[IV] Science

Intro to Physics
Study of matter, energy, and their interactions (e.g., sound, light,
mechanics, heat, electricity, magnetism, nuclear energy).

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Scalar quantity: Has Vector quantity: Has both magnitude
magnitude only (e.g., speed, and direction (e.g., velocity,
mass). displacement, weight).

Examples:

Speed: V = d/t (m/s or mi/h) Velocity: V = d/t

Distance: meters (m) Displacement: meters (m)

Mass: grams (g) or kilograms (kg) Weight: W = mg (Newtons)

Volume: m³, cm³, L, mL Acceleration: m/s²

Force: Newtons (N)

METRIC SYSTEM (SI Units)

Standard system for measurement.
Fundamental Units in the SI System:

Length: meter (m)

Mass: kilogram (kg)

Time: second (s)

Temperature: Kelvin (K)

Electric current: ampere (A)

Luminous intensity: candela (cd)

Amount of substance: mole (mol)

CONVERSIONS
Length: Time:

1 km = 1000 m 1 hr = 60 min

1 m = 100 cm 1 min = 60 sec

1 cm = 0.01 m 1 sec = 1/60 min

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 1 m = 0.001 km 1 min = 1/60 hr

POWER OF TEN NOTATION

Used to simplify writing very large or small numbers.
Examples:

100,000,000,000 = 10¹¹

0.000001 = 10⁻⁶

Exponents Rules:

Multiply: add exponents

Divide: subtract exponents

(10²)³ = 10⁶

√10 = 10¹/²

10⁰ = 1

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Format: Number between 1 and 10 × 10^exponent
Examples:

0.0000053 = 5.3 × 10⁻⁶

0.025 = 2.5 × 10⁻²

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (Sig Figs)

A number of digits that reflect the precision of a measurement.
Rules:

1. All non-zero digits count.

Example: 49,627 → 5 sf

2. Leading zeros don’t count.

0.0001 → 1 sf

3. Captive zeros (between non-zeros) count.

90.000000367 → 11 sf

4. Trailing zeros count only if there's a decimal.

2.30000 → 6 sf

230,000 → 2 sf

230,000. → 6 sf

5. Whole numbers: trailing zeros only count if specified (e.g., bar

notation).

Operations:

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 Add/Subtract: Round to least decimal places.

Example: 32.05 g + 3.0 g = 35.1 g

Multiply/Divide: Round to least number of significant figures.

Example: 252 m × 9.3 m = 2,343.6 m² ≈ 2.3 × 10³ m² (if least sf is 2)

QUALITATIVE vs QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS

Qualitative: Descriptive, non-numerical (e.g., colors, smell).

Quantitative: Numerical data with units (e.g., 38 mL).

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy: Closeness to the true value.

Precision: Repeatability or consistency of results.

Examples:

Good accuracy & precision: all darts hit the bullseye.

Good precision, poor accuracy: darts are close together but off-center.

Poor precision, good accuracy: darts spread out but centered on target.

Poor both: darts are spread out and miss the target.

Vector Composition
Scalar Quantity
Needs only magnitude (with units) to be described.

Example: Speed = 60 km/h

Vector Quantity
Needs both magnitude and direction.

Example: Velocity = 60 km/h east

Composition of Vectors / Vector Addition

Definition: Combining two or more vectors into a single resultant vector.

Use either Pythagorean Theorem or the head-to-tail method (for

graphical).

Pythagorean Theorem

For right-angle vectors:

R = a2 + b2R = a
2
+ b
2

​

Where:

R = resultant

a, b = component vectors

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 Sample Problems & Solutions
1. Resultant of 60.0 N vertical and 100.0 N horizontal force

Use:
2 2
R = (60)2 + (100)2 = 3600 + 10000 = 13600 ≈ 116.6 NR = (60) + (100) ​ =

3600 + 10000 = ​ 13600 ≈ ​ 116.6 N 

​

2. 20 N east, 27 N west; find 3rd force for resultant 10 N east

Let the 3rd force be F.

Net force from east and west:

27N west −20 N east = 7N west 

To get resultant of 10 N east:

F = 17 N east 

Because 17N − 7N = 10N 

Answer: 17 N east

3. Two 75 N forces at right angles

R = 75
2
+ 75
2
​
= 5625 + 5625 = ​ 11250 ≈ ​ 106.1 N 
​

4. 13 km west + 12 km west

Same direction → Add directly:

13 km + 12 km = 25 km west 
​

5. 15 km south + 16 km north
Opposite directions → Subtract:

16 − 15 = 1 km north 

6. 3 km west + 4 km south

Right angle → Use Pythagorean:

R = 3
2
+ 4
2
​
= 9 + 16 =
​
25 = ​
5 km southwest 
​

7. Displacement & Distance

a. From 20.5 m to 46.2 m

Displacement = 46.2 − 20.5 = 25.7 m 

​

b. From 7.3 m to 16.7 m, then 3.1 m back

Total distance:

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 16.7 − 7.3 + 3.1 = 12.5 m 
​

Net displacement:

16.7 − 7.3 − 3.1 = 6.3 m 

​

8. Pirate Navigation Problem

Given:

51.4 km north, then 65.7 km west

To find shortest path:

R = (51.4)
2
+ (65.7)
2
​ = 2642 + 4319 = ​ 6961 ≈
​ 83.4 km 
​

To find angle θ :

65.7 ∘
tan θ =
51.4
​ , θ ≈ tan
−1
(1.278) ≈ 52.7 west of north 
​

Vector Resolution
Breaking one vector into two perpendicular components (usually horizontal
and vertical).

Trigonometric Formulas for Components:

Let F be the vector and θ be the angle from the horizontal:

Horizontal (x) component: Fx = F * cos(θ)

Vertical (y) component: Fy = F * sin(θ)

Sample Problems (With Solutions)

Example 1:
Resolve 30 km @ 60° South of East

x = 30 cos(60°) = 30 * 0.5 = 15 km East

y = 30 sin(60°) = 30 * 0.866 ≈ 25.98 km South

Example 2:

A force of 60 N is applied at an angle of 40° to the horizontal.

Fx = 60 cos(40°) ≈ 45.96 N

Fy = 60 sin(40°) ≈ 38.57 N

Example 3:
A lawn mower is pushed with 90 N at an angle of 40° to the ground.

Horizontal component: 90 cos(40°) ≈ 68.94 N

Example 4:

A walker pushes a cart with 200 N of force at a 40° angle.

[IV] Science 5
 Horizontal: 200 cos(40°) ≈ 153.21 N

Vertical: 200 sin(40°) ≈ 128.56 N

Example 5:

Resolve 55 km at 35° West of South

(Since it's measured from the South axis, use cosine for the vertical and
sine for the horizontal)

x = 55 sin(35°) ≈ 31.57 km West

y = 55 cos(35°) ≈ 45.05 km South

Uniform Motion and Uniformly Accelerated

Motion
Speed: distance per unit of time

Velocity: describes the speed and direction of a moving object

Acceleration: a change of velocity per unit of time

Deceleration: negative acceleration

Velocity Acceleration

the rate at which an object the change in the speed or

covers a distance direction objects movement

the change in position over time

distance/time  change in velocity/time 

Constant speed (Zero Acceleration)

Increasing speed (Constant positive acceleration)

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 Decreasing speed (Constant negative acceleration)

Uniform Motion
It is the motion of an object in a straight line with uniform velocity.

Examples:

The movement of the blades of a fan

The motion of the earth around the sun

The motion of the pendulum with equivalent amplitude on either side

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Objects moving in a straight line whose acceleration does not change
over time is said to have uniformly accelerated motion.

Examples:

The motion of a freely falling object

An object that is thrown vertically upward

The motion of a ball rolling down an inclined plane

Formulas

d = vi t + ​ ½at 2
d = (
vi +vf
​

2
​

​ )t 
vf = vi + at
​ ​

2 2
(vf ) ​ = (vi ) ​ + 2ad 

d = the object’s position (displacement)

vi = the object’s initial velocity

​

vf = the object’s final velocity

​

a = the object’s acceleration

t = elapsed time

Sample Problems
1. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47
seconds. Determine the acceleration of the car and the distance
traveled.

Given:

Initial velocity, vi = 18.5 m/s

​


Final velocity, vf = 46.1 m/s

​ 

Time, t = 2.47 s 

a. Find acceleration (a)

Use the formula:

vf −vi 46.1−18.5 27.6 2

​ ​

a = ​
= ​ = ​ ≈ 11.17 m/s ​

t 2.47 2.47

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 b. Find distance traveled (d)

Use:
1 2 1 2
d = vi t + ​ ​ at = (18.5)(2.47) + ​ (11.17)(2.47)
2 2

Calculate:

18.5 ⋅ 2.47 = 45.695

2
​ ⋅ 11.17 ⋅ 6.1009 ≈ 34.06 

Soooooo,

d ≈ 45.70 + 34.06 = 79.76 m 

​

2. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to reach a speed

of 21 m/s in 7.0 seconds. What was the speed of the object after
2.0 seconds?

Given:

vi = 0 (starts from rest)

​


vf = 21 m/s ​ 

Time, t = 7.0 s 

a. Find acceleration:

vf −vi 21 2

​ ​

a = ​
= ​
= 3.0 m/s ​

t 7

b. Speed after 2.0 seconds

v = vi + at = 0 + 3.0 ⋅ 2.0 =
​ 6.0 m/s 
​

3. Determine the distance covered by a bus that moved with an

acceleration of 4.3 m/s2 after 20 seconds if the initial velocity
of the vehicle was 15 m/s.

Given:
2
a = 4.3 m/s 

t = 20 s 

vi = 15 m/s​ 

Find distance (d):

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 1 2 1
d = vi t + ​

2
​ at = (15)(20) +
2
​ (4.3)(400) = 300 + 860 = 1160 m 
​

Free Fall Motion

Free fall motion is an example of one-dimensional motion.

A FREE-FALLING OBJECT is an object that is falling under the sole

influence of gravity.
2
It will experience a downward acceleration of 9.8m/s 

1. An object in free fall experiences an acceleration of -9.8 m/s

2. If an object is merely dropped from an elevated height, then the

initial velocity is 0 m/s.

3. If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical direction,

then it will slow down as it rises upward. The instant at which it
reaches the peak of its trajectory, its velocity is 0 m/s.

4. If an object is projected upwards in a perfectly vertical direction,

then the velocity at which it is projected is equal to the velocity
that it has when it returns to the same height.

Formulas

d = ½gt 2
d = v ∗ t (average velocity) 
vf = gt ​

2
(vf ) ​ = 2gd 

d = the object’s position (displacement)

vi = the object’s initial velocity

​

vf = the object’s final velocity

​

a = the object’s acceleration

t = elapsed time

Terminal Speed
You amy safely assume that a=g=9.8m/s^2 for speeds up to several meters
per second

The air resistance from friction increases as a falling object’s speed

increases

[IV] Science 9
 Eventually, the rate of acceleration is reduced to zero and the object
falls with constant speed.

The maximum speed at which an object falls when limited by air friction
is called the terminal velocty

Projectile Motion I and II

A projectile is any object that moves through the air under the influence of
gravity, assuming negligible air resistance.

It can be:

Thrown vertically upward

Launched at an angle

Dropped from rest

Time of flight (t) – Time the projectile is in motion (from launch to

landing)

Range (dx) – Maximum horizontal distance traveled

Maximum height (dy) – Highest vertical point the projectile reaches

Type I: Horizontal Projection

Initial vertical velocity is zero; object is launched horizontally.

Formulas for Type I:

2dy
t =
g
​

​

dx = vx ⋅ t
​ 

Where:

vx = horizontal velocity
​ 

dy = vertical distance 
2
g = 9.8 m/s 

Sample Problems for Type I:

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 1. A man throws a rock horizontally from the top of a cliff 80 m high
at 25 m/s.

Find:

a. Time in the air

b. Horizontal distance traveled

Solution:

2⋅80 160
a. t =
9.8
​ ​ =
9.8
​ ​ ≈ 4.04 s 

b. dx = 25 ⋅ 4.04 ≈ 101 m 

2. A marble rolls off a table with vx=15 m/sv_x = 15 \, m/s, time =

0.50 s.

Find:

a. Vertical displacement

b. Horizontal displacement

Solution:
1 2 2
a. dy =
2
​ gt = 0.5 ⋅ 9.8 ⋅ (0.5) = 1.225 m 

a. dx = vx ⋅ t = 15 ⋅ 0.5 = 7.5 m ​ 
Type II: Projectile at an Angle
Object is launched at an angle θ\theta from the horizontal.

Formulas for Type II:

1. Initial velocity components

vx = v cos(θ)
​ 

vy = v sin(θ)
​ 

2. Time to reach max height

vy

​

tup = ​ ​

3. Time of flight
2vy

​

t = ​

4. Maximum height
2
v
y

​

dy = ​

2g

5. Range

dx = vx ⋅ t ​ 

Sample Problems for Type II:

1. A football is thrown at 35.6 m/s at 30°.

Find vx , vy ​ 
​

[IV] Science 11
 a. Maximum height

b. Range

Solution:

a. vx = 35.6 cos(30°) ≈ 30.83 m/s

​ 

vy = 35.6 sin(30°) ≈ 17.80 m/s

​ 
2
(17.80)
b. dy =
2⋅9.8
​
≈ 16.2 m 
2⋅17.80
c. t =
9.8
​ ≈ 3.63 s 

dx = 30.83 ⋅ 3.63 ≈ 111.9 m 

2. A golf ball is hit at 4.00 m/s at 66°.

Find:

a. Maximum height

b. Range

Solution:

a. vy = 4 sin(66°) ≈ 3.66 m/s

​ 
2
(3.66)
dy =
2⋅9.8
​
≈ 0.68 m 

b. vx = 4 cos(66°) ≈ 1.63 m/s

​ 
2⋅3.66
t =
9.8
​ ≈ 0.75 s 

dx = 1.63 ⋅ 0.75 ≈ 1.22 m 

Q&A
1. When is the range greatest?

The range is greatest when a projectile is launched at an angle of 45

degrees. This is the optimal angle for achieving maximum horizontal
distance under ideal conditions with no air resistance.

2. At what angle will a projectile be thrown so that it will reach its

greatest maximum height?

The greatest maximum height is reached when the projectile is launched at

90 degrees (straight upward). In this case, all the initial velocity
contributes to vertical motion.

3. Will the same angle of release have the same range and maximum height?

No. A single angle of release produces a unique combination of range and

maximum height. However, angles that are complementary (add up to 90°)
yield the same range, but they do not produce the same maximum height.

4. How important is our knowledge of the relationship of complementary

angles to our study of projectile motion? In what aspect of projectile

[IV] Science 12
 motion are they relevant?

Understanding complementary angles is important because they help explain

how different angles can result in the same range. For instance, a
projectile launched at 30° and 60° will land at the same horizontal
distance (range), assuming the same initial speed and launch height.
However, the maximum heights will be different.

5. When is the flight of a projectile longest?

The flight time is longest when the projectile is fired straight up, at
90 degrees. This allows the projectile to stay in the air the longest
before returning to the ground.

a. Given: Initial velocity v = 40.0 m/s 

At 30°:

vx = 40 cos(30°) = 34.64 m/s

​ 

vy = 40 sin(30°) = 20.00 m/s

​ 
2vy 2(20)
Time of flight: 
​

t = ​
= ​
≈ 4.08 s
g 9.8

Range: R = vx ⋅ t = 34.64 ⋅ 4.08 ≈ 141.2 m

​ 
2
v
400
Maximum height: y

​

H = ​ = ​ ≈ 20.4 m
2g 19.6

At 60°:

vx = 40 cos(60°) = 20.00 m/s

​ 

vy = 40 sin(60°) = 34.64 m/s

​ 
2vy 2(34.64)
Time of flight:
​

t = ​
= ​
≈ 7.07 s
g 9.8

Range:R = vx ⋅ t = 20.00 ⋅ 7.07 ≈ 141.4 m

​ 
2
v
1200
Maximum height: 
​

y
H = ​
= ​ ≈ 61.2 m
2g 19.6

At 45°:

vx = 40 cos(45°) = 28.28 m/s

​ 

vy = 40 sin(45°) = 28.28 m/s

​

2vy 2(28.28)
Time of flight:
​

t = ​
= ​
≈ 5.77 s
g 9.8

Range: R = 28.28 ⋅ 5.77 ≈ 163.3 m 

2
v
800
Maximum height: y

​

H = ​ = ​ ≈ 40.8 m
2g 19.6

1. At what angle is the maximum height reached by a projectile greatest?

At 90 degrees (straight up).

[IV] Science 13
 2. At what angle of release is its maximum height zero?

When the projectile is released horizontally, at 0 degrees.

3. When will a projectile have the longest flight time?

When it is fired straight up (90°), it has the longest flight time.

1. How is the angle of release related to the maximum height and range of a
projectile?

The greater the angle, the higher the maximum height, but the shorter the
range (after 45°).

The range is maximized at 45°.

Smaller angles give longer horizontal range but lower heights; larger
angles give higher heights but shorter ranges.

1. Will a projectile cover the same range if it is released at angles that

are complementary to each other?

Yes, complementary angles (like 30° and 60°) result in the same range
assuming the same initial speed and height, but the maximum heights
differ.

Momentum, Impulse, and Collisions

Here are detailed notes based on the uploaded PDF of your PowerPoint titled
"Momentum, Impulse, and Types of Collisions". All formulas are included as
requested.

MOMENTUM, IMPULSE & TYPES OF COLLISIONS

1. MOMENTUM
Definition: Momentum is the product of an object’s mass and velocity.

Formula:

p⃗ = mv⃗p = mv
​ 

where:

p = momentum(kg⋅ m/s)
​ 

m = mass (kg)

v = velocity(m/s) 

Vector Quantity: Has both magnitude and direction.

2. IMPULSE
Definition: Impulse is the change in momentum or the product of force and
time.

Formulas:

J = Δp = mΔv
​


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 J = F Δt 

where:

J = impulse(N ⋅ sorkg⋅ m/s) 

F = f orce(N ) 

Δt = timeinterval(s) 

Impulse-Momentum Theorem:

F Δt = mΔv 

3. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Law: In a closed and isolated system, the total momentum before collision
equals the total momentum after collision.

Formula (for 2 objects):

m1v1i+m2v2i=m1v1f+m2v2fm_1 v_{1i} + m_2 v_{2i} = m_1 v_{1f} + m_2 v_{2f}

where:

m1 , m2 ​
= masses
​

v1i , v2i ​ = initial velocities

​

v1f , v2f ​ = final velocities

​

4. TYPES OF COLLISIONS
A. Elastic Collisions

Definition: Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Conditions:

No loss of kinetic energy

Objects bounce off

Formulas:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 
​

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

2
​ m1 v ​

1i
​ +
2
​ m2 v ​

2i
​ =
2
​ m1 v ​

1f
​ +
2
​ m2 v​

2f

​

B. Inelastic Collisions
Definition: Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not.

Conditions:

Objects may stick together

Some kinetic energy is transformed to other forms (e.g., heat, sound)

Formula:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )vf

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 
​

[IV] Science 15
 C. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
Definition: A special case of inelastic collision where objects stick
together after collision.

Same formula as inelastic:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )vf

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 
​

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

What is Energy?
Energy is the ability to do work.

Anything that can be converted to work.

Unit: Joule (J)

Work (W) = Force × Distance → W = F × d

Energy (E) = F × s

1 Joule = 1 N·m

1 erg = 1 dyne·cm

Forms of Energy
Electrical Energy Nuclear Energy – energy stored in
atomic nuclei
Thermal Energy
Mechanical Energy – energy in
Light Energy
stretched/compressed objects
Sound Energy
Sound Energy – energy caused by
Mechanical Energy vibrations
Chemical Energy – energy stored Electrical Energy – from the flow
in bonds (e.g., batteries, coal, of electrons
biomass)

Radiant Energy – electromagnetic

waves (e.g., light, X-rays)

Transverse Waves
Oscillation is perpendicular to wave direction.

Examples: water ripples, seismic waves, electromagnetic waves.

Mechanical Energy Types

Potential Energy (PE)

Kinetic Energy (KE)

Potential Energy (PE)

Stored energy due to position or condition

Gravitational PE (GPE):

[IV] Science 16
 → GPE = m × g × h

→ or GPE = w × h, where w = weight = mg

→ m = mass (kg), g = gravity (9.8 m/s²), h = height (m)

Kinetic Energy (KE)

Energy of motion

KE = ½ × m × v²

→ m = mass (kg), v = velocity (m/s)

Law of Conservation of Energy

"Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one form
to another."

The total energy in the universe is constant, even during expansion.

Applies to all energy transformations.

Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

"The sum of potential and kinetic energy in a conservative system remains
constant."

TME₁ = TME₂ (Total Mechanical Energy initial = final)

If PE increases → KE decreases (and vice versa)

At max PE → KE = 0

At max KE → PE = 0

Sample Problems
1. KE of a moving sledgehammer

Find the energy of a 4.0-kg sledgehammer moving at 24 m/s.

Solution:

KE = ½ × m × v²
KE = ½ × 4.0 × (24)²

KE = 2.0 × 576 = 1152 J

2. Plane's KE and PE

A 5.5 × 10⁴ kg airplane flies at 85 m/s, 12,000 m high.

Solution:

PE = mgh = (5.5 × 10⁴) × 9.8 × 12,000 = 6.468 × 10⁹ J

KE = ½ × m × v² = 0.5 × 5.5 × 10⁴ × (85)² = 1.986 × 10⁸ J

3. Toolbox PE

[IV] Science 17
 A 1.2-kg toolbox is 0.80 m above the floor.

Solution:

PE = mgh = 1.2 × 9.8 × 0.80 = 9.41 J

4. Falling rock speed

50.0-g rock from 3.0 m to 1.0 m height.

Use:

TME = PE_initial = KE + PE_final

mgh₁ = ½mv² + mgh₂

Solve for v

5. Hammer at height 3.00 m

3.00-kg hammer from 10.0 m falls to 3.00 m.

PE_initial = mgh = 3 × 9.8 × 10 = 294 J

PE_final = 3 × 9.8 × 3 = 88.2 J

KE = 294 – 88.2 = 205.8 J

Seatwork (for practice)

1. A 40.0-kg wrecking ball is 1.6 m above its lowest point.

Find velocity at lowest point using:

PE = KE → mgh = ½mv² → solve for v

2. A 4.0-kg hammer is lifted to 10.0 m. Find PE and KE at 4.0 m above

Earth.

PE = mgh

KE = TME – PE at 4.0 m

Quick Q&A
1. Total energy of the universe is decreasing? → False

2. An object in motion only has KE? → True

3. Which is NOT potential energy?

A. Gravitational

B. Elastic

C. Chemical

D. None → Answer: D. None of the above

4. 30-g rock from 3.0 m to 1.0 m → Find speed

Use energy conservation.

[IV] Science 18
 5. State CME Law:

Total mechanical energy (KE + PE) remains constant in a conservative

system.

Heat and Work

Thermodynamics
— Is a field of Physics that deals with the relationship between heat and
other properties such as pressure, density, and temperature in a substance.

is the study of heat and its transformation to work.

encompasses the whole field of transformations of energy between all the

forms in which it may be manifested – thermal, mechanical, electrical,
chemical, or radiant.

Heat
is the energy transferred from one body to another as a result of a
temperature difference.

Internal energy can be increased by doing work or by heating.

The total kinetic and potential energy of all its particles is the
internal energy of the body.

The internal energy of a body increases when

its temperature increases and

it changes from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas.

James Prescott Joule (1818 – 1889) – demonstrated that the quantity of

work necessary to cause a given change of state is independent of the
type of work, the method of delivering or the rate of doing work. He
concluded also that work could be converted into heat and heat into
work.

HEAT ENGINE – is a device that converts heat energy to mechanical work. It

takes many forms, from the internal combustion engine in cars to the giant
turbines that generate electricity.

All heat engines make use of a substance (working substance) inside them
that undergoes

Cooling and/or heatingCompression and/or expansionSometimes a change of

phase

Examples of working substances: water for steam engine & gasoline-air

mixture for gasoline engine.

Heat engines may be classified into two major types:

[IV] Science 19
 Internal combustion engine – burns fuel inside the engine.
Examples: gasoline engines and diesel engines

External combustion engine burns fuel outside the engine.

Example: steam engine

[IV] Science 20