sdrfgh

Tuesday, 15 July 2025 4:56 PM

PALAEOLITHIC:
Palaeolithic culture of world. Aka Old Stone Age. 20/10m
It's earliest human culture. It refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch (@3 mya - 10k BC). | Lartet
in 1870 divided it into 3 Phases: Lower (2.5 mya to 100K BCE), Middle (100K to 36K BCE) & Upper (36K to 9K BCE)
Palaeolithic.
Chronology: In India, Lo-Pa (1.5 - 0.3 mya); Mi-Pa (0.3 - 0.1 mya); Up-Pa (0.1 mya - 10 kya). | In Africa, Lo-Pa starts at 2
mya (earliest) & rest are same. | In Europe, all 3 phases are found much later (younger) then Africa/Asia.

Cultural Period Indian (Source: IGNOU) Africa (approx.) Europe

Early/Lower c. 2.5 mya - 100,000 years ago c. 2.6 mya - 250,000 years c. 1.4 mya - 250,000 years
Paleolithic ago ago
Middle Paleolithic c. 100,000 - 40,000 years ago c. 250,000 - 40,000 years c. 250,000 - 40,000 years
ago ago
Late/Upper c. 40,000 - 8,000 years ago (or more c. 40,000 - 10,000 years c. 40,000 - 12,000 years
Paleolithic recent) ago ago

Climate:

Pleistocene Epoch witnessed 4 phases of glaciation N Hemisphere S Hemisphere

(ice) & pluviation (rain) separated by 3 dry phases
Glacial Interglacial Pluvial Inter-pluvial
of inter-glaciation & inter-pluviation. 10 kya
Phase Phase Phase Phase

//In Europe => only Glaciations. In Tropical (Africa) 150 kya Wurm Gamblian
---------------------> Riss-Wurm ---------------------> Kamasian-
=> only Pluvial. In India => both Glaciations & (Eemian) Gamblian
Pluvial. 400 kya Riss Kamasian
---------------------> Mindel-Riss ---------------------> Kanjeran-
4 mya (Hoxnian) Kamasian
Mindel Kanjeran
---------------------> Gunz-Mindel ---------------------> Kageran-
(Cromerian) Kanjeran
Gunz Kageran

Material Culture: //Typo-Technology.

Period Tool Materia Prepara

Traditio l used tion
n Types Techniq
ue
Lo-Pa Core Quartzit Direct
tools of e hammer
2 techniq
industri ue
es:
Abbevil
lian
(choppe
r-
choppin
g), &
Acheuli
an
(handax
e-
cleavers
)
Mi-Pa Flake Crypto- Direct
tools crystalli hammer
like ne silica &
scrapers types Pecking
& points
became
much
frequen
t than
core
tools. --
Levallois
.
Up-Pa Blade Quartz Core
tools, & Bone cylinder
 became
much
frequen
t than
core
tools. --
Levallois
.
Up-Pa Blade Quartz Core
tools, & Bone cylinder
Parallel- hammer
sided
blade
flakes,
bone
tools.

Regional variation: /For 10m, only map enough.

Europe Lo-Pa: Core tool sites include Abbeville & St. Acheul in
France. From sites Levallois (France) & Clacton-on-Sea
(UK), flakes discovered & are named Levalloisian &
Clactonian flakes.
Mi-Pa: culture is best seen at type site of Le Moustier
(France). & thus referred to as Mousterian culture.
Up-Pa: culture is divided into 4 stages —> Perigordian,
Aurignacian, Solutrean & Magdalenian.
Africa: Lo-Pa: Oldowan (C-C Tools) => Acheulian => Kenya
Fauresmith (late Acheulian + Levallois). | Much early than
Europe. Cleavers common (Early Acheulian). 'Victoria
West' technique.
Mi-Pa: Mousteroid + Levallois => Proto Still Bay / Kenya
Stillbay culture. | Sangoan Tradition (130-10kya): Sango
bay, Uganda. Handaxes + Levallois. Called Epi-Acheulian.
extends to Up-Pa.
Up-Pa: Kenya & Uganda evolve Micro & broad blades.
Shows continuity from Mi-Pa.
Capsian culture of Kenya: Emerges from Proto
Stillbay. Less bone & art wrt EU. Ostrich-egg bottle.
Till lower Nile area. -> younger Solutrean type leaf
points (laurel leaf) found.
India: Lo-Pa: main cultures are Soan valley in North &
Madrasian industry in South. || Bhimbetka shows
highly specialised Acheulian tradition. Shows all 3 periods
of Paleolithic.
Mi-Pa: Nevasa was 1st Mi-Pa site to be discovered.
Up-Pa: Belan valley has been key in establishing a
distinct Up-Pa.

Species: H Habilis, H Erectus (Lo-Pa) => Neanderthal (Mi-Pa) => Homo Sapiens - AMHS (Up-Pa).
Social Life:
• ( found with
'
&
%
$
#
"
Economy: based on hunting & gathering, as can be deduced from tools. | Religion: Burials!
implements certain sites indicate start of rites & rituals.
• In Up-Pa: Neanderthals demise, H Sapiens emerge, expanded into New world & Australia. Cave art & figures
(especially EU & Asian sites) depict a developing social org.| Small duration is 30K (3% LP, 6% MP) thus more
evolved, less duration of cul.
Evolutionary significance: H. erectus change to H. sapiens: 27 new wrist movements occurred. Helped make flake tools
of Mi-Pa. Precision Grip (800-220kya). Transition occurred from power grip.
Conclusion: Palaeolithic period represents evolution of humans from Homo erectus (Lo-Pa) to Neanderthal (Mi-P) &
finally, Homo sapiens (Up-Pa). Thus, it is of immense significance in human history.

Oldowan Tradition (2.9 - 1 mya):

Defined by Louis & Mary Leaky (1959) at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (oldest LP site in world). | Only C-CT by H. Habilis
& continued by H erectus. | Tools: Earliest in world. Crude, Pebbles & traverse working border. Used power-grip.
Acheulean (1.8mya - 100kya):

Named after French site St. Acheul. Derived from

Oldowan. | Even in Mi-Pa; H. erectus. | Tools: H Axe &
Cleaver (1.6mya).
Acheulean H Axe has straight & regular working border
which is pointed and not traverse.
Acheulean Cleaver: Very few in Europe. Traverse working
border. Not by deliberate prep but by planning. Hafting
at butt ? Middle Acheulian.
 Acheulean (1.8mya - 100kya):

Named after French site St. Acheul. Derived from

Oldowan. | Even in Mi-Pa; H. erectus. | Tools: H Axe &
Cleaver (1.6mya).
Acheulean H Axe has straight & regular working border
which is pointed and not traverse.
Acheulean Cleaver: Very few in Europe. Traverse working
border. Not by deliberate prep but by planning. Hafting
at butt ? Middle Acheulian.

Abbevillian (600-400kya): (formerly Chellean) Middle Pleistocene. In Europe it's from Somme river top terrace (middle is
Acheulian), hence precedes Acheulian -> oldest in Europe. Sinuous working border. Some say came from east. H.
Hiedelbergensis ?
Levallois (600-100kya): A sophisticated stone knapping technique, allowed for more controlled & predictable flake
production.

European Paleolithic:

Most say it
Culture Tools
started
1mya. Later Lower Acheulean Chopper-
than Africa Pa chopping,
thus ~ Handaxe,
1mya - Cleaver
10kya. Middle Mousteria Scraper,
Climate: Pa n Mousteria
Northern n points,
limit etc.
coincides Upper Aurignacia Blades,
with Pa n, Points &
glaciation Solutrean, Bone tools
limit. Magdaleni
Tools: draw an
above
diagrams. =>
Map: draw
above map.
Social life:
same as
above. +
Venus
Figurines.

Lo-Pa: showed 2 distinct special zones: Western Europe show biface tech (handaxes) but Central & Eastern doesn't show
Acheulian.

Abbevilli (formerly Chellean) Middle Pleistocene. From Somme river top terrace (middle is Acheulian), Abbeville,
an France. Hence it is Early Acheulian -> oldest in Europe. Some say came from east. | H. Hiedelbergensis ?
(600-400 Tools: Oldest occurrence in Europe of bifacial (handaxe) tech - massive core tools (handaxes). Sinuous
kya) working border.
Acheulia Advanced bifacial flaking with teardrop-shaped hand-axes; introduction of specialized tools like
n cleavers.
(400-100 Terra Acheulian site. Open air primary site in Nice
kya) Amata (French Riviera) on Mediterranean coast, initially a
(~ beach. Discovered & excavated in 1966 by Henry
400kya): de Lumley.
Domestication of fire (one of frequent evidences
of EU). Evidence of Huts: animal skin, poles, Hearth
& chimney. Foot impressions in soft sand. Wind
breaks for Mistral wind.
Tools made of Beach stone. Mostly C-C tools (not
handaxes). A stone tool with 2 cutting faces is
called 'Pics de Terra Amata'.

Torralba & Ambrona (~350kya): In Spain. Torralba (1,115m highest Lo Pa in world). In gorge
(Ambrona) > 1000 elephant skulls, indicates Elephant Hunting site (coop, push into gorge). | Beautifully
made Hand-axe & Cleavers.

From sites Levallois (France) & Clacton-on-Sea (UK), flakes discovered & are named Levalloisian & Clactonian
flakes. | They may have given rise to Mousterian culture.

Clactoni discovered by Hazzledine Warren in 1911 at Clacton-on-Sea, Essex county, UK. Other site
an Swanscombe Skull site, UK. Homo heidelbergensis. | Earlier than Europe Acheulian. Similar to
(~400kya) Acheulian but has no handaxes.
Flint tools made: 1) Some flakes 'notched' so does it imply hafting ? This is unlike Oldowan. 2)
Retouch uncommon*. 3) Used by power-grip. 4) Evidence of wooden spear found at site.
 made Hand-axe & Cleavers.

From sites Levallois (France) & Clacton-on-Sea (UK), flakes discovered & are named Levalloisian & Clactonian
flakes. | They may have given rise to Mousterian culture.

Clactoni discovered by Hazzledine Warren in 1911 at Clacton-on-Sea, Essex county, UK. Other site
an Swanscombe Skull site, UK. Homo heidelbergensis. | Earlier than Europe Acheulian. Similar to
(~400kya) Acheulian but has no handaxes.
Flint tools made: 1) Some flakes 'notched' so does it imply hafting ? This is unlike Oldowan. 2)
Retouch uncommon*. 3) Used by power-grip. 4) Evidence of wooden spear found at site.

Mi-Pa: shows a complete heterogeneity. Non-handaxe zones like Central Europe (Lo-Pa) starts making handaxes when
other in Europe took up flake tools. Appearance of leaf points called blattspitzen. Most sites continues to Up-Pa.

Mousteri Found only in Western Europe. Even in Pinhole Cave, UK. ||

an Gabriel de Mortillet gave this classification of culture.
culture:
Francois Bordes redefined M as polymorphic complex of 4 distinct
(160-40ky & parallel traditions: 1) Typical Mousterian. 2) Traditional
a) Acheulian. 3) Denticulate. 4) Charentian (Ferrassie & Quina sites).
Lewis Binford disagrees with Bordes, says 4 traditions are but only
single tradition differing in tool kits due to diff climatic adaptation.
Many say that there's lot of internal heterogeneity.
Tools: Mousterian points. Levallois flakes continue here but not in
Charentian. Intricately linked. | Mousterian ended abruptly.

Eastern & Central Europe have very diff dev & occur later than W EU. So is it by Archaic Sapiens ? They're not
similar to Mousterian Tradition. | In C Europe: in Lo-Pa, No hand-axe/cleaver, Levallois flakes. But in Mi-Pa they
suddenly appear.
Spain: Francois Bordes called it Basquorian culture, a continuity of local character.
Up-Pa:

• Gabriel de Mortillet classified EU Up-Pa into 3 traditions 1) Aurignacian > 2) Solutrean > 3)
Magdalenian, based on studies in France. | Later, Dorothy Garrod, she modified it:
Chatelperronian > Aurignacian > Gravettian.
• D Peyrony in 1933 excavated Laugerie Haute in Les Eyzies village, France. gave new
classification: Aurignacian & Perigordian (parallel traditions) > Solutrean > Magdalenian.
• Prof. Lynch had suggested that Up-Pa folk moved from east to west. They carried an
Aurignacio- Gravettian cultural tradition, in west, polarised into separate distinct culture.
• Main sites are La Madeleine, La Gravette in Dordogne region of France. Aurignac in S
France. Solutre in E France | Sites La Madeleine, La Ferrassie, Isturits, Caminade are rock
shelter sites showed these 4 traditions.

Perigordi 40k-20k This is 1st layer after Mousterian ends, but no Mousterian character. | Blunted Blades; No
an BP bone tools. | Lower Peri: Chatelperronian knife).. | Upper Peri (Gravattian): Gravettian
-
,
+
*
point, Venus figurines/ 12
0 4.
3
Aurignaci 38k-20k Aurignac in France. Retouched blades along border for sturdy (not blunt) -> A-Blade. |
an BP Mousterian flake tools, Bone tools (Ivory points). | Strangled Blade, Basque Burins &
Carinated End scrappers found only here.
Solutrean 19k-17k La Solutre in SW France, 2ky. | Origin & end unknown, not from Peri or Aur -> independent
BP enigmatic culture. | Bifacial thin leaf point => 'Laurel Leaf'. 'Hide needle' for sewing. Baton
De Commandment 1st found here.
Magdalen 16k-10k from La Madeline & Laugerie Haute. Last of Paleolithic. | Bone tools 80% & art on all
ian BP pieces. Stone tools: like Peri, but few new like Raclette scraper -> for leather working
(blunted). Javelin point & Spear Thrower.

Social life: Artistic & symbolic expression: intricate cave paintings in Altamira (Spain) & Lascaux (France); Bone
Art - bones engraved with abstract patterns); Symbolic artifacts - ornaments, musical instruments reflect cognitive
sophistication.

Asian Paleolithic:
Mi-Pa: Shanidar Cave in Iraq (revealing evidence of flower burials). Burial Practices: Shanidar Cave, where deceased were
laid on a bed of branches, surrounded by flowers5<=
;
:
9
8
7
6 >, suggesting some form of ritual or respect for dead.
Up-Pa: Natufian, Denisova Cave.

Indian Palaeolithic culture. 20 m

Palaeolithic culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. It is divided into 3 Phases: Lower
(2.5 mya to 100K BCE), Middle (100K to 36K BCE) & Upper (36K to 9K BCE) Palaeolithic.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular
India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture: //same as world.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform palaeolithic climate in
sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown
through following sites —
Lo-Pa:
(2.5 mya to 100K BCE), Middle (100K to 36K BCE) & Upper (36K to 9K BCE) Palaeolithic.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular
India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.

Material Culture: //same as world.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform palaeolithic climate in
sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown
through following sites —
Lo-Pa:
1. Soan Valley: Excavated by De Terra &
Paterson (1935): Gradual refinement of tools
from upper to lower terraces, merging with
nearby unique implement zone called
Chauntra.
2. Madrasian Culture: dominated by handaxes
& cleavers, made by Vaal technique. H.D.
Sankalia claimed presence of hafting on tools,
if proved, one of earliest known in world.
Mi-Pa:
1. Nevasa: Excavated by H.D, Sankalia (1956),
Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based
flake tools prepared on jasper.
Up-Pa:
1. Belan Valley: Excavated by GR. Sharma
(1980). Along with blade tools, artificial stone
structure referred as shrine, & a female
figurine on bone.
2. Muchchatla & Chintamani Gavi: excavated
by M.L.K. Murthy (1970). It yielded richest
bone tool industry ?
B of Up-Pa in India.
A
@
Bhimbetka: discovered by VS. Wakankar (1957). VN
Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated one of largest cave III
F-23.
• This shelter yielded 8 cultural formations & is
among few Indian sites to yield all 3 phases of
Palaeolithic period.

Social Life:
• Economy based on hunting & gathering, as can be deduced from tools. | Burials! ( found with implements
'
&
%
$
#
"
indicate existence of rituals. | Cave art & figures from Up-Pa period depict developing social organisation towards
end of this period.
• Large number of artefact clusters in areas suggests that these pre-historic HGs had Band org dominated in entire
paleolithic. Stable (>1mya). Long-term success.
Comparison b/w periods: //1 or 2 points

Technolog Lo-Pa tools are large & rudimentary. Mi-Pa tools were less larger & less specialized. Up-Pa tools were
y: smaller, diverse, specialized & finely crafted.
Distributio Lo-Pa & Mi-Pa sites are concentrated in specific regions with suitable habitats. Up-Pa sites show wider
n: distribution across ecological zones. Indicating higher degree of adaptation & resource exploitation
strategies .

Comparison with EU, Africa regions: //Same Ans for each of Lo, Mi, Up periods.

Time Indian paleo emerges later - Upper Pleistocene. Europe & Africa - Lower Pleistocene. | Indian Acheulian
industry is much younger, especially than Europe.
Climate Due to climatic differences across N & peninsular regions, Indian Paleo has significant regional
variations.
Tools Bone tools & Caves rarer in India. e.g. Kurnool caves. | Abbevillian & Acheulean don't show vertical
evolution. e.g. Bhimbetka.
Other Fossils very rare in India - only 1 human fossil discovery. i.e. Narmada Man. | Shows rare occurrence of
sites with living floors. | Lake sites are rare in India.

Conclusion: Due to significant regional variations, it can be concluded that Palaeolithic in India is neither culturally
uniform nor chronologically homogenous.

Lo-Pa Mi-Pa Up-Pa PYQ 2020 P1 (Lo-Pa vs Mi-Pa).

Time: 500k - 100k 100k - 36k 36k - 9k
Climate: N mountains - glacial & inter-glacial. -> same Saw last phases (4th) of glaciation &
Peninsular River valleys - pluvial & pluviation, thus climate turned
inter-pluvial. warmer.
Material Core tools: Abbevillian (C-C), Flake tools like scrapers & Blade tools & Bone tools.
Culture: Acheulian (handaxe-cleaver); points. Core cylinder hammer. | Material:
Oldowan (crude pebbles). Direct hammer & Pecking. | Quartz & Bone.
Direct hammer technique. | Material: Material: Crypto-crystalline
Quartzite. silica types
 Time: 500k - 100k 100k - 36k 36k - 9k
Climate: N mountains - glacial & inter-glacial. -> same Saw last phases (4th) of glaciation &
Peninsular River valleys - pluvial & pluviation, thus climate turned
inter-pluvial. warmer.
Material Core tools: Abbevillian (C-C), Flake tools like scrapers & Blade tools & Bone tools.
Culture: Acheulian (handaxe-cleaver); points. Core cylinder hammer. | Material:
Oldowan (crude pebbles). Direct hammer & Pecking. | Quartz & Bone.
Direct hammer technique. | Material: Material: Crypto-crystalline
Quartzite. silica types
Regional Soan Valley excavated by De Terra & Nevasa (MH) excavated by Belan Valley (UP): Excavated by GR
Paterson (1935). H.D. Sankalia (1956) Sharma (1980).
Bhimbetka: VN Misra excavated cave Bhimbetka: cave III F-23, 5th Bhimbetka: cave III F-23, 4th layer
III F-23. Bottom 3 layers are Lo-Pa. layer from top is Mi-Pa. from top is Up-Pa.
Madrasian: Nagarjunakonda (AP), Luni (RJ) excavated by VN Renigunta & Muchchatla
Kortalayer valley (TN), Chirki-Nevasa Misra. Chintamani Gavi (AP) excavated by
(MH) M.L.K. Murthy.
Mahanadi Valley by RP
Didwana (RJ) by V.N. Misra. | Kuliana Mohapatra.
(OD) by NK Bose & Dharani Sen.
Social Economy : HG in all of Palaeolithic. Economy: HG in all of L at
K
J
I
H
G
F
E
D
1st clear evidence of cave artC
life Palaeolithic. Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar - indicate
Settlements: near pebble deposits,
Burials!( found with
'
&
%
$
#
" social org.
forest peripheries. Never hights &
dense forest. implements indicate start of Baghor at Belan Valley, stones with
rites & rituals. concentric triangles indicates
O.
N
M
'shrine'▲2
4 & artefacts
3
Female figurines2
resembling ritual or religious
element.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Lower Palaeolithic culture of India. 20 m
Palaeolithic culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Lo-Pa is its earliest sub-division,
& spans from 500K to 100K BCE in Indian context. //Some say 2mya other say 700kya. Attirampakkam (1.5mya) & Isampur
(1.2mya).
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular
India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.
Material Culture:

Lo-Pa tools are less evolved & bigger

in size as compared to Mi-Pa or Up-
Pa tools. Lo-Pa is divided into 2 lithic
industries —Abbevillian & Acheulian.
1. Abbevillian (Chellean):
dominated by chopper-
chopping tools & large, crude
hand-axes. Technique used to
remove flakes: direct hammer
technique.
2. Acheulian: frequency of
chopper-chopping tools
declined. Hand-axes became
smaller, thinner & Pear-
shaped. A new tool - cleaver
appeared.
Before end of this period, use of flake
tools started, types being Clactonian
& Levalloisian flakes. Technique:
Early - Hard Hammer. Late - Soft
Hammer.
Material used: Quartzite. If
unavailable, limestone, dolerite,
basalt & granite were used. | Tool
technique: Stone hammer, soft
hammer & prepared core.

Regional variation:

1. Soan Valley (Pak): Excavated by De Terra &

Paterson (1935). Pebble tools. Gradual refinement
of tools seen from upper to lower terraces,
merging with nearby site Chauntra.
• Patterson: they're for cutting & chopping,
digging & skinning. || Indian side, pebble-
tool assemblages: Sirsa & Ghaggar valleys of
 hammer & prepared core.

Regional variation:

1. Soan Valley (Pak): Excavated by De Terra &

Paterson (1935). Pebble tools. Gradual refinement
of tools seen from upper to lower terraces,
merging with nearby site Chauntra.
• Patterson: they're for cutting & chopping,
digging & skinning. || Indian side, pebble-
tool assemblages: Sirsa & Ghaggar valleys of
HR, Beas & Banganga valleys of HP (BB Lal).
2. Central India: Narmada valley
• Bhimbetka (MP): VS Wakankar (1957)
discovered Rock shelters. VN Misra
(1973-76) excavated largest cave III F-23,
yielded 8 cultural formations, bottom 3 -
Acheulian (LP).
• Adamgarh (MP): RV Joshi excavated rock
shelters, Hoshangabad dist, shows
Acheulian. | 35km east at Hathnora, Arun
Sonakia (1982) found H. erectus skull
(Narmada man).
3. Eastern India:
• Kuliana & Kamarpada of Mayurbhanj
(OD): Excavated by NK Bose & Dharani Sen
Q
(1939-42). Cleavers with pebble buttsP
have been found, besides generic tools.
4. Western India:
• Didwana (RJ): Excavated by V.N. Misra
(1980s), found 3 depositional phases. Mostly
found choppers & hand-axes but Cleavers
are absent notably. Nearby site Singi Talav.
5. Peninsular India: Madrasian Culture is
dominated by hand-axes & cleavers, prepared by
"Vaal technique" of thinning a biface.
• Nagarjunakonda & Karempudi (AP): is
called "treasure house" of Lo-Pa in India, as
it yielded large deposits of tools.
• Kortalayer valley (TN): VD Krishnaswami
(1938) found handaxes & cleavers. Chirki-
Nevasa (MH): at R. Pravara, Gudrun
Corvinus found Acheulian made of Basalt.
• H.D. Sankalia claimed presence of hafting
of tools to wooden frameRT in this culture,
S
which if proved, would be one of earliest
known cases in world.
• Evolutive aspects: Archaeological evidence from
these sites suggests a transition from non-
Acheulian to an early Acheulian phase before
evolving into a developed Acheulian culture.

Species: Possehl (1975) examined faunal & geological evidence & felt that man entered sub-continent late. But DK
Bhattacharya points out that findings of H. erectus (1982) indicates a greater antiquity of man's presence in this zone.
Social Life:
• From available evidence, we can talk of only their economic pursuit. Economy was based on hunting & gathering, as
can be deduced from tools.
• Settlements: LP man preferred to live near pebble deposits (river valleys) & forest peripheries, & but never high
altitude & dense forest.
Conclusion: To Conclude, Indian LP, unlike its European & African counterpart, shows a high degree of Cultural variability
due to more varied climatic conditions.

AR Sankhyan (2009): Indian paleolithic diversity is conspicuous in 3-typo-techno cultural complexes. 1) Sub-Himalayan
Soanian (C-CT), 2) Peninsular Acheulian, 3) North Eastern Hoabinhian & Upper Annanthrium ?.
Note: Western areas (India), it developed later. Lo-Pa of NE are mostly surface finds & tough to date. But comparison of
Typo-technology helps.

Soan Valley: 10m.

It's an archaeological site located in Potwar plateau, N Punjab,

Pakistan. Excavated in 1935 by De Terra & Paterson as part
of Yale-Cambridge expedition. Dated @ 500,000 to 125,000
BCE.
Climate: Being located near Himalayas, Soan valley witnessed
glaciation & inter-glaciation.
Material Culture: Gradual refinement of tools seen from
Soan Valley: 10m.

It's an archaeological site located in Potwar plateau, N Punjab,

Pakistan. Excavated in 1935 by De Terra & Paterson as part
of Yale-Cambridge expedition. Dated @ 500,000 to 125,000
BCE.
Climate: Being located near Himalayas, Soan valley witnessed
glaciation & inter-glaciation.
Material Culture: Gradual refinement of tools seen from
upper to lower terraces (TD to T5). First 3 terraces yield tools
dated to Lower Palaeolithic —
Zone TD: Pre Soan: Tools mostly big flakes made of
quartzite. Crude - Eoliths. They're heavily worn out, & if
authenticated as man-made, will be one of oldest
human cultures (2my old).
Zone T1: Early Soan: Mainly chopper-chopping tools,
made by direct hammer technique.
Zone T2: Late Soan: flake dominant industry indicated
by presence of Levalloisian & blade flakes. These tools
merge with other implement-bearing zone called
Chauntra.
Zone T4: Evolved Soan: dates to Middle Palaeolithic,
bearing few blades & blade tools,
Characteristic Feature: Coexistence of C-C & handaxe &
cleavers indicate coexistence of 2 diff cultures in close
proximity with different tool typology.
e.g. Nearby site Chauntra (Pak) shows mixture of Late
Soan with Abbeville-Acheulian traditions.
Social Life: Based on tools found, economy was built on
hunting-gathering. Social organisation remains unknown.

Scholar views: Patterson opined that soan tools must have been meant for cutting & chopping, digging & skinning. | KV
Soundararajan terms Sohan culture as Endogenous Culture.
Criticism: Denell & Rendell say as region is tectonically unstable, it is improper to consider deposits as succession of
cultural change. We need independent dating of each layer => Paleomagnetic & Radioactive methods.
Recently, Soan Garden Society has highlighted need to preserve this site in wake of damage caused by river pollution on
Soan remains.
Bhimbetka (MP): //For all periods.

Bhimbetka is 45km from Bhopal. VS Wakankar (1957) discovered many Rock shelters (1000+). > 200+
were excavated.
VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated largest cave III F-23, yielded 8 cultural formations, bottom 3 yielded
Acheulian industry (Lo-Pa).
Rarely such variation found. Excavation of Tikoda, Raisen District (MP), by prof SB Ota. Kondapeta,
Prakasam (AP) by MK Singh also shows it.
Lo-Pa: Sophisticated Acheulian tools. No Chopper-chopping tools, Abbevillian. Thus the only Lo-Pa in
India w/o Abbevillian tradition. But Acheulian found.
Up-Pa: 30% of paintings belong to Up-Pa. 1st clear evidence of Cave art. Indicates social org.
Mesolithic: 70% of paintings belong to Meso. Material changed to Chalcedony (cryptocrystalline silica
[.
Z
Y
X
W
V
type)U

Madrasian Culture: 10m.

Lo-Pa sites of peninsular India are collectively referred to as Madrasian culture, Christopher (1938). First site discovered
here was Attirampakkam (1.5 mya) near Chennai, by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863. //Father of Indian Prehistory.
Climate: Region experienced pluvial/Inter-pluvial climate, except for central peninsular area.
Material Culture:
• Madrasian tool industry is dominated by sophisticated hand-axes & cleavers. e.g. Kortalayer Valley of Chingelpet
(TN) excavated by VD Krishnaswami (1938), found cleavers & hand-axes were prepared by Vaal Technique.
• AP is called 'treasure house of Lo-Pa in India', due to abundance of tools. Nagarjunakonda (AR Saraswati);
Karempudi; Paleru valley, Prakasam (RV Joshi); Chintapalam & Maratipalem (Remi Reddy); Gundlakamma river,
Kurnool (FE Zeuner).
• Isampur (1,2mya), Hunsgi valley of Gulbarga (KA): K Paddayya found evidence of primary site with 15k fresh
Limestone specimen. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha & Tungabhadra valleys by Sheshadri, Joshi, Shanti Pappu.
• Chirki-Nevasa (MH) near Pravara river, Gudrun Corvinus found Acheulian cultural material made of Basalt.
Culture continues into Mi-Pa. | Shanti Pappu of Sharma centre for Heritage Education, Chennai, recently discovered
India's oldest Mi-Pa tool in Attirampakkam & published study in Nature (2018).

Social Life: Based on

tools found, economy
was built on hunting-
gathering. Social org
remains unknown.
 Limestone specimen. Ghataprabha, Malaprabha & Tungabhadra valleys by Sheshadri, Joshi, Shanti Pappu.
• Chirki-Nevasa (MH) near Pravara river, Gudrun Corvinus found Acheulian cultural material made of Basalt.
Culture continues into Mi-Pa. | Shanti Pappu of Sharma centre for Heritage Education, Chennai, recently discovered
India's oldest Mi-Pa tool in Attirampakkam & published study in Nature (2018).

Social Life: Based on

tools found, economy
was built on hunting-
gathering. Social org
remains unknown.
Scholar view: HD
Sankalia claimed
presence of hafting of
tools to wooden frame
in this culture\_R
^
] T. If
S
proved, it will be one of
earliest in world.
In 2011, Madras
University team
claimed finding 1.5 my
old microliths from
Gudiyam caves (TN). If
verified, will be one of
oldest such findings in
world.

Madrasian Vs Soan
Culture: M dominated
by hand-axes &
cleavers; S by C-C tools.
| M tools sophisticated
& neat. S tools
crude/eolith.

Vaal thinning a biface to make it sharp by a tranchet blow along its length. It gives V-shaped tool. | Found near
technique Vaal river, Victoria West, S Africa. Thus, called 'Vaal' or 'Victoria West' or Francois Bordes calls it 'Para-
Levallois' technique.

Other:

Didwana Excavated by V.N. Misra (1980s), found 3 depositional phases. Mostly found choppers & hand-axes but no
(RJ): Cleavers notably. | Climate is Pluvial. || Also in Chittorgarh, Saurashtra, Sabarmati, Chambal (Mishra)
//Western Singi-Talav near Didwana in Nagaur District is "earliest power paleolithic industry" => Acheulian tools.
Kuliana & Excavated by N.K. Bose & Dharani Sen in 1939-42. Finds of Cleavers with pebble butts are a speciality,
apart from generic tools. | Mayurbhanj & Sambal districts. | Mahanadi Basin excavated by Mahapatra.
Kamarpada
(OD): Paisra Place: Open air primary site; in Monger district of Bihar. | Midenpur District of WB; near
Subarnarekha river.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Middle Palaeolithic Culture of India:
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Mi-Pa is 2nd sub-division of P culture, very thin
stratigraphy, & spans from 100K to 36K BCE.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods. River valleys of Peninsular
India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.
Material Culture:

Compared to LP, use of chopper-

chopping tools became infrequent, &
hand-axes & Cleavers became smaller.
Flake tools became much more common
like scrapers, points & borers. Mostly W &
S India & fewer sites. Varied.
Technique: Besides direct hammer, a
new technique - Pecking / Retouching
appeared, to make working borders
sharp & durable.
Material: in river valleys, changed to
smooth crypto-crystalline silica like
quartz, flint, jasper, Chalcedony.
Compact, so less energy wastage.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through
following sites -

1. Nevasa (MH): Excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956) near river

 sharp & durable.
Material: in river valleys, changed to
smooth crypto-crystalline silica like
quartz, flint, jasper, Chalcedony.
Compact, so less energy wastage.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in sub-continent gave rise to regional variations, as shown through
following sites -

1. Nevasa (MH): Excavated by H.D. Sankalia (1956) near river

Pravara. Nevasian culture also includes sites along river
Godavari, Son & Krishna.
• Nevasa has yielded several Levallois-based flake tools
prepared on jasper material.
2. Bhimbetka (MP): VS Wakankar (1957) discovered Rock
shelters. VN Misra (1973-76) excavated one of its largest cave
III F-23. This cave yielded 8 cultural formations.
• Out of which 5th layer from top represents Mi-Pa.
Notably, Raw Material don't change - use of quartzite as
raw material continued like Lo-Pa.
3. Luni (RJ): excavated by VN Misra. It is more varied & richer in
tools than Nevasian industry. It contains convex & concavo-
convex sidescrapers, & various points.
4. Eastern Industry: RP Mohapatra recorded Mi-Pa sites from
near almost all rivers of Odisha.
5. Andhra/South Coastal Industry: stratigraphy unclear. Tools
made of quartzite, like in Bhimbetka. Some say Cylinder-
hammer technique. e.g. Kurnool, Chittoor & Nalgonda.

Species: H Sapiens -> Africa. H Neanderthalensis -> Europe. Both -> Israel. But in India no fossils found yet.
( found with
'
&
%
$
#
"
Social Life: Economy was based on hunting & gathering, as can be deduced from tools. | Burials!
implements at certain sites indicate start of rites & rituals. ??
Unique point: For long, till 1950's, Mi-Pa was not separately identified in India due to lack of stratigraphic evidence. This
changed in 1956 due to Nevasa excavation efforts of HD Sankalia.
Scholar view: Presence of scraper & borer dominant industry in Mi-Pa confused scholars wrt their purpose for H-G. |
Sankalia reasons that most of Mi-Pa industry was designed to shape ultimate weapons of hunting & trapping in wood,
bone & antler.
Conclusion: Nature & status of Indian Mid-P remains to be adequately understood so far, primarily because of dearth of
primary habitational sites.
Nevasa: 10m.
It's an archaeological site located along river Pravara in Maharashtra. Excavated by H.D. Sankalia in 1956. Fine & less
cemented gravel here revealed cultural remains belonging to Mi-Pa period.

Climate: region
experienced pluvial
& inter-pluvial
climatic phases.
Similar to
Mousterian of Eu Mi-
Pa.
Material Culture:
• Most
predominant
tool type are
sidescrapers,
prepared on
Levallois
flakes. Others
include leaf-
shaped points
& borers.
• Technique:
pecking &
direct
hammer
technique.
Levallois
technique. |
Material
used are
crypto-
crystalline
silica types,
chiefly jasper.
• Overall,
industry here
 Levallois
technique. |
Material
used are
crypto-
crystalline
silica types,
chiefly jasper.
• Overall,
industry here
comes close
to Mousterian
character of
European Mi-
Pa.
Social Life: Based
on tools found,
economy was built
on hunting-
gathering. social
organisation
remains unknown.

Many Nevasa culture like sites were found near river valleys of Godavari, Son, Krishna etc. This led Sankalia to conclude
that 'Nevasa' is a regional culture spanning several sites across MH & KA, & not a local feature.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Upper Palaeolithic culture: India. 20m.
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Up-Pa is last sub-division of Palaeolithic
culture, & spans from 36K to 9K BCE. Estd as unique stage in 1983.
Climate: Up-Pa period witnessed last phases (4th) of glaciation & pluviation that characterised Pleistocene. Last Ice-age
(115kya - 12kya) came to end thus climate turned warmer.
Material Culture: Up-Pa tool industry

Characterised
by parallel-
sided blade
flakes & blade
tools. Some
say Composite
tools
appeared =>
hafting.
• Techniq
ue:
fabricat
ed by
prepare
d core
cylinder
hammer
techniq
ue*.
Pressur
e
flaking*.
Hafting*
.
• Materia
l
changed
everywh
ere to
smooth
forms of
crypto-
crystalli
ne silica,
for
smooth
& sharp
edges.
Besides stone
tools, Bone
tools?B
A
@
became
common. e.g.
 for
smooth
& sharp
edges.
Besides stone
tools, Bone
tools?B
A
@
became
common. e.g.
Harpoons
made of bone
found 1st
time.

Regional Variations:

1. Belan Valley (UP): Excavated by GR Sharma (1980). Along

with blade tools, site is noted for discovery of artificial stone
structure referred as shrine, & a female figurine on bone.
2. Bhimbetka (MH): Discovered by V.S. Wakankar (1957).
• VN Misra (b/w 1973-76) excavated one of largest cave III
F-23. This shelter has yielded 8 cultural formations, out
of which 4th layer from top represents Up-Pa.
3. Renigunta & Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (AP): Excavated
by M.L.K. Murthy in 1963-64 & 1970 respectively.
• Renigunta has many blades (not bones) of various
types like borers, points, burins, etc. & is thus
considered finest Up-Pa site in India.
• Muchchatla & Chintamani Gavi (AP) caves in Kurnool,
richest bone tool industry of Indian Up-Pa. 90% are
bone tools like shouldered points, scrapers & barbs.
//bone-tool site.
• HD Sankalia says, Groove & Splinter technique
may have been used here.

Social Life:
• ( found with implements at
'
&
%
$
#
"
Economy was based on hunting & gathering, as can be deduced from tools. | Burials!
certain sites indicate start of rites & rituals. ?? Burials??
• Period marks first clear evidence of cave art C
L, as seen at Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar. Art displays linear depiction
K
J
I
H
G
F
E
D
of figures of huge animal with human groups. This indicates development of social organisation.
• 4 & artefacts resembling ritual or religious element.
3
Sudden appearance of female figurines2
Up-Pa culture shows significant advancement over previous phases, as reflected from its much shorter time span. End of
this period signals end of Pleistocene epoch as well.
Belan Valley: 10m. //Koldihwa.

Archaeological site (~ 26kya) located along Belan river in Sonbhadra Dist, UP.
Excavated by GR. Sharma & J Desmond Clark in 1980. | 4 layers of depositions
mapped. 2nd layer from top yielded Up-Pa culture.

Climate region experienced last phase of pluvial & inter-pluvial climate

: associated with Pleistocene epoch.
Mat variety of blade tools excavated, including micro & macro, backed &
Cul: Shouldered blades. | Epi-Pa (12-10kya) artefacts also found => blade
tools, mixture of Up-Pa + Mesolithic.
Social • Economy was built on hunting-gathering, based on tools found.
Life: • At Baghor-1 (MP), artificial sand-stone structure, at centre has stones
with etched concentric triangles▲. Referred as 'shrine', indicates
religious element. For local Kol & Baiga it's mother goddess 'Mai'.
• A female figurine made on bone has also been found. However, some
believe it to be a fishing harpoon.

Belan valley's importance lies in fact that it was among first Indian sites to yield a
clear Up-Pa tradition, thus fixing chronology of Indian P culture. All 3 paleolithic
phases are found here indicating continuity.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Debate surrounding chronology of Palaeolithic culture in India. 15m
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. | Indian P culture is accepted as emerging
around early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to European & African P culture.
In 1960, seminars were organised concerning chronology of P culture in India.
• B Subbarao & Bridget Allchin suggested that there is no possibility of naming Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic in India, like
that in Europe, because :—
Majority of river valleys surveyed till then yielded only two stratigraphic gravels of Pleistocene period (1st is
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Debate surrounding chronology of Palaeolithic culture in India. 15m
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. | Indian P culture is accepted as emerging
around early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to European & African P culture.
In 1960, seminars were organised concerning chronology of P culture in India.
• B Subbarao & Bridget Allchin suggested that there is no possibility of naming Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic in India, like
that in Europe, because :—
1. Majority of river valleys surveyed till then yielded only two stratigraphic gravels of Pleistocene period (1st is
core tools; & 2nd is flake & blade tools). Hence a 3-fold division was not possible.
2. Bone tool & art objects which formed a major characteristic of European Up-Pa, were more or less absent
in India due to acidic soil.
§ They therefore suggested a two-fold nomenclature for Indian Palaeolithic — Early & Middle Stone Age.
• Meanwhile, HD. Sankalia suggested a more expansive terminology — Early, Middle, Later, & New Stone Age. ESA
(Lo-Pa), MSA (Mi-Pa), LSA (Up-Pa & Meso), NSA (Neo) //MSA = Meso in Paper 1 & Mi-Pa in Paper 2.
However, in 1973, V.N. Misra excavated Bhimbetka shelter Ill F-23. Four seasons (1973- 1976) of excavation here yielded
a continuous sequence of Palaeolithic culture.
In 1980, GR. Sharma excavated Belan valley & described 3 implement-bearing gravels. 3rd gravel was dated 19,000 BCE,
confirming a clear Up-Pa tradition.
Further discoveries & confirmations at different sites followed.
Conclusion: Thus, almost all archaeologists today agree that Indian Palaeolithic can be divided into European pattern of
3 -fold structure, that is, Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic.
Problems still exist: Abbevillian are purely intruded within Acheulian so Europe comparisons are tough. | Art usually found
with Microliths; tough to differentiate b/w Up-Pa & Meso. | Evidence of fluting technique not conclusive (Up-Pa issues).

Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a uniform cultural phase.
Discuss. 15m (2013 PYQ).
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. | Indian P culture is accepted as emerging
around early Upper Pleistocene period, significantly late as compared to European & African P culture.
Chronological non-homogeneity:
• Most river valleys surveyed in India maintained only 2 Stratigraphic gravels of Pleistocene period. Hence, a 3 -fold
division of Lo-Mi-Up Palaeolithic was not possible in Indian context for a long time till 1970s.
• Even till date, only a few sites yielded a continuous sequence of Palaeolithic culture, from Lo to Mi to Up-Pa like
Bhimbetka, Belan Valley, Tikoda, Attirampakkam, Prakasam.
Cultural non-uniformity:
• Reason: Indian sub-continent saw significant climatic variations. N mountain regions - glacial climate, Peninsular
India river valleys - pluvial climate. This led to cultural differences across Indian sites. These can be seen from
perspectives of—
1. Stratigraphy: N Indian sites like Soan valley show massive stratigraphy of 6 terraces. Central Indian sites like
Narmada valley shows complicated stratigraphy due to rift valleys. Finally, South Indian sites show simple
stratigraphy.
2. Material Culture: //Tools.
§ N Indian sites like Soan valley show a very high frequency of chopper-chopping tool which declines moving
southwards. S Indian sites (Madrasian) shows a high frequency of handaxes & cleavers, which are more
neat & sophisticated.
§ At some sites like Bhimbetka, there is no vertical evolution from Abbevillian to Acheulian industry.
//Abbevillian intruded within Acheulian.
§ Material change from quartzite to crypto-crystalline silica types is not seen at sites like Bhimbetka &
Kurnool. They remained as quartzite.
§ In Mi-Pa, Nevasa had Levallois & Mousterian. Kurnool has Cylinder-Hammer technique.
§ Wrt Up-Pa culture, bone tools ?
B have been very rare. Found only at Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi.
A
@
3. Art: Cave art is found only at limited sites, like Bhimbetka & Lakhudiyar. Art objects are also rare in Indian paleo
unlike European tradition.
○ Fossils very rare due to acidic soil: only 1 at Hathnora, MP -> Narmada man.
Thus, Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogenous nor as a uniform cultural phase.

Uniqueness of Indian Paleolithic:

• It is comparatively late is appearance as compared to world Paleolithic (Late by 0.5 million years)
• Both glacial & pluvial sites are found e.g. Soan(glacial) & Madrasian (Pluvial)
• Geographical spread of Paleolithic is widest in India expanding from North (Soan Culture) to south (Madrasian culture) &
East (Kuliana) to west (Didwana, Nevasa)
• Regional variations are more as compared to other Paleolithic places of world.
• Vast Material culture diversity e.g. Soan(chopper chopping culture) & Madrasian (Hand axe cleaver culture). at same
time comparative details b/w two sites are present
• Nowhere in world C-C tools of pebbles & handaxe-cleavers have been found together, except India e.g. Chauntra of Soan
Valley. Indicative of coexistence of 2 diff cultures living in close proximity. Even in India, oldest C-C & Hand axe cleavers.
 Mahanadi Basin excavated by Mahapatra.
a (OD):
Paisra Place: Open air primary site; in Monger district of Bihar. | Midenpur
District of WB; near Subarnarekha river.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Middle Palaeolithic Culture of India:
P culture refers to cultural debris recovered from entire Pleistocene Epoch. Mi-Pa is 2nd sub-
division of P culture, very thin stratigraphy, & spans from 100K to 36K BCE.
Climate: Northern mountainous regions witnessed successive glacial & inter-glacial periods.
River valleys of Peninsular India meanwhile, witnessed successive pluvial & inter-pluvial periods.
Material Culture:

Compared to
LP, use of
chopper-
chopping tools
became
infrequent, &
hand-axes &
Cleavers
became smaller.
Flake tools
became much
more common
like scrapers,
points & borers.
Mostly W & S
India & fewer
sites. Varied.
Technique:
Besides direct
hammer, a new
technique -
Pecking /
Retouching
appeared, to
make working
borders sharp &
durable.
Material: in
river valleys,
changed to
smooth crypto-
crystalline silica
like quartz, flint,
jasper,
Chalcedony.
Compact, so
less energy
wastage.

Regional Variations: Non-uniform Palaeolithic climate in sub-continent gave rise to regional

variations, as shown through following sites -

1. Nevasa (MH): Excavated by H.D.

Sankalia (1956) near river Pravara.
Nevasian culture also includes sites
along river Godavari, Son & Krishna.
• Nevasa has yielded several
Levallois-based flake tools
prepared on jasper material.
2. Bhimbetka (MP): VS Wakankar
(1957) discovered Rock shelters. VN
Misra (1973-76) excavated one of its
largest cave III F-23. This cave yielded
8 cultural formations.
• Out of which 5th layer from
top represents Mi-Pa.
Notably, Raw Material don't
change - use of quartzite as
raw material continued like
Lo-Pa.
3. Luni (RJ): excavated by VN Misra. It
is more varied & richer in tools than
Nevasian industry. It contains convex