1.

Flow measurements:
Flow measurement is one of the most frequently encountered problems in fluid mechanics by field
engineers. Efficient and accurate measurements are essential to arrive at correct estimates with
minimum errors. For this purpose, the engineer should be well equipped with the basic knowledge of
various methods to measure fluid properties and phenomena. The purpose of this unit is to give the
principle of fluid measurements by various devices.
1.1 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
Velocity measurement is one of the most important measurements in fluid mechanics. It is useful in
determining the discharge, velocity profile and shear stress across a section
1.1.1 Pitot Tube
A Pitot tube, which is named after Henry Pitot (1730), is used to measure the velocity of the fluid see
figure below. The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube
contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is
no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known
as the total pressure or the pitot pressure. The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to
determine the fluid flow velocity. However, Beronulli’s equation
states: Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure
In summary difference in the readings of pitot tube and piezometer (h) indicates the velocity head i.e
2
v
=h
2g
Therefore
v=√ 2 gh

A pitot tube inserted at the centre of a 0.22m diameter pipe was connected to a static tube through an
inverted U-Tube as shown in the figure below. When the pipe carries water the difference in head
was 8cm as indicated. Determine the velocity of flow

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1.1.2 Prandtl Tube
The combination of static pressure tube and stagnation pressure (total) tube is known as Prandtl pitot
tube. When the boundary surface is rough and the static pressure measurements at the boundary are
not possible, this device can be used. The front portion of the tube is rounded (Figure 7.5) to avoid
separation of the flow and on its shaft, holes are provided at certain distance where streamlines
become parallel. The two tubes are enclosed in the same tube and are connected to a differential
manometer. The manometer reading indicates the velocity head from which velocity can be
determined. A coefficient Cd (0.95 to 0.99) is evaluated to eliminate the error in the velocity caused
due to slight imperfection in the fabrication of the device. Hence the actual velocity V actual is given as
V actual =√ 2 g h

1.2 MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE

Discharge of liquids may be measured by use of orifices, Mouth pieces, notches and weirs,
venturimeter, orifice meter, flow nozzle and venturi flume.
1.2.1 Orifices
An orifice is an opening in the wall of a container/tank and can be of different cross-section
( Circular, triangular, rectangular etc.) through which a fluid is flowing.
1.2.1.1 Classification of orifices
The various types of orifices include
i) Small and large orifice, which are based on the size and head of liquid from the centre of the
orifice.
Orifices are small if the head of the liquid from the centre of the orifice is more than five times
the depth of the orifice. If the head is less than five times the depth of the orifice then it is
termed as large

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 ii) Circular, triangular rectangular or square orifices based on the cross-sectional area.
iii) Sharp-edged or bell mouthed orifices depending on the shape of the upstream edge of the
orifice
iv) Free discharging and drowned/submerged orifices depending upon the nature of discharge.
Submerged orifices may be fully submerged or partially submerged.
1.2.1.2 Flow through an orifice
A standard orifice has a sharp edge and the flow through such an orifice is shown in Figure below.
As the fluid flows, the streamlines converge to form a jet having a cross section smaller than the orifice,
known as vena contracta. Since the fluid particles cannot change their direction abruptly, the position of
vena contracta is slightly away from the wall.

Streamlines are thus curved between the orifice and vena contracta. However, at the vena contracta,
the streamlines are parallel and the pressure is atmospheric.
Let a constant head H be maintained above the centre of the orifice. Bernoulli's equation applied
between point 1 on the free surface and point 2 at the centre of vena contracta gives
2
V2
0+ 0+ H= +0+ 0
2g
V 2= √ 2 g H
The above expression indicates theoretical velocity of the jet, which does not include the frictional
losses on the periphery of the orifice. Hence a coefficient known as velocity coefficient, C v is
introduced in calculating the actual velocity which is the ratio of the actual velocity V a, to the
theoretical velocity Vt .
V a =C v √ 2 gH

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The actual discharge Qa through the orifice is the product of actual velocity at the vena contracta and
the area of the jet. The area of the jet at vena contracta A 2 is smaller than the area of the orifice A 0,
and their ratio is known as coefficient of contraction (Cc ). The actual discharge can thus be given as
Qa=C v C c AO √ 2 gH
The product of the above two coefficients is known as discharge coefficient Cd, i.e
C d=C c C v
Hence Qa=Cd A 0 √ 2 gH
If the downstream side of the orifice is submerged, the discharge equation gets modified as
Qa=C'd √ 2 g H '
In which H' is the difference between upstream and downstream 1evels.C’ d is the new discharge
coefficient, the value of which is slightly lesser than Cd, .

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1.2.1.3 Determination of coefficient of hydraulics
The value of coefficient of velocity Cv for circular orifices varies from 0.95 to 0.98. For an orifice of
given dimensions, Cv slightly increases with increase in H . For circular orifices, with the diameter
less than H, Cc , is equal to 0.61. The values of Cv , and Cc, however are to be determined
experimentally. The following are some of the methods used in determining the hydraulic
coefficients, Cv , Cc, and Cd .
1) Trajectory method
2) Pitot tube method :
3) Callipers method :
4) Momentum method
5) Through measurements