to transfer electrons between complex
III and IV.
Four protons per electron pair are pumped out from the matrix into the
intermembrane region by complex III using a mechanism called Q cycle but only two
out of four resulting electrons proceed down the electron transport chain to ultimately
reduce O2.
Complex IV (Cytochrome c oxidase) - causes the reduction of O2 to 2 molecules of
H2O. This contains cytochromes a, and a3 along with two copper centers (Cu A and
CuB). Two protons are pumped out of the matrix per electron pair.
During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons transfer from complexes I, III and IV
to O2 is linked to the production of ATP using ADP as well as Pi through the F0–F1 ATP
+
synthase complex. For each ATP synthesized, 3H pass through F0 component of the
ATP synthase from intermembrane space to the matrix, down the electrochemical proton
gradient. NADH leads to the production of three ATPs, while each FADH produces two
ATPs. Rather than liberating energy in a single burst, electrons fall too

General Physiology Course Pack 19

low to lower and then to the lowest energy level (most electronegative electron
acceptors) in steps, releasing locked up energy at each step.
Chemiosmosis is the movement of protons across a semipermeable membrane
down their electrochemical gradient. During this process, the electron carriers
including NADH and FADH shuttle their electrons to the electron transport chain
+
resulting to the conformational changes in the shapes of proteins to pump H across
the inner mitochondrial membrane. Because of the of the uneven distribution of the
+
H across the mitochondrial membrane, formation of both concentration and electrical
+
gradients due to the H and their aggregation on one side of the membrane occur.
+
In oxidative phosphorylation, the H gradient is used by the ATP synthase to
synthesize ATP. ATP synthase works as a tiny turbine which is turned through the
+
force of H diffusing through it, down the electrochemical gradient. As a result, the
+
energy stored in the H gradient is used up to add a phosphate to ADP as well as P i to
form ATP.

Application

Answer the following concisely.

1) What are major events involved in energy production?
2) Explain how electrons are shuttled in the
electron transport chain. What the major protein
complex involved?
3) How ATP synthase does generate ATP?

Congratulations! Isn’t it interesting to learn how energy is produced in the cell? Your
body surely release a lot of energy for you to be able to finish this module? Have more
energy. Keep it up!

Module Summary

• Photosynthesis a process of making food in plants that involves two reactions,

the light – dependent reactions and the light – independent reactions.
• The light reactions of photosynthesis produce ATP and NADPH that will be
utilized in the light – independent reactions for carbon assimilation. Water is
the by – product of the light reactions.
• The light – independent reactions involves the carbon dioxide fixation, leading
to the production of carbohydrates.
• Different types of plants have different mechanisms for carbohydrate
synthesis, but they all go through the Calvin cycle.
• Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose molecule which can
have two pathways depending on whether there is presence or absence of
oxygen molecule. If oxygen is available, glucose breakdown proceeds the

General Physiology Course Pack 20

 aerobic pathway and when there is no oxygen available, the glucose
breakdown proceeds the anaerobic pathway.
• Oxidative phosphorylation involves the production of more ATP molecules.

References
Bhatla, Satish C. and Lal Manju A. (2018). Plant Physiology, Development and
Metabolism. Springer Nature. Singapore.
Duca, Maria. (2015). Plant Physiology. Springer International Publishing. Switzerland.
Kochhar, S. L. and Sukhbir Kaur Guiral. (2020). Plant Physiology: Theory and
nd
Applications. 2 edition. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom.
Leegood R.C. (1993) Carbon metabolism. In: Hall D.O., Scurlock J.M.O., Bolhàr-
Nordenkampf H.R., Leegood R.C., Long S.P. (eds) Photosynthesis and
Production in a Changing Environment. Springer, Dordrecht.
[Link]
Science & Plants for Schools. (2020). Photosynthesis – A survival guide for teachers.
Retrieved on July 15, 2020 from Science & Plants for Schools website:
[Link]

General Physiology Course Pack 21