P1 1.

8 Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology, Cultural Evolution

P1 Topic: link with P2 1.1 Notes Remarks

(a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology: Relative and Absolute Dating methods.
(b) Cultural Evolution- Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures: (i) Paleolithic (ii) Mesolithic (iii) Neolithic (iv) Chalcolithic (v) Copper-Bronze Age (vi) Iron Age Notes in P2 1.1

Terminology in Archeology: Historical Perceptions and The Stone Age

PF Suhm (1776) divided cultural stages in prehistoric Denmark as Stone age, Bronze age, Iron age. Christian Thomsen (1836) followed same.
John Lubbock (1865) based on stone tools, divided the stone age into Palaeolithic, Neolithic.
Edouard Lartet (1870s) advocated that Neolithic is most recent than Paleolithic. He divided the stone age - palaeolithic into 3 (Lower, Middle, Upper), on the basis of changes in fauna in different paleolithic industries.
Chronological ages:
• Gabriel Mortillet (1930) criticised attempt to compartmentalisation of stages, thus advocated chronological scheme of cultural sequence.
• Garrod & Leakey (1952) advocated use of purely chronological nomenclature for designating prehistoric cultures. But it can't be used as Neolithic. Chalcolithic period cannot be given common acc eptable definition worldwide.
Economic ages:
• Thompson & Braidwood (1962) advocated following based on subsistence: 1) Food gathering period (early Paleolithic), 2) Food collecting period (later Paleolithic - of organised hunting & selective collecting), 3) Food producing (start of Agri).
Terminology used today are same as suggested by Lartet but has stricter definitional control.
Chrono-Cultural Ages:
• Palaeolithic: earliest of human culture occurring with Pleistocene period. Comprise of stone tolls prepared with less energy while making. Subsistence economy at this stage is hunting & gathering.
▪ Lower P: core tools of medium to massive shape.
▪ Middle P: Flake tools with preponderance of side scrapers.
▪ Upper P: Thick elongated tools with bone tools & art execution.
▪ Epi-Palaeolithic: terminal pleistocene stage with blade tool (intermediate size of Upper P & Mesolithic)
• Mesolithic: Earliest Holocene culture with no indication of change in economy from paleolithic. Characteristics: microlithization. Hafting of tools as handles emerged. Tradition of composite tool-making lead to specialisation in microlithic types.
• Neolithic: last stage of stone ages in human history which precedes discovery of metals in neolithic. Socio -economic features:
▪ Evidence of food production, specially domesticated variety of cereals. | Evidence of Animal domestication: anatomy shows non-competitive existence. e.g. Bones of man-eating Tigers in Lakhimpur-Kheri (UP) show domestication attributes.
▪ Evidence of Sedentism as sign of reduced mobility due to agri social control for conflicts among large agri groups.
• Chalcolithic: cultural period marked by rise of metals like copper, gold & manufacturing & alloying. As emergent tech can never replace earlier technique, stone tools continued thus it is Chalco-lithic. Site identified by presence of metal/ore prod.

Terminology Geological Age Typical Indian Stone Tool Types Main Subsistence Base
Lower Palaeolithic 2mya to 100Kya Lower Pleistocene Pebble and Core Tools like hand-axes, cleavers, and chopping tools Hunting and Gathering
Middle Palaeolithic 100kya to 40kya Middle Pleistocene Flake tools, including those made by prepared core techniques such as the Levallois technique Hunting and Gathering
Upper Palaeolithic 40kya to 10kya Upper Pleistocene Blade tools made on flakes e.g., parallel-sided blades and burins Hunting and Gathering
Mesolithic Holocene Microliths Hunting, gathering, fishing, with instances of animal domestication in a few places
Neolithic Holocene Celts (ground & polished hand axes) Food production based on animal and plant domestication

Prehistoric archeology: //Same answer for Prehistory but no need to write methods.
Prehistory is 'study of stage' in Cultural Evolution of man where written records are unavailable. | History of mankind before invention of alphabet (or) history of preliterate societies.
History is chronological study of past for which written record are available & scripts are deciphered. Protohistory is when written records are available but script is undeciphered. e.g. Only IVC.
In prehistoric studies, most important are stone tools (artefacts) hence these cultures are called Lithic. These are one of the earliest signs of culture.
Time period: On a global timescale this period begins from about 2mya & ends with emergence of Bronze Age around 5kya. In India, however, this timescale is not well defined.
Historic stages: Stone age is sub divided into
• Paleolithic (2mya to 10kya): during Pleistocene ...
• Mesolithic (10kya to 8kya): during Holocene ,,,
• Neolithic (8kya to 4kya): //Alphabet came in neolithic - LH Morgan, Gordan Childe.
Chronological differences:
1 2 points about why difference in N & S India paleo lithic cultures.
Methods: Collection of data on man & culture through exploration & excavation.
Exploration: search for prehistoric sites is done & systematic site survey of a prehistoric site is done. 2 types: extensive (full) & intensive (definite objective) exploration. Both are complementa ry & done simultaneously.
Bruce Foote (1863) explored Pallavaram & Attirampakkam (near Chennai) & discovered 1st hand-axe, thus for first time presence of Palaeolithic culture was established in India.
De Terra & Patterson (1939) explored Pir Panjal ranges in Kashmir valley & Potwar Plateau & reconstructed Pleistocene glacial sequence & chronology of region. Found Soan culture From Soan valley & did extensive & intensive explorations.
De Terra & Patterson explored Narmada Valley basin & reconstructed cultural sequence of region & also showed that culture in the area grew under pluvial condition.
Excavation: involves study of under-surface materials by digging them out carefully. They have definite objective. Methods of excavation include Trenching, strip, Quadra nt method, area or block, stripping excavation etc.
Conclusion: it takes interdisciplinary approach with archeology, geology

//Terminology of sites:
Assemblage (Single type of stone tool at 1 place), Industry (Several assemblages over wider areas) & Culture (Several industries over much wider area).
Rock shelter sites: Habitations at mouth of caves. Usually in Glacial/Pluvial period of time.
Open sites: under the sky, usually in 1 Glacial /1 Pluvial times.
Home base: where man lived. Factory site: where tools were fabricated. Primary Site - where tools originally made. Secondary Site - tools moved here by man/nature.

Development of Archeology in India. 10/15m //Stages in development of pre-historic studies in India.

Archeology in Indian started evolving since early 19th C under c olonial administrators.
Col. Meadows Tylor was 1st to take interest in archeology, particularly in S Indian megaliths. Alexander Cunningham formed ASI in 1861 and started study of historic period in N India.
However, in 1863, it was Robert Bruce Foote whose work is credited to have laid foundation of Indian Archeology. He discovered 1st per-historic tool (Paleolithic microliths) in India at Pallavaram & Attirampakkam (near Chennai).
//Later, spectacular discoveries of Harappa & Mohenjodaro in early 20th C revolutionized IA. De Terra & Patterson (1939) with Yale-Cambridge expedition studied Potwar region in Punjab & described tool cultures.
Till 1940s, Archaeologists were engaged in what Kuhn (1970) calls as 'Stamp Collection', without formulating any theoretical paradigm.
But in 1944, it was Mortimer wheeler who introduced many concepts like 'Time-Space' perspective as Dhavalikar (1984) calls it.
In 1960s, Institutes like Deccan college (1964) tried to gather all info on IA. DD Kosambi's work on reconstructing Indian Civ & Subbarao's The Personality of India (1958) are remarkable in this regard. In 1967, Puratattva, a journal for Archeology started.
In 1970s, New Archeology started impacting IA, which Davalikar calls 'Bin-Clarke' revolution in IA.
Prof Sankalia (1974) made efforts to explain New Archeology. Paddayya (1985) also worked to introduce processual archeology in Indian context.
However, Acc to DK Bhattacharya, IA still remains in 'descriptive stage', evident from its less focus on relation with culture & change. Acc to him, IA has its umbilical cord tied to history, and this cannot help in understanding complex civ like India.

Note: Oldest tool (1.51mya) in India was also found in Attirampakkam by Prof Shanti Pappu of Sharma centre for Heritage Education, Chennai . In same place She also discovered the oldest Mi-Pa tool & published the study in Nature (2018).

Chronology in prehistory means order in which a series of events happened in prehistoric period.
Dating is a technique in archaeology to ascertain the Age, Period & Chronology of fossils & artefacts. It is of 2 types.
Relative Dating:
• They determine relative order of past events. Here dating is done in relation to other material, not in absolute terms. 2 types. | Importance: in reconstructing prehistoric archaeology / palaeoanthropology.
1. Stratigraphy: study of layered deposits.

Principle: It is based on law of superposition: in any undisturbed natural deposition, lowest layer is older than ones above it.
i.e. Lowest stratum has oldest artifacts, Upper stratum has recent ones. e.g. Bhimbetka stratigraphy (fig), Olduvai stratigraphy.
Limitations:
1. Not suitable for Reverse succession in case of terraced stratigraphy. Due to erosion, deposits gets lower in level through time. e.g. Sohan valley.
2. Mixing of deposits. e.g. Burial of later date might intrude into older layer.

2. Seriation: //Series.

Aka Artefact sequencing is early scientific method of RD developed by William Flinders Petrie in 19th C while studying Egyptian civilisation.
Principle: Superposition. Orders artifacts chronologically by observing changes in styles or frequencies over time. Any style starts with low => increases => decreases. e.g. Tools of a type or pottery.
Used for artifacts, stone tools, pottery. Some styles show very little chronological variation, so typology is very imp.
Popularity need not be bell curved always. It need not be same across several locations. Lifespans of diff designs must overl ap.

3. Fluorine Dating:
Principle: Buried Bones & teeth of fossils absorb fluorine from groundwater. Fluorine reacts with hydroxyapatite in bones to form fluorapatite. Higher the fluorine in fluorapatite, older the fossil.

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 • Principle: Buried Bones & teeth of fossils absorb fluorine from groundwater. Fluorine reacts with hydroxyapatite in bones to form fluorapatite. Higher the fluorine in fluorapatite, older the fossil.
• Advantage: Useful in dating bones that cannot be dated by stratigraphy with certainty. e.g. In 1953, it's used to test Piltdown man fossil & scientifically exposed Piltdown forgery .
• Limitations: fossil dated relatively because rate of fluorine absorption varies from site to site, thus only same site fossils can be analysed .
4. Pollen dating or Palynology: //Geo-archeological dating.
• It determines chronology & connects cultural material with climatic phases, through study of fossil pollen (palynology).
• Pollens have excellent preservative ability and different plants have different pollen. e.g. Arboreal pollen -> trees. Non-Arboreal pollen -> grassland. (AP/NAP)x100 can give environment from Tundra to Tropical.
• Type of pollen found in geological stratum depends on type of vegetation existed when that stratum was deposited.
5. Nitrogen Test: Evaluates collagen decay in bones, transforming it into nitrogen, to determine relative age. e.g. Bones buried longer have lesser nitrogen content.
6. Faunal Succession: Uses known evolutionary sequences of fossils to date rock layers. e.g. Identifying a rock layer’s age usin g specific fossils.
Limitations: RD doesn't determine an exact age of something, it just determines if it is older or younger than something else. | It is difficult to determine Elapsed time b/w events & Cannot determine Duration of event & Temporal distance b/w events.
In order to overcome the limitations, archaeologists use at least 2 dating techniques for clearer establishment of facts.

Absolute Dating or Chronometric dating:

• They determine age on a fixed chronology in relation to a geological time scale. Dating is done in absolute terms, with +/- margin.
1. Dendrochronology or Tree ring dating:

To establish chronology, it relies on unique patterns of tree ring widths that are sensitive to climatic fluctuations as the tree ages. Pioneered by A.E. Douglass.
Principle: formation of annual growth rings in trees trunk (conifers). In areas of seasonal rainfall each ring represents a year's growth. e.g. Bristlecone pine of California provided ring structure for 49ky.
Method: Ring patterns of unknown samples are compared with established chronological sequences, to ascertained age with high precision. | It helps better approximation of C14 method.
Limitation: Only wooded objects. Old age trees needed. Poor survival of wood samples of prehistoric period. Useful only in region of great age trees (giant sequoias & bristlecone pine).

2. Radiometric dating:
• They rely upon 'half-life period' or 'radioactive isotope decay constants'. Principle: Radioactive decay. i.e. Radioactive nuclei decays with constant rates. Rate varies with element.
1) Radio Carbon / Carbon 14 dating: 10m.

Developed by Willard Libby & James Arnold. It is best known & most widely used AD technique.

Principle: • Solar radiation in upper atmosphere, converts free Nitrogen into radioactive Carbon (C-14; Half Life 5730 yrs): [ 14N + n => 14C + H ].
• This C-14 is absorbed by living plants & animals from atmospheric CO2. After organism's death, t rapped C-14 decays into Nitrogen.
• By measuring amount of C-14 left in a sample, time elapsed since death can be calculated, thus its age.
Limits: 1. Practical limit of 50k y for fossils, with dating Variation of ±180 yrs.
2. Contamination of sample leads to inaccurate results. | Fluctuation/Increase in CO2 due to human induced emission, may yield erroneous results .

2) Potassium-Argon dating:
Principle: Based on radioactive decay of Potassium 40 (K-40) (Half-life 1.3 by) into Argon-40 (11%) & Calcium-40 (89%). With time, K-40 falls & Ar-40 rises. Age can be measured by ratio of K-40 & Ar-40 in it. | K is common in volcanic rocks.

Adv: 1) Dating Human settlements in volcanic areas like E Africa. e.g. Used by Mary & Louis Leaky on Robust Australopithecine skull they found at Olduvai gorge.
2) Most useful method for Dating human origins. e.g. Australopithecus, H Erectus & H.H were dated using this method.
3) K-40 Half-life is longer than C 14 method, thus can date much older remains .

Limits 1) Can only be used on rocks that had no argon when they formed. Cannot be used on rocks with argon when they formed. Thus possible only on Volcanic rocks as Ar escapes from molten rocks.
2) Can be used only in situations where new rocks are formed. Cannot be used on Volcanic rock not deposited at same time as material . e.g. useful for dating cultures in Java, E Africa, Italy.
3) Cannot be used to date remains younger than 4 lac years of age. Comparatively inaccurate because of large statistical margin of error.

3) Uranium lead method: Uranium decays to Lead. Half -life 3mya. Can be detected till 15mya. e.g. Dryopithecus & Sivapithecus dated.
4) Uranium-series or Uranium-Thorium or Thorium -230 Dating method:
▪ Principle: Based on the process whereby a radioactive isotope of uranium 238U+ decays into 235U+. Date is determined based on amount of 235U+ that had accumulated through radioactive decay.
▪ Thorium-230 (230Th) accumulates in sample through radiometric decay over time. Accumulated ratio of 230Th & Uranium-234 (234U) is calculated by comparing with the initial ratio of 230Th & 234U formed at the time of sample formation.
▪ Method: Difference is calculated & measured to calculate the time elapsed since its formation.
3. Amino acid racemization:

Developed by Jeffrey Bada, in 1973 for determining age of bone.

Principle: based on cumulative changes in amino acids in bone after animal died. After death, amino acids turns from Levo-rotatory to Dextro-rotatory form, a process called Racemization.
If one knows Racemization rate, one can calculate date of bone. Or D:L ratios can be compared to Radio C dates of same fossil, for "calibration" of ratios wrt known dates.
R process is temp sensitive. At a given temp, each amino acid has unique racemisation speed. e.g. aspartic acid is 0.333 at 20°C in 15k-20k years. Thus useful for dating 5k-70kya.

Adv: Small fossil sample is needed & can date older material compared to C-14 method. Used for dates which did not fall under C14 or K-Ar dating. e.g. there were problems dating Neanderthal.
Limits: Used for organic materials. Cannot be used for inorganic materials & for long periods like > 1 mya. | Racemization is sensitive to temp change. Result affected by local differences in temp & water.

4. Varve Analysis:

Varves are laminated sediment layers deposited in lakes near glacial margins. Each varve has 2 layers: Thick, Coarse, light colour layer correlated with s ummer melt. & on top, Thin, fine, dark layer of w inter’s runoff.
Principle: physical counting of these varves can give exact ag of deposit wrt glacial events. e.g. In Scandinavia, have been traced back continuously till 17kya.
Gerhard De Geer 1st described varve sequences on basis of Scandinavian evidence. Later it has been applied in parts of N, S America, & Africa . e.g. Method gave exact date for end of Pleistocene.
Limits: varves occur only in glaciated regions & therefore are absent in most of the world.

5. Fission Track Dating (Alpha Recoil):

Glassy Volcanic minerals & other minerals like Obsidian contain Uranium (U -238). Uranium atoms decay (fission) by emitting alpha particles that c ause fission track damage on material surface.
These damages can be seen under microscope after treating rock with hydrofluoric acid. If total amount of Uranium in sample & density of tracks can be counted, then the ratio b/w two gives the age of the sample.
Limitation: only for glossy surfaces.

6. Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating or Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL):

Farrington Daniels (1953) suggested dating of ancient pottery by TL measurements. Since then this DT developed. e.g. Used for dating Ceramics & Pottery in IVC.
Principle: Materials having crystalline minerals, like ceramic, traps electrons released by natural radiation. Heating them would release all previously stored energy as light (TL), thereby setting clock at zero & starts trapping new TL energy afresh.
Procedure: Sample heated at critical temp (> 400-500°C for ceramics) & intensity of light emissions (TL) is used to calculate time elapsed from last heating. | If light is used instead of heat, it's called OSL.
Advantages: Wide Date range: 100y-100,000 ya. Non-destructive: doesn't cause significant damage to artefact. Applicable to various materials: broad range incl pottery, flint, sediments.
Limitation: Accuracy ~ 15% as repeated heating/cooling of sample many not give accurate results. Contamination: Sample may be absorbing energy from current environment too.
7. Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Dating:
Ikeya & Miki developed this technique in 1980.
Principle: electron acts as a tiny bar magnet (magnet moment) as it's a charged particle which spins around its axis. If external magn etic field is applied, electron will align itself with direction of this field & process around this axis.
Method: ESR measures radiation-induced defects or density of trapped electrons in bone & calcite materials. Tooth enamel with thick layers is best material for ESR studies. Date is determined by c ounting on amount of electrons trapped in bon e.
e.g. Used in determining age of hominid fossils. Dating of bovid teeth from Acheulian levels at Isampur produced a date of 1.7 million years.

Recent: There are many other methods of absolute dating; indeed, new methods are being developed all the time.
These techniques can pinpoint exact date of a fossil which cannot be achieved by relative dating methods, but these has to be taken with caution because of their inbuilt errors & variance.
In order to overcome the limitations, archaeologists use at least 2 dating techniques for clearer establishment of facts.

Significance:
• Both have diff utilities. When rocks, soil, surroundings are very acidic/mineral they react with fossil, in such areas RD is appropriate. Australopithecus ascertained by RD.
• When no other evidence is found, we use pollen grain technique, Compare with bed rock time etc..
Conclusion: In anthro we employ both simultaneously to corroborating their evidence.
//Simply writing doesn't help. Show graphs. e.g. C14 -> how C is decreasing with change in period. -- L2A.

Others:
Dating techniques:

Relative dating Absolute dating Effective time range of Major Chronometric dating methods:
• •

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 • Stratigraphy • Dendrochronology
• Geological Calendar • Radio Carbon (C14) Dating
• Glacial Calendar • Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating
• Fossil Fauna Calendar • Uranium series method
• River Terraces • Thermoluminescence (TL) Dating
• Fluorine test dating • Varve analysis
• Nitrogen dating • Fission-track dating
• Palynology (pollen) • Electron spin resonance (ESR)
• Patination • Amino acid racemisation
• Archaeomagnetic dating
• Oxygen 16/18 Ratio Method
• Obsidian Hydration dating

L2A: What are the main stages in the development of prehistoric studies in India. 15m. -- IGNOU.
4 stages
1stage: what areas they focused, how it started.
Robert Bruce Foote
Yale-Cambridge expedition. - De Terra and Paterson. With comming up of them actual acheological studies increased in india.
▪ Robert Bruce Foote was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone tool in India in 1863. Palaeolithic research in India is, t herefore, more than a hundred
years old. But it got a boost only with the coming of Yale -Cambridge Expedition in 1935 led by De Terra and Patterson. - hasnain book.

HD sankalia classifed prehistoric studies into diff stages.

In which stage which cultures explored. What insights they found. How that helped in understanding the culture.

L2A: Prehistoric archeology 10 -- Updated in notes. ✅

History can be divided into pre, proto, hisotry.
Pre - no literary evidence. - past/earlist history of man.
They are Mostly lithic cultures - paleo,meso, neo.
Berifly write about paleo, meso, neo.
//alphabet came in neolothic - LH morgan, Gorden childe.
Add methods also. - how it is done.
It takes interdisciplinary approach with archeology, geology.

L2A: Prehistory 10 -- same question as Prehistoric archeology. -- Updated in notes. ✅

No need to write methods.
Historic stages: Palio, meso neo lithic.
Time period.
North india, south india.
Chronological differences.
1 2 points about why difference N&S india paleo lithic cultures.

Research Methods in Prehistoric Archaeology:

Excavation Techniques
Stratigraphic Excavation: Sequential removal of archaeological layers, studying time based changes.
Grid Excavation: Divides sites into squares/rectangles for precise recording & comparison.
Dating Methods
Relative Dating: Stratigraphy-based chronological order, e.g., seriation, typology.
Absolute Dating: Provides specific dates/ranges, e.g., radiocarbon dating, dendrochronology.
Various Approaches of Prehistoric Archaeology
Ethno-Archaeology: Study of living people & material culture. Aim: Improve understanding of archaeological records. e.g. Study of butchery practices among Nunamiut Eskimo by Lewis Binford.
Environmental Archaeology: Zooarchaeology: Study of ancient animal remains. | Geoarchaeology: Study of soil, sediments, rocks, & natural deposits. | Arc haeobotany: Study of ancient plant remains.
Marine Archaeology Study of human interaction with aquatic bodies. Investigates: Vessels, shore-side facilities, cargoes, human remains, submerged landscapes.

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P2 1.1 Evolution of Indian Culture & Civilization

Topic Notes Remarks

1.1 Evolution of the Indian Culture and Civilization
Prehistoric (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Neolithic-Chalcolithic); To do : Comparisons b/w periods.
Protohistoric (Indus Civilization). Pre-Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan cultures.
Contributions of the tribal cultures to Indian civilization.

Cultures

Cultural Period Indian (Source: IGNOU) European (approx.)

Early/Lower Paleolithic 2.5 million - 100,000 BCE 2.6 million - 250,000 BCE
Middle Paleolithic 100,000 - 40,000 BCE 250,000 - 40,000 BCE
Late/Upper Paleolithic 40,000 - 8,000 BCE (or more recent) 40,000 - 10,000 BCE
Mesolithic 8,000 - 6,000 BCE 10,000 - 5,000 BCE
Neolithic 7,000 - 2,500 BCE 5,000 - 2,000 BCE
Chalcolithic 4500 - 1000 BCE
Bronze Age 3,300 - 1,300 BCE 3,300 - 1,200 BCE
Iron Age 1,300 - 500 BCE 1,200 - 500 BCE

Paleolithic Lower Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

Chalcolithic Pre-Harappan Harappan Post Harappan Iron age

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

Chalcolithic Bronze age Iron Age

Period/Site Date Excavated by Unique features

Paleo 2.5m - 10K
Lo Pa 2.5m - 100K Core tools: Abbevillian (C-C) & Acheulian (handaxe-cleaver). Oldowan (pebbles). | Quartzite material. | Direct hammer technique. | HG. Settle near pebble deposits (r valley).
• Soan Valley 500K-125K De Terra & Paterson (1935) Gradual refinement of tools. Merge with nearby site Chauntra.
• Bhimbetka (MP) 100K VN Misra (1973-76) Rock shelters discovered by VS Wakankar (1957). 8 layers. Bottom 3 Lo-Pa. | Has Acheulian. No C-C tools. Only Lo-Pa site w/o Abbevillian.
• Adamgarh (MP) RV Joshi Rock shelters.
• Kuliana (OD) NK Bose, Dharani Sen (39-42)
• Didwana (RJ) V.N. Misra (1980s) Singi Talav
• Kortalayer valley (TN) Madrasian VD Krishnaswami (1938) In Madrasian cul, H.D. Sankalia claimed presence of hafting of tools to wooden frame. | Attirampakkam , Shanti Pappu
• Nagarjunakonda (AP) AR Saraswati
• Chirki-Nevasa (MH) Gudrun Corvinus He found Acheulian
• Hunsgi (KA) K Paddayya

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• Hunsgi (KA) K Paddayya
Mi Pa 100K - 40K
• Nevasa (MH) H.D. Sankalia (1956) On Pravara River. Levallois-based flake tools made on Jasper. Gravel 1 = Lo-Pa. Gravel 2 = Mi-Pa. | Till 1950's Mi-PA not separately identified, Nevasa excavation changed it.
• Luni (RJ) V.N. Misra
• Mahanadi Valley (OD) RP Mohapatra Eastern industry.
• Bhimbetka (MP) 4th layer. Raw Material don't change - use of quartzite continues.
Up Pa 40K - 8K
• Belan Valley (UP) GR Sharma & JD Clark (1980) Baghor-1 (MP) stone etched with triangles = Shrine. | Epi-Pa (12-10k) found - blade tools.
• Renigunta (AP) M.L.K. Murthy (1963-64) Many blades but No bones.
• MC Gavi (AP) M.L.K. Murthy (1970) Richest bone tool in Indian Up-Pa. 90%. HD Sankalia says, Groove & Splinter technique used here.
• Bhimbetka (MP)
Meso 8K-6K Microliths. Composite tools | Pressure flaking or Fluting technique | Fishing -Fowling, Small-game H. Later domestication + wild seed collection | Postured Burials | Pottery .
• Sarai Nahar Rai (UP) 8K GR Sharma
• Bagor (RJ) ~5K VN Misra (1967) LS Leshnik (1967) discover on Kothari river. 1Ks of smallest microliths. Wattle huts, stove-paved floors. Domesticated dog . | Hand-made pottery . 3 Phases Micro > C > IA
• Langhnaj (GJ) 2400 BC H.D. Sankalia (1944-63)
• Bhimbetka (MP) VN Misra (1973-76)
• Adamgarh (MP) RV Joshi 6 Rock shelters have late-Meso. Domesticated animal bones .
• Teri (TN) ~5K Robert Bruce Foote discovered in 19th C. Independent dev of microliths, similar to SL. Bifacially pressure flaked points - unique.
• Birbhanpur (WB) BB Lal (1957) Only it has non-geometric tools, no burials, no animal bones, no hearths. Rest all sites have Geometric microliths.
Neo 7K - 1.5K Celts, polished. Quartz Material. Flaking & polishing technique . | Pottery . Subsistence - domesticated plant, animal. Complex Social orgs emerged (Pol, clear Religion).
• Mehrgarh (Pak) ~7K JF Jarrige (1974-86) 4 Periods: Aceramic Neo > Neo-Chalco > Early chalco > Chalco. | Microlith blades > stone & bone tools > Copper. |
Earliest Agriculture evidence (Wheat & Barley). No rice. Mud-brick house > multi-room. | long-distance trade. | Drilled molars - Dentistry - DKB.
• Burzahom (J&K) 3K- 1K ASI - TN Khazanchi (1960-71) Parallel to IVC. | Unique tool - Harvesters . Hand-made pottery. Pit dwellings .
• Chirand (BR) BR directorate of Archeology 3 phases: Neo > Chalco > Iron. | A mound. Pottery 3 types. | Pit dwellings to thatched huts. | Rice cultivation . | Serpentine Terracotta figurines - Serpent cult .
• Koldihwa (UP) Rice indigenously developed (earliest rice evidence in India). Near Belan Valley.
• South (Neo-Chalco) ---
• North East TC Sharma, AH Dani, OK Singh Daojali Hading (AS) by T.C. Sharma (1967). | Cord-impressed handmade pottery . | Subsistence not yet. Jhum. | Yunnan Origin theory.
Chalco 4.5K - 1K Metal stone mix. Copper smelting. Polychrome painted pottery . | Full-fledged villages. | Cereal Cultivation, Animal domestication. Long -distance trading.
Mud-brick thatched houses. | Religion of Mother Goddess, sacred bull, afterlife.
• Ahar-Banas (RJ) 3K-1.5K Sites: Balathal, Gilund, Ojiyana, Pachamata. | Black & Red ware (BRW). | Agri: Bajra & Rice. | It is merely Miners' camp under suzerainty of Harappans at Lothal.
• Kayatha 2.4K-2K VS Wakankar (1964) 3 main types of Pottery: Combed ware, Pinkish red ware, R painted buff ware. |
• Malwa 2K-1.3K HD Sankalia Buff or Orange slipped pottery painted in black.
• Gangetic Doab/OCP 2.5K-1.3K BB Lal, others OCP
• Eastern 1.8K-1.4K Terracotta serpentine figures -> serpent cult . Chirand. Pandu Rajan Dhibi. Mahisadal.
• Jorwe (MH) 1.4K-1.3K HD Sankalia Inamgaon (MH) excavated by HD Sankalia. Jorwe ware - spouted vessel. | Terracotta Female figurines (Fertility goddess) & Bull - Vahana (carrier) of deity.
• South (Neo-Chalco) 2.4K-1K 3-phase: Neo > Jorwe > C-B. | Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri (Wheeler), Maski, Piklihal in KA; Utnur (FR Allchin). N-konda (AP), Paiyampalli (TN). | Ash mounds .
Bronze 3.3K-1K
Pre-H 3.3K - 2.6K
Harappan 3.3K-1.3K
• Harappa (Pak - PB) Daya Ram Sahni (1920-21) 1st to be discovered. | Granaries, Male torso, Mother Goddess.
• Mohenjo-Daro (Pak) R.D. Banerji (1922)
• Lothal (GJ) SR Rao World's oldest Dockyard⚓. Trade route to Persian gulf, Mesopotamia. Rice Husk .
• Dholavira (GJ) Discovered by ASI - JP Joshi (1968). Unique town plan - citadel, middle & lower town. Stone buildings (no burnt bricks). Water management system .| UNESCO WHS 2021.
• Kalibangan (RJ) A. Ghosh Saraswati river bank. Agri, ploughed field , water storage pits & tanks .
• Rakhigarhi (HR) ASI? (2014) Largest IVC site till date. 2014 ASI found 2 mounds.
Post H 1.9K - 1.3K Jhukar & Jhangar Culture of Sindh, Rangpur Culture of Gujarat, Cemetery -H culture of Punjab.
Iron age 1.5K - 500 Iron implements to clear forests. Bone & beads. | Village character. Roundhouses mud-wood, thatched roofs. | Rice, wheat, barley. Sheep, cattle, horse.
• N Zone (PGW) 1200 BCE Painter Grey ware (PGW) . | Panipat, Hastinapur, Mathura, Kaushambi, Chirand.
• S zone (Megalithic) 1.5K - 500 Black & Red ware (BRW) . | Hallur, Porkalam, Nagarjunakonda, Chittor, Chingleput. Acc to RK Mohanty & V Selvakumar, ~ 2200 M sites.

//Some facts :
The largest Harappan site Rakhigarhi and the oldest site Bhirrana are both in Haryana.
When were cats domesticated?
Nearly 10kya, humans settling in Fertile Crescent, areas of Middle East surrounding Tigris & Euphrates rivers, made the first switch from hunter-gatherers to farmers. They developed close bonds with the rodent -eating cats that conveniently served as ancient
pest- ’ ’ riends along
with them. The analysis of feline genetics in the study strongly supports the theory that cats were likely first domesticated only in the Fertile Crescent before migrating with humans all over the world, says a release. After feline genes are passed down to kittens
throughout generations, the genetic makeup of cats in western Europe, for example, is now far different from cats in Southeas ‘ ’

Chronological definition of any culture is linked to geological periods. e.g. Paleolithic -> Pleistocene, Meso -> earliest Holocene, etc.
Typo-Technological definition of any culture is linked to the tools & their preparation techniques. e.g. Meso -> Microliths using pressure flaking technique.

Archeology Page 95
Paleolithic

PALAEOLITHIC:
Palaeolithic culture of world. Aka Old Stone Age. 20/10m
It's earliest human culture. It refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch (@3 mya - 10k BC). | Lartet in 1870 divided it into 3 Phases: Lower (2.5 mya to 100K BCE), Middle (100K to 36K BCE) & Upper (36K to 9K BCE) Palaeolithic.
Chronology: In India, Lo-Pa (1.5 - 0.3 mya); Mi-Pa (0.3 - 0.1 mya); Up-Pa (0.1 mya - 10 kya). | In Africa, Lo-Pa starts at 2 mya (earliest) & rest are same. | In Europe, all 3 phases are found much later (younger) then Africa/Asia.

Cultural Period Indian (Source: IGNOU) Africa (approx.) Europe

Early/Lower Paleolithic c. 2.5 mya - 100,000 years ago c. 2.6 mya - 250,000 years ago c. 1.4 mya - 250,000 years ago
Middle Paleolithic c. 100,000 - 40,000 years ago c. 250,000 - 40,000 years ago c. 250,000 - 40,000 years ago
Late/Upper Paleolithic c. 40,000 - 8,000 years ago (or more recent) c. 40,000 - 10,000 years ago c. 40,000 - 12,000 years ago

Climate:

Pleistocene Epoch witnessed 4 phases of glaciation (ice) & pluviation (rain) separated by 3 dry phases of inter-glaciation & inter-pluviation. N Hemisphere S Hemisphere

//In Europe => only Glaciations. In Tropical (Africa) => only Pluvial. In India => both Glaciations & Pluvial. Glacial Phase Interglacial Phase Pluvial Phase Inter-pluvial Phase
10 kya
Wurm Gamblian
150 kya ---------------------> Riss-Wurm (Eemian) ---------------------> Kamasian-Gamblian
Riss Kamasian
---------------------> Mindel-Riss (Hoxnian) ---------------------> Kanjeran-Kamasian
400 kya Mindel Kanjeran
---------------------> Gunz-Mindel (Cromerian) ---------------------> Kageran-Kanjeran
4 mya Gunz Kageran

Material Culture: //Typo-Technology.

Period Tool Tradition Types Material used Preparation Technique

Lo-Pa Core tools of 2 industries: Abbevillian (chopper-chopping), & Acheulian (handaxe-cleavers) Quartzite Direct hammer technique
Mi-Pa Flake tools like scrapers & points became much frequent than core tools. -- Levallois. Crypto-crystalline silica types Direct hammer & Pecking
Up-Pa Blade tools, Parallel-sided blade flakes, bone tools. Quartz & Bone Core cylinder hammer

Regional variation: /For 10m, only map enough.

Europe Lo-Pa: Core tool sites include Abbeville & St. Acheul in France. From sites Levallois (France) & Clacton-on-Sea (UK), flakes discovered & are named Levalloisian & Clactonian flakes.
Mi-Pa: culture is best seen at type site of Le Moustier (France). & thus referred to as Mousterian culture.
Up-Pa: culture is divided into 4 stages —> Perigordian, Aurignacian, Solutrean & Magdalenian.
Africa: Lo-Pa: Oldowan (C-C Tools) => Acheulian => Kenya Fauresmith (late Acheulian + Levallois). | Much early than Europe. Cleavers common (Early Acheulian). 'Victoria West' technique.
Mi-Pa: Mousteroid + Levallois => Proto Still Bay / Kenya Stillbay culture. | Sangoan Tradition (130-10kya): Sango bay, Uganda. Handaxes + Levallois. Called Epi-Acheulian. extends to Up-Pa.
Up-Pa: Kenya & Uganda evolve Micro & broad blades. Shows continuity from Mi-Pa.
Capsian culture of Kenya: Emerges from Proto Stillbay. Less bone & art wrt EU. Ostrich-egg bottle. Till lower Nile area. -> younger Solutrean type leaf points (laurel leaf) found.
India: Lo-Pa: main cultures are Soan valley in North & Madrasian industry in South. || Bhimbetka shows highly specialised Acheulian tradition. Shows all 3 periods of Paleolithic.
Mi-Pa: Nevasa was 1st Mi-Pa site to be discovered.
Up-Pa: Belan valley has been key in establishing a distinct Up-Pa.

Species: H Habilis, H Erectus (Lo-Pa) => Neanderthal (Mi-Pa) => Homo Sapiens - AMHS (Up-Pa).
Social Life:
•
• In Up-Pa: Neanderthals demise, H Sapiens emerge, expanded into New world & Australia. Cave art & figures (especially EU & Asian sites) depict a developing social org.| Small duration is 30K (3% LP, 6% MP) thus more evolved, less duration of cul.
Evolutionary significance: H. erectus change to H. sapiens: 27 new wrist movements occurred. Helped make flake tools of Mi-Pa. Precision Grip (800-220kya). Transition occurred from power grip.
Conclusion: Palaeolithic period represents evolution of humans from Homo erectus (Lo-Pa) to Neanderthal (Mi-P) & finally, Homo sapiens (Up-Pa). Thus, it is of immense significance in human history.

Oldowan Tradition (2.9 - 1 mya):

Defined by Louis & Mary Leaky (1959) at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (oldest LP site in world). | Only C-CT by H. Habilis & continued by H erectus. | Tools: Earliest in world. Crude, Pebbles & traverse working border. Used power-grip.
Acheulean (1.8mya - 100kya):

Named after French site St. Acheul. Derived from Oldowan. | Even in Mi-Pa; H. erectus. | Tools: H Axe & Cleaver (1.6mya).
Acheulean H Axe has straight & regular working border which is pointed and not traverse.
Acheulean Cleaver: Very few in Europe. Traverse working border. Not by deliberate prep but by planning. Hafting at butt ? Middle Acheulian.

Abbevillian (600-400kya): (formerly Chellean) Middle Pleistocene. In Europe it's from Somme river top terrace (middle is Acheulian), hence precedes Acheulian -> oldest in Europe. Sinuous working border. Some say came from east. H. Hiedelbergensis ?
Levallois (600-100kya): A sophisticated stone knapping technique, allowed for more controlled & predictable flake production.

European Paleolithic:

Most say it started 1mya. Later than Africa thus ~ 1mya - 10kya. Culture Tools
Climate: Northern limit coincides with glaciation limit.
Lower Pa Acheulean Chopper-chopping, Handaxe, Cleaver
Tools: draw above diagrams. =>
Middle Pa Mousterian Scraper, Mousterian points, etc.
Map: draw above map.
Upper Pa Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian Blades, Points & Bone tools
Social life: same as above. + Venus Figurines.

Lo-Pa: showed 2 distinct special zones: Western Europe show biface tech (handaxes) but Central & Eastern doesn't show Acheulian.

Abbevillian (formerly Chellean) Middle Pleistocene. From Somme river top terrace (middle is Acheulian), Abbeville, France. Hence it is Early Acheulian -> oldest in Europe. Some say came from east. | H. Hiedelbergensis ?
(600-400 kya) Tools: Oldest occurrence in Europe of bifacial ( handaxe) tech - massive core tools (handaxes). Sinuous working border.
Acheulian Advanced bifacial flaking with teardrop-shaped hand-axes; introduction of specialized tools like cleavers.
(400-100 kya) Terra Amata Acheulian site. Open air primary site in Nice (French Riviera) on Mediterranean coast, initially a beach. Discovered & excavated in 1966 by Henry de Lumley.
(~400kya):
Domestication of fire (one of frequent evidences of EU). Evidence of Huts: animal skin, poles, Hearth & chimney. Foot impressions in soft sand. Wind breaks for Mistral wind.
Tools made of Beach stone. Mostly C-C tools (not handaxes). A stone tool with 2 cutting faces is called 'Pics de Terra Amata'.

Torralba & Ambrona (~350kya): In Spain. Torralba (1,115m highest Lo Pa in world). In gorge (Ambrona) > 1000 elephant skulls, indicates Elephant Hunting site (coop, push into gorge). | Beautifully made Hand -axe & Cleavers.

From sites Levallois (France) & Clacton-on-Sea (UK), flakes discovered & are named Levalloisian & Clactonian flakes. | They may have given rise to Mousterian culture.

Clactonian discovered by Hazzledine Warren in 1911 at Clacton-on-Sea, Essex county, UK. Other site Swanscombe Skull site, UK. Homo heidelbergensis. | Earlier than Europe Acheulian. Similar to Acheulian but has no handaxes.
(~400kya) Flint tools made: 1) Some flakes 'notched' so does it imply hafting ? This is unlike Oldowan. 2) Retouch uncommon*. 3) Used by power-grip. 4) Evidence of wooden spear found at site.

Mi-Pa: shows a complete heterogeneity. Non-handaxe zones like Central Europe (Lo-Pa) starts making handaxes when other in Europe took up flake tools. Appearance of leaf points called blattspitzen. Most site s continues to Up-Pa.

Mousterian Found only in Western Europe. Even in Pinhole Cave, UK. || Gabriel de Mortillet gave this classification of culture.
culture:
Francois Bordes redefined M as polymorphic complex of 4 distinct & parallel traditions: 1) Typical Mousterian. 2) Traditional Acheulian. 3) Denticulate. 4) Charentian (Ferrassie & Quina sites).
(160-40kya)
Lewis Binford disagrees with Bordes, says 4 traditions are but only single tradition differing in tool kits due to diff climatic adaptation. Many say that there's lot of internal heterogeneity.
Tools: Mousterian points. Levallois flakes continue here but not in Charentian. Intricately linked. | Mousterian ended abruptly.

Eastern & Central Europe have very diff dev & occur later than W EU. So is it by Archaic Sapiens ? They're not similar to Mousterian Tradition. | In C Europe: in Lo-Pa, No hand-axe/cleaver, Levallois flakes. But in Mi-Pa they suddenly appear.
Spain: Francois Bordes called it Basquorian culture, a continuity of local character.
Up-Pa:

• Gabriel de Mortillet classified EU Up-Pa into 3 traditions 1) Aurignacian > 2) Solutrean > 3) Magdalenian, based on studies in France. | Later, Dorothy Garrod, she modified it: Chatelperronian > Aurignacian > Gravettian.
• D Peyrony in 1933 excavated Laugerie Haute in Les Eyzies village, France. gave new classification: Aurignacian & Perigordian (parallel traditions) > Solutrean > Magdalenian.
• Prof. Lynch had suggested that Up-Pa folk moved from east to west. They carried an Aurignacio- Gravettian cultural tradition, in west, polarised into separate distinct culture.
• Main sites are La Madeleine, La Gravette in Dordogne region of France. Aurignac in S France. Solutre in E France | Sites La Madeleine, La Ferrassie, Isturits, Caminade are rock shelter sites showed these 4 traditions.

Perigordian 40k-20k BP This is 1st layer after Mousterian ends, but no Mousterian character. | Blunted Blades; No bone tools. | Lower Peri: Chatelperronian knife . | Upper Peri (Gravattian): Gravettian point, Venus figurines .
Aurignacian 38k-20k BP Aurignac in France. Retouched blades along border for sturdy (not blunt) -> A-Blade. | Mousterian flake tools, Bone tools (Ivory points). | Strangled Blade, Basque Burins & Carinated End scrappers found only here.
Solutrean 19k-17k BP La Solutre in SW France, 2ky. | Origin & end unknown, not from Peri or Aur -> independent enigmatic culture. | Bifacial thin leaf point => ' Laurel Leaf'. 'Hide needle' for sewing. Baton De Commandment 1st found here.
Magdalenian 16k-10k BP from La Madeline & Laugerie Haute. Last of Paleolithic. | Bone tools 8 0% & art on all pieces. Stone tools: like Peri, but few new like Raclette scraper -> for leather working (blunted). Javelin point & Spear Thrower.

Social life: Artistic & symbolic expression: intricate cave paintings in Altamira (Spain) & Lascaux (France); Bone Art - bones engraved with abstract patterns); Symbolic artifacts - ornaments, musical instruments reflect cognitive sophistication.

Asian Paleolithic:

Archeology Page 96
 Mi-Pa: Shanidar Cave in Iraq (revealing evidence of flower burials). Burial Practices: Shanidar Cave, where deceased were laid on a bed of branches, surrounded by flowers , suggesting some form of ritual or respect for dead.
Up-Pa: Natufian, Denisova Cave.

Indian Palaeolithic culture. 20 m

Palaeolithic culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. It is divided into 3 Phases: Lower (2.5 mya to 100K BCE), Middle (100K to 36K BCE) & Upper (36K to 9K BCE) Palaeolithic.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture: //same as world.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform palaeolithic climate in sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through following sites —
Lo-Pa:
1. Soan Valley: Excavated by De Terra & Paterson (1935): Gradual refinement of tools from upper to lower terraces, merging with nearby unique implement zone called Chauntra.
2. Madrasian Culture: dominated by handaxes & cleavers, made by Vaal technique. H.D. Sankalia claimed presence of hafting on tools, if proved, one of earliest known in world.
Mi-Pa:
1. Nevasa: Excavated by H.D, Sankalia (1956), Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based flake tools prepared on jasper.
Up-Pa:
1. Belan Valley: Excavated by GR. Sharma (1980). Along with blade tools, artificial stone structure referred as shrine, & a female figurine on bone.
2. Muchchatla & Chintamani Gavi: excavated by M.L.K. Murthy (1970). It yielded richest bone tool industry of Up-Pa in India.
Bhimbetka: discovered by VS. Wakankar (1957). VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated one of largest cave III F-23.
• This shelter yielded 8 cultural formations & is among few Indian sites to yield all 3 phases of Palaeolithic period.

Social Life:
•
• Large number of artefact clusters in areas suggests that these pre-historic HGs had Band org dominated in entire paleolithic. Stable (>1mya). Long-term success.
Comparison b/w periods: //1 or 2 points

Technology: Lo-Pa tools are large & rudimentary. Mi-Pa tools were less larger & less specialized. Up-Pa tools were smaller, diverse, specialized & finely crafted.
Distribution: Lo-Pa & Mi-Pa sites are concentrated in specific regions with suitable habitats. Up-Pa sites show wider distribution across ecological zones. Indicating higher degree of adaptation & resource exploitation strategies .

Comparison with EU, Africa regions: //Same Ans for each of Lo, Mi, Up periods.

Time Indian paleo emerges later - Upper Pleistocene. Europe & Africa - Lower Pleistocene. | Indian Acheulian industry is much younger, especially than Europe.
Climate Due to climatic differences across N & peninsular regions, Indian Paleo has significant regional variations.
Tools Bone tools & Caves rarer in India. e.g. Kurnool caves. | Abbevillian & Acheulean don't show vertical evolution. e.g. Bhimbetka.
Other Fossils very rare in India - only 1 human fossil discovery. i.e. Narmada Man. | Shows rare occurrence of sites with living floors. | Lake sites are rarein India.

Conclusion: Due to significant regional variations, it can be concluded that Palaeolithic in India is neither culturally uniform nor chronologically homogenous.

Lo-Pa Mi-Pa Up-Pa PYQ 2020 P1 (Lo-Pa vs Mi-Pa).

Time: 500k - 100k 100k - 36k 36k - 9k
Climate: N mountains - glacial & inter-glacial. Peninsular River valleys - pluvial & inter-pluvial. -> same Saw last phases (4th) of glaciation & pluviation, thus climate turned warmer.
Material Core tools: Abbevillian (C-C), Acheulian (handaxe-cleaver); Oldowan (crude pebbles). Flake tools like scrapers & points. Blade tools & Bone tools.
Culture: Direct hammer technique. | Material: Quartzite. Direct hammer & Pecking. | Material: Crypto-crystalline silica types Core cylinder hammer. | Material: Quartz & Bone.
Regional Soan Valley excavated by De Terra & Paterson (1935). Nevasa (MH) excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956) Belan Valley (UP): Excavated by GR Sharma (1980).
Bhimbetka: VN Misra excavated cave III F-23. Bottom 3 layers are Lo-Pa. Bhimbetka: cave III F-23, 5th layer from top is Mi-Pa. Bhimbetka: cave III F-23, 4th layer from top is Up-Pa.
Madrasian: Nagarjunakonda (AP), Kortalayer valley (TN), Chirki-Nevasa (MH) Luni (RJ) excavated by VN Misra. Renigunta & Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (AP) excavated by M.L.K. Murthy.
Didwana (RJ) by V.N. Misra. | Kuliana (OD) by NK Bose & Dharani Sen. Mahanadi Valley by RP Mohapatra.
Social life Economy : HG in all of Palaeolithic. Economy: HG in all of Palaeolithic.
Settlements: near pebble deposits, forest peripheries. Never hights & dense forest.

Female figurines & artefacts resembling ritual or religious element.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Lower Palaeolithic culture of India. 20 m
Palaeolithic culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Lo-Pa is its earliest sub-division, & spans from 500K to 100K BCE in Indian context. //Some say 2mya other say 700kya. Attirampakkam (1.5mya) & Isampur (1.2mya).
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.
Material Culture:

Lo-Pa tools are less evolved & bigger in size as compared to Mi-Pa or Up-Pa tools. Lo-Pa is divided into 2 lithic industries —Abbevillian & Acheulian.
1. Abbevillian (Chellean): dominated by chopper-chopping tools & large, crude hand-axes. Technique used to remove flakes: direct hammer technique.
2. Acheulian: frequency of chopper-chopping tools declined. Hand-axes became smaller, thinner & Pear-shaped. A new tool - cleaver appeared.
Before end of this period, use of flake tools started, types being Clactonian & Levalloisian flakes. Technique: Early - Hard Hammer. Late - Soft Hammer.
Material used: Quartzite. If unavailable, limestone, dolerite, basalt & granite were used. | Tool technique: Stone hammer, soft hammer & prepared core.

Regional variation:

1. Soan Valley (Pak): Excavated by De Terra & Paterson (1935). Pebble tools. Gradual refinement of tools seen from upper to lower terraces, merging with nearby site Chauntra.
• Patterson: they're for cutting & chopping, digging & skinning. || Indian side, pebble-tool assemblages: Sirsa & Ghaggar valleys of HR, Beas & Banganga valleys of HP (BB Lal).
2. Central India: Narmada valley
• Bhimbetka (MP): VS Wakankar (1957) discovered Rock shelters. VN Misra (1973-76) excavated largest cave III F-23, yielded 8 cultural formations, bottom 3 - Acheulian (LP).
• Adamgarh (MP): RV Joshi excavated rock shelters, Hoshangabad dist, shows Acheulian. | 35km east at Hathnora, Arun Sonakia (1982) found H. erectus skull (Narmada man).
3. Eastern India:
• Kuliana & Kamarpada of Mayurbhanj (OD): Excavated by NK Bose & Dharani Sen (1939-42). Cleavers with pebble butts have been found, besides generic tools.
4. Western India:
• Didwana (RJ): Excavated by V.N. Misra (1980s), found 3 depositional phases. Mostly found choppers & hand-axes but Cleavers are absent notably. Nearby site Singi Talav.
5. Peninsular India: Madrasian Culture is dominated by hand-axes & cleavers, prepared by "Vaal technique" of thinning a biface.
• Nagarjunakonda & Karempudi (AP): is called "treasure house" of Lo-Pa in India, as it yielded large deposits of tools.
• Kortalayer valley (TN): VD Krishnaswami (1938) found handaxes & cleavers. Chirki-Nevasa (MH): at R. Pravara, Gudrun Corvinus found Acheulian made of Basalt.
• H.D. Sankalia claimed presence of hafting of tools to wooden frame in this culture, which if proved, would be one of earliest known cases in world.
• Evolutive aspects: Archaeological evidence from these sites suggests a transition from non-Acheulian to an early Acheulian phase before evolving into a developed Acheulian culture.

Species: Possehl (1975) examined faunal & geological evidence & felt that man entered sub -continent late. But DK Bhattacharya points out that findings of H. erectus (1982) indicates a greater antiquity of man's presence in this zone.
Social Life:
• From available evidence, we can talk of only their economic pursuit. Economy was based on hunting & gathering, as can be deduced from tools.
• Settlements: LP man preferred to live near pebble deposits (river valleys) & forest peripheries, & but never high altitude & dense forest.
Conclusion: To Conclude, Indian LP, unlike its European & African counterpart, shows a high degree of Cultural variability due to more varied climatic conditions.

AR Sankhyan (2009): Indian paleolithic diversity is conspicuous in 3-typo-techno cultural complexes. 1) Sub-Himalayan Soanian (C-CT), 2) Peninsular Acheulian, 3) North Eastern Hoabinhian & Upper Annanthrium ?.
Note: Western areas (India), it developed later. Lo-Pa of NE are mostly surface finds & tough to date. But comparison of Typo-technology helps.

Soan Valley: 10m.

It's an archaeological site located in Potwar plateau, N Punjab, Pakistan. Excavated in 1935 by De Terra & Paterson as part of Yale-Cambridge expedition. Dated @ 500,000 to 125,000 BCE.
Climate: Being located near Himalayas, Soan valley witnessed glaciation & inter-glaciation.
Material Culture: Gradual refinement of tools seen from upper to lower terraces (TD to T5). First 3 terraces yield tools dated to Lower Palaeolithic —
Zone TD: Pre Soan: Tools mostly big flakes made of quartzite. Crude - Eoliths. They're heavily worn out, & if authenticated as man-made, will be one of oldest human cultures (2my old).
Zone T1: Early Soan: Mainly chopper-chopping tools, made by direct hammer technique.
Zone T2: Late Soan: flake dominant industry indicated by presence of Levalloisian & blade flakes. These tools merge with other implement-bearing zone called Chauntra.
Zone T4: Evolved Soan: dates to Middle Palaeolithic, bearing few blades & blade tools,
Characteristic Feature: Coexistence of C-C & handaxe & cleavers indicate coexistence of 2 diff cultures in close proximity with different tool typology.
e.g. Nearby site Chauntra (Pak) shows mixture of Late Soan with Abbeville-Acheulian traditions.
Social Life: Based on tools found, economy was built on hunting-gathering. Social organisation remains unknown.

Scholar views: Patterson opined that soan tools must have been meant for cutting & chopping, digging & skinning. | KV Soundararajan terms Sohan culture as Endogenous Culture.
Criticism: Denell & Rendell say as region is tectonically unstable, it is improper to consider deposits as succession of cultural change. We need independent dating of each layer => Paleomagnetic & Radioactive methods.
Recently, Soan Garden Society has highlighted need to preserve this site in wake of damage caused by river pollution on Soan remains.

Archeology Page 97
 Recently, Soan Garden Society has highlighted need to preserve this site in wake of damage caused by river pollution on Soan remains.
Bhimbetka (MP): //For all periods.

Bhimbetka is 45km from Bhopal. VS Wakankar (1957) discovered many Rock shelters (1000+). > 200+ were excavated.
VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated largest cave III F-23, yielded 8 cultural formations, bottom 3 yielded Acheulian industry (Lo-Pa).
Rarely such variation found. Excavation of Tikoda, Raisen District (MP), by prof SB Ota. Kondapeta, Prakasam (AP) by MK Singh also shows it.
Lo-Pa: Sophisticated Acheulian tools. No Chopper-chopping tools, Abbevillian. Thus the only Lo-Pa in India w/o Abbevillian tradition. But Acheulian found.
Up-Pa: 30% of paintings belong to Up-Pa. 1st clear evidence of Cave art. Indicates social org.
Mesolithic: 70% of paintings belong to Meso. Material changed to Chalcedony (cryptocrystalline silica type) .

Madrasian Culture: 10m.

Lo-Pa sites of peninsular India are collectively referred to as Madrasian culture, Christopher (1938). First site discovered here was Attirampakkam (1.5 mya) near Chennai, by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. //Father of Indian Prehistory.
Climate: Region experienced pluvial/Inter-pluvial climate, except for central peninsular area.
Material Culture:
• Madrasian tool industry is dominated by sophisticated hand-axes & cleavers. e.g. Kortalayer Valley of Chingelpet (TN) excavated by VD Krishnaswami (1938), found cleavers & hand-axes were prepared by Vaal Technique.
• AP is called 'treasure house of Lo-Pa in India', due to abundance of tools. Nagarjunakonda (AR Saraswati); Karempudi; Paleru valley, Prakasam (RV Joshi); Chintapalam & Maratipalem (Remi Reddy); Gundlakamma river, Kurnool (FE Zeuner).
• Isampur (1,2mya), Hunsgi valley of Gulbarga (KA): K Paddayya found evidence of primary site with 15k fresh Limestone specimen. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha & Tungabhadra valleys by Sheshadri, Joshi, Shanti Pappu.
• Chirki-Nevasa (MH) near Pravara river, Gudrun Corvinus found Acheulian cultural material made of Basalt.
Culture continues into Mi-Pa. | Shanti Pappu of Sharma centre for Heritage Education, Chennai, recently discovered India's oldest Mi-Pa tool in Attirampakkam & published study in Nature (2018).

Social Life: Based on tools found, economy was built on hunting-gathering. Social org remains unknown.
: claimed presence of of tools to wooden frame in this culture . If proved, it will be one of earliest in world.
In 2011, Madras University team claimed finding 1.5 my old microliths from Gudiyam caves (TN). If verified, will be one of oldest such findings in world.

Madrasian Vs Soan Culture: M dominated by hand-axes & cleavers; S by C-C tools. | M tools sophisticated & neat. S tools crude/eolith.

Vaal technique thinning a biface to make it sharp by a tranchet blow along its length. It gives V -shaped tool. | Found near Vaal river, Victoria West, S Africa. Thus, called 'Vaal' or 'Victoria West' or Francois Bordes calls it 'Para-Levallois' technique.

Other:

Didwana (RJ): Excavated by V.N. Misra (1980s), found 3 depositional phases. Mostly found choppers & hand-axes but no Cleavers notably. | Climate is Pluvial. || Also in Chittorgarh, Saurashtra, Sabarmati, Chambal (Mishra)
//Western Singi-Talav near Didwana in Nagaur District is "earliest power paleolithic industry" => Acheulian tools.
Kuliana & Excavated by N.K. Bose & Dharani Sen in 1939-42. Finds of Cleavers with pebble butts are a speciality, apart from generic tools. | Mayurbhanj & Sambal districts. | Mahanadi Basin excavated by Mahapatra.
Kamarpada (OD): Paisra Place: Open air primary site; in Monger district of Bihar. | Midenpur District of WB; near Subarnarekha river.

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Middle Palaeolithic Culture of India:
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Mi-Pa is 2nd sub-division of P culture, very thin stratigraphy, & spans from 100K to 36K BCE.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.
Material Culture:

Compared to LP, use of chopper-chopping tools became infrequent, & hand-axes & Cleavers became smaller.
Flake tools became much more common like scrapers, points & borers. Mostly W & S India & fewer sites. Varied.
Technique: Besides direct hammer, a new technique - Pecking / Retouching appeared, to make working borders sharp & durable.
Material: in river valleys, changed to smooth crypto-crystalline silica like quartz, flint, jasper, Chalcedony. Compact, so less energy wastage.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through following sites -

1. Nevasa (MH): Excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956) near river Pravara. Nevasian culture also includes sites along river Godavari, Son & Krishna.
• Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based flake tools prepared on jasper material.
2. Bhimbetka (MP): VS Wakankar (1957) discovered Rock shelters. VN Misra (1973-76) excavated one of its largest cave III F-23. This cave yielded 8 cultural formations.
• Out of which 5th layer from top represents Mi-Pa. Notably, Raw Material don't change - use of quartzite as raw material continued like Lo-Pa.
3. Luni (RJ): excavated by VN Misra. It is more varied & richer in tools than Nevasian industry. It contains convex & concavo-convex sidescrapers, & various points.
4. Eastern Industry: RP Mohapatra recorded Mi-Pa sites from near almost all rivers of Odisha.
5. Andhra/South Coastal Industry: stratigraphy unclear. Tools made of quartzite, like in Bhimbetka. Some say Cylinder-hammer technique. e.g. Kurnool, Chittoor & Nalgonda.

Species: H Sapiens -> Africa. H Neanderthalensis -> Europe. Both -> Israel. But in India no fossils found yet.

Unique point: For long, till 1950's, Mi-Pa was not separately identified in India due to lack of stratigraphic evidence. This changed in 1956 due to Nevasa excavation efforts of HD Sankalia.
Scholar view: Presence of scraper & borer dominant industry in Mi-Pa confused scholars wrt their purpose for H-G. | Sankalia reasons that most of Mi-Pa industry was designed to shape ultimate weapons of hunting & trapping in wood, bone & antler.
Conclusion: Nature & status of Indian Mid-P remains to be adequately understood so far, primarily because of dearth of primary habitational sites.
Nevasa: 10m.
It's an archaeological site located along river Pravara in Maharashtra. Excavated by H.D. Sankalia in 1956. Fine & less cemented gravel here revealed cultural remains belonging to Mi-Pa period.

Climate: region experienced pluvial & inter-pluvial climatic phases. Similar to Mousterian of Eu Mi-Pa.
Material Culture:
• Most predominant tool type are sidescrapers, prepared on Levallois flakes. Others include leaf-shaped points & borers.
• Technique: pecking & direct hammer technique. Levallois technique. | Material used are crypto-crystalline silica types, chiefly jasper.
• Overall, industry here comes close to Mousterian character of European Mi-Pa.
Social Life: Based on tools found, economy was built on hunting-gathering. social organisation remains unknown.

Many Nevasa culture like sites were found near river valleys of Godavari, Son, Krishna etc. This led Sankalia to conclude that 'Nevasa' is a regional culture spanning several sites across MH & KA, & not a local feature.

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Upper Palaeolithic culture: India. 20m.
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Up-Pa is last sub-division of Palaeolithic culture, & spans from 36K to 9K BCE. Estd as unique stage in 1983.
Climate: Up-Pa period witnessed last phases (4th) of glaciation & pluviation that characterised Pleistocene. Last Ice-age (115kya - 12kya) came to end thus climate turned warmer.
Material Culture: Up-Pa tool industry

Characterised by parallel-sided blade flakes & blade tools. Some say Composite tools appeared => hafting.
• Technique: fabricated by prepared core cylinder hammer technique*. Pressure flaking*. Hafting*.
• Material changed everywhere to smooth forms of crypto-crystalline silica, for smooth & sharp edges.
Besides stone tools, Bone tools became common. e.g. Harpoons made of bone found 1st time.

Regional Variations:

1. Belan Valley (UP): Excavated by GR Sharma (1980). Along with blade tools, site is noted for discovery of artificial stone structure referred as shrine, & a female figurine on bone.
2. Bhimbetka (MH): Discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957).
• VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated one of largest cave III F-23. This shelter has yielded 8 cultural formations, out of which 4th layer from top represents Up-Pa.
3. Renigunta & Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (AP): Excavated by M.L.K. Murthy in 1963-64 & 1970 respectively.
• Renigunta has many blades (not bones) of various types like borers, points, burins, etc. & is thus considered finest Up-Pa site in India.
• Muchchatla & Chintamani Gavi (AP) caves in Kurnool, richest bone tool industry of Indian Up-Pa. 90% are bone tools like shouldered points, scrapers & barbs. //bone-tool site.
• HD Sankalia says, Groove & Splinter technique may have been used here.

Social Life:
•
• Period marks first clear evidence of cave art , as seen at Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar. Art displays linear depiction of figures of huge animal with human groups. This indicates development of social organisation.
• Sudden appearance of female figurines & artefacts resembling ritual or religious element.
Up-Pa culture shows significant advancement over previous phases, as reflected from its much shorter time span. End of this period signals end of Pleistocene epoch as well.
Belan Valley: 10m. //Koldihwa.

Archaeological site (~ 26kya) located along Belan river in Sonbhadra Dist, UP. Excavated by GR. Sharma & J Desmond Clark in 1980. | 4 layers of depositions mapped. 2nd layer from top yielded Up-Pa culture.

Climate: region experienced last phase of pluvial & inter-pluvial climate associated with Pleistocene epoch.
Mat Cul: variety of blade tools excavated, including micro & macro, backed & Shouldered blades. | Epi-Pa (12-10kya) artefacts also found => blade tools, mixture of Up-Pa + Mesolithic.
Social • Economy was built on hunting-gathering, based on tools found.

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 Social • Economy was built on hunting-gathering, based on tools found.
Life: • At Baghor-1 (MP), artificial sand-stone structure, at centre has stones with etched concentric triangles . Referred as 'shrine', indicates religious element. For local Kol & Baiga it's mother goddess 'Mai'.
• A female figurine made on bone has also been found. However, some believe it to be a fishing harpoon.

Belan valley's importance lies in fact that it was among first Indian sites to yield a clear Up-Pa tradition, thus fixing chronology of Indian P culture. All 3 paleolithic phases are found here indicating continuity.

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Debate surrounding chronology of Palaeolithic culture in India. 15m
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. | Indian P culture is accepted as emerging around early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to European & African P culture.
In 1960, seminars were organised concerning chronology of P culture in India.
• B Subbarao & Bridget Allchin suggested that there is no possibility of naming Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic in India, like that in Europe, because :—
1. Majority of river valleys surveyed till then yielded only two stratigraphic gravels of Pleistocene period (1st is core tools; & 2nd is flake & blade tools). Hence a 3-fold division was not possible.
2. Bone tool & art objects which formed a major characteristic of European Up-Pa, were more or less absent in India due to acidic soil.
▪ They therefore suggested a two-fold nomenclature for Indian Palaeolithic — Early & Middle Stone Age.
• Meanwhile, HD. Sankalia suggested a more expansive terminology — Early, Middle, Later, & New Stone Age. ESA (Lo-Pa), MSA (Mi-Pa), LSA (Up-Pa & Meso), NSA (Neo) //MSA = Meso in Paper 1 & Mi-Pa in Paper 2.
However, in 1973, V.N. Misra excavated Bhimbetka shelter Ill F-23. Four seasons (1973- 1976) of excavation here yielded a continuous sequence of Palaeolithic culture.
In 1980, GR. Sharma excavated Belan valley & described 3 implement-bearing gravels. 3rd gravel was dated 19,000 BCE, confirming a clear Up-Pa tradition.
Further discoveries & confirmations at different sites followed.
Conclusion: Thus, almost all archaeologists today agree that Indian Palaeolithic can be divided into European pattern of 3 -fold structure, that is, Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic.
Problems still exist: Abbevillian are purely intruded within Acheulian so Europe comparisons are tough. | Art usually found with Microliths; tough to differentiate b/w Up-Pa & Meso. | Evidence of fluting technique not conclusive (Up-Pa issues).

Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a uniform cultural phase. Discuss. 15m (2013 PYQ).
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. | Indian P culture is accepted as emerging around early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to European & African P culture.
Chronological non-homogeneity:
• Most river valleys surveyed in India maintained only 2 Stratigraphic gravels of Pleistocene period. Hence, a 3 -fold division of Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic was not possible in Indian context for a long time till 1970s.
• Even till date, only a few sites yielded a continuous sequence of Palaeolithic culture, from Lo to Mi to Up-Pa like Bhimbetka, Belan Valley, Tikoda, Attirampakkam, Prakasam.
Cultural non-uniformity:
• Reason: Indian sub-continent saw significant climatic variations. N mountain regions - glacial climate, Peninsular India river valleys - pluvial climate. This led to cultural differences across Indian sites. These can be seen from perspectives of—
1. Stratigraphy: N Indian sites like Soan valley show massive stratigraphy of 6 terraces. Central Indian sites like Narmada valley shows complicated stratigraphy due to rift valleys. Finally, South Indian sites show simple stratigraphy.
2. Material Culture: //Tools.
▪ N Indian sites like Soan valley show a very high frequency of chopper-chopping tool which declines moving southwards. S Indian sites (Madrasian) shows a high frequency of handaxes & cleavers, which are more neat & sophisticated.
▪ At some sites like Bhimbetka, there is no vertical evolution from Abbevillian to Acheulian industry. //Abbevillian intruded within Acheulian.
▪ Material change from quartzite to crypto-crystalline silica types is not seen at sites like Bhimbetka & Kurnool. They remained as quartzite.
▪ In Mi-Pa, Nevasa had Levallois & Mousterian. Kurnool has Cylinder-Hammer technique.
▪ Wrt Up-Pa culture, bone tools have been very rare. Found only at Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi.
3. Art: Cave art is found only at limited sites, like Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar. Art objects are also rare in Indian paleo unlike European tradition.
○ Fossils very rare due to acidic soil: only 1 at Hathnora, MP -> Narmada man.
Thus, Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a uniform cultural phase.

Uniqueness of Indian Paleolithic:

• It is comparatively late is appearance as compared to world Paleolithic (Late by 0.5 million years)
• Both glacial & pluvial sites are found e.g. Soan(glacial) & Madrasian (Pluvial)
• Geographical spread of Paleolithic is widest in India expanding from North (Soan Culture) to south (Madrasian culture) & East (Kuliana) to west (Didwana, Nevasa)
• Regional variations are more as compared to other Paleolithic places of world.
• Vast Material culture diversity e.g. Soan(chopper chopping culture) & Madrasian (Hand axe cleaver culture). at same time comparative details b/w two sites ar e present
• Nowhere in world C-C tools of pebbles & handaxe-cleavers have been found together, except India e.g. Chauntra of Soan Valley. Indicative of coexistence of 2 diff cultures living in close proximity. Even in India, oldest C -C & Hand axe cleavers.
• Bone tools are found in Up-Pa and only at one site i.e. Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi caves, Kurnool.??
• Most of tools found are surface tool whose dating is difficult - Hence dating is done on basis of tool type & technology.
• Continuity of cultures are found simultaneously e.g. Bhimbetka, Belan valley.
• Paleolithic art of Up-Pa is unique feature of Indian Paleolithic.
• Highly Acidic Soil- Most of fossil evidences are not found. Fossil- only Narmada Man.

Upper Palaeolithic Art in India:

Mural Art (Art Parietal): Found predominantly on cave walls & ceilings. Art mainly in form of paintings, displaying both fauna & humans.
e.g. Bhimbetka Caves & Rock Shelters: Period I rock paintings belong to Up-Pa phase.
Fauna Depicted: Large herds of rhinoceroses, bisons, wild buffaloes, mammoths, & boars. These depict significant fauna of time, hinting at possible human-animal interactions.
Human Figures: Stick-like depictions, possibly indicative of H-G communities or symbolic rituals.
Colors Used: Predominantly green & dark red.
Portable Art (Art Mobilier): Consists of movable objects. Predominantly made from materials such as ostrich eggshell & bone. e.g. Ostrich eggshell at Patne (MH), Nagda (MP).
Ostrich Egg Shell Beads & Engraved Fragments found in various locations, these beads serve as evidence of ornamentation, decorative & perhaps symbolic communication purposes.
Sites: Bhimbetka III A-28, MP. Ramgar (Chambal valley), MP. Khaparkheda (Narmada valley), MP. Chandresal & Kota (Chambal valley), RJ. Patne, MH

Other:
L2A: Discuss the characteristics of Upper Paleolithic Period in Indian context and give a brief note on its distribution and chronology 20
UPaliolithic sites in East, West, North & South india.
Chronological time period for those 4
Palentologists Associated in excavating these sites.
Resemblence b/w those 4 - west-east etc.
Palentologists classified into zone 1, 2 etc.. Another group also classified U paleolithic into diff period. Diff sites clubb ed under these phases. ?
Sankalia also tried to classify it.
Features.

L2A: Give a broad outline of Mesolithic culture emphasizing upon its tool technology 20
Culture
Places
Tool technology - micro, composite tools. -- //significance group living.
How these tools had emphasized/significance on social org/aspects. -- // Q) emphasis on tool tech .
Social & economic cultures: support these points with archeologist. /
/if you don't remember you can add sankalia or other name and state what is significance of such emphasis. Change in settleme nt patterns/ group patterns or spread in Mesolithic culture.

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Mesolithic

MESOLITHIC:
Mesolithic culture of world. 20m.
Mesolithic culture refers to the earliest Holocene culture prior to advent of widescale food production. Transitional stage b/w Palaeolithic & Neolithic. It spans from around 10,000 to 4000 BCE.
Climate: glacial climatic conditions of Pleistocene period gave way to a warmer climate. Melting of glacial ice freed up of huge land for expansion of forests, & left over lakes had many fish & attracted many fowl. => Microliths.
Material Culture:

Meso tool culture is characterised by use of small chipped stone pieces called . Geometric or non geometric in shape.
Technique: prepared by pressure flaking or fluting technique. | Used as composite tools - microliths attached to arrow, harpoon & blade.
Microlith Advantage: Melting led to rise in small animals, & need for specialised lighter tools. Microlith can be replaced if worn-out, unlike heavy P-tool discarded.
Sling Bolas found being used as weapon. | Acc to DK Bhattacharya, Bow & Arrow tool was inspired from trees flexing in storm. (Levant, Bhimbetka Painting).

Regional Variation:

Europe:
• EU Meso traditions can be divided into 2 phases. 1st phase includes Azilian, Tardenoisian & Asturian cultures. 2nd phase Maglemosian, Campignion & Ertebølle cultures.
• Ecological conditions made people habitat coastal regions & river banks. | //Very Northern areas unaffected by spread of Neolithic & continued to be Mesolithic till Roman.
Africa:
• African microlithic trend is further specialised into Elmenteitan & Wilton cultures of Kenya (e.g. Gamble's Cave), & Magosan & Lupemban cultures of Uganda.
• Tools mainly prepared on black Obsidian & accompanied by crudely baked hand-made pottery . | Climate very dry. Meso is short. | Economy: Fishing & fowling, like EU.
India:
• Sarai Nahar Rai is oldest Indian Meso site, dated @ 8000 BCE. | Langhnaj is one of youngest sites, dated @ 2400-2000 BCE. | Bhimbetka is rich in Meso cave paintings.
• Most of Indian sites show total adaptation to microliths, & do not contain heavy duty tools.

Social Life:
• Economy was dominated by fishing & fowling > small-game hunting > Big game, as can be deduced from tools & cave paintings. | Towards end of this period, domestication of animals & wild seed collection began.
•
Conclusion: Thus Mesolithic period represents a transitional phase b/w Palaeo & Neo periods, with Homo sapiens on cusp of moving into a settled & productive economy.

Epipaleolithic: It is contextual. It is in b/w Up-Pa and Meso. It is not found everywhere. GS Sharma of Allahabad University 1st time in a site Chopani Mando found Epi-Pa.
DK Bhattacharya: EP typo-technological def is terminal part of Pleistocene, where Microliths prepared by punching technique, instead of pressure-flaking or fluting technique.
Overall chronology: Epi-Pa => Non-geometric Meso => Geometric Meso. | Tools: Blades, Burin, Borer, End-scraper. These are Common in Epi-Pa but not common in Mesolithic.

European Mesolithic:
• EU Meso traditions can be divided into 2 phases. 1st phase includes Azilian, Tardenoisian, Asturian & Sauveterrian cultures. 2nd phase Maglemosian, E ø , Campignion & Kitchen Midden cultures.
• Ecological conditions made people habitat coastal regions & river banks for fishing. Semi Sedentary life (Pop rise). Cave paintings depict Intergroup fishing for female & control even in abundant areas.

Azilian (9K to 6K BCE):

• Discovered by Edouard Piette (1887) at Mas d'Azil, south France. It was 1st Mesolithic site ever identified. Some say it is Epi-Paleolithic (as Pleistocene shifted back 2Ky by experts)
• Mostly Geometric Microliths found. Found Bone Harpoon for fishing. This depicts a definite proof of change in economy from H&G.
• Bow & Arrow prominent as depicted in Azilian Paintings. | Found Painted Pebbles , researches hypothesize they were kept as talismans/souvenirs.

Tardenoisian: Same time as Azilian. Spread from Northern France till Russia. Geometric microliths found.
Asturian: North Spain; Coastal regions & post-Azilian. Similar to Kitchen-Midden.
Sauveterrian (8K BC): Parallel dev in Up-Pa & surviving upto onset of Tardenoisian. Thus some say it is lower Tardenoisian.
Maglemosian (6.8-5K BC) Denmark & Northern Europe (UK, Not in Mainland Europe). Late Mesolithic; Some Axes also found of grinding & polishing.
J Grahame Clark excavated Star Carr site, Yorkshire, UK, found 1st direct evidence of dog domestication. | Earliest Holocene intrusion into UK was by Maglemosian as per latest evidence.
Kitchen Midden (4.5K BC) Ocean border (~40km). Seashells in a heap in which microlith are found of much younger age.
Campignion (6K-4K BC): restricted culture. Further in N Europe. 1st of Mesolithic cultures to start habitation in Pit dwellings (protect from wind & cold). Found Adze, Harpoons w/o hole. Shorted period than earlier.
Ertebolle (4K -2.5K BC): Site in eastern Germany. Very late & short period (~1000y). Half-baked pottery (small) . Bone comb - flat bone cut in comb shape (~3K BCE). //--> DK calls it younger culture permeating in Meso.
Danube river connects Middle East & Central Europe. Thus, Culture & social structure of Ertebolle is heavily influenced by Neolithic of ME. ME Neolithic led to Neolithic in Europe. (Natufian, Jericho, Stone houses, 6K BCE).

Indian Mesolithic culture. 20m

Mesolithic culture refers to earliest Holocene culture prior to advent of widescale food production. It spans from 9000-2000 BCE in Indian context. Transitional stage from Pa to Neo.
Climate: glacial climates of Palaeolithic gave way to a warmer climate. Melting ice & less rain corresponded with clearing up of forests & water bodies. Grasslands with Mediterranean climate.
Material Culture:

• Tool culture is characterised by microliths (small chipped stone pieces). In 1867, AC Carlyle found microliths in Vindhyan rock shelters, Mirzapur (UP).
• Technique: These were prepared by pressure flaking or fluting technique.
• Microliths are geometric or non-geometric (earlier) in shape. They were used as composite tools, attached to arrows, harpoons & blades.
• Grasslands led to greater mobility of animals, H&G man followed them. This led to Microliths.

Regional Variation: Central: Meso above Up-Pa shows continuity. West: Meso & Neo occur together. South: entirely independent & regional character. Slow dev.

1.
2. Bagor (RJ): by VN Misra (1967), on river Kothari. Found 1Ks of microliths - smallest in India. Wattle huts, stone-paved floors, burials, & wild animal bones. Earliest evidence of domesticating dog .
3. Langhnaj (GJ): by Sankalia (1944-63). Yielded geometric microliths. Human skeletons buried in crouching posture -> ritual. Wild & domestic animal bones , indicates degree of pastoralism.
4. Bhimbetka (MP): Discovered by VS. Wakankar (1957). VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated largest cave III F-23, yielded 8 cultural formations, out of which Top 3 belong to Meso.
•
5. Adamgarh (MP): has 6 rock shelters which has large late-Mesolithic occurrence above Paleolithic layer. Found domesticated animal bones .
6. Teri (TN): It is a group of 11 sites, that show closeness to Sri Lankan microliths, especially in tradition of bifacially pressure flaked points.

Some say new race of people brought microliths into India as microliths in India & Europe show cultural links. Thus not clear if India developed culture indigenously from previous industry or migrated from Mediterranean part.
Scholar view: As per DK Bhattacharya, domesticated animal bones occur only from Neolithic culture. Their presence in Indian Meso sites is due to culture diffusion from surrounding younger Neolithic sites. He calls them late-Meso in transition.
Social Life & Conclusion: //same as world.

Langhnaj (GJ): (2400 BC)

Meso site located along Sabarmati valley, Mehsanna district, GJ. Excavated by eminent archaeologist HD Sankalia several times b/w 1944-63. It is dated to @ 2400-2000 BCE.

Climate: region experienced warm & dry climatic conditions. //--> Same climate point for all sites.
Material
Culture:
Other notable finds: a soft hematite piece with rubbed surface, & a rhino shoulder blade bone implement. | Wheel-made Pottery .
Social Life: Findings of wild & domestic animal bones indicate a H-G economy with varying degrees of pastoralism .
— same as editerranean ropean rit als shows they mi

Remarkable feature is dating of site, making it contemporary to Lothal civilisation of Harappan culture. It's merely 100-200 km from Lothal & Dholavira but no pot sherd found.
There was possibly a symbiotic trading relationship b/w two — //acted as suburb to IVC, supporting their agri.
Some say they got unfair trade deal as they gave honey & meat but go only cereals in return. No metals were traded (maybe sacred/secret).

Thus, Langhnaj tells us that rigid cultural comparisons/chronologies are misleading. Langhnaj remains one of most perplexing prehistoric sites of India.
Sahar Nahar Rai (UP) (~8000 BCE):
Nahar Rai is a Meso site located in Pratapgarh, UP formed by Ganga & its RGTs. Discovered by GR Sharma & archaeologists of Allahabad University (1970). It is dated around 8000 BCE, making it oldest Indian Mesolithic site.

Material Culture
Social Life: Found a living floor (5x4m) with 4 post-holes on corners. Floor made of burnt clay lumps, & has several fire hearths , some with charred bones near them. This is perhaps an evidence of communal cooking .

Similar culture observed at nearby sites Damdama, Mahadaha, Chopani Mando, Lekhania & Morhana Pahar ( men attack 2 chariots). Some contain rock shelters with paintings of Meso. These sites are collectively referred as Sarai Nahar Rai Group.
Bagor (RJ): (~5000 BCE)
Discovered by LS Leshnik (1967) & excavated by VN Misra (1973-77). It is sand dune at river Kothari, Bhilwara, (East of Aravalli), RJ.

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 Discovered by LS Leshnik (1967) & excavated by VN Misra (1973-77). It is sand dune at river Kothari, Bhilwara, (East of Aravalli), RJ.

Tools: Found 1000s of microliths, considered smallest across Indian sites. Near Mahasati mound, many chert tools found. | Hand-made pottery .
Social life: Found Wattle huts , Stone paved floors, human burials , & bones of wild animals . Site uniquely yielded earliest evidence of domesticating dog .
Site had 3 cultural phases placed b/w 5000-2000 BC, 1.5m each:

Phase 1: Microliths Burials: West facing, arms over body, no goods. 70% animals fraction
Phase 2: Copper Burials: East facing, flexed position, lot of goods. 25% animals fraction
Phase 3: Iron Burials: Same as phase 2. 5% animals fraction

Site also possess largest radio-carbon dates making it most securely dated of all Meso sites in India. Due to all these characteristics, site is considered zenith of Indian microlith industry.
Other sites:

Birbhanpur Excavated by BB Lal (1957), near Durgapur around Damodar river, WB. Considered bit archaic than Langhnaj. Tools: Big flake & Big blade tools dominate. Found Circular houses, Factory cum living site with stone paved habitational floors.
(WB)
Only Birbhanpur has non-geometric tools, no burials, no animals, no hearths. Rest sites have geometric tool, burials, domesticated & wild animals, Bagor has wild animal bones.
Teri (TN) Group of 11 microlithic culture sites occur along fossilized red sand dunes in Tirunelveli district, TN. Site 1st discovered by Robert Bruce Foote in 19th C, who also found microliths at Attirampakkam.
(~5000 BC) Tools: discoid cores, flakes of various points, side scrapers, thumb nail scrapers, borers, & burins. Material used: Chalcedony, quartz, fossil wood.
South had independent dev of microliths & these are similar to ones found in SL (e.g. Bandarawela). Especially, Bifacially pressure flacked points, which are found nowhere else in India.
A. Aiyappan (1940) conducted research here at Sawyerpuram. FE Zeuner (1949) says, transgressions of sea into coast caused formation of sand dunes.
Other C Ind: Adamgarh (MP) - microliths, pottery, animal bones. | W Ind: Tilwara (RJ) - VN Misra ; Valasana (GJ), Hirpur (GJ). | E Ind: CN Plateau (JH), Mayurbhanj (OD), Keonjhar (OD), Garo hills (ML); | South: Sangankallu (KA) by Subbarao.
Pottery: Handmade at Bagor. Wheel-made at Langhnaj. Bhimbetka has less. Sarai Nahar rai has none. Rest all found. --> DK Bhattacharya says it is mostly by cultural diffusion from neighbouring younger cultures.

Smaller size, themes multiply etc.

Many rock arts discovered by Archibald Carlyle, De Saulenes etc. Cockburn in 1867 found painting of Rhinoceros hunted by 3 men at Ken valley, Sohagighat, Mirzapur (UP).
Palm Printing:
X-ray painting: symbolic world of paintings. Painting skeletal frame & internal organs. Include animals, humans, mythical creatures, as long as 8 feet. --// Still found in Aboriginal art in Australia.
Pachmarhi, Mahadeva Hills (MP): Man fluting, chariot etc. Collective poaching by men & women.
Morhana Pahar of Sarai Nahar Rai group: Some Rock shelters here has a painting of 'Men attacking 2 chariots' that is attributed to Meso period.
Andhra Pradesh, rock shelters, Paintings are characterised by more sexual orientation, petroglyphs, sign & symbols.

Contribution of Mesolithic culture to rise of Neolithic culture: // Mesolithic as a Transition

Climate was intermediate & so was terrain. Climatic change from ice-age to dry period in Meso continued in Neo.
Material culture
Tools like Microliths are found in Up-Pa & Neo-CC as well. Antlers or heavy ivory are largely used in Indian Meso.
• Tool: Mesolithic period saw refinement of tool symmetry & high craftsmanship as compared to Paleolithic period. Tool technology got further developed in Neolithic, with techniques like polishing & grinding to refine tools.
• Pottery: Crude pottery has been reported from several Mesolithic sites in E Europe & N Africa. This form got developed during Neolithic, making a transition from handmade, coarse, ill-fired pottery to wheel-made, smooth pottery.
Social Life:
• Wild seed collection & Bones of domesticated animals have been reported from Late Mesolithic sites. In India, such sites include Langhnaj & SNR. Thus these practices of Meso acted as precursor for domestication of plants & animals.
• Further, Significant settlement structures have been reported. For instance, at Indian Mesolithic sate of Bagor, stone-paved habitational floors have been excavated.
• All these changes became widespread/prominent & more evolved in Neolithic period.
Scholar views:

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Neolithic

NEOLITHIC:
Neolithic culture of WORLD. New Stone Age. 20m
Neolithic culture refers to Holocene culture marking advent of widescale food production. & preceding discovery of metal. It spans from around 9000-3500 BCE.
Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture:
Neolithic tool culture is characterised by use of celts. | Other tools include ring stones/mace-heads, Mill stone, curved sickle. | Material: Quartz.
Tool size increased because grasslands of Meso became Jungles, making microliths ineffective. These tools are used to clear forests & bring land under cultivation .
Technique: Celts preparation involved flaking/pecking large compact stones into axes/adzes, then grinding & polishing technique. Celts then hafted with wooden handle.
Development of Pottery for storing food grains was another notable feature. Initially it was hand-made & ill-fired but at end of this period Wheel-made pottery began.

Regional Variation:

Near East Oldest records of Neolithic culture in world appear in Fertile Crescent, dated around 10,000 BCE.
Earliest known Neo settlements in world are from sites such as Aleppo (Syria) & Jericho (Israel). Origin of Agriculture is traced to Natufian culture in Levant.
Europe Oldest records come from river valleys in Greece & Balkans. Other cultures have since been reported - Starcevo culture, Linear Pottery culture & Horgan culture.
In Europe, Agriculture was introduced from their contact with West Asia. | Sites: Vinca (Serbia), Abbot's Way (England), Otzi (Italy).
Africa Neolithic culture reached Africa from West Asia along with Agriculture . African Neolithic cultures include Merimde culture (marks ) & Badarian culture.
Agriculture started in Egypt along Nile Valley ~8000 BCE. Domestication of sheep & goats was 1st seen in Egypt, along Nile valley, ~ 5000 BCE. | Site: El-Badari (Egypt).
India Oldest Neolithic site is Mehrgarh, dating to 7000 BCE & represents one of earliest evidences of farming & herding in SE Asia. | Other sites: Chirand, Daojali Hading.
South Indian culture shows a mix of Neolithic & Chalcolithic traits, with a unique form of ritual seen here, that of Neolithic Ash Mounds .

Social Life:
• Economy shifted from a H-G to Subsistence economy based on domesticated plants & animals. | Complex Social organisations emerged because a sedentary lifestyle required cooperative existence.
• Political organisation was needed to protect fields & crops, & resolve conflicts over them. | Religion: Also, a clear-cut presence of magico- religious practices is seen.
Thus, large-scale changes in such a short span of time made V.G Childe term Neolithic period as first revolution in mankind.

Near East or West Asia: //Mesolithic is referred to as Epi-Paleolithic.

Oldest records of Neolithic culture in world appear in Fertile Crescent & Levant (Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordon) regions, dated around 10,000 BCE. | Neolithic of West Asia, following 4 stages are identified:

Stage I Advanced Mesolithic (Natufian): Wadi-el-Natuf, Jericho, Beidha. Stage of food collecting. Laid foundation for food production.
Stage II Proto-Neolithic (8900-8500 BCE): Natuf, Jarmo in Iraq. Sporadic attempts at cereal cultivation & taming of wild animals. Introduction of mortars, pestles (cereal processing), & sickle (harvesting).
Stage III Archaic/Aceramic Neolithic (8.5K-6K BCE): Jericho & Ain Ghazal. Permanent sedentary life but no pottery, unbaked bricks for house, fortify. Cultivated Wheat & barley. Domesticated sheep, goats, & later cattle. Continued HG.
Stage IV Developed/Ceramic Neolithic (6K-4K BCE): Catal Hüyük in Turkey. Expansion in settlements size, use of sun-dried bricks, rectangular houses. Domestication of all animals species & cereals. Became surplus food production.

Earliest known Neolithic settlements in world are from sites like Aleppo (Syria) & Jericho (Israel), Nesher Ramla (Israel), Jarmo, Basrah, Shanidar (Iraq), Ain Ghazal (Jordan).
Natufian culture: Discovered by Dorothy Garrod on Jordan river W bank, Natuf valley, Levant region. Emerged from Late Epi-Paleolithic Kebaran culture. Origin of agri is traced here.
Sites: , Mt Carmel, Israel. Hayonim Cave, Kebara cave, Skhul cave. Gobekli Tepe (Turkey). | Found Circular pit houses.
Ali Kosh (7500 BCE): in SW Iran in Zagros Mountains. Excavated by Frank Hole & Kent Flannery in 1960s. Irrigation & domesticated cattle. Got Obsidian (volcanic glass) from Turkey via trade.
Catal Huyuk (5500 BCE): in S Turkey (Anatolia). Mud brick homes. Pueblo fashion (several families in 1 home). Murals & statues in shrines. Trade & rich handicrafts found.
Gobekli Tepe (8000 BCE): excavated by Klaus Schmid. Found T shaped pillars (with animal carvings), placed in precise geometric circular manner. Represents world's oldest temple.
Lee Clare: carvings are narratives, important in keeping groups together and creating a shared identity. | Martin Sweatman: one pillar's carving represents comet hit in 13kya.
Levant people migrated to other parts of world & spread food production strategies. Went to Europe through Anatolia. Also went to central & SE Asia. | Species: Nesher Ramla homo.

New World:
Farming arose in Archaic period. e.g. Cotton, Maize & Tomato. Cotton spread slower as N-S axis distribution, somewhat voluntarily. | Not much inequality; People moved a lot.

Meso - America: Tehuacan: Mexico. Corn in 5000 BCE. Mexico is nucleus site for maize cultivation -> 1st to cultivate maize.
Guila Naquitz: cave excavated by Kent Flannery (1960). It is 8000BCE & agri as a supplement to H&G diet.
S America (Andes) e.g. Potatoes, Quinoa & Peanuts. Mostly cultivation focus, yet Andes had domesticated Llamas.
Eastern USA: sunflower.

East -Asia:

China is 2nd oldest. Lower Yangtze valley in China is nucleus site for rice cultivation -> 1st to cultivate rice.
India
SE Asia: e.g. Banana, Coconut & Taro. Spirit cave in NW Thailand has evidence of Bamboo & Rice.

Cultivation of rice, a complex agri process appears to be of local origin in Asia. This innovation appears to take place in more than one region – Spirit Cave in Thailand, Yang Sao in China & Belan Valley in India, for paddy farming.

Indian Neolithic culture. 20m.

N culture refers to Holocene culture marking advent of widescale food production & preceding discovery of metal. It spans from around 7000-1500 BCE in Indian context.

Climate: Period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements. Till iron age.
Material Culture: //same as world.
Regional Variations:
1. Burzahom (J&K): Excavated in detail by Archaeological Survey of India (1960-71). A variety of celts & bone tools have been found, along with hand-made coarse pottery, Pit dwellings .
2. Mehrgarh (Pak): Excavated by JF Jarrige (1974-86). Dated ~ 7000 BCE. Evidence of wheat , barley & cattle marks Mehrgarh as one of earliest evidences of farming & herding in S Asia.
• Features like properly-built settlements, wheel-made pottery & trade-based items make Mehrgarh a precursor to IVC.
3. Chirand (BR): Unlike most sites, it shows greater frequency of bone & antler tools than Celts. It's noted for terracotta objects, especially snake figurines indicates serpent cult.
4. Daojali Hading (AS): Excavated by T.C. Sharma (1967). Neolithic celts found here are distinctively shouldered at butt ends & have border ground sharp.
5. South Neolithic / Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture: South Indian sites like Tekkalakote, Sanganakallu & Piklihal show a mix of Neolithic & Chalcolithic traits.
• A unique feature are Neolithic ash mounds , that are basically burnt heaps of cow dung, indicating some unique ritual.

Social Life:
• Economy shifted from a H-G to Subsistence economy based on domesticated plants & animals. Agriculture took hold & life became sedentary - Inequality & conflicts raised. Inter-personal relations increased.
• Complex Social institutions emerged as sedentary lifestyle required cooperative existence: 1) Political org: to protect crop fields & resolve conflicts. Social control, Division of labour. 2) Clear -cut presence of magico-religious practices is seen.
As per HD Sankalia, most Indian sites are not pure Neolithic as agriculture & copper occur in same layer. Thus Neo-Chalcolithic emerged.
• Pure-Neolithic (rare): Gangetic valley, whole Eastern India, Kashmir. Date ~ 2500 BCE.
• Neo-Chalcolithic: South India (Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri in Deccan), Bagor in RJ.
In West India, Meso & Neo occur together. In South, Neo is later than Chalcolithic of North.
Scholar view: DK Bhattacharya says Indian Neolithic witnessed retarded rate of transformation.
Thus, large-scale changes in such a short span of time made V Gordon Childe term Neolithic period as first revolution in mankind. //not just evolution.

Burzahom:
Burzahom is an archaeological site located in Kashmir Valley near Jhelum & Srinagar. Excavated in detail by Archaeological Survey of India (1960-71), led by T.N. Khazanchi.
There are 4 cultural periods dated b/w 3000-1000 BCE (parallel to IVC). First 2 represent Neolithic period; 3rd Megalithic; & 4th is of Historical period.
Climate: region experienced cool & dry climatic conditions.

Material Culture:
Variety of celts found, prepared by polishing & grinding technique. There is an equally rich bone tool Industry . But there are no Microliths.
A unique tool found here are harvesters - rectangular knives with 2 holes . Some hypothesize that it came from China.
Pottery evolved from being hand-made in Neolithic period, to wheel-made redware in Megalithic period.

Social Life:
• There is a transition from pit-dwellings in Period I to over-ground houses in Period Il. They're regarded as dwelling units of Burzahom people.
• Period 1: Pit dwellings (16) - Plastered walls, Circular/oval-shaped pits dug in compact natural Karewa soil formation. Evidence of fire in kitchen hearths. Some had steps & ladder to access bottom level.
• : also reveals human & animal skeletons , buried in deep circular pits filled with hand made potsherds. e.g. Man buried with dog (domesticated) in ceremonial manner. Religion ?
• Period Ill: is marked by Megalithic period menhirs , along with presence of copper objects.

Scholar view: DK Bhattacharya says this culture clearly has exogenous origins because many similar items are present in China and this Burzahom site is very young.

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 Scholar view: DK Bhattacharya says this culture clearly has exogenous origins because many similar items are present in China and this Burzahom site is very young.
Presently, site is included in tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, like Mehrgarh.
Gufkral: another site near Srinagar, J&K. Excavated by AK Sharma in 1981. Period 1: Aceramic Neolithic: similar to Burzahom. Period 2: Early Neolithic: ~ Burzahom. Period 3: Late Neolithic: Terracotta Spindle whorls found.
Mehrgarh (~7000 BCE):
Mehrgarh is an archaeological site located near Bolan valley/pass, in Baluchistan, Pakistan, close to Indus plains. It was excavated by JF Jarrige (1974-86) & Lechevallier. (7000-2000 BCE)
Climate: region experienced a semi-arid & warm climate.

Periods It is one of the oldest Neo sites in India. Excavations have revealed 7 cultural periods here —
1. Period I (7000-5500 BCE): Aceramic Neolithic: Microliths. No pottery (Aceramic). Sun-dried (not baked) Mudbrick settlements .
2. Period II (5500-4500 BCE): Neolithic-Chalcolithic & ceramic: Bone tools , handmade pottery . Rectangular multi-room houses. Started Long distance trade relations via items like beads, sea shells & Lapis Lazuli .
3. Period III (4500-3500 BCE): Early Chalcolithic:
4. Period IV-VII (3500-2000 BCE): Chalcolithic:
Material • Tools show a progression from Period I - microlithic blades to, Period II - more advanced stone & bone tools. From Period Ill onwards, copper tools become common.
Culture: • Pottery evidence starts from Period Il. From Period Ill, fine painted wheel-made pottery is abundant.
Social Life: • Economy: right from P-1, Evidence of wheat , barley & cattle mark Mehrgarh as one of the earliest evidences of farming & herding in South Asia. No rice.
•
• Evidence of long-distance trade since P-II, indicated by trade items like beads, sea shells & Lapis Lazuli .
Scholar • Neolithic skulls excavated here have holes drilled into molars . DK Bhattacharya suggests that Dentistry (Root canal surgery) may have been practiced here as early as 7000 BC.
views: • Some archaeologists believe Mehrgarh culture arose due to contact with Near East Neolithic. However, As per JF Jarrige, despite similarities b/w 2 , Mehrgarh displays enough originality to be treated as independently-arisen culture.

Excavations of P VII suggest that Mehrgarh had been largely abandoned around 2500 BCE. Acc to famous Indologist Asko Parpola, Mehrgarh people migrated into fertile Indus Valley & became IVC, & thus Mehrgarh was a precursor to IVC.

Eastern India or Gangetic Plain Neolithic Culture:

Neolithic sites of G plain are collectively referred as G Plain Neolithic culture. Most of these sites are located today in states of UP & Bihar. Prominent ones include Chirand, Waina, Khairadih & Bhunadih.
Climate: region experienced warm & dry climatic conditions.

Material Celts prepared by polishing & grinding technique have been found. Bone & antler tools are also found in abundance.
Culture Ceramic industry is rich & varied: In early stages, handmade pottery was used. Subsequently, wheel-made pottery became common. | Cord-impressed ware has been reported from Mid Gangetic plain.
Social Life Besides Agriculture & domestication, People also practiced hunting, catching & fishing . Cultivation is evident from finds of rice husk & charred rice grains .
Sedentary settlements like circular houses - Wattle & Daub with paved floors, were located in ganga plains. | Terracotta snake figurines show they have Serpent cult .

Today' Gangetic Plain is considered as one of independent centres of origin of rice cultivation in India.

New evidences Early lake site settlements in Lahuradewa village near Gorakpur (UP), excavated by UP State Archeology dept, led by Rakesh Tiwari.
of Agriculture: Findings from Lahuradewa, Mahagara & kunjhun in N Vindhyas & Jhansi, Damdama & Chirand in Ganga plains show Rice cultivation started in this area from Terai to N Vindhyas during 6000-3000BC.
Diffusion of rice cultivation from Ganga valley to Harappan site around 3rd millennium BC where rice is dated to 2850 BC. Thus report indicates spread of agri from 6000BC from terai region towards south & east.

Chirand: 10m.
Located in Ghagra & Ganga confluence in Saran dist, BR. Who found it ?

Sequence: Phase 1: Neolithic (2000 BCE): criss-cross designs on pottery. -- IVC was already gone by now but still we find Neolithic here.
Phase 2: Chalcolithic.
Phase 3: Iron Age
Material culture It's just a mound. Variety of terracotta objects found. | Pottery 3 types: 1) Handmade Thick Greyware (HTGW), 2) Wheel thrown red ware (WTRW), 3) Red & Black ware (BRW).
Social life: Mound shows that there is rice cultivation . | Found terracotta serpentine figures, indicating existence of serpent/Naga cult & rituals associated to it. | Initially pit dwellings with thatched roof but later overground huts built.

Other sites: Koldihwa (UP) (~4000BC): Rice indigenously developed (earliest rice evidence in India). Wattle & daub huts . | Kuchai (OD) near Mayurbhanj. //-- For More info see Mandar notes.

North East India Neolithic: (4000-2000 BCE)

NE India, being a contact zone of S Asia, SE Asia, & E Asian countries, shows a cultural diversity dating from prehistoric times. Neolithic in this region spans from around 4000-2000 BCE.
Important Sites: Sites have been reported from AR, AS, ML, MN & NL include — Garo hills (ML), Daojali Hading (AS), Phunan hills (MN), Ukhrul (MN), Kiphire (NL), Mishmi hills (AR), Abor (AR).
• Important archaeologists to have reported on these sites include T.C. Sharma, A.H. Dani, O.K. Singh, MS Goswami. Artefacts kept at Pitt Rivers museum, Oxford.
Material Culture: Distinguished by predominance of shouldered celts & characteristic cord-impressed handmade pottery . However, there's little to No microlith & bone tools.
Social Life: Neo NE India has not yet provided basic subsistence economic pattern. Only circumstantial evidence of shifting cultivation (jhum). Scant evidence of artificially constructed habitations.
Distinctive characteristics of Neolithic NE India has led to scholars believe that a breakaway population from China or Myanmar might have settled here.

Daojali Discovered by TC Sharma in 1967 in North Cachar hills, Dima Hasao, Assam.
Hading: Material culture: Neolithic celts are distinctively shouldered at butt ends & their borders grounded sharp. No metals, No microliths or bone tools found. Pottery is handmade (ill-fired) . | Soft stone Jadeite used.
Yunnan origin theory: Absence of microliths, bone tools & artificially constructed habitations & distinctive variety of celts found here led some to hypothesize that this site is breakaway faction from Yunnan, China.
Nearby sites: Sarutaru & Marakdola are similar. Daojali Hadong & Sarutaru are the only stratified neolithic deposits found in Assam.

Neolithic-chalcolithic of Peninsular or South India: covered in detail in Chalcolithic culture.

Many archaeologists don't treat Neolithic in this region as pure & calls it Neo-chalcolithic or Deccan Neolithic. Time period: Radiocarbon dates to 2500-1000 BCC. Much latter than even Harappa of North.

'Neolithic is a revolution.' Critically analyse. 15m.

Revolution is a drastic 'change of' system which can be social, economic or political.
'Neolithic Revolution' term was coined by V Gordon Childe. Acc to him, Neolithic period spanned ~ 4000 years i.e. a small fraction (0.4%) of total human existence of > 1mya. Yet, period experienced large-sale socio-economic changes.
Large-scale changes witnessed include: —
1. Complete shift of Tool material from use of quartz microliths to large scale tools made of smooth crypto-crystalline silica to clear forests for cultivation.
2. Emergence new Tool of Neolithic Celt equipped with a handle due to hafting.
3. Large-scale Domestication of animals & Cultivation of plants - advent of "Agri", leading to a sedentary & subsistence based economy.
4. Rise of complex social & political organisation
5.
6. Habitational structures as lifestyle was sedentary.
Critic: Many anthropologists however, do not agree with Childe's contention. Acc to them, most of changes attributed to Neolithic came much earlier: —
1. Change of material from quartzite to smooth crypto-crystalline silica types occurred in river valleys during Mid-P & elsewhere during Up-Pa.
2. Use of handle /Hafting started during Mid-P. e.g. ?
3. Bones of domesticated animals & evidences of wild seed collection have been reported from several Up-Pa & Mesolithic sites. e.g. Natufian
4. Pottery started in Meso. Some say making of crude form of pottery started in Late Up-Pa period in China.
Thus, Neolithic should not be seen as a revolution, but a culminating stage where these cultural changes became widespread.

Why food production developed ? //It is outstanding to occur almost simultaneously.

Most say due to conditions & not a choice per se:
1. V Gordon Childe in 1952 suggested that environmental changes at end of Pleistocene were the impetus towards food production.
He argued that 10Kya, climate in parts of Near East became drier as summer rains shifted northward. So in Near East, a retreat to Oasis happened and created a need to increase Oasis resources.
But Robert Braidwood says there is no sharp climate change & even occurred even before too without shift to agri. He says that ' Culture was not ready yet'. This is supported by Gordon Willey. A theory in itself.
2. Population increased. e.g. In Levant by Lewis Binford, Kent Flannery, Mark Cohen.
3. Over-hunting of game.
4. Reproduction of existing resources.
5. As supplement to H-G diet, like an insurance strategy. e.g. South America.
6. Personal choice to set more of certain special plants/animals. e.g. Meso America.
• Impact:

Trade, Population, Material, Stratification, Political organisations all increased.

Health decreased: Domestication led to Zoonotic diseases. Role of Thrifty genotype (fat storage) led to Diabetes. Bone diseas es.

• One of the most widely current views about emergence of farming has been an acute stress of subsistence because of twin causes of population increase on one hand (Malthus, 1895) & climate shift (Binford, 1968) on the other.
• In addition to climate change & population increase, weakening of social control is cited as 3rd factor by Benett (1968) & Amartya Sen (1981) which causes subsistence stress within a society.

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Changes during Neolithic Revolution
new economy requires a series of substantial changes in technology, social structure & ideology. These changes create such a degree of change in society that 1 feels that word revolution alone can adequately describe it. changes may be briefly described as follows:
2.1 Technology: Clearing forest in order to allow sun to reach farming field was by no means a simple task. Specially rubbed & ground homogeneous rock was chosen to create efficient axes. Possibly clearing by fire was also used to clear bushes & undergrowth.
Heavy ring-stones were created to be used as thrasher. Logging is essentially a labour intensive activity & harnessing labour always brings about cardinal issue of redistribution of harvest in manner of wages.
Production economy brings about a new challenge. Our ancestors were never confronted with problem of surplus & their storage in preceding economy. This new problem was solved by creating adequate technique & expertise of pottery making.
2.2 Social structure: Labour management can be done by many methods. For instance people from simple societies practising Mesolithic economy in neighbourhood can be lured into a symbiotic relationship. Alternately these people could be forced to contribute
their labour, but this requires a degree of militarisation which is not evidenced till early metal age (e.g. in Sumeria). If marriage is established as an institution supported by whole range of sanctions & regulatory mechanisms this can enable 1 to draw labour on basis of
obligatory kinship loyalties. Thus, besides regulating mate selection marriage starts functioning also as assured source of labour management.
2.3 Ideology: Agriculture is based on a limited land space chosen for farming. This contrasts psychic stand of accepting a limitless ecology of both forest & waterscape as subsistence base in preceding cultural period. Early farming was not only rain dependent but
also wide open to insects & parasites. Consequently a permanent security of supply was not always predictable. This led to complex rituals & allied activities to combat unpredictability. It is believed that ancestor worship might have emerged at this stage. It is also
through this link & allied rituals that inheritance rights have to be established. Inheritance becomes a central concern in agriculture because subsistence base of a homestead is limited in this economy.
A community which is not capable of creating a regulatory mechanism for these diverse factors may not be able to sustain agriculture even if it has been able to domesticate wild seeds. In fact manner in which these varieties of factors combine themselves can create
different shades of societies. Gradually a peasant group emerges with ability to possess a surplus which constructs power & this in turn creates hierarchical rights to resources. call for intensification of agriculture occurs only when a political authority rises from within
system & mobilises productivity above culturally determined cut-off point. Role of farming in giving rise to a proper village culture has to be, therefore, understood more in terms of rise of social institutions which went hand in hand with demographic strength. It is,
consequently, understood that areas where demography did not show much change because of high rate of child mortality in endemic parasitic zones farming remained in a very rudimentary stage. Harris (1972) has also argued that, “On ecological grounds, therefore,
we can postulate that a long initial phase of cultivation by ecosystem manipulation preceded emergence of agriculture in strict sense of word.” (page 183)

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Chalcolithic

CHALCOLITHIC:
Chalcolithic culture of World. (5500 - 2000 BCE) 20m.
CC refers to period of human culture preceding Bronze Age, characterised by use of copper & stone tools. It spans around 5500-2000 BCE.

Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.
Material Culture:
• Tool technology was a mix of metals & stones: Metal tech is seen in smelting of copper & manufacturing of copper tools/weapons. | Lithic tech includes microliths, stone blades & axes.
• Another identifying characteristic of period is polychrome painted pottery .

Regional Variations:
• European C period is characterised by ; significant economic stratification; & probably earliest presence of Indo European speakers .
• Certain cultures include Yamna culture, Corded Ware culture & Kurgan culture.
• Africa: C culture first reached Egypt, seen through Naqada culture. But for most of Africa, iron & copper smelting appeared together, & thus there was no distinct C period.
• India: C culture in India is not uniform. For convenience, it is divided into 6 cultural zones & All zones are chiefly distinguished by their ceramic industry.
• Ahar-Banas, Madhya Pradesh, Gangetic Doab, Eastern, Northern Deccan & Southern Chalcolithic culture.
Social Life:
• Period saw emergence of full-fledged villages. | Economy centered around cultivation of cereals & domesticated animals. Societies engaged in long-distance trading .
• Mud-brick & thatched houses were common. | Religious life centered around cults of Mother Goddess , sacred bull & a belief in afterlife .
Towards end, copper got gradually replaced by alloy bronze, giving rise to Bronze Age.

Indian Chalcolithic culture. (4500 - 1000 BCE) 20m.

CC refers to period of human culture preceding Bronze Age, characterised by use of copper & stone tools. It spans from around 4500-1000 BCE in Indian context.
Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture:
• Tool Technology was a mix of metals & stones:
○ Metal tech is seen in smelting of copper & manufacturing of copper tools/weapons. | Lithic tech includes microliths, stone blades & axes.
• Pottery: characteristic of period is polychrome painted pottery . Regional variations - Amri ware, Jorwe ware, Quetta ware, Kot Diji ware.

Regional Variations: Chalcolithic culture in India is not uniform. For convenience, it is divided into 6 cultural zones. //For 10/15 m, mark 6 zones in map & describe 1 -2 point of each in map itself.

1. Ahar-Banas (3000-1500 BCE):

• Spread over SE RJ, zone includes sites like Ahar, Banas valley, Gilund & Ganeshwar. Pottery is marked by black & redware, painted white on exterior.
2. Madhya Pradesh Zone (2000-1100 BCE):
• Kayatha culture predominant pottery type is thick, sturdy brown slipped ware, painted violet or deep red . Copper found in pots as bangles⭕.
• Malwa culture, neighbouring it, is marked by Malwa ware, a buff or orange slipped pottery painted black/dark brown. Sites: Navadatoli, Eran & Nagda.
3. Gangetic Doab (2500-1350 BCE):
• Sites: Hastinapur, Bahadurabad & Saharanpur. Variety of copper artefacts like rings, Celts & swords abundantly found. Hence, Copper Hoard Culture.
• Pottery associated is Ochre Coloured Pottery . It has a red slip, but rubbing it leaves an ochre colour on fingers.
4. Eastern Culture (1800-1400 BCE):
• Spread over BR, OD, WB & AS. Most imp site is Chirand (BR). Pottery is 3 types - handmade thick grey ware; wheel-thrown red ware, & black & redware.
5. Northern Deccan Chalcolithic Culture (1400-1300 BCE):
• Most imp culture here is Jorwe culture of MH. Jorwe ware has a fine fabric, with red/orange matt surface painted with black geometric designs.
6. Southern Chalcolithic Group (2400-1000 BCE):
• Sites Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu & Piklihal show mix of Neo & Chalco traits. Unique feature is ash mounds - burnt heaps of cow dung -> some ritual.

Social Life:
• Period saw emergence of full-fledged villages (Ruralisation). e.g. Prabhas Patan (GJ). | Economy centered around cultivation of cereals & domesticated animals. Societies engaged in long-distance trading .
• Habitations improved like Wattle & daub, workmen's quarter in Inamgaon, bamboo framework. Mud-brick & thatched houses were common. | Religious life centered around cults of Mother Goddess , sacred bull & a belief in afterlife .
• Social inequality evidence seem from: 1) Habitational pattern of Malwa culture. 2) Chandoli & Nevasa burials: few children have copper ornaments, while others have only pots.
• Sites are mostly near alluvial plains, river banks near hills. (Not in thick forest areas but in rest of India). |
E
Towards end, copper got gradually replaced by alloy bronze, giving rise to Bronze Age.

Western Chalcolithic: Ahar-Banas + MP zone.

Ahar-Banas culture (3000-1500 BCE):

Earliest C cul. | SE RJ. e.g. Bagor, Balathal, Gilund, Ojiyana, Pachamata, Ganeshwar. | 4 Phases: Early Ahar/Balathal, Transitional Phase, Mature Ahar, & Late Ahar.
Tools: In this zone, only Ganeshwar site reveals microlith tools, all other sites do not reveal any microlith too ls.
Pottery: Black & Red ware (BRW). Painted white on exterior. | Copper Industry at Ahar: Crucibles & Furnaces found. Indicating active copper smelting activity.
Eco: mixed. HG + Agri: no grains found but believed both b ajra & rice cultivated.| Linked to Ganeshwar-Jodhpur complex route. | Houses: Mud-brick & stone. | Bull figurines .
All above evidences indicate that Banas group was merely Miners' camp under suzerainty of Harappans at Lothal. | Farming culture of SE RJ declined due to inhospitable climate.

Madhya Pradesh Zone (2000-1100 BCE):

Kayatha Excavated by VS Wakankar in 1964, Kayatha, on Kali Sindh tributary of Chambal, Ujjain, MP. | G Possehl (1992) Carbon dates to 2.4-2K BCE. | Yielded 5 phases: P1: Kayatha. P2: Ahar. P3: Malwa. P4&5: Historic.
(2400-2K BCE)
3 main types of Pottery: Combed ware, Pinkish red ware, Red painted buff ware. | Houses of mud & maybe split bamboo screens. | Crops: Barley, Wheat. Horse remains found . | Ended due to EQ?
Malwa Excavated by HD Sankalia. Chambal & Betwa rivers drain it. Black soil due to lava (deccan). | Sites: MP: Eran, Navdatoli, Nagda. MH: Chandoli, Nevasa, Nashik, Inamgaon, Daimabad.
(2K-1300 BCE)
Malwa ware: Buff or Orange slipped pottery painted in black. | Houses: Wattle & daub huts at Navdatoli. Defence wall at Eran. Houses show internal stratification - rectangular & circular. Wood houses for ruler.
Terracotta: bull, female & Painted male figures. | Navdatoli Goblet (ceramic). || In ~ 1300 BCE, MH sites developed diff traits & came to be known as Jorwe culture.

Gangetic Doab (2500-1350 BCE):

Koldihwa, Chopani Mando. BB Lal also worked.
Copper hoard culture with Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP).
Lost wax technique (cire perdue): swords, rings & celts.
Case study: Excavations at Sinauli (UP, 2018) by ASI led by Sanjay Manjul. Found Horse pulled Chariots . Aryan theory refuted ?
Scholar view: Piggott says Harappan refugees on eastward march led to copper hoards. | Dk Bhattacharya suggests that it is independent development, Contemporary to Harappa, No urbanization, & Neolithic culture material continues.
Copper Hoard Culture (2000 BCE):

It describes cultural complex occurring in northern India especially Ganga valley. These occur mostly in hoards, dating 2000 BCE.
Material culture:
• 1st CH harpoon was published in 1822. BB Lal in Ancient India published 35 such from N India. Later Paul Alan Yule found more.
• Household implements: Anthropomorph figures were worshiped all over N India. Rings⭕.
• War & Hunt weapons: arrowhead, sword, harpoon, double axe. Agri implements: flat axe, shouldered axes, bar axe/celt.
• Pottery: Ochre coloured Pottery is suspected to be associated with copper objects.
Regional variation of CHC: Distributed from NW Pakistan in west to Bengal in east to TN in south.
• Doab region: sites in W UP like Bisauli, Rajpur Parsu, Mathura, Etawah. Koldihwa, Chopani Mando. Anthropomorphic figure Sword, harpoon, ring
• Eastern group CHs: sites from WB & BR like Khunti, Mahisadal, Sonpur, Humi saguna.
• Central group CHs: Jabalpur (MP), Napur strip, Gungeria in Balaghat dist.
• Southern group CHs: in areas of Neo-chalcolithic concentration like Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Tekkakota, Hallur.
• Western group CHs: parts of RJ needs special mention.
Double axe
Jodhpura: river Salai. excavated by RC Agrawal. OCP. Recorded Harappan type round terracotta, mud brick structures.
Ganeshwar: in Sikar dist, RJ, site yielded ware similar to OCP Jodhpura.

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 Ganeshwar: in Sikar dist, RJ, site yielded ware similar to OCP Jodhpura.

Scholar view: Stuart Piggott associated copper hoards implements with Harappan migrants. Robert Heine-Geldern propounded they belong to Aryan immigrants (1200-1K BC. B.B. Lal assigned them to doab inhabitants before Aryan arriv al.
Present findings suggest strong possibility that CHC were completely contemporaneous with late Harrapans & were politically governed from Harappan urban centers. CHC is taken to represent a late Harappan & Pre-Iron culture.

OCP Attempts have been made to examine possibility of declaring OCP phase as distinct cultural phase in chalcolithic India. Differing views on whether OCP & Copper Hoards are related/different cultures.
Phase: Excavation of Saipai, in Etawah dist (UP), 1st time yielded hooked swords & harpoons of copper associated with OCP.
OCP at Hastinapur occurs below iron bearing PGW level.
Doab region: sites like Alampur, Bargoan yielded OCP with late Harappan elements.
Iron age sites like Atranji khera in Etah dist UP, Lal Quila in Bulandshahar dist, UP, yielded OCP layer.
Gaur (1983) reports Thermoluminescence (TL) date for OCP in Iron age site as 11th Cen BC (1100-1000 BC). Dates at Lal Quila, Nasirpur & Jhinjhana reported 1880 BC, 1340 BC & 2070 BC.
Thus there's no doubt that OCP is one of most longest staying ceramic tradition in chalcolithic India. It may have origin in Jodhpura region, but spread wide. It occurs to be precursor to both PGW & BRW zone (b/w N Bihar & lateritic WB).

Eastern Chalcolithic Culture (1800-1400 BCE):

In Eastern CC sites, variety of terracotta objects found. Some are serpentine figures, indicating existence of serpent cult . Pottery shows advanced tech. But No evidence of elaborate habitation structures like Western CC. i.e. Dwellings less developed.
Chirand: Ghagra & Ganga confluence in Saran dist, BR. Pottery 3 types: 1) Handmade Thick Greyware (HTGW), 2) Wheel thrown red ware (WTRW), 3) Black & Red ware (BRW). | Initially p it dwelling with thatched roof, later overground huts built.
Pandu Rajan Dhibi: Burdhawan (WB), along Ajay river. Pottery: BRW + PRW. | 4 period identified: 2 chalcolithic, 2 iron age. || Mahisadal: Birchum (WB); culture similar to Pandu Rajar Dhibi.
Eastern CC shows feature that copper enters with stone-bone base. Though ceramics show considerable perfection, this did not affect total cultural status of inhabitants, a feature that cont inues even after Iron emerges on scene.

Deccan Chalcolithic culture: North Deccan CC + South Chalcolithic Group.

North Deccan CC / Jorwe culture (1300-700 BCE):

Mostly in MH (Daimabad, Nevasa, Nasik). B/w 3 valleys: Tapi, Godavari & Bhima (Krishna). | Excavations by HD Sankalia. | Inamgaon (MH) in Bhima valley shows max indications of Jorwe culture.
Pottery: Red/Orange matt surface painted with geometric designs in black. Pottery well baked & fine-fabric. Carinated vessels with spouts at various angles. Found Earthen pan (to bake chapatis).
Agri: Dry farming - adopted to dry inlands, evidence of Artificial irrigation . Initially grew wheat, barley & rice but later millets. | They're Agri-pastoral settlements. - Sankalia.

Links to other cultures: aridity forced migrations to Malwa & Deccan regions. | S ucceeded by Megalithic culture of Deccan & NBPW (black polished; 700 -200 BC).

Southern Chalcolithic Group / Neolithic-Chalcolithic Culture of S India (2400 -1000 BCE):

Southern Chalcolithic Group is one of 6 Chalcolithic cultural zone s of India. Dates around 2400-1000 BCE.
Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.
Imp sites: Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu, Brahmagiri (Wheeler), Maski, Piklihal & Hallur in KA; Utnur (TG, FR Allchin). Nagarjunakonda (AP), Paiyampalli (TN), Edakkal.

2 types of N sites in S India: 1. Pastoral: river basin & flat lands. e.g. Krishna & Godavari. Neolithic Ash mounds for hygiene/ritual. e.g. Utnur, Maski.
2. Horticulture: Nearby Rocks, Big boulders & mountain slopes. Grew Ragi & Hulgi millets. Lot of Quern stones, etc. e.g. Tekkalakota.

Material Culture:
1. Phase I: Pure Neolithic phase with poor crude-surfaced pottery. i.e. Handmade ill-fired pottery (blotchy grey). Neo Celts.
2. Phase Il: Pottery improved & is similar to Jorwe ware. Occasional metal intrusion - implies an exchange with Jorwe culture of MH. e.g. Antimony rod in Brahmagiri. Gold Toe ring at Tekkalakota.
3. Phase Ill: Copper & bronze objects become common. Black & redware pottery is observed . But it's surprising to note that knowledge of metal had little impact on cultural efficiency.

Social Life: Economy: people were hill dwellers with peripheral cultivation, hunting & cattle keeping economy. They mainly lived in circular huts. Burials occur under living floor of these huts.

Scholar view: VD Krishnaswami divides region into Central, Western & Southern zone. However, Sankalia & DK Bhattacharya say that West, Central & South are 1 single region, owing to their stark similarities.
Surprisingly, there's virtually no change in character (Material culture & Habitation) of Deccan sites for 2000 years, in spite of intrusion of metals. i.e. Deccan didn't change much due to Copper. But large scale changes happened due to Iron.

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Bronze & IVC

BRONZE AGE:
Bronze Age of world (3300-1000 BCE). Aka Copper-Bronze Age. 20m.
Bronze age refers to period preceding Iron Age, characterised by bronze metallurgy as dominant metal working technology. It spans from around 3300-1000 BCE.
Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.

Material Culture:
• Bronze produced by smelting copper & alloying with Tin (10-15%), arsenic, etc. This makes it more durable & harder than individual metals, thus giving a technological advantage
• Stone & clay moulds were used for shaping objects such as arrowheads & axes. Molten bronze was then poured into mould.

Regional Variations:

Near Mesopotamia is 1st region to enter BA, saw emergence of Sumerian (N Iraq: Akkadian (Sargon the great). S Iraq: Sumerian), Babylonian (Hummurabi) & Assyrian civs.
East:
They practiced intensive year round agriculture, developed own writing system, created complex Political orgs. 1st wheel E
Europe European BA started with Aegean culture in Greece/Cyprus. It subsequently Spread from Mediterranean to Central & Northern Europe.
Africa Ancient Egypt civ thrived in plains of lower Nile valley, achieving advanced levels of agri & architectural techniques. Rosetta stone found in 1799.
Creation of Egyptian imagery, symbolism, and hieroglyphic writing. || Most African civs outside Egypt didn't experience a distinct Bronze Age.
India Indian BA is linked with emergence of IVC. IVC had a remarkable uniform town planning. Bronze casting by lost Wax technique, & moulded into tools, weapons & sculptures.
IVC had international & maritime trade links, extending to Mesopotamia, Persia & Arabian Gulf.

E
Bronze Age ended abruptly around 1200 BC. Major civilizations including Mycenaean Greece, Ancient Egypt & IVC fell. This is known as Bronze Age collapse. Bronze Age gave way to Iron Age, which thus began with a rural outlook again.

Bronze Age of India: discuss IVC period in above format.

Pre-Harappan Cultures: 10m. [Link]

Pre-H period refers to Chalcolithic cultures believed to be historical antecedent to IVC. It is said to be dated around 3300-2500 BCE. | Climate is in dry phase.
Chalco cultures in Indian subcontinent origin in hill valleys & passes of NW near Mehrgarh in Baluchistan & spread to Amri Nal, Kot-Diji, Rehman Dheri & other places in Indus Valley.
From there, it spread eastwards to Kalibangan & Banawali, establishing & promoting spread of farming communities.
NW component (3750 BCE): Mehargarh, Kili Gul Mohammad, Damb Sadaat sites of Baluchistan, Mundigak of Afghanistan. Ceramics varieties: Quetta ware, Amri Nal ware. Kot Diji ware, Zhob ware.
Early farming communities in Gujarat:
Prior to IVC, many adjoining S & E regions show evidence of village settlement. These are diff from Baluch & Afghanistan. Some of these continue even after Harappans dominate lower plains.
Prabhas Patan (2500 BC) Estuary of Rupen river of N GJ. 1st occupation dates to 2500 BC & named as pre-Prabhas period. Pottery: mostly red or grey ware with incised chevron decoration.
Nagwada (3000-2600 BC): near Baroda. Probably earliest evidence of human movement from Sindh to GJ before IVC. Ceramics: hard pink to red fabric. Pottery: shapes comparable to Amri.
Common features of these regional cultures are described as below:
1. A simple village with mudbrick dwellings & microliths with crude pottery.
2. Subsequent phases show continuance of microliths despite emergence of metal. Ceramics show an emphasis on colourful decorations.
3. Later, secular structures appear with evidence of sustaining big pop. Mudbrick structures continue, but more compact & raised. Multi-chrome pottery replaced with black-on-red bichrome.

Bhirrana (~ 7200 BCE), oldest IVC site. Located in HR.

New site, 2020: Kunal (~7000BCE), Fatehabad, Banks of Saraswati River. Part of Hakra culture. Traded with other areas. Dwelling pits of post-neolithic phase of Hakra culture found. They're village farming communities (Gold beads & copper rings).
Archaeologists believe that, Kunal, Bhirrana & Rakhigarhi were contemporary habitation sites.
Scholar view:
As per scholars, these numerous early farming communities settled in NW valleys show ceramic similarities with both Iranian sites & Harappan. Thus scholars assume origin of Harappa has links with these hill cultures.
As per scholars like Asko Parpola, some of these farming communities, especially of Mehrgarh, moved to flood plains of Indus, learnt bronze technology, & established Mature Phase of IVC.
Conclusion: This understanding has helped establish whole sequence of IVC, right from early settled village life, to urban metropolis.

HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION:
Origins of IVC:
In early years of discovery, when Early Harappan level was not yet discovered, there was much debate on whether civilization had indigenous origins or it developed under foreign influence.
Endogenous origin: John Marshall (1931), Gordon Childe, Stuart Piggot (1950s) argued that IVC had an indigenous origin. a result of gradual patient effort & perfect adjustment of human life to it s environment
NG Majumdar’ ’ Amri, he found layer of distinctive pottery stratified below Harappan layer, which he argued represents pre -Harappan Chalcolithic cultures.
Foreign influence: seen in terms of diffusion of ideas or migration of people from Civilization of Mesopotamia.
E.H. Mackay (1950s): invaders from Uruk culture of Mesopotamia on indigenous people led to IVC.| M. Wheeler: instead of invasion, IVC borrowed ideas from Mesopotamia. Mud- ‘
D.H. Gordon: there was an actual migration of people from Mesopotamia either by land or sea route. A similar opinion was given by Heine-Geldern & S.N. Kramer.
’ E -- Endogenous Origin.
FA Khan excavated Kot Diji (1955, 57) in Sindh, found a fortified citadel complex layer below Harappan level, Harappan shapes & motifs such as dish-on-stand, pipal leaves, fish scales & terracotta cakes.
JM Casal excavations at Amri (1959- ’ E Kalibangan (1960s) brought to light a fortified & planned pre-Indus settlement with an extensive range of pottery.
A. Ghosh finds at Sothi of Ghaggar valley, pottery that matched pre-Indus Kalibangan & had parallels with Kot Diji, Harappa & several Baluchistan sit es. Thus he regarded ‘ -Harappan’
FR Allchin & Bridget Allchin also argued for possibility of Harappan civ being derived from Pre-Harappan culture of Indus valley itself.
’ cceptance of existence of Early Harappan level preceding Mature phase. But archaeologists weren't sure of factors that led transition to Mature phase.
A Ghosh (1965) believed that genius dictators who wanted to compete with Sumerians were behind transition. But D.K. Chakrabarti points out that dictators are generally found in more complex class -based societies than Early Harappa.
Chakrabarti said factors for transition to Mature-H are (i) increase in craft specialization, as seen in increase in quantity of goods produced, by intensification of copper metallurgy. (ii) development of organized irrigation system.
Irfan Habib (2002) noted remarkable uniformity in Mature phase. This could mean a p olitical unification through warfare, as fire destroyed sites of Amri, Kot Diji, Nausharo, & Gumla. Warfare is unlikely as these sites yielded only less weapons.
Some scholars believe destruction by fire was a ritual purification that led to rebuilding of sites based on common ideology in town planning. Thus, development of a common ideology might have encouraged transition to Mature Harappan.
Origin Theories:
1. West Asian origin: Iranian farmers came to Indus Plains through NW Mts. Analogies traced to Harappan motifs & objects & those of Killi Gui Mohammad, Kulli, Amri, Nal, Quetta, & Zhob. Borrowed city idea from Sumerian.
2. Aryan Origin: Vedas mentioned Saptha-Sindhu region. This is region is where we see mature development of IVC - along Sindhu river. References of Aryans coming into region.
Critic: Vedic Aryans are pastoral, bamboo houses, having no knowledge of city life. | Recent genetic studies found that there is no genetic/DNA similarities b/w Harappan fossils and people who descended from steppes.
3. Dravidian Origin: similarities in language script b/w Indus & Dravidians - usage of similar symbols, cult of mother goddess, worship of proto -shiva. Humped bull, pottery styles are similar to Keezhadi. Burnt bricks standard dimensions.
Critic: Archeologists say Dravidians have rural setup but IVC is urban. Deciphering process is still ongoing.
4. Gradual origin (endogenous): Pre-Harappan Culture (Baluchistan, Kotdiji, Mehrgarh, Banwali, Rakhigarhi, Balakot) have significant overlap with mature Harappan sites in terms of pottery, worship, metallurgy, copper smelting, bead making.
Thus, some Archeologists say they should be named as Early Harappan sites. These sites show Cultural convergence. Thus Pre -HCs like Banas culture, Sothi culture in RJ have similarity with Mature Harappan culture.
Rakhigarhi findings: DNA study of skeletal remains found at Rakhigarhi cemetery shows that IVC people had in dependent origin (previous theory - Steppe pastoral or Iranian farmer ancestry)
Only lacking evidence is they did not have elaborate fortified big cities which is characteristic of Mature Harappan Civ.
There could be possibility of political leaders

Intro: IVC is an ancient civilisation, dated around 3300-1300 BCE. It emerged as a major urban centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along plains of Indus river system. //Start as per Q. IVC or Harappan civ.
URBAN PLANNING in IVC: 15m.
Civilisation is distinguished by a uniform system of planning visible across all its major sites.

Town plan for larger cities was divided into 2 sections — Citadel & Lower Town. In both sections, buildings were built on mud-raised platforms.
• Burnt bricks used for construction show a standardized ratio at all sites. This remarkable accuracy & uniformity form core of town planning.
1. Citadel was core fortified area having important public buildings such as bath, granary & assembly hall.
2. Lower Town meanwhile, had houses for common people. Each house had at least 2 rooms, a courtyard, a bathroom & a toilet .
• Arrangement of these houses followed grid system . Streets were planned at right angles to each other .
• Lamp posts at regular intervals indicate existence of street lighting .
• A paved drain ran underground along streets, & was linked with chutes from individual houses, thus signaling an excellent drainage system.
• Water supply was ensured by having public wells by the' side of streets. In addition, every big house had its own well .
Surrounding entire complex was a defence wall. Evidences of reinforcements of walls show a constant architectural vigil.

Such a town planning suggests existence of a centralised authority or administration .

To conclude, IVC was an architectural wonder, far ahead of its time.

Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is considered to be earliest public water tank of ancient world. Measures 12x7x2.4 m. It had well -defined channels connecting it to a well. Boundaries were water -proofed by lining with bitumen.
There're staircases leading into pool. A series of rooms were present alongside tank. Periodic cleaning was ensured through m anhole at one end of Bath. It is believed to serve religious functions, used by priests for purification purpose.

ECONOMY of IVC: 10m. can be seen from various aspects —

1. Economic activities: Agriculture was chief occupation, supported by irrigation systems & canals. Wheat, barley & mustard were main crops. Rice & millets were grown in certain sites of GJ. Dairy products like ghee, along with fruits were also consumed.
• Craftsmanship, weaving & pottery were organised, & flourished during this period.

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 • Craftsmanship, weaving & pottery were organised, & flourished during this period.
2. Occupational specialisation: There were different categories of people — intellectual elites, warriors, traders & artisans, & manual laborer s.
3. Trade: Harappans had established sub-continent's 1st international & maritime trade links, extending to Mesopotamia, Persia & Arabian Gulf.
• Traded goods included beads, terracotta pots, gold, silver, coloured gems like turquoise & lapis lazuli, seashells & pearls. Harappan seals are believed to be integral part of trading, as identifiers of property.
Thus, a structured economic organisation was a chief reason behind emergence of IVC.

RELIGION of IVC: Have some of its elements continued 'into later Hinduism ? 20m.
Intro: Religion Def + Harappan Civ def. | Durkheim, in his book, 'Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912),' has defined religion as a unified system of belief & practices relative to sacred things.
Harappan religion:
• Female worship Cult was well established. This is evident from recovery of terracotta Mother Goddess figurines from almost all sites.
• Male worship is seen from a Mohenjo-Daro seal called Pashupati Seal. It shows a horned male figure seated in yogic padmasana posture, surrounded by several animals. Other seals containing deity like figures have also been found.
• Fertility cult beliefs is seen from symbols such as Mother Goddess figurines, round stones & cone-shaped objects resembling phallus.
• Flora & fauna Worship is seen from seals. Animals like unicorn bull & humped bull , along with trees like Peepal were probably worshipped. Further, symbols like swastika have been observed on these seals.
• Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is believed to have been used for religious bathing. Some scholars suggest that priest bathed in it twice a day.
• Harappans were perhaps familiar with yoga & meditation, as evident from Pashupati seal, several terracotta figures, & a statue called Priest King. This statue shows a bearded male with elongated & half-closed eyes, like in a meditative stance.
• Finally,
Relation with Hinduism:
• Although it is debatable whether Harappans were Hindu or not, it is clear some of their elements continued into later Hinduism.
• Aforementioned figure in Pashupati seal is believed to be great Hindu deity, Lord Shiva, in his Pashupati form. Phallic-shaped cones show a link to Hindu worship of Sivalinga. Icon 'Swastika' in Hinduism is a marker of goodness.
• Great Bath was probably a precursor to sacred tanks found in ancient temples of Southern India , meant for purification bathing.
• Yoga positions of Harappan figures are found to be closely related to yoga movements in Hinduism.
• However, till date, no conclusive evidence of temple has been found across Harappan sites. Further, elements like Pashupati seal & Great Bath remain open to different interpretations.
Thus, while conclusive proof remains hidden, there are profound evidences that Harappan religion was a precursor to Hinduism.

ARTS & CRAFTS diversity of IVC: 20m.

Seals: Majority of them were made on steatite carved intaglio, & were square in shape. They depict various animals, symbols & deity-like-figures. Seals were most probably used for trading purposes, as identifiers of property.
Most famous seal is Pashupati seal of Mohenjo-Daro.
Bronze Various human & animal bronze sculptures have been excavated from major Harappan sites. Bronze casting was done by lost-wax technique. e.g. Bronze bull discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.
Sculptures: Most famous bronze piece is Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro. Girl is shown in Tribhanga posture, wearing several bangles & a necklace, & hair is neatly tied in a bun. Most striking observation is girl 's confidence & naturalistic pose.
Stone Harappan stone statues show remarkable 3D depth. This can be seen from statues of 'Priest King' & 'Male Torso'.
statues: •
• Male Torso is made of red sandstone, with well-baked shoulders, & slightly prominent abdomen.
Terracotta Made by fire-baked clay, using pinching method. These are cruder as compared to bronze stone figures.
figures: Mother Goddess figurines from various sites, depict a standing female, with prominent breasts, often wearing fan-shaped head-dress with cup-like projections on each side. Other terracotta figures include masks, toys & animals.
Pottery: Harappans made very fine wheel-thrown pottery. There were 2 main types: 1) Plain pottery was made of red clay. 2) Painted was black & redware, with geometric & animal designs. | Polychrome & incised ware were rare.
Harappan pottery is seen in various shapes & sizes. but angular & straight shapes are missing.
Ornaments: These include beads, necklace, armlets & rings. made of precious metals, bone or clay. Fabric was prepared by spinning of cotton & wool. Animal-models were often used as beads.

To conclude, IVC marks a period of flourish for arts & crafts

Harappan Seals: Seals are an integral part or Harappan culture. Discuss. 15m.
One of its most characteristic features are seals, found abundantly across various sites.
Material & Shape: bulk of seals are made on steatite carved intaglio. Most of these are square in shape. A minority are cylindrical or made on copper or even stone.
Depiction on Seals:

• A group of seals show animals such as unicorn bulls , rhinos , elephants & tigers . Surprisingly, no depiction of cow has been found.
• Another group of seals contain mythical animal forms or symbols like swastika or cross.
• Finally, there are others which appear to be deity-like-figures. Most famous such seal is Pashupati seal found at Mohenjo-Daro.
• It shows a horned male figure seated in Yogic Padmasana posture, surrounded by several animals. It remains a profound evidenc e of Harappan religion being a precursor of Hinduism.
• Almost all seals carry pictographic scriptural inscriptions (fig.), which remain undeciphered.

Purpose:
• It is believed that seals must have been an integral part of trade mechanisms.
• Some scholars point out that seals were used as identity cards. Copper tablets having animal/human figure on one side, & inscription on other, were probably used as amulets.
Thus, seals are an integral part of Harappan culture. Once deciphered, they would provide great information in secrets of this civilisation.

Harappan Script: What is known of it. Highlight. 15m.

Harappan culture is considered a part of proto-history, as it reflects a period when knowledge of writing was known, but writing has not been deciphered yet.
Features of Harappan Script:
• Harappan script is in form of pictographic signs, inscribed on seals, tablets, pottery & stamps. Signs are in diverse shapes. They occur with carved miniature animal/human figures.
• In contrast to Egypt & Mesopotamia, in IVC, no long inscriptions have been found.
• Around 4000 Signs/characters have been identified so far. As per studies, characters occur in a series. Experts believe that script was written from right to left.
• Script was probably used to mark & identify private property.

Decipherment:
• There are diverse opinions on script. Some believe it to be an ancient form of Sanskrit or Indo-European language.
• As per Asko Parpola, in his work, 'Deciphering Indus Script (1994)', Harappan script is a Proto-Dravidian script.
• N.K. Verma opines that Harappan script is still in use by Santhals as symbols in rituals.
However, no Conclusive picture has emerged. Recently (2017), a Chennai-based team has decided to use artificial intelligence for deciphering this 4000 year old script through deep learning / deep neural network algorithms.

Socio-cultural life of IVC: explain through aspects of 'urban planning,' 'economic organisation,' 'arts & crafts,' 'religion,' & 'seals & script.'.

Significance of Indus Valley from India. 15m.

Although most famous & well-excavated sites remain Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan, Indian sites show a huge significance of their own. | Key features:

1. Lothal (GJ): Excavated by: SR. Rao

• As per ASI, Lothal houses world's oldest dockyard. It connected Lothal to trade route of Arabian Sea all the way upto Persian Gulf. It was centre of Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
• Evidence of rice husk here marks discovery of rice crop in IVC. Lothal also an important bead-making centre.
2. Dholavira (GJ): Discovered in 1968 by ASI director general JP Joshi.
• Unique town structure. 1) Town plan has 3 parts: Citadel, Middle Town & Lower Town. 2) Buildings are made of stone, not burnt bricks. This shows a break from traditional Harappan town planning.
• Site is unique in its water management system , multi-layered defensive mechanisms & special burial structures. Range of artefacts of copper, shell, stone, jewellery, terracotta & ivory.
• Dholavira signboard consisting of large pictographic inscriptions has been of huge value to Indologists like Asko Parpola.
3. Surkotada (GJ): Evidence of horse bones found here has reopened debate on presence of horse in sub-continent before Iron Age.
4. Kalibangan (RJ): Excavated by A. Ghosh. Saraswati river bank. Significance lies in site's agriculture with evidence of ploughed field, & an excellent water storage system of cylindrical pits & tanks. Toy carts.
5. Rakhigarhi (HR): In 2014, ASI excavated 2 mounds here, making it largest Indus Valley site discovered till date. //Earlier largest site is Mohenjo-Daro.

Thus, significance of Indian sites is seen in all aspects, including town planning, trade & agriculture.
Recent UNESCO Heritage site tag (2021) to Dholavira shows how significant ...

Indus Valley sites in Indian sub-continent, includes sites in Pakistan —

1. Harappa: in Punjab (Pak), along banks of river Ravi. Site was excavated by Daya Ram Sahni (1920-21). Since it was 1st site to be discovered, IVC is frequently referred to as Harappan Civ. Imp: Granaries, Male torso, Mother Goddess.
2. Mohenjo-Daro: in Sindh (Pak), on banks of river Indus. Excavated by R.D. Banerji (1922). 'Mound of dead'. It is among largest settlements. Imp findings here include Great Bath, Granaries, Bronze Girl, Priest King & Seal of Pashupati, Unicorn.

Decline of IVC: 20m.

IVC emerged as a major urban centre around 2600-1900 BCE, flourishing along plains of Indus river system. However, around 1500 BCE, it suffered a massive decline, for which several theories have been proposed —

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 1. Foreign Invasion Theory: by Mortimer Wheeler (1947), Stuart Piggott (1950) & Gordon Childe (1958).
• It is based on facts like 1) mention of an Aryan invasion in Rig Veda; 2) presence of Indo-European weapons at Harappan sites; & 3) damaged skeletons found at Mohenjo-Daro.

Critic Critics however remark that decline started much before date mentioned in Rig Veda. Further, no signs of burning & destruction have been observed at Mohenjo-Daro. This theory' is more or less discarded today.

2. Climate Change Theory: by Marshall & Stein in 1930s. An increase in aridity led to failure of agro-based economy. | However, there is no conclusive evidence to back this theory.
3. Tectonic Phenomena: Raikes & Dales investigated banks of Indus & its tributaries. They said that due to t ectonic phenomena, Indus flooded suddenly causing massive destruction.

Critic However, later studies point out that evidence of tectonic uplift is not demonstrable from geomorphology of Indus basin.

4. Hydrological Changes:
• Lambrick said that eastern shifting of Indus led to periodic inundations of arable land. Which led to an agricultural decline.
• KN. Misra studied paleochannel of river Ghaggar, & said that complete drying up of Ghaggar deprived Sutlej & Indus of major water inflow. This led to silting of Indus, & thus crashing of agro-based economy.
5. Black Lightning Theory: Dmitriyev said that Physicochemical formations in atmosphere led to black lightning (explosion), that contributed a massive increase in temp & toxic agents in air. This led to destruction of IVC.
Flow chart: Physico chemical formation Explosion (Black lightening) 15K C + Formation of stocking agents Destruction of civilisation. vertical flow chart
Supporters of this theory point out to charred bodies & melted stones found at certain sites.
None of these theories have universal recognition, & as such. conclusive reason behind decline remains an archaeological mystery.
Case Study: Prof Anindya Sarkar (IIT-KGP) & ASI study in Nature (2018) concluded:
IVC started 8000ya. Climate change ended it. Optically stimulated Luminescence to study pottery. IVC extended till Rakhigarhi (R). Abandoned gradually, not abrupt.
Monsoon weakened ~5000BCE but IVC didn't collapse. People resilient, changed Agri pattern. But as yield fell, large scale systems were abandoned.

L2A: The decline of Harappan civilization was caused by ecological degradation rather than external invasion. Discuss. 15m.
Diff hypothesis.
Critically analyse them if true or not.
End: Finally it is concluded that this happened due to ecological degradation rather than external invasion. e.g. archeologic al evidence of flooding.

Post-Harappan culture. 15m.

Post Harappan period marks civilisation that emerged around 1900 BCE onwards, following decline of Mature (urban) Harappan civilisation.
Context: decline saw most of urban Harappan centres being abandoned. Many regional cultures emerged across E PB, HR & W UP. These have shown varying degrees of influence of Harappan culture.
Features:
• Ruralisation: Period signals degeneration of township. Several sites had predominant rural character. Some mudbrick structures found, but these don't compare with that of earlier period.
• Pottery & ceramic content are described in terms of 3 associated cultures —
1. Jhukar & Jhangar Culture of Sindh: Buff coloured pottery, followed by grey or black pottery
2. Rangpur Culture of Gujarat: Redware with a thick slip
3. Cemetery-H culture of Punjab: Reddish pottery with black motifs
• However, pottery is ill-fired & coarse, unlike fine wheel-made pottery of mature period. Ceramic poor technique & decoration, but has new shape-types like carinated & coconut-shape jars.
• A new feature of
• Finally, there is an apparent breakdown of widespread trade of Harappans, with materials such as marine shells no longer found.
Thus, post Harappan phase marks sunset on glorious Harappan Civilisation.

Harappan International Trade:

Bronze Age Collapse:

Other:
L2A: Harappan international trade was one of the most important factors for the development of the culture. Discuss 15m.
Mehargarh trade linkages with central Asian tribes. This shows Harappa is very flourishing culture.
Harappan not has agriculture. IT helped them. Entire culture dependent on IT. Trade developed. Then architecture developed.
Now we can find Harappan architecture in north indian cultures.

L2A: Point out the importance of village farming communities in the Indus Valley for the development of civilization in the area 20m.
2 or 3 lines. IVS, Time period, where it spread. Nearby communities.
For IVC to prosper, nearby communities should supporting, so they will be urbanized and economic activity.
//Langhnaj is also part of Village farming communities.
//voluntary state formation theory of Gordon V Childe. Once agri started, states emerged.
//Nadeem hasnain book. 1 or 2 paras given on this village communities. 3 or 4 pages in Bhattacharya.

L2A: Give an outline of PWG (Printed Grey Ware) culture in India

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is a very fine, smooth, and even-coloured grey pottery, with a thin fabric. It was made out of well - worked, very high quality clay. Designs, mostly simple geometric patterns were painted on the pots in black.
○ The uniform colour and texture of the pots indicates very sophisticated firing techniques. PGW seems to have been a deluxe wa re, forming a very small percentage of the total pottery assemblage at the levels at which these were found. It occurs along with
other pottery types such as plain grey ware, Black and Red Ware (BRW) and black slipped ware, which were perhaps used in ever yday life.
○ The dates of the PGW culture range from 1100-500/400 BCE and the sites show a wide geographical distribution, stretching from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau in central India, and from the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan to Kaushambi near
Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the plains it has been found in the hilly regions of Kumaon and Garhwal. Sporadic pots herds were found at a few places like Vaishali in Bihar, Lakhiyopur in Sind and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
The main concentration of the sites is however, in the Indo -Gangetic divide, Chalcolithic Cultures Sutlej basin, and upper Ganga plains. There are regional variations of this culture bo th in the pottery as well in associated remains.
○ In the archaeological sequence of the Ganga valley the PGW phase is followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra in the 1940’s but its full significance was understood only after excavations at Hastina pur in
1954- 55.
○ Since then important evidence of the PGW material culture is available from excavated sites like Alamgirpur, Mathura, Bhagwan pura, Kaushambi, Sravasti and others. It occurs in four kinds of stratigraphic contexts.
○ At some sites it is preceded by a late Harappan level, with an intervening break in occupation. At other sites there is an ov erlap between the PGW and the Late Harappan phase.
○ At some sites it is preceded by the OCP culture, with a break in between. And at other sites the PGW phase is preceded by a B RW phase, with a break in between. At the upper end PGW overlaps with the NBP culture. Recent excavations at Abhaipur, Pilibh it
district, Uttar Pradesh, have thrown interesting light on this culture (Mishra 2010). It is a multi -cultural site with OCP forming the earliest deposit, followed by the Black -and-Red Ware (BRW) phase, which is succeeded by the PGW phase, the final phase o f
occupation at the site being that of NBPW.
○ At Abhaipur, human burials have been found, the first such occurrence at any PGW site. However, human skeletons were also dis covered in the Late Harappa- PGW interlocking stage at Bhagwanpura.
○ Structural remains at PGW levels consist mainly of wattle -and-daub and mud huts. Unbaked bricks and one baked brick were found at Hastinapura. Jakhera represents a fairly -evolved proto-urban stage of this culture.
The PGW sites indicate a subsistence base that included cultivation of rice, wheat and barley. Double cropping was possibly p racticed. There is no actual evidence of irrigation facilities, but a few deep circular pits outside the habitation area at A tranjikhera are
indicative of kachcha wells. Animal husbandry was also practiced.
The association of iron with PGW has drawn the attention of archaeologists for long. There have been a series of debates on t he impact of iron technology at the beginnings of urbanism in the Ganga valley known as second urbanization. Regarding PGW ph ase, it is
seen that iron is not associated with this cultural level at all the sites. It is not present at the sites in Ghaggar -Hakra area or in the Bikaner region. At sites like Jakhera and Kaushami iron has been found at pre - PGW BRW levels. But in the Ganga-Yamuna doab the
earliest iron objects are usually associated with PGW. Most of the iron artefacts seem to be connected with war or hunting, l ike arrowheads, spearhead, blades, daggers etc.

However, clamps, sockets, rods, rings etc. which could have been connected with carpentry have also been found. The mature P GW phase at Jakhera has also given important evidence of iron implements used in agriculture like a sickle, ploughshare and h oe.
Detailed studies of settlement patterns associated with PGW phase have been carried out. Here one could mention Makkhan Lal’s study of the Kanpur district and Erdosy’s study of the PGW settlements in Allahabad district.

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Iron Age

IRON AGE:
Iron Age of world. 15m.
Iron Age refers to period of human culture succeeding Bronze Age, characterised by ferrous metallurgy as dominant metalworking technology. It spans from around 1500-500 BCE.

Climate: period is marked by a warm & dry climate, favourable for settlements.
Material Culture:
Iron implements are found extensively, including axes, sickles & arrowheads. These were harnessed to clear forests, work on farms, & settle permanent colonies.
Besides them, bone objects & beads are also found. Bone objects include bangles, needles, combs etc.

Regional Variations:
Europe: primarily rural & agricultural in nature. Tribes such as Celts lived in small communities or clans. They lived in mud houses inside guarded hill forts .
Weapons, implements & utensils were elaborately designed. European IA cultures include Hallstatt (Asutria), Nordic & Jastorf (Germany) culture.
Africa: In most of Africa, except Egypt, Iron Age is not preceded by Bronze Age. Iron & copper smelting appeared together. IA Cultures include Akan, Chifumbaze & Urewe.
India: Indian IA is divided into Northern (Gangetic region) & Southern zones. N zone is characterised by Painted Grey Ware culture. S zone is distinguished by Megalithic traditions.
Social Life:
Iron Age shows a village character with a large-scale colonisation & multiple specialised craft activities. | People lived in roundhouses , made of mud & wood, with thatched roofs.
Chief cultivated cereals: Rice, wheat & barley. Main domesticated animals: Sheep, cattle & horse.

//Significance: With IA, populations are dispersed. Earlier most of them are near water bodies. | Easy for clearing forest, expanding, agri. | 2nd Urbanization. Etc.
To conclude, it is the development of a complex management & social order that gave rise to Iron Age.

Iron Age of India. 15m.

Iron Age refers to period of human culture succeeding Bronze Age, characterised by ferrous metallurgy as dominant metalworking technology. It spans 1500-500 BCE.

Climate & Material Culture: //same as world.

Regional Variations: Iron Age of India can be divided into Northern (Gangetic region) & Southern zones.

Northern • In IA of N India, most distinctive feature is Painted Grey Ware (PGW) . It has thin fabric of very well levigated clay.
Zone • It is fired uniformly grey by heating in well oxygenated kilns (500°C), thus showing high technological level.
(PGW): • Shapes are however limited in variety — straight sided bowls, dishes & Iotas, Very few thick black lines are used for decoration.
Southern • Iron Age here corresponds with Megalithic culture.
Zone: • As per REM Wheeler, megaliths are monuments built of rough, large, undressed blocks of stones, associated with burials to fulfil funerary/religious functions.
• Burial types: can be grouped as Cairn Circle, Cist Graves, Menhirs & Dolmen. Pottery: From all burial sites, black & redware pottery is found.

Social Life: //same as world.

Scholar view: BB Lal after excavating Hastinapur site in 1950 and analysing texts from Vedas, suggested that Mahabharata occurred during early Iron age.
D.D. Kosambi associated Iron tech with advent of urbanization in ancient India: extensive use of iron tools => clearing forests & growth of agri surplus => Pop explosion => exponential growth in agri prod => dev of urban centers & ruling class.

Iron Age of N India (or) Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture (1200 BCE). 15m.
PGW culture is associated with Iron Age in Gangetic region, dated around 1200 BCE. | PGW was succeeded by NBPW from 700-500 BCE.

Climate: //same as world.

Distribution: spreads from E RJ, HR & W UP along Yamuna-Ganga basin, to Mid-Ganga valley upto BR. | Imp Sites: Panipat, Hastinapur, Mathura, Kaushambi, Chirand.
Material Culture:
• Most distinctive feature is PGW . It has thin fabric of very well levigated clay. Fired uniformly grey in well oxygenated kilns, thus showing high technological level.
• Shapes are limited in variety — straight sided bowls, dishes & Iotas. Very few thick black lines are used for decoration.
• Iron implements found include spearheads, arrowheads, sickles etc. | Bone objects & beads are abundant. | Occasionally, glass & lapis lazuli beads found.
• Microliths (Meso tools) continue to be found in Mid-Ganga valley during this period.

Social Life: Culture shows a village character with a large-scale colonisation & multiple specialised craft activities. | Most sites show wattle & dabble huts. | BB Lal found Swastika symbol chip.
In Jakhera (UP), a bund, a moat & a road, (storage bins, stone weights, water channel) have been found. These evidences however hardly compare to city-development of Harappan culture.
Scholar view: D.D. Kosambi (1965) calls it 1st colonisation & 2nd urbanisation. This interpretation was in line with VG Childe's theory on Urban revolution (1950).
Latest: Malhar, near Varanasi. UP Archaeological survey found Iron smelting crucibles of Terracotta - an indigenous tech. ~ 1800 BCE, oldest in world. Scholars RK Tiwari (2003) & DK Bhattacharya (2016) attest to it.

At present, commentaries on PGW phase remain rather simplistic. Further excavation is required for detailing this culture.

Iron Age of S India (or) Megalithic Culture (1500 - 500 BCE). 15m.
Megalithic culture of S India is associated with Iron Age dated around 1500-500 BCE.
Megaliths, as per REM Wheeler, refer to monuments built of rough, large, undressed blocks of stones. associated with burials to fulfil funerary or religious functions.
1st excavation done by Dr F Jagor (1876) in Adichanallur, Tirunelveli (TN). Later Rivett Carnac (1879) at Junapani site. Foote (1901). | Dates: Wheeler -> 2000 BCE. Gordon & Haimendorf -> 700-400 BCE. Post N-C of South India.

Imp Sites: Hallur, Porkalam, Nagarjunakonda, Chittor, Chingleput. Acc to RK Mohanty & V Selvakumar, ~ 2200 M sites can be found in S India.
Material Culture:
• Iron implements common to all Megalithic graves include flat axes, sickles, spearheads & arrows.
• Ornaments used on horses have been found. | Pottery: most common is Black & Redware (BRW). e.g. Arikamedu site.

Burial types: Most unique feature of IA in South India is burials, which can be grouped as —
1. Cairn Circle: body was buried first, & then rounded stones were fixed around grave.
2. Cist Graves: body was buried first, with small stones erected around it. Larger stone slabs were made to rest on pillars to provide a shade to grave.
3. Menhirs: Large & tall memorial stones were used to indicate presence of a grave. In ancient Sangam literature, menhirs are referred as nadukal.
4. Dolmen: body placed on a stone slab. Around it two or more upright slabs are placed that act as legs to a large horizontal stone slab on the top.
Other secondary types include: headstone graves, umbrella stone & rock-cut graves.
Technique: Huge dolmens slabs were cut from rock using fire-setting (Ravi Korisettar). Rock is heated & rapidly cooled with water. Sudden temp change breaks rock.

Social Life:
• Evidence on settlement pattern is absent but Scholars hypothesize their social org to comprise of diff professional groups, inferred from grave goods offered.
• There must've been active community life as erecting megaliths was a demanding task. | Not much Urbanization. | Hallur site has evidence of Agri , unique architecture like passage chamber, unique rock for each tomb.
• As per Prof Ravi Korisettar, idea of burying dead with burial goods indicates strong belief in life after death & possibly rebirth among M people. //belief in soul, ancestor worship, rituals associated with dead ppl.
Scholar view:
• Origins: It is believed (DK Bhattacharya) that this culture was brought along by migrants from Arab or Middle East, Yemen. They maintained gypsy-like tented colonies, & bred horses to be traded with Ganga valley civilisation.
• Ethnic Affinity: Rivett-Carnac relates M builders to Central Asian tribes. | Sarkar (1960): Scythians or Iranian based on Brahmagiri skeletons. | Gupta & Dutta (1962): Yeleswaram excavation, also notes similar findings as Sarkar.
• Chronology: Wheeler -> 2000 BCE. Gordon & Haimendorf -> 700-400 BCE. AD Sundara & Aiyappan extends M to Neolithic times.
• WHR Rivers said main stream societies saw culture degeneration where megalithic culture vanished. But tribes he studied like Melanesian, Australian aborigines still follow 5 diff burial practices.
• Prof Ravi Korisettar says megalithism can be credited for rise of political economy typical to settled communities. “Megaliths were not built for commoners. They signify emergence of a elite/ruling class who presided over a surplus economy".
Current status: Though vanished in Main stream society, M culture continued into historic period, among tribal communities. e.g. Gonds, Kurumbas, Ho, Munda of Central India, Khasis of Meghalaya. Bondos & Gadabas or OD.

Megalithic as a Living tradition in Tribes:

Central Indian Tribes: Gonds, Kurumbas, Morias, Savaras, Ho & Munda. They erect stone Menhir & Wooden pillars. Wooden pillars curved at top represent human head.
Gonds: Belief that spirit of dead resides in Wooden pillars. Reason for erecting megaliths: soul not to wander after death or not harm descendants, & bring rain. | Kurumbas approach megaliths to get help in difficult times.
Morias: apply oil & turmeric on stone & wooden pillars. Sacrifices animal & offer rice to megalithic pillars in belief that spirit resides in it. | Savaras: before sowing , they present seeds to pillars & sacrifice animal to promote seed fertility.
South Indian Tribes:
Mottur village in TN. Headless anthropomorphic statue called as Valiyar Vadu in local language. Represents god who refused to come with locals in difficult times thus locals cut off his head.
Eastern Indian Tribes:
Savaras (OD): erect Menhirs. Gaur ceremony for their dead to reach 'underworld'. Elwin (1955) says that whatever offered to Gaur, goes to underworld.
Ho & Munds of Chotanagpur: resemble Khasi Menhir. They first cremate body, collect ashes & bones & then put them in grave.
North Eastern Tribes: Tribals of NE India & SE Asia show many similarities in M tradition.

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 North Eastern Tribes: Tribals of NE India & SE Asia show many similarities in M tradition.
Garos (ML): erect wooden curved post of 'Y' shape in front of houses in memory of dead like in Indonesia & Oceania, to prevent misfortune.
Khasis (ML): Menhirs, cist, Cairns, Dolmen are found all over Khasi hills. Locally knows as 'Kunmaw' - to remember. Remains of dead are carefully preserved in stone sepulchres.
Karbis & Tiwas (Assam): erect Menhirs & Colmen in honour of deceased. They also give feast to megaliths.
Anal Nagas: traditionally occupy a site of ancient marketplace called Nartiang (near Shillong), an imp megalithic site in Meghalaya.
Agami Nagas, Marams (Manipur): Burials for Male by Menhir (upright) & female by flat stone. Advent of Christianity effected this cultural tradition.
Haimendorf (1945) opines that rituals of Megaliths of NE Tribes is to gain prestige for living & establish links to dead. This is similar to Indonesia. Thus he suggests Megalithic complex in zone extending from Khasi Hills to Southern Sumatra.
Other Megalithic cultures:
Besides South India, archaeologists have revealed 2 further Megalithic cultures in India
North Indian Megalithic Culture: Sites - Burzahom, Dehradun, Allahabad etc. - Later period.
UP Megalithic: Sites: Banda, Allahabad, Mirzapur & Varanasi.
Cultural change in grave good: unlike south (microliths where found), iron objects are found. At Koldihwa & Khajuri, chalcolithic megaliths found b/w Varanasi & Allahabad.
Vidarbha Megalithic Culture: Sites - Dhule, Amravati, Nagpur etc.
Khapa: on Krishna R. excavated by Nagpur University (1968). 9 megaliths found, RBW, copper & Iron weapons. Thakalghat site has evidence of habitation.
Mahurjhari (MH) is considered Heaven of Megalithic. > 300 stone circles found. BRW pottery found.

Thamirabarani Civilisation:
It is at least 3,200 yo (1200 BCE), as per carbon dating of soil with rice retrieved from Burial Urn in Sivakalai, Thoothukudi district, TN.
Museum at Porunai (Thamirabarani) in Tiruiveli which is neighbouring district.
Trade relations with Egypt, via Korkai port.
Adichanallur excavations also popular.
Contemporary to Vedic Age people.
Keezhadi: (pronounced Keeladi) aka Vaigai Valley civilization.
Sivaganga district, TN. Along Vaigai river, near Madurai. 1st intact habitation center to be unearthed in TN. ~ 600 BCE.
Contemporary to Mahajapanada of N India Gangetic valley. Black & Red Ware & Black ware pottery. Even roman pottery found.
Burnt bricks (like IVC). - reappeared only in Mauryan period again. Silver punch marked coins found. Not much influence of religion.
Urbanisation Evidence of Tamil script & high level societal literacy found. Weaving industry prominent. Complex drainage system found e.g. Ring wells.

A joint study by IIT, ASI, JNU & Deccan college (2016 -2023) found evidence of cultural continuity in Vadnagar (1400 BCE) in present day Gujarat even after collapse of IVC. It plugs "Dark Age (1500 -500 BCE)" & points to continuity in human settlement in India over 5500
years.

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Other topics

Contributions of Tribal cultures to Indian Civilisation. 15m.

Ancient literary texts, ethno-archaeological evidences & historical records provide information on contribution of tribal cultures to Indian [Link] can be seen as follows —
1. To ethnic complexities: Culture contact b/w Vedic people & indigenous tribes assimilation of tribes into Vedic fold. Simultaneously, tribalization of Vedic people happened as well.
e.g. Mahabharata mentions Arjuna marries Naga Princess Ulupi. Bhima marrying Hidimbi. Aitareya Brahmana mentions Lord Rama meeting Sabari.
2. To language: Tribal languages have enriched Indian languages like Sanskrit, as can be seen from numerous words such as bala (hair) bana (arrow) etc. Hence Sanskrit was able to act as bridge b/w Dravidian & Aryan languages.
3. To social life: Social institutions like Marriages, Kinship systems, etc. were influenced by tribal.
e.g. Recent anthropological studies reveal that Brahmans borrowed gotra system from Gonds. Al Basham also earlier said this.
Tribal kinship system also had deep influence, as can be found in cross-cousin marriages & marriage by exchange in Indian civilisation.
Asura/Mundas believe they participated in Kurukshetra war.
4. To techno-economic life: Use of Iron, Raising crops, dealing with diseases are inherited from tribes.
e.g. Smelting of Iron was learnt by Aryans from Asura tribe.
e.g. Skill of raising rice crops, earliest agri implements like Hoe, Seed driller, leveller etc. are tribal inventions, copied by Aryans (initially nomadic pastoralists). Aryans raised only Barley & wheat, & copied Rice from local tribes.
e.g. Tribal practices of natural & magico-religious way of dealing with diseases are also inherited into IC. Tribals have own native Pharmacopeia; It is called Ethnomedicine. ICMR has even opened research institute at Jabalpur.
Some scholars say Symbiotic relation of IVC with Mesolithic sites like Langhnaj enabled Urbanisation to occur.
5. To political life: System of chiefdom of tribes finds reflection in monarchic & republic system of modern times. Sabhas, samitis & village assemblies are also of tribal origins.
6. To religion: Interplay of little & great traditions led to processes of universalization & parochialisation. Tribal Deities, customs, myths, ancestor worship, magico-religious practices can be seen in mainstream society.
e.g. MM Marriot says that Hindu festivals like Lakshmi Puja were a result of universalisation of tribal festivals like Saurati Puja.
e.g. DD Kosambi says that several Brahmin Gotras such as 'Kashyap' were risen from Tribal Totems.
e.g. Worship of Mahadeva/Shiva ling, Sarpa, Vriksha can be traced back to Tribal origin. | Even non-Aryan tradition like Jagannath, Subhadra & Balabhadra of Puri can be traced back to Savara Tribe.
7. To arts: tribal Mythologies, music, literature & medicine have enriched and diffused into Indian culture.
e.g. Musical instrument veena was derived from tribal instrument of memerajan.
e.g. Tribal medicines like aswagandhi & other herbs entered Ayurveda.
Contribution to Vishnu Puranam, Harshacharita, Kathasaritsagaram. Mahabharata mentions Eklavya is from Bhil tribe.
Thus, due to contribution of tribal cultures, Indian civilisation has become a complete & composite civilisation.

Prehistoric Art: 10m.

As per Leakey (1960), prehistoric art refers to rough drawings in sand, in earth & clay made by prehistoric humans with his fingers. //LP Vidyarthi , Majumdar also defined it.
Rock/Cave Art: 10m.
While earliest evidence comes from Lo-Pa, conclusive evidence is available only from Up-Pa onwards. 1st rock painting/art was discovered by Archeologist Archibald Carlyle in 1867, in Mirzapur, India.
Rock Art is associated with 3 main sources — 1) Walls & ceilings of caves. 2) Open rock shelters. 3) Flat slabs of rock & tops of boulders

Phase Features Material Used Important Sites

Up-Pa Paintings consisted of 3 subjects - humans, animals & geometric patterns Red, white, green & black ochre Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar (India) ; Altamira (Spain, Bull ), Chauvet (France)
Meso- Smaller & multi-themed paintings. Group hunting scenes predominate. Red ochre Bhimbetka & Adamgarh (India); Iberian Mediterranean Basin (Spain), Tassili n'Ajjer (Algeria)
There was probably a ritual element involved, of killing animal in painting before actual hunt.
Neo Marks a departure from depicting real-world to an idealized super-world. Red & white ochre Kupgallu (TG) & Tekkalakota (KA) in India. | Yunnan (China), Pilbara (Australia)

Guntur: limestone blocks (2000-1500BC) by KV Rao (2018). Only such art in India.
Apollo II cave near Orange river, S Africa. Niah cave, Borneo. Sulawasi Cave, Indonesia has pig painting.
Palm prints: present across the world.
European Up-Pa: Henry Breuil '400 centuries of Cave Art (1979)'. Lascaux in France; Hall of Bulls. High degree of superimposition. Random orientation. Venus of Willendorf
25kya; round shapes. Gravattian culture.

Home Art:
• It's art on moveable objects. It ranges from beautification objects like necklace, bracelets, shells, toys ; to polychrome pottery of Neolithic & Chalcolithic periods.
e.g. Devachakkar (MP): Paintings on Ostrich egg shell from Up-Pa. e.g. Brahmagiri (KA) in Neolithic phase has Pottery painted with nails.
• Engraved designs on animal teeth & soft stones sculptured in exotic shapes discovered from Mesolithic & Neolithic sites. e.g. ?
//First Found in homo erectus. Engravings on shells. Later Neanderthal floral things.
//Significance:
• Art is a form of socialisation process. - hunting art - tried to show how to hunt.
• Helps in understanding their social & cultural organisation. /Magico-religious.
Summing up, as DK Bhattacharya says, prehistoric art, though scanty, is earliest & sole window to the mind of prehistoric human.

Paleolithic Art:
Originated b/w 40K - 35 kya. | Earliest non-figurative art dates back at least 40,000 years, with potential Neanderthal art dating to 64,000 years ago.

Europe: Germany: Swabian Jura. Venus of Hohle Fels & Löwenmensch statuette: ~40kyo. |
France: Multiple sites. Chauvet, Lascaux, Altamira, Cosquer, Pech Merle showcasing paintings & engravings. Finds include Venus figurines & musical instruments.
Asia: Sulawesi: ~40kyo hand stencils & babirusa paintings. | Borneo: Over 40kyo figurative art painting. | South Korea: ~40kyo carved deer bones & depictions. | Siberia: Mal’ta Venus figurines dating to ~20kyo.
Australia: Gabarnmung: Paintings dating before 27,000 years. | Western Australia: Gwion Gwion rock paintings over 17kyo.
Near East & N Africa: Israel: Hayonim Cave carving of a running horse ~28kyo. | Algeria: Tassili n’Ajjer petroglyphs dating ~12k to 10kyo.
Sub-Saharan Africa: Namibia: Apollo 11 Cave with animal figures ranging ~27,500 to 22,500 years. | Zimbabwe: Matobo National Park rock paintings ~7K to 13Kyo.
Americas: Peru: Toquepala Caves paintings dating ~11,500 years. | Amazon: 11,800 to 12,600-year-old rock art featuring extinct animals.

Bhimbetka Rock Art: 10m.

It is a prehistoric site located in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh. It was discovered in 1957 by V.S Wakankar. It is most notable rock shelter site of India. Out of 800 plus caves numbered so far, around 500 paintings.
Art can be classified under 7 different periods, with first 3 dating to prehistoric age _

Period Features Colours

Upper-P Mainly linear representations, of huge figures of animals such as bison & tigers. Green & dark red
Mesolithic Contains largest number of paintings — smaller in size & multi-themed. Group hunting scenes predominate, giving a clear idea of weapons used. Unlike humans, animals are drawn in a more naturalistic style. Red & white
Chalcolithic Reveal that cave dwellers of this period were in contact with agricultural communities of Malwa plains, exchanging goods. Red & white

As per Y Mathpal (1984), there are 4 painting styles prevalent here —

1. Dry Colour
2. Wet transparent
3. Oil tempera
4. Spray colour
Considering the richness of this site, Bhimbetka was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.
Contemporary relevance: Due to climate change, Prehistoric cave paintings face high risk of deteriorating e.g. Sulawesi Rock painting. Efforts towards conserving these Heritage sites are needed.
//If question is only about Bhimbetka, include content given in answers so far + along with this answer on its rock art.

Tool techniques:
Francois Bordes in Early Man (1970) studied & made almost all tools. He also gave classification of tool making techniques. Typology = Morphology (structure) + Technique.
These variety of types & techniques implies complexity of the culture.
Percussion:
• Direct Percussion:
▪ Stone-hammer (LoPa):
▪ Anvil hammer (LoPa):
▪ Resolved/Stepped/Controlled flaking (LoPa):
▪ Clactonian (LoPa): (400kya); multiple Large flake (0.5 - 1kg); Core exhausted; hit flake scar to get another flake. flake angle > 90°.
▪ Levallois (LoPa): (315kya) Tortoise Core Technique; extensive preparation of core & platform; gets only 1 flake with tortoise shell sha pe;
Flake is very sharp, can be used as tool directly; Flake angle - angle b/w flake surface & striking platform is @ 90°; C ore was discarded; Precision grip used, so tremendous change in Bio-cultural evolution occurred. Led to Mousterian.

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 ▪ Mousterian (Discoid core) (MiPa): (100kya); > Levallois; several flakes removed; prepared core is used which is circular; Neanderthal (100kya).
▪ Bipolar (MiPa): 2 flakes due to rebound effect.

▪ Cylinder Hammer/ Hallow Hammer/ Prepared core CH/ Soft Hammer (UpPa): shape of flake already decided; Medium size (~ 6cm); aka Prepared core technique; Flint used usually.
• Indirect Percussion (Meso):

Blade:
• Pressure Flaking (UpPa):
• Fluting (UpPa):
• Backing/Blunting (UpPa):
Grinding & Polishing (Neo): by sand & water.
Shattering: drop from height. No bulb of percussion. e.g. SE Asia only.

Scholar views:
As per DK Bhattacharya, Indian culture evolution is gradual systematic way like Africa, unlike sudden changes in Europe (invasion). -- Comparison with Tropical & temperate world.
e.g. Old culture objects like Pots or Copper aren't abandoned but continue into new culture in esoteric form (temples) instead of utilitarian.

L2A: Hand axe 10

It is tool.
1st is oldwan, this is 2nd one(acheulian).
Culture: achulian tool complex.
Found in africa.
With handaxe tech only man started moving out from habitat(raw material sites). Earlier in olwan type, he lived near to habitat.
Significance:
Hallam Movius line. Hand axe and non-hand axe cultures map.
Beyond that line there are no hand axes found. Man did not find its utility there. Like fishing, boomarang they used.

L2A: Point out significance of prepared core technique. 10m.

Mausterian or levellouis.
Already a core/master tool is prepared.
In L Paleolithic, they used blunt tools, same tool to make another tool.
Here, they made first a master tools
Significance:
More control of man to make a diverse tools, precision increased.
Helped to make retouch tools.

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