Module-3

Vector Space and Linear Transformations (8 hours)

Importance of Vector Space and Linear Transformations in the field of
Computer Science & Engineering.
Vector spaces: Definition and examples, subspace, linear span, linearly
independent and dependent sets, Basis and dimension. Problems.
Linear transformations: Definition and examples, Algebra of
transformations, Matrix of a linear transformation. Change of coordinates,
Rank and nullity of a linear operator, rank-nullity theorem. Inner product
spaces and orthogonality. Problems.
Self-study: Angles and Projections. Rotation, Reflection, Contraction and
Expansion.
Applications: Image processing, AI & ML, Graphs and networks, Computer
graphics.
(RBT Levels: L1, L2 and L3)
Reference Books
1. David C Lay: “Linear Algebra and its Applications”, Pearson Publishers, 4th
Ed., 2018.
2. Gareth Williams: “Linear Algebra with applications”, Jones Bartlett
Publishers Inc., 6th Ed., 2017.
3. Gilbert Strang: “Linear Algebra and its Applications”, Cengage Publications,
4th Ed., 2022.

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VECTOR OPERATIONS

A vector is a quantity with both magnitude and direction, there are two operations defined on
vectors and these both have a very direct geometric interpretation. We draw a vector as a line
with an arrow, for now I will call the end without the arrow the 'start' of the vector and the
end with the arrow the 'end' of the vector.

• Vector addition: to add two vectors we take the start of the second vector and move it
to the end of the first vector. The addition of these two vectors is the vector from the
start of the first vector to the end of the second vector.
• Scalar multiplication changes the length of a vector without changing its direction, i.e.,
we 'scale' it by the multiplying factor. So scalar multiplication involves multiplying a
scalar (single number) by a vector to give another number.

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Vector Spaces

Definition: A vector space is a set V of elements called vectors, having two operations called
addition and scalar multiplication defined on it that satisfying the following ten axioms (or
rules). The axioms must hold for all vectors u, v and w in V and for all scalars α and β.

Closure Axioms

(1) If u, v ∈ V, then u + v ∈ V. (Closure under addition)

(2) If u ∈ V and  is a scalar, then u ∈ V. (closure under scalar multiplication)

Addition Axioms

(3) u + v = v + u. (Addition is commutative)

(4) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w). (Addition is associative)

(5) There exists an element of V, called a zero vector, denoted 0, such that

u + 0 = u for all u in V.

(6) For each u in V, there is an element − u in V, called the additive inverse of u, such that

u + (−u) = 0.

Scalar Multiplication Axioms

(7) α (u + v) = αu + αv

(8) (α + β) u = αu + βu

(9) α(βu) = (αβ)u

(10) 1u = u

Remark: Every vector space has a unique zero vector and every vector in the space has a
unique inverse. The two most common sets of scalars used in vector spaces are the set of real
numbers R and the set of complex numbers C. The vector spaces are then called real vector
spaces and complex vector spaces.

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Examples

Example 1. Let V = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y2 ≤ 1} be the unit disc in R2. Is V a vector space?

Solution: The circle is not closed under scalar multiplication.

For example, take u = (1, 0) ∈ V and α = 2. Then αu = (2, 0) is not in V.

Therefore, property (2) of the definition of a vector space fails, and consequently the unit disc

is not a vector space.

Example 2. Let V = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = x2} be the graph of the quadratic function. Is V a vector
space?

Solution: The set V is not closed under scalar multiplication.

For example, take u = (1, 1) ∈ V and α = 2. Then αu = 2u = (2, 2) is not in V.

You may also notice that V is not closed under addition.

For example, both u = (1, 1) and v = (2, 4) are in V but u + v = (3, 5) is not in V.

Therefore, the graph of the quadratic function is not a vector space.

Example 3. Let V = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = 2x} be the graph of the function f(x) = 2x. Is V a vector
space?
Solution: Let u = (a, 2a), v = (b, 2b) and w = (c, 2c) be points in V and  and  be scalars.

Then

(i) u + v = (a + b, 2a + 2b) = (a + b, 2(a + b))  V

Therefore, V is closed under addition.

(ii) αu = α (a, 2a) = (αa, α2a) = (αa, 2(αa))  V

Therefore, V is closed under scalar multiplication.

(iii) u + v = (a + b, 2a + 2b) = (b + a, 2b + 2a) = v + u

Therefore, Addition is commutative.

(iv) (u + v) + w = (a + b, 2a + 2b) + (c, 2c) = (a + b+ c, 2a + ab + 2c)

u + (v + w) = (a, 2a) + (b + c, 2b + 2c) = (a + b+ c, 2a + ab + 2c)

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 (u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
Therefore, Addition is associative
(v) There is a zero vector 0 = (0, 0) in V such that
u + 0 = (a, 2a) + (0, 0) = (a, 2a) = u
(vi) There is an additive inverse −u = (−a, −2a) in V such that
u + (−u) = 0.
(vii) α (u + v) = (a + b, 2a + 2b)
= ((a + b), (2a + 2b))
= (a + b, 2a + 2b)
= (a, 2a) + (b, 2b)
= (a, 2a) +(b, 2b)
= αu + αv
(viii) (α + β) u = (α + β) (a, 2a)
= ((α + β) a, (α + β)2a)
= (αa + βa, 2αa + 2βa)
= (a, 2a) + (a, 2a)
= (a, 2a) + (a, 2a)
= αu + u
(ix) α(βu) = α ((a, 2a))
= α (a, 2a)
= (αa, 2αa)
= α (a, 2a)
= (αβ)u
(x) 1u = 1(a, 2a) = (a, 2a) = u

All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.

Therefore, V is a vector space.

i.e., the graph of the function f(x) = 2x is a vector space.

Example 4. Let V = Pn[t] = {a0 + a1t + a2t2 + · · · + antn | a0, a1, . . ., an ∈ R} be the set of all
polynomials in the variable t and of degree  n. Is V a vector space?

Solution: Let u = u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn, v = v0 + v1t + · · ·+ vntn and

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w = w0 + w1t + · · ·+ wntn be polynomials in V and  and  be scalars. Then

(i) u + v = (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn) + (v0 + v1t + · · ·+ vntn)

= (u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn ∈ Pn[t]
Therefore, V is closed under addition.
(ii) αu = (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn)
= (αu0) + (αu1) t + · · · + (αun) tn ∈ Pn[t]
Therefore, V is closed under scalar multiplication.
(iii) u + v = (u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn
= (v0 + u0) + (v1 + u1) t + · · · + (vn + un) tn
=v+u
Therefore, Addition is commutative.
(iv) (u + v) + w = (u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn + w0 + w1t + · · ·+ wntn
= (u0 + v0+ w0) + (u1 + v1+ w1) t + · · · + (un + vn + wn) tn
u + (v + w) = u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn +(v0+ w0) + (v1+ w1) t + · · · + (vn + wn) tn
= (u0 + v0+ w0) + (u1 + v1+ w1) t + · · · + (un + vn + wn) tn
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
Therefore, Addition is associative
(v) The 0 vector in Pn[t] is the zero polynomial 0(t) = 0 such that
u + 0 = u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn + 0 = u
(vi) There is an additive inverse −u = −u0 − u1t − · · ·− untn in V such that
u + (−u) = 0.
(vii) α (u + v) = ((u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn)
= (u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn
= (u0 + v0) + (u1 + v1) t + · · · + (un + vn) tn
= (u0 + u1 t + · · · + un tn ) + (v0 + v1 t + · · · + vn tn)
= (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn) + (v0 + v1t + · · ·+ vntn)
= αu + αv
(viii) (α + β) u = (α + β) (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn)
= (α + β) u0 + (α + β) u1t + · · ·+ (α + β) untn
= (u0 + u1 t + · · · + un tn ) + (u0 + u1 t + · · · + un tn )
= α (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn) + β (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn)
= αu + u

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 (ix) α(βu) = α ((u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn))
= α (u0 + u1 t + · · · + un tn)
= αu0 + αu1t + · · ·+ untn
= α (u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn)
= (αβ)u
(x) 1u = 1(u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn)
= 1.u0 +1. u1t + · · ·+1.untn
= u0 + u1t + · · ·+ untn
=u
All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.

Therefore, V = Pn[t] is a vector space.

Example 5. Show that the set of all 2  2 matrices is a vector space over the field of reals R
under usual addition and multiplication.

𝑤 𝑥
Solution: Let 𝑉 = {( 𝑦 𝑧 ) | 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅} be the set of all 2  2 matrices.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑖 𝑗
Let 𝐴 = [ ], 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐶 = [ ] be 2  2 matrices in V and  and  be scalars.
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 𝑙

Then

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓
(i) 𝐴+𝐵 =[ ]+[ ]=[ ]∈𝑉
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ

Therefore, V is closed under addition.

𝑎 𝑏 𝛼𝑎 𝛼𝑏
(ii) 𝛼𝐴 = 𝛼 [ ]=[ ]∈𝑉
𝑐 𝑑 𝛼𝑐 𝛼𝑑
Therefore, V is closed under scalar multiplication.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓
(iii) 𝐴+𝐵 =[ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ
𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑒+𝑎 𝑓+𝑏
𝐵+𝐴 =[ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑐 𝑑 𝑔+𝑐 ℎ+𝑑
A+B=B+A
Therefore, Addition is commutative.
𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓 𝑖 𝑗 𝑎+𝑒+𝑖 𝑏+𝑓+𝑗
(iv) (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ 𝑘 𝑙 𝑐 +𝑔+𝑘 𝑑+ℎ+𝑙

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 𝑎 𝑏 𝑒+𝑖 𝑓+𝑗 𝑎+𝑒+𝑖 𝑏+𝑓+𝑗
𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔+𝑘 ℎ+𝑙 𝑐+𝑔+𝑘 𝑑+ℎ+𝑙
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Therefore, Addition is associative
0 0
(v) There exists a zero matrix 0 = [ ] such that
0 0
𝑎 𝑏 0 0 𝑎 𝑏
𝐴+0 =[ ]+[ ]=[ ]=𝐴
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 𝑐 𝑑
−𝑎 −𝑏
(vi) There is an additive inverse −𝐴 = [ ] in V such that
−𝑐 −𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑎 −𝑏 0 0
𝐴 + (−𝐴) = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]=0
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 −𝑑 0 0
𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓
(vii) 𝛼(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼 [ ]
𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ
𝛼(𝑎 + 𝑒) 𝛼(𝑏 + 𝑓)
=[ ]
𝛼(𝑐 + 𝑔) 𝛼(𝑑 + ℎ)
𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑏 + 𝛼𝑓
=[ ]
𝛼𝑐 + 𝛼𝑔 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼ℎ
𝛼𝑎 𝛼𝑏 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑓
=[ ]+[ ]
𝛼𝑐 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑔 𝛼ℎ
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
= 𝛼[ ]+𝛼[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
= αA + αB
𝑎 𝑏
(viii) (α + β)A = (α + β) [ ]
𝑐 𝑑
(α + β)𝑎 (α + β)𝑏
= [ ]
(α + β)𝑐 (α + β)𝑑
αa + βa αb + βb
= [ ]
αc + βc αd + βd
αa αb βa βb
= [ ]+ [ ]
αc αd βc βd
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
= 𝛼[ ]+𝛽[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
= αA + A
𝑎 𝑏
(ix) α(βA) = α ([ ])
𝑐 𝑑
βa βb
=α[ ]
βc βd
αβa αβb
=[ ]
αβc αβd

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 𝑎 𝑏
= α [ ]
𝑐 𝑑
= (αβ)A
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
(x) 1A = 1[ ]=[ ]=𝐴
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑

All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.

Therefore, V is a vector space.

i.e., the set of all 2  2 matrices is a vector space.

Example 6. Let V = Mm × n be the set of all m × n matrices. Under the usual operations of
addition of matrices and scalar multiplication, is Mn × m a vector space?

Solution: Given matrices A, B ∈ Mm × n and a scalar α, we defined the sum A + B by adding

entry-by-entry, and αA by multiplying each entry of A by α. It is clear that the space Mm × n is

closed under these two operations. The 0 vector in Mm × n is the matrix of size m × n having

all entries equal to zero. It can be verified that all other properties of the definition of a vector

space also hold. Thus, the set Mm × n is a vector space.

Example 7. Prove that the set of all real valued continuous (differentiable & integrable)
functions of x defined in the interval [0, 1] is a vector space.

Solution: Let V be the set of all real valued continuous functions of x defined in the interval
[0, 1]. Let f, g h  V and  and  be scalars.

Define their sum, f + g, to be the function such that (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) and
define their scalar multiplication f, is the function such that (f) (x) = [f(x)].
Then

(i) If f and g are continuous functions, then we know that their sum f + g is also
continuous.

Therefore, V is closed under addition.

(ii) If f is continuous then f is also continuous.

Therefore, V is closed under scalar multiplication.

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(iii) (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x)
= g(x) + f(x)
= (g + f) (x)
f+g=g+f

Therefore, Addition is commutative.

(iv) [(f + g) + h] (x) = (f + g) (x) + h (x)

= [f(x) + g(x)] + h(x)
= f(x) + [g(x) + h(x)]
= f(x) + [g + h] (x)
= [f+ (g + h)] (x)
(f + g) + h = f + (g + h).
Therefore, Addition is associative
(v) There is a function 0(x) = 0 is the identity in V such that
(f + 0) (x) = f(x) + 0(x) = f(x) + 0 = f(x)
(vi) There is an additive inverse (−f) (x) = −f(x)] of f in V such that
[f + (−f)] (x) = f(x) + (−f) (x) = f(x) − f(x) = 0.
(vii) [α (f + g)] (x) = [(f + g) (x)]
= [(f(x) + g(x)]
= f(x) + g(x)
= (f) (x) + (g) (x)
= (f + g) (x)
Therefore, α (f + g) = αf + αg
(viii) (α + β) f(x) = αf(x) + βf(x)
= [αf + βf] (x)
Therefore, (α + β) f = αf + f
(ix) (αβ) f(x) = [(αβ) f] (x)
= [α(βf)] (x)
= α(βf)(x)
Therefore, (αβ)f = α(βf)
(x) (1.f) (x)= 1.f(x) = f(x)
Therefore, 1f = f

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All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.

Therefore, V is a vector space.

i.e., the set of all real valued continuous functions of X defined in the interval [0, 1] is a vector
space

Exercise

1. Show that the set V of all ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers form a vector space over
the field of real numbers R.
2. Show that the set V of all ordered triplets (x, y, z) of real numbers form a vector space
over the field of real numbers R.
𝒙 𝟎
3. Show that the set 𝑽 = {( ) | 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑹} is a vector space over the field of reals R
𝟎 𝒚
under usual addition and multiplication.
𝒂 𝟎
4. Show that the set 𝑽 = {( ) | 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹} is a vector space over the field of reals R
𝒃 𝟎
under usual addition and multiplication.
5. Is the set of 3  3 symmetric matrices a vector space?
6. Prove that the set of all convergent sequences of real numbers is a vector space over
the field of real numbers.
7. Prove that the set of all ordered n-triples of complex numbers forms a vector space
over the field of complex numbers.
8. Show that the set V of all ordered pairs of integers does not form a vector space over
the field of real numbers R.
9. Show that the set of all pairs of real numbers over the field of reals defined as
(x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (3y1 + 3y2, -x1 – x2) and c(x1, y1) = (3cy1 – cx1) does not form a
vector space.

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Subspaces of Vector Spaces

Definition: A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space

under the addition and scalar multiplication defined on V.

In other words, a subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if it satisfies the

following properties:

(1) The zero vector of V is also in W.

(2) If u, v  W then u + v W (i.e., W is closed under addition),

(3) If u  W and k is a scalar then ku W (i.e., W is closed under scalar multiplication).

i.e., the vectors u + v and ku both lie in the same line or same plane as u and v.

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Theorem: A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of V iff u, v  W and  and
 are scalars then u + v  W.

Remark: The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V is a subspace of V but the union
of two subspaces of V need not be a subspace of V.

Note: To prove the subset W of V is a subspace of V, we can prove it either by using definition
or by Theorem.

Examples

Example 1. Let W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = 2x} be the graph of the function f(x) = 2x. Is W a subspace
of V = R2?

Solution: (i) If x = 0 then y = 2 · 0 = 0 and therefore 0 = (0, 0) is in W.

(ii) Let u = (a, 2a) and v = (b, 2b) be elements of W. Then

u + v = (a, 2a) + (b, 2b) = (a + b, 2a + 2b) = (a + b, 2 (a + b))  W

Thus, W is closed under addition.

(ii) Let α be any scalar and let u = (a, 2a) be an element of W. Then

αu = (αa, α2a) = (αa, 2 (αa))  W

W is closed under scalar multiplication.

All three conditions of a subspace are satisfied for W and therefore W is a subspace of V.

Example 2. Let W = {(x, y) ∈ R2| x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0} be the first quadrant in R2: Is W a subspace?

Solution: (i) The set W contains the zero vector (0, 0).

(ii) Let u = (x1, y1)  W then x1 ≥ 0 and y1 ≥ 0, and similarly let v = (x2, y2)  W then x2
≥ 0 and y2 ≥ 0. Then the sum u + v = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) has components x1 +y1 ≥ 0 and x2 +
y2 ≥ 0 and therefore u + v is in W. Thus, W is closed under addition.

(iii) W is not closed under scalar multiplication.

For example, if u = (1, 1) and α = −1 then αu = (−1, −1) is not in W because the components
of αu are clearly not non-negative.
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V

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Example 3. Let V = M n × n be the vector space of all n × n matrices. We define the trace of a
matrix A ∈ M n × n as the sum of its diagonal entries: tr(A) = a11 + a22 + · · · + ann. Let W be the
set of all n × n matrices whose trace is zero: W = {A ∈ M n × n | tr(A) = 0}. Is W a subspace of
V?

Solution: (i) If 0 is the n × n zero matrix then clearly tr(0) = 0, and thus 0 ∈ M n × n.
(ii) Suppose that A and B are in W. Then necessarily tr(A) = 0 and tr(B) = 0.
Consider the matrix C = A + B. Then
tr(C) = tr (A + B) = (a11 + b11) + (a22 + b22) + · · · + (ann + bnn)
= (a11 + · · · + ann) + (b11 + · · · + bnn)
= tr(A) + tr(B)
=0
Therefore, tr(C) = 0 and consequently C = A + B ∈ W,
Thus, W is closed under addition.
(iii) Now let α be a scalar and let C = αA. Then
tr(C) = tr(αA) = (αa11) + (αa22) + · · · + (αann) = α tr(A) = 0.
Thus, tr(C) = 0, that is, C = αA ∈ W, and consequently W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, the set W is a subspace of V.
Example 4. Let V = Pn[t] and consider the subset W of V: W = {u ∈ Pn[t] | u′ (1) = 0}. In other
words, W consists of polynomials of degree n in the variable t whose derivative at t = 1 is zero.
Is W a subspace of V?

Solution: (i) The zero polynomial 0(t) = 0 clearly has derivative at t = 1 equal to zero, that is,

0′ (1) = 0, and thus the zero polynomial is in W.

(ii) Now suppose that u(t) and v(t) are two polynomials in W. Then, u′ (1) = 0 and also v′

(1) = 0. To verify whether or not W is closed under addition, we must determine whether the

sum polynomial (u + v) (t) has a derivative at t = 1 equal to zero. From the rules of

differentiation, we compute

(u + v) ′ (1) = u′ (1) + v′ (1) = 0 + 0 = 0.

Therefore, the polynomial (u + v) is in W, and thus W is closed under addition.

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(iii) Now let α be any scalar and let u(t) be a polynomial in W. Then u′ (1) = 0. To determine

whether or not the scalar multiple αu(t) is in W we must determine if αu(t) has a derivative

of zero at t = 1. Using the rules of differentiation, we compute that

(αu) ′ (1) = αu′ (1) = α · 0 = 0.

Therefore, the polynomial (αu) (t) is in W and thus W is closed under scalar multiplication.

All three properties of a subspace hold for W and therefore W is a subspace of Pn[t].

Example 5. Let V = Pn[t] and consider the subset W of V: W = {u ∈ Pn[t] | u (2) = −1}. In other
words, W consists of polynomials of degree n in the variable t whose value t = 2 is −1. Is W a
subspace of V?
Solution: (i) The zero polynomial 0(t) = 0 clearly does not equal to −1 at t = 2.

Therefore, W does not contain the zero polynomial and, because all three conditions of a

subspace must be satisfied for W to be a subspace, then W is not a subspace of Pn[t].

Example 6. Let V = R3 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V consisting of vectors
of the form (a, a, b), where the first two components are the same. Is W a subspace of V?
Solution: (i) The set W contains the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
(ii) Let u = (a, a, b) and v = (c, c, d) then u + v = (a + c, a + c, b + d)  W.
Thus, W is closed under addition.
(iii) If we multiply (a, a, b) by a scalar k, we get (ka, ka, kb)  W.
Thus, W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, W is a subspace of V.
Example 7. Let V = R3 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V consisting of vectors
of the form (a, a2, b), where the second component is the square of the first. Is W a subspace
of V?
Solution: (i) The set W contains the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
(ii) Let u = (a, a2, b) and v = (c, c2, d) then u + v = (a + c, a2 + c2, b + d)  W because the
second component of this vector is not the square of the first.
Thus, W is not closed under addition.

Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.

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Example 8. Prove that the set W of 2  2 diagonal matrices is a subspace of the vector space
M22 of 2  2 matrices.
0 0
Solution: (i) The set W contains the zero matrix [ ].
0 0

𝑎 0 𝑐 0 𝑎+𝑐 0
(ii) Let 𝑢 = [ ] and 𝑣 = [ ] are in W then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = [ ]  W.
0 𝑏 0 𝑑 0 𝑏+𝑑

Thus, W is closed under addition.

𝑎 0 𝑘𝑎 0
(iii) Let k be a scalar and 𝑢 = [ ] ∈ 𝑊, then 𝑘𝑢 = [ ]  W.
0 𝑏 0 𝑘𝑏

Thus, W is closed under scalar multiplication.

Therefore, W is a subspace of V.

Example 9. Let W be the set of vectors of the form (a, a, a + 2). Show that W is not a subspace
of V = R3.
Solution: (i) The set W does not contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.
Example 10. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x2 + y2 + z2  1} of the vector space V(R3) is
a subspace of V(R3).
Solution: (i) The set W contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0) such that 02 + 02 + 02  1.
(ii) Let u = (1, 0, 0) such that 12 + 02 + 02  1 and v = (0, 0, 1) such that 02 + 02 + 12  1 are
in W then u + v = (1, 0,1) such that 12 + 02 + 12 = 2 which is not less than or equal to 1.
i.e., u + v = (1, 0,1)  W
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.
Example 11. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x – 3y + 4z = 0} of the vector space R3 is a
subspace of R3.
Solution: W is a non-empty subset of R3 since at least one element (0, 0, 0)  W such that
0 – 3(0) + 4(0) = 0.
Let u = (x1, y1, z1) such that x1 – 3y1 + 4z1 = 0 and v = (x2, y2, z2) such that x2 – 3y2 + 4z2 = 0
and  and  be scalars then
u + v = (x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2, z2)

= (x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2)

= (x1 + x2) – 3(y1 +y2) + 4(z1 + z2)

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 = (x1– 3y1 + 4z1) + (x2– 3y2 + 4z2)

=  (x1 – 3y1 + 4z1) +  (x2 – 3y2 + 4z2)

=  (0) +  (0) = 0

Therefore, u + v  W
Thus, W is a subspace of the vector space R3.

Example 12. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x + y + z = 0} of the vector space V3 (R) is a
subspace of V3 (R).
Solution: W is a non-empty subset of V3 (R) since at least one element (0, 0, 0)  W such that
0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
Let u = (x1, y1, z1) such that x1 + y1 + z1 = 0 and v = (x2, y2, z2) such that x2 + y2 + z2 = 0 and
 and  be scalars then
u + v = (x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2, z2)

= (x1+x2, y1 +y2, z1+z2)

= (x1+x2) + (y1 +y2) + (z1+z2)

= (x1 + y1 + z1) + (x2 + y2 + z2)

=  (x1 + y1 + z1) +  (x2 + y2 + z2)

=  (0) +  (0) = 0

Therefore, u + v  W

Thus, W is a subspace of the vector space V3 (R).

Example 13. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x = y = z} of the vector space V3 (R) is a
subspace of V3 (R).
Solution: W is a non-empty subset of V3 (R) since at least one element (0, 0, 0)  W such that
0 = 0 = 0.
Let u = (x1, y1, z1) such that x1 = y1 = z1 and v = (x2, y2, z2) such that x2 = y2 = z2 and  and 
be scalars then
u + v = (x1, y1, z1) + (x2, y2, z2)

= (x1+x2, y1 +y2, z1+z2)

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As, x1 = y1 = z1 and x2 = y2 = z2

 (x1+x2) = (y1 +y2) = (z1+z2)

Therefore, u + v  W.
Thus, W is a subspace of the vector space V3 (R).

EXERCISE

1. Examine the subset V = {(a + 2b, a, 2a – b, b) | a, b  R} for a subspace of vector space

of R4.
2. If a vector space is the set of real valued continuous functions, then prove that set W
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
of solutions of the differential equation 𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗 𝒅𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎 is a subspace of V.

3. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | 2x +3 y + z = 0} of the vector space V3 (R) is a

subspace of V3 (R).
4. Verify the subset W = {(x, 2y, 3z) | x, y, z  R} of the vector space V3 (R) is a subspace
of V3 (R) or not.

Page 18 of 31
LINEAR SPAN
The span of a set of vectors, also called linear span, is the linear space formed by all the
vectors that can be written as linear combinations of the vectors belonging to the given set.
Definition:
Let V be a vector space and v1, v2, ..., vm be any m vectors in a vector space V. Any vector
of the form c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cmvm where c1, c2, …, cm are scalars is called a linear combination
of the vectors v1, v2, …, vm.

Let V be a vector space and S be any non-empty subset of V. Then the linear span of S
is the set of all linear combination of any finite number of elements of S and is denoted by L(S).
i.e., L(S) = {c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cmvm | vi  S and ci  F}, i = 1, 2, …, m.

Examples

Example 1: Determine whether the vector (8, 0, 5) is a linear combination of the vectors
(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 4), and (2, −1, 1) in R3.
Solution: Examine the following identity for values of c1, c2, and c3
c1 (1, 2, 3) + c2 (0, 1, 4) + c3 (2, −1, 1) = (8, 0, 5)
This identity leads to the following system of linear equations:
c1 + 2c3 = 8, 2c1 + c2 − c3 = 0 and 3c1 + 4c2 + c3 = 5
It can be shown that this system has the unique solution,
c1 = 2, c2= −1, c3 = 3
Thus, the vector (8, 0, 5) can be written in one way as a linear combination,
(8, 0, 5) = 2(1, 2, 3) − 1(0, 1, 4) + 3(2, −1, 1)

Note: If the system had no solutions, then it would not have been possible to express it as a
linear combination of the other vectors. It is possible for some vectors to be written in many
ways as linear combinations of other vectors.

Example 2: Express the vector (2, − 1, − 8) as a linear combination of the vectors (1, 2, 1),
(1, 1, −1), and (4, 5, −2) in R3.
Solution: Let (2, − 1, − 8) = c1 (1, 2, 1) + c2 (1, 1, −1) + c3 (4, 5, −2)
This identity leads to the following system of linear equations:

Page 19 of 31
 c1 + c2 + 4c3 = 2, 2c1 + c2 + c3 = − 1 and c1 − c2 −2c3 = − 8
It can be shown that this system has the unique solution,
c1 = − 4, c2= 2, c3 = 1
Thus, the vector (2, − 1, − 8) can be written in one way as a linear combination,
(2, − 1, − 8) = − 4 (1, 2, 1) + 2 (1, 1, −1) + 1(4, 5, −2)

The above linear combination is not unique.

Example 3: Determine whether the vector (3, −1, 11) lies in the subspace Span {(−1, 5, 3),
(2, −3, 4 )} of R3.
Solution: To prove that (3, − 1, ) is in the span of the vectors (−1, 5, 3) and (2, −3, ),
we have to express (3, − 1, ) as a linear combination of these.
(3, − 1, ) = c1 (−1, 5, 3) + c2 (2, −3, 4)
This identity leads to the following system of linear equations:
−c1 + 2c2 = 3, 5c1 − 3c2 = −  and 3c1 + 4c2 = 
It can be shown that this system has the unique solution,
c1 = 1 and c2= 
Thus, the vector (3, − 1, ) can be written in one way as a linear combination,
(3, − , ) = 1 (−1, 5, 3) + 2 (2, −3, 4)
Thus, the vector (3, −1, 11) lies in the subspace Span {(−1, 5, 3), (2, −3, 4)}.
Example 4: Prove that the vector (3, − 7, ) is in the span of the vectors (1, −3, 2), (2, 4, 1) and
(1, 1, ).
Solution: To prove that (3, − 7, ) is in the span of the vectors (1, −3, 2), (2, 4, 1), and (1, 1, ),
we have to express (3, − 7, ) as a linear combination of these.
(3, − 7, ) = c1 (1, −3, 2) + c2 (2, 4, 1) + c3 (1, 1, )
This identity leads to the following system of linear equations:
c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 3, −3c1 + 4c2 + c3 = −  and 2c1 + c2 + c3 = 
It can be shown that this system has the unique solution,
c1 = 2, c2= −1, c3 = 3
Thus, the vector (3, − 7, ) can be written in one way as a linear combination,
(3, − 7, ) = 2 (1, −3, 2) −1 (2, 4, 1) + 3 (1, 1, )

Thus, the vector (3, − 7, ) is in the span of the vectors (1, −3, 2), (2, 4, 1), and (1, 1, ).

Page 20 of 31
 −𝟏 𝟕 𝟏 𝟎
Example 5: Determine whether the matrix [ ] is a linear combination of [ ],
𝟖 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 −𝟑 𝟎 𝟏
[ ] and [ ] in the vector space M2(R) of 2  2 matrices.
𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟎
Solution: Examine the following identity for values of c1, c2, and c3
1 0 2 −3 0 1 −1 7
𝑐1 [ ] + 𝑐2 [ ] + 𝑐3 [ ] = [ ]
2 1 0 2 2 0 8 −1

Using operations of scalar multiplication and addition of matrices we get

𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 −3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 −1 7
 [ ] = [ ]
2𝑐1 + 2𝑐3 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 8 −1

On equating corresponding elements, we get the following system of linear equations.

𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 = −1, −3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 7, 2𝑐1 + 2𝑐3 = 8

This system has the unique solution c1 = 3, c2 = −2, c3 = 1. The given matrix is thus the
following linear combination of the other three matrices.
−1 7 1 0 2 −3 0 1
[ ]= 3 [ ]−2 [ ] + [ ].
8 −1 2 1 0 2 2 0

Example 6: Determine whether the function f(x) = 2x2 + 6x + 7 is a linear combination of

g(x) = x2 −1 and h(x) = 2x + 3.
Solution: We examine the identity c1 g(x) + c2 h(x) = f(x) for values of c1 and c2.

We get, c1(x2 − 1) + c2(2x + 3) = 2x2 + 6x + 7

 c1 x2 + 2c2 x − c1 + 3c2 = 2x2 + 6x + 7

Two polynomials can only be equal for all values of x if the corresponding coefficients are

equal. Compare the coefficients of x2, x and the constant terms on both sides of the equation.

We get the following system of linear equations.

c1 = 2, 2c2 = 6 and − c1 + 3c2 = 7

This system has the unique solution c1 = 2, c2 = 3.

The given function is thus the following linear combination of the other two functions.

f(x) = 2g(x) + 3h(x).

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Example 7: Let f (x) = 2x2 − 5 and g (x) = x +1. Show that the function h (x) = 4x2 + 3x − 7
lies in the subspace Span {f, g} of P2.
Solution: To prove that the function h (x) is in the span of the subspace span of {f, g}, we

have to express ‘h’ as a linear combination of these.

We examine the identity c1 f(x) + c2 g(x) = h(x) for values of c1 and c2.

4x2 + 3x − 7 = c1 (2x2 − 5) + c2 (x+ 1)

 4x2 + 3x − 7 = 2c1 x2 + x c2 − 5c1 + c2

Compare the coefficients of x2, x and the constant terms on both sides of the equation, we get
c2 = 3, −5c1 + c2 = −7
This system has the unique solution c1 = 2, c2 = 3.
Thus, 4x2 + 3x − 7 = 2(2x2 − 5) + 3(x + 1)
The function h is a linear combination of f and g. It lies in Span {f, g}.

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE

A set {v1, v2, ..., vn} of vectors of a vector space V said to be linearly independent if there exists
scalars c1, c2, …, cn such that c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn = 0 then c1 = 0, c2 = 0, …, cn = 0.

A set {v1, v2, ..., vn} of vectors of a vector space V said to be linearly dependent if it is not linearly
independent,

i.e., the set {v1, v2, ..., vn} of a vector space V said to be linearly dependent if there exists scalars
c1, c2, …, cn not all zero such that c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn = 0

Note: The null set  is always taken as linearly independent set.

Note: Two vectors are linearly dependent iff one is a multiple of the other.

Property: A subset S = {(x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), (x3, y3, z3)} of V3(R) is linearly dependent iff

𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
|𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | = 0.
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3

i.e., The set S is linearly independent if the determinant  0.

This property can be extended to a subset of n vectors in the vector space Vn(R)

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Note: The following theorem gives insight into the significance of linear dependence: the
vectors are linearly dependent in the sense that it is possible to express one of the vectors
linearly in terms of the others.
Theorem: A set consisting of two or more vectors in a vector space is linearly dependent iff it
is possible to express one of the vectors as a linear combination of the other vectors.
For example:
The set {(1, 2, 0), (3, 1, 2), (9, 8, 4)} is linearly dependent, since
(9, 8, 4) = 3 (1, 2, 0) + 2 (3, 1, 2).
The set {x − 1, 3x + 5, 5x + 3} is linearly dependent since
5x + 3 = 2(x − 1) + (3x + 5).
Let us consider the implications of this result for two and three vectors.
Linear Dependence of {v1, v2}
The set {v1, v2} is linearly dependent if and only if it is possible to write one vector as a scalar
multiple of the other vector. Let v2 = cv1. This means that v1 and v2 are collinear; see the
following figure for vectors in R3. On the other hand, the set {v1, v2} is linearly independent if
and only if it is not possible to write one vector as a scalar multiple of the other.

Linear Dependence of {v1, v2, v3}

The set {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent if and only if it is possible to write one of the vectors,
say V1 as a linear combination of the other two vectors, v1 = c2v2 + c3v3. This means that v1

Page 23 of 31
lies in the plane generated by v2 and v3 (or line, if the vectors are collinear); see the following
Figure for vectors in R3. On the other hand, {v1, v2, v3} is linearly independent if and only if the
vectors do not lie in a plane.

Examples
Example 1: Show that the set S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly independent in V 3(R).

Solution: Let e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, ), e3 = (0, 0, 1)

Consider, c1e1 + c2e2 + c3e3 = 0
c1 (1, 0, 0) + c2 (0, 1, 0) + c3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
 (c1, c2 c3) = (0, 0, 0)
 c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = 0
Therefore, S = {e1, e2, e3} is linearly independent.
Example 2: Show that the set S = {(1, 1, 1), (2, 2, 0), (3, 0, 0)} is linearly independent.

Solution: Let v1 = (1, 1, 1), v2 = (2, 2, ), v3 = (3, 0, 0)

Consider, c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0
c1 (1, 1, 1) + c2 (2, 2, 0) + c3 (3, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
 (c1 +2c2 + c3, c1 +2c2, c1) = (0, 0, 0)
 c1 +2c2 + c3 =  c1 +2c2 = 0, c1 = 0
 c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = 0
Therefore, S = {v1, v2, v3} is linearly independent.

Page 24 of 31
Example 3: Prove that the set S = {(1, 3, 2), (1, −7, −8), (2, 1, −1)} is linearly dependent.

Solution: Let v1 = (1, 3, 2), v2 = (1, −7, −), v3 = (2, 1, −1)

Consider, c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0
c1 (1, 3, 2) + c2 (1, −7, −) + c3 (2, 1, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
 (c1 + c2 + c3, 3c1 −7c2 + c3, 2c1 − 8c2 − c3) = (0, 0, 0)
 c1 + c2 + c3 =  3c1 −7c2 + c3, 2c1 − 8c2 − c3 = 0
 c1 = 3k, c2 = , c3 = −2k for some arbitrary k
Therefore, c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0 need not imply c1 = 0, c2 = , c3 = 0

Therefore, S = {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent.

Example 4: Determine whether the set {(1, 2, 0), (0, 1, −1), (1, 1, 2)} is linearly independent
in R3 or not?
Solution:

Consider the determinant

1 2 0
|0 1 −1| = 1(2 + 1) − 2(0 + 1) + 0 = 1 ≠ 0
1 1 2

Therefore, the set is linearly independent.

Example 5: Show that the set S = {(1, 2, 4), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is linearly dependent.
Solution: S can be written as {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 2, 4)}
Consider, 1 (1, 0, 0) + 2 (0, 1, 0) + 4 (0, 0, 1)
= (1, 0, 0) + (0, 2, 0) + (0, 0, 4)
= (1, 2, 4)
Therefore, (1, 2, 4) can be expressed as a linear combination of its preceding vectors as
1 (1, 0, 0) + 2 (0, 1, 0) + 4 (0, 0, 1).
Therefor, S is linearly dependent.

Example 6: Show that the set {x2 + 1, 3x − 1, −4x + 1} is linearly independent in the vector
space of all polynomials over the field of real numbers.
Solution: Consider the identity c1 (x2+ 1) + c2 (3x - 1) + c3 (−4x + 1) = 0.
This gives c1x2 + (3c2 − 4c3) x + c1 − c2 + c3 = 0.
Such a polynomial can only be zero if each coefficient is zero.

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Thus c1 = 0, 3c2 − 4c3 = 0, c1 − c2 + c3 = 0.
This system of equations has the unique solution c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
The functions are linearly independent.
Example 7: Show that the set {x + 1, x − 1, −x + 5} is linearly dependent in the vector space
of all polynomials over the field of real numbers.
Solution: Consider the identity c1 (x + 1) + c2 (x − 1) + c3 (−x + 5) = 0.
Rewrite as (c1 + c2 − c3) x + (c1 − c2 + 5c3) = 0.
Each coefficient must be zero.
Thus, c1 + c2 − c3 = 0, c1 − c2 + 5c3 = 0.
This system has many solutions, c1 = −2k, c2 = 3k, c3 = k.
Thus, −2k (x + 1) + 3k (x - 1) + k (−x + 5) = O.
If k = l for example, −2 (x + 1) + 3 (x − 1) + 1 (−x + 5) = 0.
The functions are linearly dependent.
BASIS AND DIMENSION
Definition: Let V be a vector space and S = {v1, ..., vn} be a subset of V. Then a set S of vectors
is called a basis for a vector space V if
(i) the set S spans V and
(ii) S is linearly independent.
A vector space V is said to be finite dimensional if it has a finite basis. If there is no finite basis,
we call V an infinite dimensional vector space.
The dimension of a finite dimensional vector space V over a field F is the number of elements
in a basis of V and is denoted by dim (V).
If a vector space V has a basis consisting of n vectors, then the dimension of V is n.
i.e., dim (V) = n
For example,
Consider the set {(1, 2, 3), (−2, 4, 1)} of vectors in R3.
These vectors generate a subspace V of R3 consisting of all vectors of the form
v = c1(1, 2, 3) + c2(−2, 4, 1)
Thus, the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (−2, 4, 1) span this subspace.
Furthermore, since the second vector is not a scalar multiple of the first vector the vectors are
linearly independent.
Therefore {(1, 2, 3), (−2, 4, 1)} is a basis for V. Thus dim (V) = 2.

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Properties:
1. For n vector of n dimensional vector space V to be a basis, it is sufficient that they
span V or that they are linearly independent.
2. Let A be any m  n matrix which is equivalent to a row reduced echelon matrix E.
Then the non-zero rows of E form a basis of the subspace spanned by the rows of A.
Theorem: Let V be an n dimensional vector space and let S be a set with n vectors. Then the
following are equivalent.
1. S is a basis for V.
2. S is linearly independent.
3. S spans V.

Theorem: If S = {v1, v2, ... , vn} is a basis for a vector space V and T = {w1, w2, ... , wk} is a linearly
independent set of vectors in V, then k < n.

Remark: If S and T are both bases for V then k = n. This says that every basis has the same
number of vectors. Hence the dimension is will defined.

Note:
(i) Since the dimension of a vector space is the number of elements in a basis, the number
of non-zero rows in E is the dimension of the subspace spanned by the rows of A.
(ii) Since the rank of a matrix is the number of non-zero rows, the dimensional of the
subspace spanned by the rows of A is equal to the rank of A.
(iii) To find the basis and the dimension of a subspace spanned the vectors, reduce the matrix
whose rows are the given vectors to echelon form.
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Determine whether the set of vectors {(1, 2, 3), (-2, 1, 3), (3, 1, 0)} is a basis for R3
or not.
Solution: The dimension of R3 is three. Thus, a basis for R3 consists of three vectors. We have
the correct number of vectors for a basis. Normally we would have to show that this set is
linearly independent and that it spans R3, property tells us that we need to check only one of
these two conditions. Let us check for linear independence (this is the easier of the two
conditions to check).
1 2 3
Consider the determinant |−2 1 3| = 1(0 − 3) − 2(0 − 9) + 3(−2 − 3) = 0
3 1 0

Page 27 of 31
Therefore, the vectors are linearly dependent.
Therefore, It is not a basis of R3.
Example 2: Prove that the set {(1, 3, −1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is a basis for R3.
Solution:
1 3 −1
Consider the determinant |2 1 0 | = 1(1 − 0) − 3(2 − 0) − 1(4 − 4) = −5 ≠ 0
4 2 1
Thus, the vectors are linearly independent.
The set {(l, 3, -1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is therefore a basis for R3.
Example 3: Find a basis for the subspace V of R4 spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 3, 4),
(−1, −1, −4, −2), (3, 4, 11, 8).
Solution: We construct a matrix A having these vectors as row vectors.
1 2 3 4
𝐴 = [−1 −1 −4 −2]
3 4 11 8
Determine the reduced echelon form of A. We get
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
[−1 −1 −4 −2] ≈ [0 1 −1 2 ] ≈ [0 1 −1 2]
3 4 11 8 0 −2 2 −4 0 0 0 0
The nonzero vectors of this reduced echelon form, namely (1, 2, 3, 4) and (0, 1, −1, 2),
are a basis for the subspace V. The dimension of this subspace is two.
Example 4. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(1, −2, 3),
(1, −3, 4), (−1, 1, −2)} in the vector space V3(R).
Solution: Let S = {(1, −2, 3), (1, −3, 4), (−1, 1, −2)} be the given set in the vector space V3(R).

Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

1 −2 3
Consider, | 1 −3 4 | = 1(6 − 4) + 2(−2 + 4) + 3(1 − 3) = 0
−1 1 −2

Given set S is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

1 −2 3 1 −2 3 1 −2 3
Consider, [ 1 −3 4 ] ≈ [0 −1 1] ≈ [0 −1 1]
−1 1 −2 0 −1 1 0 0 0

The final matrix has two non-zero rows.

Page 28 of 31
Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, −2, 3), (0, -1, 1)} and the dimension of subspace S’ is 2

i.e., dim (S’) = 2.

Example 5. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(1, 0, −1),
(1, , 1), (0, −3, 2)} in the vector space V3(R).
Solution: Let S = {(1, 0, −1), (1, , 1), (0, −3, 2)} be the given set in the vector space V3(R).
Dim[V3(R)] = 3.
1 0 −1
Consider, |1 2 1 | = 1(4 + 3) − 1(−3 − 0) = 10 ≠ 0
0 −3 2
Given set is linearly independent.
Therefore, S is a basis of V3(R) and dim(S) = 3.
Example 6. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(2, 4, 2),
(1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} in the vector space V3(R).
Solution: Let S = {(2, 4, 2), (1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} be the given set in the vector space

V3(R). Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

Any subset of V3(R) containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

2 4 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
Consider, [ 1 −1 0 ]≈[ 1 −1 0 ]≈[ 0 −3 −1 ]≈[ 0 −3 −1]
1 2 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 1 0 3 1 0 3 1 0 0 0

The final matrix has two non-zero rows.

Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, 2, 1), (0, −3, −1)} and the dimension of subspace S’ is 2

i.e., dim (S’) = 2.

Example 7. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(2, -3, 1),
(3, 0, 1), (0, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1)} in the vector space V3(R).
Solution: Let S = {(2, -3, 1), (3, 0, 1), (0, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1)} be the given set in the vector space

V3(R). Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

Any subset of V3(R) containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

Page 29 of 31
To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

2 −3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Consider, [ 3 0 1 ] ≈ [3 0 1] ≈ [ 0 −3 −2 ] ≈ [ 0 −3 −2 ]
0 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 0 −7
1 1 1 2 −3 1 0 −5 −1 0 0 7

1 1 1
≈ [ 0 −3 −2 ]
0 0 −7
0 0 0

The final matrix has three non-zero rows.

Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, 1, 1), (0, −3, −2), (0, 0, −7)} and the dimension of subspace S’

is 3. i.e., dim (S’) = 3.

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Example 8. Show that the set S = {[ ],[ ],[ ],[ ]} form a basis of the vector
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

space of the vector space M2(R) of 2  2 matrices and find its dimension.

𝑎 𝑏
Solution: Let [ ] ∈ M2(R)
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Let [ ] = 𝑎[ ]+𝑏 [ ]+𝑐 [ ]+𝑑 [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Therefore, S spans M2(R) and 𝑐1 [ ] + 𝑐2 [ ] + 𝑐3 [ ] + 𝑐4 [ ]=[ ]
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
𝑐1 𝑐2 0 0
implies [𝑐 𝑐 ] = [ ]
3 4 0 0
 c1 = 0, c2= 0, c3 = 0, c4 = 0
Given set is linearly independent.
Therefore, S is a basis of M2(R) and dim(S) = 4.

Example 9. Let V = P3 (polynomials of degree 3) and let S = {1, t, t2, t3}. Show that S is a
basis for V.

Solution: We must show both linear independence and span.

Linear Independence:

Let c1(1) + c2(t) + c3(t2) + c4(t3) = 0

Then since a polynomial is zero if and only if its coefficients are all zero, we have

c1 = c2 = c3 = c4 = 0

Page 30 of 31
Hence S is a linearly independent set of vectors in V.

Span

A general vector in P3 is given by

a + bt + ct2 + dt3

We need to find constants c1, c2, c3, c4 such that

c1(1) + c2(t) + c3(t2) + c4(t3) = a + bt + ct2 + dt3

We just let

c1 = a, c2 = b, c3 = c, c4 = d

Hence S spans V.

We can conclude that S is a basis for V.

In general the basis {1, t, t2, ... , tn} is called the standard basis for Pn.

Page 31 of 31
 Module-3
Vector Space and Linear Transformations (8 hours)
Importance of Vector Space and Linear Transformations in the field of
Computer Science & Engineering.
Vector spaces: Definition and examples, subspace, linear span, linearly
independent and dependent sets, Basis and dimension. Problems.
Linear transformations: Definition and examples, Algebra of
transformations, Matrix of a linear transformation. Change of coordinates,
Rank and nullity of a linear operator, rank-nullity theorem. Inner product
spaces and orthogonality. Problems.
Self-study: Angles and Projections. Rotation, Reflection, Contraction and
Expansion.
Applications: Image processing, AI & ML, Graphs and networks, Computer
graphics.
(RBT Levels: L1, L2 and L3)
Reference Books
1. David C Lay: “Linear Algebra and its Applications”, Pearson Publishers, 4th
Ed., 2018.
2. Gareth Williams: “Linear Algebra with applications”, Jones Bartlett
Publishers Inc., 6th Ed., 2017.
3. Gilbert Strang: “Linear Algebra and its Applications”, Cengage Publications,
4th Ed., 2022.

Page 1 of 30
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Definition: Let V and W be two vector spaces. A function T: V → W is called a linear

transformation if T satisfies the following two linearity conditions:
For any x, y ∈ V and c ∈ R, we have
1. T (x + y) = T(x) + T(y)
2. T (cx) = cT(x)

Standard Basis
A standard basis, also called a natural basis, is a special orthonormal vector basis in which
each basis vector has a single nonzero entry with value 1.

Page 2 of 30
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Prove that the transformation T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (2x, x + y) is
linear.
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be elements of R2 and let c be a scalar.
Then,
T (x + y) = T ((x1, y1) + (x2, y2))
= T (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) by vector addition
= (2x1 + 2x2, x1 + x2 + y1 + y2) by definition of T
= (2x1, x1 + y1) + (2x2, x2 + y2) by vector addition
= T (x1, y1) + T (x2, y2) by definition of T
= T (x) + T (y)
Thus, T preserves vector addition.
We now show that T preserves scalar multiplication.
T (cx) = T (c (x1, y1))
= T (cx1, cy1) by scalar multiplication of a vector
= (2cx1, cx1+ cy1) by definition of T
= c (2x1, x1 + y1) by scalar multiplication of a vector
= c T (x1, y1) by definition of T
= c T (x)
Thus, T preserves scalar multiplication.
Therefore, T is linear.
Example 2: Prove that the transformation T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (3x, x + y) is linear.
Find the images of the vectors (1, 3) and (− 1, 2) under this transformation.
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and c an arbitrary scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1+ y2)
= (3(x1 + x2 ), x1 +x2 + y1 + y2)
= (3x1, x1 + y1) + (3x2, x2 + y2)
= T(x) + T(y)
Thus, T preserves vector addition.
We now show that T preserves scalar multiplication.
T (c x) = T (cx1, cy1)
= (3cx1, cx1 + cy1)
= c (3x1, x1 + y1)
= c T(x)
Page 3 of 30
Therefore, T is linear.
By definition of T, we have
T (1, 3) = (3.1, 1 + 3) = (3, 4),
T (−1, 2) = (3. (−1), −1 + 2) = (−3, 1).

Example 3: Verify the transformation T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (3x + 2y, 3x – 4y) is

linear or not.
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be elements of R2 and let c be a scalar.
Then,
T (x + y) = T ((x1, y1) + (x2, y2))
= T (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) by vector addition
= (3x1 + 3x2 + 2y1 + 2y2, 3x1 + 3x2 − 4y1 − 4y2)) by definition of T
= (3x1 + 2y1, 3x1 − 4y1) + (3x2 + 2y2, 3x2 − 4y2)) by vector addition
= T (x1, y1) + T (x2, y2) by definition of T
= T (x) + T (y)
Thus, T preserves vector addition.
We now show that T preserves scalar multiplication.
T (cx) = T (c (x1, y1))
= T (cx1, cy1) by scalar multiplication of a vector
= (3cx1+2cy1, 3cx1 − 4cy1) by definition of T
= c (3x1+2y1, 3x1 − 4y1) by scalar multiplication of a vector
= c T (x1, y1) by definition of T
= c T (x)
Thus, T preserves scalar multiplication.
Therefore, T is linear.

Example 4: Prove that T (x, y) = (x + 2y, 3y, x − y) defines a linear transformation by

T: R2 → R3. Find the images of (0, 4) and (1, 1).
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and c an arbitrary scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1+ y2)
= (x1 +x2 +2y1+2y2, 3y1+3y2, x1+x2 −y1 − y2)
= (x1+ 2y1 , 3y1, x1 – y1) + (x2+ 2y2 , 3y2, x2 − y2)
= T(x) + T(y)
To prove that scalar multiplication is preserved under T,
Page 4 of 30
 T(cx) = T (cx1, cy1)
= T (cx1 + 2cy1, 3cy1, cx1 – cy1)
= c (x1 + 2y1, 3y1, x1 – y1)
= c T(x)
Therefore, T is linear.
By definition of T, we have
T (0, 4) = (0+2⋅4, 3⋅4, 0 − 4) = (8, 12, −4)
T (1, 1) = (1+2⋅1, 3⋅1, 1 −1) = (3, 3, 0).

Example 5: Verify whether the transformation T: R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x + y,

y – z, 2y + 4z) is linear or not .
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1, z1) and y = (x2, y2, z2) be arbitrary vectors in R3 and c be a scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1+ y2, z1 + z2)
= (2x1 + 2x2 + y1 + y2, y1 + y2 − z1 − z2, 2y1+2y2 + 4z1 + 4z2)
= (2x1 + y1 , y1 − z1, 2y1 + 4z1) + (2x2 +y2, y2 − z2, 2y2 + 4z2)
= T(x) + T(y)
To prove that scalar multiplication is preserved under T,
T(cx) = T (cx1, cy1, cz1)
= (2cx1 +cy1, cy1 – cz1, 2cy1+4z1)
= c (2x1 +y1, y1 – z1, 2y1+4z1)
= c T(x)
Therefore, T is linear.
By definition of T, we have
T (0, 4) = (0+2⋅4, 3⋅4, 0 − 4) = (8, 12, −4),
T (1, 1) = (1+2⋅1, 3⋅1, 1 −1) = (3, 3, 0).

Example 6: Verify whether the transformation T: R1 → R3 defined by T (x) = (x, 2x2, x3) is
linear or not.
Solution: Let x = (x1) and y = (x2) be arbitrary vectors in R1 and c be a scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2)
= (x1 + x2 , 2(x1 + x2), (y1+y2 ))
T(x) + T(y) = (x1 , 2x1, y1) + (x2 , 2x2, y2)
= (x1 + x2 , 2x12 +2x2, y13+y2 )

Page 5 of 30
T (x + y)  T(x) + T(y)

Therefore, T is not linear.

Example 7: Prove that the transformations T: R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = x – 3 is not linear.
Justify your answer by counter example.
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) be arbitrary vector in R2 and c an arbitrary scalar.
Then
T (cx) = T (c (x1, y1))
= T ((cx1, cy1))
= cx1 − 3
c T(x) = c T ((x1, y1))
= c (x1 − 3)
= cx1 − 3c
T (cx)  c T (x)
Therefore, T is not linear.
For example, let x = (1, 0) and c = 2
T (cx) = T (2(1, 0)) = T ((2, 0)) = 2 − 3 = −1
And c T (x) = 2⋅T ((1,0)) = 2⋅ (1−3) = −4
T (cx)  c T (x)
Therefore, T is not linear.
Example 8: Prove that the transformations T: R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = y2 is not linear.
Justify your answer by counter example.
Solution: Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and c an arbitrary scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)
= (y1 + y2)2
And T(x) + T(y) = T ((x1, y1)) + T ((x2, y2))
= y1 2 + y22
T (x + y)  T(x) + T(y)

Therefore, T is not linear.

For example, let x = (0, 1) and y = (0, 2)

T (x + y) = T ((0, 1) +(0, 2)) = T ((0,3)) = 9

T(x) + T(y) = T ((0,1)) + T ((0,2)) = 1 + 4 = 5

Page 6 of 30
T (x + y)  T(x) + T(y)

Therefore, T is not linear.

Example 9: Let Pn be the vector space of real polynomial functions of degree  n. Show that
the transformation T: P2 → P1 defined by T (ax2 +bx+ c) = (a + b) x + c is linear.
Solution: Let  = ax2 + bx + c and  = px2 + qx + r be arbitrary elements of P2.
Then
T ( + ) = T ((ax2 + bx+ c) + (px2 + qx + r))
= T ((a + p) x2 + (b + q) x + (c + r))
= (a + p + b + q) x + (c + r) by definition of T
= (a + b) x + c + (p + q) x + r
= T (ax2 +bx+ c) + T (px2 + qx + r) by definition of T
= T () + T ()
Thus, T preserves addition.
We now show that T preserves scalar multiplication. Let k be a scalar.
T (k) = T (k (ax2 + bx+ c))
= T (kax2 + kbx + kc)
= (ka + kb) x + kc by definition of T
= k ((a + b) x + c)
= k T (ax2 +bx+ c) by definition of T
= k T ()
T preserves scalar multiplication.
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.
Example 10. Find a linear transformation T: V2(R) → V2(R) such that T(1, 2) = (3, 0) and
T(2, 1) = (1, 2).
Solution: Let us express (1, 2) and (2, 1) as linear combination of the standard basis vectors

e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1).

(1, 2) = 1(1, 0) + 2(0, 1) = 1e1 +2e2

(2, 1) = 2(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = 2e1 + 1e2

Therefore, T(e1 + 2e2) = T(1, 2) and T(2e1 + e2) = T(2, 1)

i.e., T(e1) + 2T(e2) = (3, 0) and 2T(e1) + T(e2) = (1, 2)

Solving these, we get

Page 7 of 30
 −1 4 5 −2
T(e1) = ( 3 , 3) and T(e2) = (3 , )
3

Now, T (x, y) = T [x (1, 0) + y (0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2)

−1 4 5 −2
= 𝑥 ( 3 , 3) + 𝑦 (3 , )
3

−𝑥 5𝑦 4𝑥 2𝑦
=(3 + , − )
3 3 3

−𝑥+5𝑦 4𝑥−2𝑦
=( , )
3 3

−𝑥+5𝑦 4𝑥−2𝑦
i.e., T (x, y) = ( , ) is the required liner transformation.
3 3

Example 11. Find a linear transformation T: V2(R) → V3(R) such that T(−1, 1) = (−1, 0, 2) and
T(2, 1) = (1, 2, 1).
Solution: Let us express (−1, 1) and (2, 1) as linear combination of the standard basis
vectors e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1).
(−1, 1) = −1(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = –e1 + e2

(2, 1) = 2(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = 2e1 + e2

Therefore, T(−e1 + e2) = T(−1, 1) and T(2e1 + e2) = T(2, 1)

i.e., −T(e1) + T(e2) = (−1, 0, 2) and 2T(e1) + T(e2) = (1, 2, 1)

Solving these, we get

2 2 −1 −1 2 5
T(e1) = (3 , 3 , ) and T(e2) = ( 3 , 3 , 3)
3

Now, T (x, y) = T [x (1, 0) + y (0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2)

2 2 −1 −1 2 5
= 𝑥 (3 , 3 , ) + 𝑦 ( 3 , 3 , 3)
3

2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥+2𝑦 −𝑥+5𝑦

=( , , )
3 3 3

2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥+2𝑦 −𝑥+5𝑦

i.e., T (x, y) = ( , , ) is the required liner transformation.
3 3 3

Page 8 of 30
Example 12. Find a linear transformation T: V3(R) → V2(R) such that T(1, 0, 0) = (−1, 0),
T(0, 1, 0) = (1, 1) and T(0, 0, 1) = (0, −1).
Solution: e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) and e3 = (0, 0, 1).

T(e1) = (−1, 0), T(e2) = (1, 1) and T(e3) = (0, −1)

Now, T (x, y, z) = T [x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2 + ze3)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2) + z T(e3)

= x (−1, 0) + y (1, 1) + z (0, −1)

= (−x + y, y – z)

i.e., T (x, y, z) = (y – x, y – z) is the required liner transformation.

Example 13. Find a linear transformation T: V3(R) → V3(R) such that T( 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1),
T(1, 2, 3) = (−1, −2, −3) and T(1, 1, 2) = (2, 2, 4).
Solution: Let us express ( 1, 1), (1, 2, 3) and (1, 1, 2) as linear combination of the standard

basis vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) and e3 = (0, 0, 1).

( 1, 1) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 1(0, 0, 1) = e1 + e2 + e3

(1, 2, 3) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 3(0, 0, 1) = e1 +2e2 + 3e3

(1, 1, 2) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 2(0, 0, 1) = e1 +e2 + 2e3

Therefore, T( 1, 1) = T(e1 + e2 + e3), T(1, 2, 3) = T(e1 +2e2 + 3e3) and

T(1, 1, 2) = T(e1 +e2 + 2e3)

i.e., T(e1) + T(e2) + T(e3) = (1, 1, 1), T(e1) + 2T(e2) + 3T(e3) = (−1, −2, −3) and

T(e1) + T(e2) + 2T(e3) = (2, 2, 4)

Solving these, we get

T(e1) = (4, 5, 8), T(e2) = (−4, −5, −10) and T(e3) = (1, 1, 3)

Now, T (x, y, z) = T [x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)]

= T (xe1+ye2+ze3)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2) + T(e3)

Page 9 of 30
 = x (4, 5, 8) + y (−4, −5, −10) + z (1, 1, 3)

= (4x – 4y + z, 5x – 5y + z, 8x – 10y + 3z)

i.e., T (x, y, z) = (4x – 4y + z, 5x – 5y + z, 8x – 10y + 3z) is the required liner transformation.

Matrix of a linear transformation

If T: U→ V is any linear transformation then there exists m × n matrix A with the
property that T (x⃗) = Ax⃗ for all x⃗ ∈ U.
The matrix of a linear transformation is a matrix for which T (x⃗) = Ax⃗ for a
vector x⃗ in the domain of T. This means that applying the transformation T to a vector is the
same as multiplying by this matrix.

Page 10 of 30
In order to find this matrix, we must first define a special set of vectors from the domain called
the standard basis.

Page 11 of 30
Examples

Example 1. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R3 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (x + y, y +z, z + x).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 1
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [0] = [0] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [1] = [1] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [0] = [0]
0 1 0 0 1 1

1 1 1
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [0 1 0].
1 0 1

Example 2. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (y – x , y – z).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 0 0
−1 1 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ 0] = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ 1] = [ ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [ 0] = [ ]
0 1 −1
0 0 1

−1 1 0
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
0 1 −1

Example 3. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R3 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (x – y + z, 2x – z, x + y – 2z).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 1 0 −1 0 1
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ 0] = [ 2 ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ 1] = [ 0 ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [ 0] = [ −1]
0 1 0 1 1 −2

1 −1 1
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [2 0 −1].
1 1 −2

Example 4. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (2x + 3y, y + 2z).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1
Page 12 of 30
 1 0 0
2 3 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ 0] = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ 1] = [ ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [ 0] = [ ]
0 1 2
0 0 1

2 3 0
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
0 1 2

Example 5. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R2 → R2 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (2x + y, x – 2y).
1 0
Solution: The standard basis for R2 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [ ] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [ ]
0 1

1 2 0 1
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ ] = [ ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T[ ] = [ ]
0 1 1 −2

2 1
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
1 −2

Example 6. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (x – y, 2z).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 0 0
1 −1 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [0] = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [1] = [ ] and T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [0] = [ ]
0 0 2
0 0 1

1 −1 0
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
0 0 2

Example 7. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 defined by

T(x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z) relative to bases
(i) Standard bases of R3, (ii) B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0)}.
1 1 1
Solution: (i) The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 0 0
1 1 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ 0] = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ 1] = [ ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [ 0] = [ ]
0 1 1
0 0 1

1 1 0
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
0 1 1

(ii) B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0)}

Page 13 of 30
 1 1 1
2 1 1
T [1] = [ ] , T [0] = [ ] and T [1] = [ ]
2 0 1
1 0 0

2 1 1
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
2 0 1

Example 8. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R2 → R3 defined by

T(x, y) = (x + y, y + z, z + x).
1 0
Solution: The standard basis for R2 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [ ] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [ ]
0 1

1 0 0
Let 𝑓1 = [0] , 𝑓2 = [1], 𝑓3 [0] be the standard basis for R3
0 0 1

1 1
1 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ ] = [ 0] = 1𝑓1 + 0𝑓2 + 1𝑓3 and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ ] = [ 1] = 1𝑓1 + 1𝑓2 + 1𝑓3
0 1
1 0

1 1
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [0 1].
1 0
Example 9. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R2 → R3 such that
T(−1, 1) = (−1, 0, 2) and T(2, 1) = (1, 2, 1).
1 0
Solution: The standard basis for R2 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [ ] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [ ]
0 1

−1 1 0 2 1 0
[ ] = −1 [ ] + 1 [ ] = −𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 and [ ] = 2 [ ] + 1 [ ] = 2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2
1 0 1 1 0 1

−1 2
T [ ] = T(−𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑒2 and T [ ] = T(2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑒2
1 1

−1 1
−T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 +T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = [ 0 ] and 2T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = [ 2]
2 1

Solving these, we get

2/3 −1/3
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = [ 2/3 ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = [ 2/3 ]
−1/3 5/3
2/3 −1/3
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ 2/3 2/3 ].
−1/3 5/3

Page 14 of 30
Example 10. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R2 → R2 such that
T(, 3) = (1, 0) and T(3, 2) = (1, −1).
1 0
Solution: The standard basis for R2 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [ ] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [ ]
0 1

2 1 0 3 1 0
[ ] = 2 [ ] + 3 [ ] = 2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 3𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗2 and [ ] = 3 [ ] + 2 [ ] = 3𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗2
3 0 1 2 0 1

2 3
T [ ] = T(2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 3𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 and T [ ] = T(3𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 2𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2
3 2

1 1
2T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + 3T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = [ ] and 3T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + 2T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 =[ ]
0 −1

Solving these, we get

1/3 1/5
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 =[ ] and T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 =[ ]
−3/5 2/5
1/3 1/5
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ ].
−3/5 2/5
Example 11. Find the matrix of the linear transformation T: R2 → R3 defined by
T(x, y) = (2y – x, y, 3y – 3x) relative to bases
B1 = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)} and B2 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, −1, 1), (0, 0, 1)}.
Solution: B1 = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)} and B2 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, −1, 1), (0, 0, 1)}

1 1 1 0 3 1 1 0
1 −1
T [ ] = [1] = 𝑎1 [1] + 𝑎2 [−1] + 𝑎3 [0] and T [ ] = [1] = 𝑏1 [1] + 𝑏2 [−1] + 𝑏3 [0]
1 1
0 1 1 1 6 1 1 1

This implies the following equations

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 = 0 and 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 = 3, 𝑏1 − 𝑏2 = 1, 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + 𝑏3 = 6

Solving these equations, we get

𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎2 = 0, 𝑎3 = −1 and 𝑏1 = 2, 𝑏2 = 1, 𝑏3 = 3

1 2
Therefore, the matrix of the linear transformation is 𝐴 = [ 0 1].
−1 3

−𝟏 𝟎
Example 12. Find the linear transformation for the matrix 𝑨 = [ 𝟐 𝟎] with respect to the
𝟏 𝟑
bases B1 = {(1, 0, 0), ( 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} and B2 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.

Page 15 of 30
 −1 0
Solution: The given matrix is 𝐴 = [ 2 0]
1 3
Define the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 by
1
1 0 −1
T [0] = −1 [ ] + 0 [ ] = [ ],
0 1 0
0
0
1 0 2
T [1] = 2 [ ] + 0 [ ] = [ ] and
0 1 0
0
0
1 0 1
T [0] = 1 [ ] + 3 [ ] = [ ]
0 1 3
1
𝑥
Let [𝑦] R3
𝑧
𝑥 1 0 0
Now, T [𝑦] = x T [0] + y T [1] + z T [0]
𝑧 0 0 1
−1 2 1
= x [ ] + y[ ]+ z [ ]
0 0 3
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧
= [ ]
3𝑧
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (−x + 2y + z, 3z).

Example 13. Find the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 corresponding to the matrix

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
[ ] with respect to the bases
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
B1 = {(1, 0, 0), ( 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} and B2 = {(2, 1), (3, 1}.
1 2 3
Solution: The matrix is 𝐴 = [ ]
−1 1 0
Define the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 by
1
2 3 −1
T [0] = 1 [ ] − 1 [ ] = [ ],
1 1 0
0
0
2 3 7
T [1] = 2 [ ] + 1 [ ] = [ ] and
1 1 3
0
0
2 3 6
T [0] = 3 [ ] + 0 [ ] = [ ]
1 1 3
1
𝑥 1 0 0
Now, T [𝑦] = x T [0] + y T [1] + z T [0]
𝑧 0 0 1
= 𝑥 T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + 𝑦 T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 + 𝑧 T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3
Page 16 of 30
 −1 7 6
=x[ ] + y[ ]+ z [ ]
0 3 3
−𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 6𝑧
= [ ]
3𝑦 + 3𝑧
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (−x + 7y + 6z, 3y + 3z).
𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏
Example 14. Find the linear transformation for the matrix 𝑨 = [𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ] with respect to
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎
the bases B1 = B2 = {(1, 0, 0), ( 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
0 1 −1
Solution: The given matrix is 𝐴 = [1 0 0]
1 −1 0
Define the linear transformation T: R3 → R3 by
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
T(𝑒1 ) = T [0] = 0 [0] + 1 [1] − 1 [0] = [ 1 ] , T(𝑒2 ) = T [1] = 1 [0] + 0 [1] + 0 [0] = [0],
0 0 0 1 −1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
T(𝑒3 ) = T [0] = 1 [0] − 1 [1] + 0 [0] = [−1],
1 0 0 1 0
𝑥
Let [𝑦] R3
𝑧
𝑥
Now, T [𝑦] = T(x𝑒1 +y𝑒2 + z𝑒3 )
𝑧
= x T(𝑒1 ) + y T(𝑒2 )+ z T(𝑒3 )
0 1 1
= x [ 1 ] + y [0] + z [−1]
−1 0 0
𝑦+𝑧
= [𝑥 − 𝑧 ]
−𝑥
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (y + z, x – z, −x).
𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏
Example 15. Find the linear transformation for the matrix 𝑨 = [𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 ] with respect to
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎
the bases B1 = B2 = {(0, 1, −1), (− 1, 0), (−1, −1, 0)}.
0 1 −1
Solution: The given matrix is 𝐴 = [1 0 0]
1 −1 0
Define the linear transformation T: R3 → R3 by
0 0 −1 −1 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0
T [ 1 ] = 0 [ 1 ] + 1 [ 1 ] − 1 [−1] = [2] , T [ 1 ] = 1 [ 1 ] + 0 [ 1 ] + 0 [−1] = [ 1 ],
−1 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −1
Page 17 of 30
 −1 0 −1 −1 1
T [−1] = 1 [ 1 ] − 1 [ 1 ] + 0 [−1] = [ 0 ],
0 −1 0 0 −1
0
Now, [ 1 ] = 0𝑒1 − 1𝑒2 − 1𝑒3
−1
0
 T [ 1 ] = 0 T(𝑒1 ) − 1 T(𝑒2 ) − 1 T(𝑒3 )
−1
0
 T(𝑒2 ) − T(𝑒3 ) = [2] ------(1)
0
−1
[ 1 ] = −1𝑒1 + 1𝑒2 + 0𝑒3
0
−1
 T[ 1 ] = −1T(𝑒1 ) + 1T(𝑒2 ) + 0T(𝑒3 )
0
0
 −T(𝑒1 ) + T(𝑒2 ) = [ 1 ] ------(2)
−1
−1
[−1] = −1𝑒1 − 1𝑒2 + 0𝑒3
0
−1
 T[−1] = −1T(𝑒1 ) − 1T(𝑒2 ) + 0T(𝑒3 )
0
1
 −T(𝑒1 ) − T(𝑒2 ) = [ 0 ] ------(3)
−1
Solving equations (1), (2) and (3), we get
−1/2 −1/2 −1/2
T(𝑒1 ) = [−1/2] , T(𝑒2 ) = [ 1/2 ] and T(𝑒3 ) = [−3/2]
1 0 0
𝑥
Let [𝑦] R3
𝑧
𝑥
Now, T [𝑦] = T(x𝑒1 +y𝑒2 + z𝑒3 )
𝑧
= x T(𝑒1 ) + y T(𝑒2 )+ z T(𝑒3 )
−1/2 −1/2 −1/2
= x [−1/2] + y [ 1/2 ] + z [−3/2]
1 0 0

Page 18 of 30
 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
−2 − 2 −2
= [− 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧]
2 2 2
𝑥
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 3𝑧
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (− 2 − 2 − 2, − 2 + 2 − , x).
2
−𝟏 𝟎
Example 16. Find the linear transformation for the matrix 𝑨 = [ 𝟐 𝟎] with respect to the
𝟏 𝟑
bases B1 = {(1, 2, 0), ( −1, 0), (1, −1, 1)} and B2 = {(1, 0), (2, −1)}.
−1 0
Solution: The matrix is 𝐴 = [ 2 0]
1 3
Define the linear transformation T: R3 → R2 by
1
1 2 −1
T [2] = −1 [ ] + 0 [ ] = [ ],
0 −1 0
0
0
1 2 2
T [−1] = 2 [ ] + 0 [ ] = [ ] and
0 −1 0
0
1
1 2 7
T [−1] = 1 [ ] + 3 [ ] = [ ]
0 1 −3
1
1 1 0 0
Now, [2] = 1 [0] + 2 [1] + 0 [0]
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
 T [2] = 1 T [0] + 2 T [1] + 0 T [0]
0 0 0 1
−1
 [ ] = T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + 2 T(𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 ------ (1)
0
0 1 0 0
[−1] = 0 [0] − 1 [1] + 0 [0]
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
 T [−1] = 0 T [0] − 1 T [1] + 0 T [0]
0 0 0 1
2
 [ ] = − T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 ------ (2)
0
1 1 0 0
And [−1] = 1 [0] − 1 [1] + 1 [0]
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
 T [−1] = 1 T [0] − 1 T [1] + 1 T [0]
1 0 0 1

Page 19 of 30
 7
 [ ] = T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 − T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 + T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 ------ (3)
−3
Solving (1), (2) and (3), we get
3 −2 2
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 =[ ] and T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 =[ ]
0 0 −3
𝑥 1 0 0
Now, T [𝑦] = x T [0] + y T [1] + z T [0]
𝑧 0 0 1
= 𝑥 T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 + 𝑦 T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 + 𝑧 T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3

3 −2 2
= x [ ] + y[ ]+ z [ ]
0 0 −3
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧
= [ ]
−3𝑧
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (x −2y + 2z, −3z).
Therefore, the linear transformation is T(x, y, z) = (−x + 2y + z, 3z).

Coordinate Vector
In a vector space, any vector can be written as a linear combination of a basis. The
coefficients of the linear combination are called the coordinates of the vector with respect to
the basis.
If B = {v1, v2, . . ., vn} is a basis for a vector space V, then any vector v ∈ V has a unique
representation v = x1v1 + x2v2 + ・ ・ ・ + xnvn, where xi ∈ R.
𝑥1
The column vector vB = [ ⋮ ] is called the co-ordinate vector of v relative to this basis.
𝑥𝑛
The scalars x1, x2, . . ., xn are called the coordinates of v with respect to the ordered basis
v1, v2, . . ., vn.
Example 1. Find the coordinates of the vector v = (7, 4) with respect to the vectors u1 = (2, 1)
and u2 = (3, 1) form a basis for R2.
Solution: In order to find the coordinate vector v relative to the basis S = {u1, u2}, we must
find scalars x1 and x2 such that x1u1 + x2 u2 = v.
2 3 7
 x1[ ] + x2 [ ] = [ ]
1 1 4
 2x1 + 3x2 =7 and x1 + x2 = 4
By solving we get, x1 = 5, x2 = − 1
5
The co-ordinate vector of v is vs = [ ].
−1

Page 20 of 30
Example 2. Find the coordinate vector w whose coordinates with respect to the basis
u1 = (1, −1) and u2 = (1, 1) are (0, 1).
Solution: In order to find the coordinate vector w relative to the basis S= {u1, u2}, we must
find scalars x1 and x2 such that x1u1 + x2 u2 = w.
1 1 0
 x1[ ] + x2 [ ] = [ ]
−1 1 1
 x1+ x2 = 0 and −x1 + x2 = 1
By solving we get, x1= − ½, x2 = ½
1
−
The co-ordinate vector of w is ws = [ 1 2].
2

Example 3. Find the co-ordinate vector of (10, 5, 0) relative to the vectors (1, −1 ,1), (0 ,1, 2)
and (3 ,0, −1).
Solution: Let v = (10, 5, 0) and u1 = (1, −1 ,1), u2 = (0 ,1, 2) and u3 = (3 ,0, −1).
In order to find the coordinate vector v relative to the basis S= {u1, u2, u3}, we must find
scalars x1, x2 and x3 such that x1u1 + x2 u2 + x3 u3 = v.
1 0 3 10
 x1[−1] + x2 [1] + x3 [ 0 ]= [ 5 ]
1 2 −1 0
 x1+ 3x3 = 10, −x1 + x2 = 5 and x1 +2x2 − x3 =0
By solving we get, x1= − 3, x2 = 2 and x3 = 1
−3
The co-ordinate vector of v is vs = [ 2 ].
1
Change-of-coordinates
A change-of-coordinates matrix is such a matrix that mathematically

represents the conversion of basis vectors from one coordinate system to

another. A change-of-coordinates matrix is also called a transition matrix.

To perform this conversion, we simply multiply the given basis

vectors one by one with the transition matrix, which gives us the basis vectors

of the new coordinate system.

If we are given a set of n basis vectors: {<v1>, <v2>, …, <vn>}

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Now if we have to convert them to a standard Rn coordinate, the change-of-coordinates
| | |
matrix is simply given by: [𝑣1 … 𝑣𝑛 ]
| | |

The standard change of coordinates matrix or the transition matrix M for the
following basis vectors:

𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
B = {[𝑏 ] , [ 𝑒 ] , [ℎ ]}
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
is given by M = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓]
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

Example: Find the transition matrix from the basis v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (1, 0, 1), v3 = (1, 2, 1)
to the basis u1 = (1, 1, 0), u2 = (0, 1, 1), u3 = (1, 1, 1).
Solution: It is convenient to make a two-step transition:
First from v1, v2, v3 to e1, e2, e3 and then from e1, e2, e3 to u1, u2, u3.
Let U1 be the transition matrix from v1, v2, v3 to e1, e2, e3 and U2 be the transition matrix from
u1, u2, u3 to e1, e2, e3:
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 1 1 1 1 0 1
U1 = (2 0 2) and U2 = (1 1 1)
3 1 1 0 1 1

Thus, the transition matrix from v1, v2, v3 to u1, u2, u3 is U2 −1 U1.

1 0 1 −1 1 1 1
U2 −1 U1 = (1 1 1) (2 0 2)
0 1 1 3 1 1

0 1 −1 1 1 1
= (−1 1 0 ) (2 0 2 )
1 −1 1 3 1 1

−1 −1 1
= ( 1 −1 1)
2 2 0

RANK AND NULLITY

Rank and Nullity are two essential concepts related to matrices in Linear Algebra. The
nullity of a matrix is determined by the difference between the order and rank of the matrix.
The rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent row or column vectors of a matrix.
If n is the order of the square matrix A, then the nullity of A is given by n – r.
Thus, the rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent or non-zero vectors
of a matrix, whereas nullity is the number of zero vectors of a matrix.

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The Fundamental Spaces of a Matrix
Suppose that A is a m  n matrix that maps vectors in Rn to vectors in Rm. The four
fundamental subspaces associated with A, two in Rn and two in Rm, are:
• row space of A, the set of all x for which Ax is nonzero,
• null space of A, the set of all x for which Ax = 0,
• column space of A, the set of all y for which ATy is nonzero.
• left null space of A, the set of all y for which ATy = 0.
The row space and the null space are orthogonal to each other and span all of Rn. The column
space and the left null space are also orthogonal to each other and span all of Rm.
ROW SPACE, COLUMN SPACE AND NULLSPACE
Let A be a m  n matrix, then
(i) the row space of A is the subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors of A
(ii) the column space of A is the subspace of Rm spanned by the column vectors of A.
(iii) The solution space of the homogeneous system of equations Ax = 0, which is a
subspace of Rn, is called the nullspace (or kernal) of A.
Dimension and rank.
The dimension of a subspace is the number of linearly independent vectors required
to span that space.
The Fundamental Theorem of Linear Algebra is
“The dimension of the row space is equal to the dimension of the column space”.
In other words, the number of linearly independent rows is equal to the number of linearly
independent columns. This may seem obvious, but it is actually a subtle fact that requires

This can be summarized in the following table:

Subspace Subspace Symbol Dimension Basis

of

column space Rm im(A) r = rank First r columns of U

nullspace Rn ker(A) n− r Last n−r columns of V

(kernel)

row space Rn im(AT) r First r columns of V

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 left nullspace ��Rm ker(��)ker(AT) �−�m−r Last �−�m−r columns
(kernel) of �U

Row Space and Null Space are orthogonal complements i.e. transpose of any vector in row
space multiplied with any vector in null space will give 0 as product.
Null space is a matrix, which on multiplication with A gives zero matrix as product.
Column space of any matrix is orthogonal to left null space of that matrix.

Example Find bases for the row space, the column space and the null space of the matrix
−𝟐 −𝟓 𝟖 𝟎 −𝟏𝟕
𝑨= [ 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟓 𝟏 𝟓 ]
𝟑 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟗 𝟕 𝟏
𝟏 𝟕 −𝟏𝟑 𝟓 −𝟑
Solution: To find bases for the row space and the column space, reduce the matrix to row
echelon form:

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 1 3 −5 1 5
𝐴 ~𝐵 = [0 1 −2 2 −7]
0 0 0 −4 20
0 0 0 0 0
The first 3 rows of B form a basis for the row space of A.
Thus, basis for row A = {(1, 3, -5, 1, 5), (0, 1, -2, 2, -7), (0, 0, 0, -4, 20)}.
For the column space, observe from B that the pivots are in column 1, 2 and 4. Hence columns 1,
2 and 4 of A (not B) form a basis of col A:
−2 −5 0
Basis for col A: {[ 1 ] , [ 3 ] , [1]}
3 11 7
1 7 5

NULLSPACE
The nullspace N(T) of a linear transformation T: U → V is
N(T) = {x ∈ U | T(x) = 0}.

NULLITY

The nullity of T is the dimension of N(T).

RANGE
The range R(T) of a linear transformation T: U → V is
R(T) = {y ∈ V ∣ y = T(x) for some x ∈ U}.
RANK
The rank of T is the dimension of R(T).

KERNAL AND RANGE

Let T: U → V be a linear transformation. The set of vectors in U that are mapped into the zero
vector of V is called the kernel of T. The kernel is denoted ker (T). The kernel is often called
the null space and denoted null (T). The set of vectors in V that are the images of vectors in U
is called the range of T. The range is denoted range (T).
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RANK-NULLITY THEOREM
Let T: U → V be a linear transformation and U be a finite dimensional vector space
then dim R(T) + dim N(T) = dim U
i.e., rank (T) + nullity (T) = dim domain(T)

Examples
Example 1: Find the kernel and range of the linear operator T (x, y, z) = (x, y, O)
Solution: Since the linear operator T maps R3 into R3 the kernel and range will both be
subspaces of R3.
Kernel: ker(T) is the subset that is mapped into (0, 0, 0).
We see that, T (x, y, z) = (x, y, O) = (0, 0, 0) if x = 0, y = 0
Thus ker (T) is the set of all vectors of the form (0, 0, z).
We express this ker(T) = {(0, 0, z)}
Geometrically, ker(T) is the set of all vectors that lie on the z-axis.
Range: The range of T is the set of all vectors of the form (x, y, 0).
Thus range(T) = {(x, y, O)}
range(T) is the set of all vectors that lie in the xy-plane.
Example 2: Find the kernel and range of the linear operator T (x, y, z) = (x + y, z) of R3 → R2
Solution: Since the linear operator T maps R3 into R2 the kernel is subspaces of R3 and range
will both be subspaces of R2.
Kernel: ker(T) is the subset that is mapped into (0, 0, 0).

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We see that, T (x, y, z) = (x + y, z) = (0, 0) if x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Thus ker (T) is the set of all vectors of the form (0, 0, 0).
We express this ker(T) = {(0, 0, 0)}
Range: The range of T is the set of all vectors of the form (x + y, z).
Thus range(T) = {(x, y, O)}
range(T) is the set of all vectors that lie in the xy-plane.
Example 3: Determine the kernel and the range of the transformation defined by the following
matrix.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑨 = [𝟎 −𝟏 𝟏]
𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
Solution: A is 3  3 matrix. Thus, A defines a linear operator T: R3 → R3, T (x) = Ax
The elements of R3 are written in column matrix form for the purpose of matrix multiplication.
For convenience, we express the elements of R3 in row form at all other times.
Kernel: The kernel will consist of all vectors x = (x1, x2, x3) in R3 such that T (x) = 0
Thus
1 2 3 𝑥1 0
[0 −1 1] [𝑥2 ] = [0]
1 1 4 𝑥3 0
This matrix equation corresponds to the following system of linear equations.
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0
−x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + 4x3 = 0
On solving this system, we get many solutions, x1 = −5k, x2 = k, x3 = k.
The kernel is thus the set of vectors of the form (−5k, k, k). i.e., Ker (T) = {(−5k, k, k)}
Ker (T) is a one-dimensional subspace of R3 with basis (−5, 1, 1)
Range: The range is spanned by the column vectors of A. Write these column vectors as
rows of a matrix and compute an echelon form of the matrix. The nonzero row vectors
will give a basis for the range. We get
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
[2 −1 1] ≈ [ 0 −1 −1 ] ≈ [0 1 1 ] ≈ [ 0 1 1]
3 1 4 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
The vectors (1, 0, 1) and (0, 1, 1) span the range of T.
An arbitrary vector in the range will be a linear combination of these vectors,
s (l, O, 1) + t (O, 1, 1)
Thus, the range of T is
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 Range (T) = {(s, t, s + t)}
The vectors (1, 0, 1) and (0, 1, 1) are also linearly independent.
Range (T) is a two-dimensional subspace of R3 with basis {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)}.
Example 4: Consider the following matrix A and the linear transformation T defined by A. Find
rank(A), dim domain(T), dim range(T), dim ker(T), and nullity(T).
𝟏 𝟎 𝟑
𝑨 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟓]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Hence verify Rank-nullity theorem.
Solution: Observe that the matrix A is in echelon form. The nonzero row vectors are linearly
independent. Thus, rank(A) = 2. Therefore, rank (T) = 2.
Since A is 3  3 matrix, T: R3 → R3. Thus, dim domain(T) = 3.
dim range(T) = rank(A) = 2.
dim ker(T) = dim domain(T) − dim range(T) = 3 − 2 = 1.
nullity(T) = dim kernel(T) = 1.

Therefore, Rank + nullity = 2 + 1 = dim domain(T)

Hence, the Rank-nullity theorem is verified.

Example 5: Verify Rank-nullity theorem for the linear transformation R: V3(R) → V2(R)
defined by T (x, y, z) = (y – x, y – z).
1 1 1
Solution: The standard basis for R3 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒1 = [0] , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒2 = [1] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒3 = [0]
0 0 1

1 0 0
−1 1 0
T(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1 = T [ 0] = [ ] , T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
2 = T [ 1] = [ ] and T(𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗)
3 = T [ 0] = [ ]
0 1 −1
0 0 1

−1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Consider, [ 1 1 ] ≈ [1 1] ≈ [0 1] ≈ [0 1]
0 −1 0 1 0 1 0 0
The final matrix is in echelon form. It has two non-zero rows.
Therefore, dim R(T) = 2.
R(T) = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}  V2(R) = Range space.
To find nullity: T (x, y, z) = (0, 0)
 (y – x, y – z) = (0, 0)
 y – x = 0 and y – z = 0
 x=y=z
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Therefore, the null space N(T) = {(x, x, x) | x  R}.
Thus, Nullity = N(T) = 1
Thus, Rank + Nullity = 2 + 1 = 3 = dim (V3(R))

Hence, rank-nullity theorem is verified.

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