Quantum entanglement is a non-classical phenomenon in quantum mechanics in which the
quantum states of two or more particles become correlated such that the state of one particle
cannot be described independently of the state of the others, even when the particles are
separated by large distances. Formally, an entangled system exists in a superposition of states
that cannot be factorized into the product of individual subsystems. For example, two spin-½
particles can be prepared in a maximally entangled Bell state, such as
∣Ψ−⟩=12(∣01⟩−∣10⟩)|\Psi^-\rangle = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|01\rangle - |10\rangle)∣Ψ−⟩=21(∣01⟩−∣10⟩),
which means that measuring the spin of one particle immediately determines the spin of the
other, regardless of spatial separation. This violates local realism as defined in classical physics
and was formally quantified in Bell’s theorem (1964), which demonstrates that no local hidden
variable theory can reproduce all the predictions of quantum mechanics. Subsequent
experimental violations of Bell inequalities—especially those closing the locality and detection
loopholes—strongly support the nonlocal nature of entanglement. The mathematical description
of entanglement is often handled using the density matrix formalism or Schmidt decomposition,
where the degree of entanglement can be quantified using measures like entanglement entropy,
concurrence, or negativity. Entanglement is not merely a philosophical curiosity but a critical
resource in quantum information theory. It underpins protocols such as quantum teleportation,
where an unknown quantum state is transferred from one location to another via classical
communication and an entangled pair, and quantum key distribution (e.g., in the Ekert protocol),
which allows secure encryption based on the no-cloning theorem and measurement
correlations.
In the context of quantum computing, entanglement enables exponential state-space scaling
and is integral to the computational advantage of quantum algorithms like Shor’s or Grover’s.
Multi-partite entanglement, such as GHZ and W states, also plays a role in error correction
codes like the surface code, which maintain coherence in fault-tolerant quantum architectures.
Recent advances in experimental platforms—including superconducting qubits, trapped ions,
and photonic systems—have enabled scalable generation and manipulation of entangled states.
In condensed matter physics, entanglement is used to study phase transitions, particularly in
systems described by tensor networks such as matrix product states (MPS) or multi-scale
entanglement renormalization ansatz (MERA). From a relativistic standpoint, entanglement has
even been conjectured to be related to spacetime geometry, notably in the ER=EPR hypothesis
proposed by Maldacena and Susskind, which posits a duality between wormholes
(Einstein-Rosen bridges) and entangled pairs. Despite all this, practical challenges remain, such
as decoherence, entanglement distillation, and the difficulty of performing high-fidelity
measurements and gate operations under realistic noise models. Nevertheless, the study of
quantum entanglement continues to shape foundational questions in physics, redefine limits of
communication and computation, and inform the architecture of next-generation quantum
technologies.
