INTERNET OF THINGS (21CS735)

MODULE-1 EMERGENCE OF IOT

Definition: “The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal states or the
external environment.”
1.1 Introduction
 Miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability of technology
 Connected devices → Internet Traffic • Example : Smart Phone
 IoT is an anytime, anywhere and anything network of Internet -connected physical
devices or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed
environment intelligently

Characteristics
 Efficient, Scalable and associated Architectures.
 No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
 Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices and non-IP
devices.
 Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.
Application
Smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management,
smart roads, structural health, urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock
calculation, water leakages, radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access
control, snow level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid,
Tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field communications) payments, Intelligent
shopping applications, landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes,
supply chain control, smart product management and others.

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1.2 Evolution of IoT

The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy integration
to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using connected solutions
can be considered as the founding solutions for the development of IoT.

ATM
 ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which are linked
to a user’s bank account.

 ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account
through a specially coded card.
 The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even
when banks were closed beyond their regular work hours.
 The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.
WEB
 World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform. The
Web became operational for the first time in 1991.
 It has been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of
computing and communication.
Smart Meters
 The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000.
 These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power grid.
 They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of
billing and power allocation from grids

Digital Locks
 Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-
automation systems.
 Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new

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members in the access lists, can be easily performed and that too remotely using
smartphones.
Connected Healthcare
 Healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert them of
medical emergencies and take preventive measures.
 The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and
pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors in hospitals.
 The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical records and
test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well as hospital
authorities.
Connected Vehicles
 Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or even
with sensors and actuators contained within it.
 These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
Smart Cities
 This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation
systems.
 The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables unified
and synchronized operations and information dissemination.
Smart Dust
 These are microscopic computers.
 Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can be used in numerous beneficial ways,
where regular computers cannot operate.
 For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to
diagnose problems in the human body.
Smart Factories
 These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and
manage factory floors all on their own.

 The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is

drastically reduced.
UAVs
 UAVS or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public

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 Domain solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys,

surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.
 The various technological interdependencies of IOT with other domains and
networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IOE), the
Internet of people (IOP), and Industry 4.0

1.2.1 M2M
 The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system of connected
machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves without human intervention.
 The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status (stocks,
health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of
the systems and the environment, and others.

1.2.2 CPS
 The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control loop from
sensing, processing and finally to actuation using a feedback mechanism.
 CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback control
loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the system keeps on
actuating and sensing.
1.2.3 IOE

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 The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-
effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the environment.
 The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming,
sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems
and processes, and others.
1.2.4 Industry 4.0
 Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to
digitization in the manufacturing industry.
 The previous revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production,
and the industrial revolution, respectively.
 The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and
workforce management, optimization of production time and resources, and better
upkeep and lifetimes of industrial systems.
1.2.5 IOP
 IOP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize online
social interactions, payments, transactions and other tasks while maintaining
confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
 A famous site for IOP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited
the power of banks and governments, the acceptance of IOP will limit the power of
corporations, governments, and their spy agencies.
IoT versus M2M
 M2M refers to communications and interactions between machines and devices.
 These interactions occur in cloud computing infrastructure
 M2M collects data from machinery and sensors, also enabling device management and
device interaction. Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M
and technically emphasized on machine interactions via one or more communication networks
(e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks).
 M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as one of its sub-domains
 IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of interactions such as the
interactions between devices/things, things and people, things and applications and
people with applications.
 M2M enables the amalgamation of workflows comprising such interactions within IoT.
IoT versus CPS

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 Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation and feedback as
a package.
 A digital twin is attached to a CPS-based system.
 A digital twin is a virtual system model relation, in which the system signifies a physical
system or equipment or a piece of machinery, while the model represents the
mathematical model or representation of the physical system’s behavior or operation.
 A digital twin is used parallel to a physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for
the comparison of the physical system’s output, performance, and health.

 Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given
corrective directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.
 The IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback or a digital twin system.
 IoT is more focused on networking than controls.
 A sub-system in an IoT environment may include feedback and controls too
 CPS is also one of the sub-domains of IoT.
IOT versus WoT
 The Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access and control over IoT resources and
applications.
 These resources and applications are built using technologies such as HTML 5.0,
JavaScript, Ajax, PHP and others. REST (Representational State Transfer) is one of the
key enablers of WoT.
 The use of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs enables both developers and
deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance and maturity of existing web
technologies without redesign and redeploy solutions.
 Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability and security
challenges, when trying to build a globally uniform WoT.

 IOT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems and
applications, which do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of the
Internet, the need for WOT is to integrate the various areas of IoT into the existing Web.
 WoT can be thought of as an application layer-based hat added over the network layer.

1.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies.
IoT paradigm is divided into four planes

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1. Services
2. Local Connectivity
3. Global Connectivity
4. Processing

1. Services: The service plane is composed of two parts :

1) Things or Devices
2) Low -Power Connectivity
 Services are a combination of things and low power connectivity.
 IoT application requires the basic setup of Sensing , processing and a low -power, low
-range network, which is built upon the IEEE 802 .15 . 4 protocol
 The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart
glasses
Low power connectivity: WiFi , Ethernet or cellular are used for connecting the things in

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local implementation. Modern day technologies such has Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth are also
used.
2. Local connectivity
 The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple
local IoT deployments.
 Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep
scheduling, and others fall in this plane.
 For example, in smart home, the first floor and the ground floor have local IoT
implementations, which have various things connected to the network via low -
power, low -range connectivity technologies, the traffic from these two floors
merges into a single router or a gateway .
 The total traffic intended for the Internet from a smart home leaves this single
gateway or router, which is assigned a single global IP address to help the
conservation of limited global IP addresses .
 The local connectivity plane falls under IoT management as it directly deals with
strategies to use/reuse addresses based on things and applications.
 Edge Computing is deployed in conjunction with these first two planes : services
and local connectivity .
3. Global Connectivity
 The global connectivity plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense
by allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things,
users, controllers, and applications.
 This plane also falls under IoT management as it decides how and when to store
data, when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it .
 The Web, data -centres, remote servers, Cloud and others make up this plane .
 The paradigm of “fog computing” lies between the planes of local connectivity
and global connectivity.
 It serves to manage the load of global connectivity infrastructure by offloading
the computation nearer to the source of the data itself to reduce the traffic load
on the global Internet.
4. Processing
 The processing plane is at the top-up of the basic IoT networking framework .
 The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas

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such as industries, transportation, healthcare and others is the result of this plane.
 The members in this plane are termed as IoT tools, because they provide useful and
human -readable information from all the raw data received from IoT devices and
deployments.
 The various sub -domains of this plane include Conversion (data and format conversion
& cleaning), Learning (making sense of temporal &spatial data patterns), Cognition
(recognizing patterns & mapping to known patterns) Algorithms (various control and
monitoring algorithms), Visualization (form of collective trends, graphs, charts &
projections) Analysis (estimating the usefulness of the generated information, making
sense of the information with respect to the application and place of data generation &
estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of information obtained) .
 Various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine Learning”, and others, fall
within the scope of this domain.
1.4 IoT Networking Components
IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with their application
domains the broad components that come into play during the establishment of any IoT
network, into six types:
i. IoT node
ii. IoT router
iii. IoT LAN
iv. IoT WAN
v. IoT gateway
vi. IoT proxy
A typical IoT implementation from a networking perspective is shown in Figure. The
individual components are briefly described here:

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The components in the establishment of IoT network into 6 types:

1. IoT Node: Networking devices within an IoT LAN, made up of a sensor, a processor
and a radio, which communicates with the network infrastructure. The nodes may be
connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by a common gateway for that LAN,
Connections outside the LAN are through gateways and proxies.
2. IoT Router: An IoT router is a networking device, tasked with the routing of packets
between various entities in the IoT network, keeps the traffic flowing correctly within
the network.
3. IoT LAN: Enables local connectivity within the gateway, consist of short-range
connectivity technologies, may or may not be connected to the Internet, localized within
a building or an organization.
4. IoT WAN: Connects LANs, organizationally and geographically wide, with their
operational range between a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers, connect to the
Internet and enable Internet access to the LAN they are connecting.
5. IoT Gateway: A router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet, implement
several LANs and WANs, forward packets between LANs and WANs and the IP layer
using only layer.
6. IoT Proxy: Proxies lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions
between IoT nodes and other entities, providing security to the network entities, helps
to extend the addressing range of its network.

In the above figure the various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to one another as

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well as talk to the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it.
 The devices have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers.
 These identifiers are unique only within a LAN.
 There is a high chance that these identifiers may be repeated in a new LAN.
 Each IOT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IOT LAN-x in
Figure.
 A router acts as a connecting link between various LANS by forwarding messages from
the LANS to the IOT gateway or the IOT proxy.
 The proxy is an application layer device, it is additionally possible to include features
such as firewalls, packet filters, and other security measures besides the regular routing
operations. Various gateways connect to an IOT WAN, which links these devices to
the Internet.
 There may be cases where the gateway or the proxy may directly connect to the Internet.
 This network may be wired or wireless however, IOT deployments heavily rely on
wireless solutions. This is mainly attributed to the large number of devices that are
integrated into the network.
 Wireless technology is the only feasible and neat-enough solution to avoid the hassles
of laying wires and dealing with the restricted mobility rising out of wired connections.

1.5 ADDRESSING STRATEGIES IN IOT

The most interesting point to note is that as compared to IPv4, which relies more on reliable
delivery of packets between source and destination, an IPv6 packet is more address-oriented.
Due to the increasing rate of devices being connected to the Internet, the early developers of
IPv6 felt the need for accommodating addresses as more crucial than the need for reliable
transmission of packets (which was the main feature of IPv4-based routing of packets)

Table 2 lists the differences in features of IPv4 and IPv6.

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The first three blocks are designated as the global prefix, which is globally unique. The next
block is designated as the subnet prefix, which identifies the subnet of an interface/gateway
through which LANs may be connected to the Internet. Finally, the last four blocks (64bits) of
hexadecimal addresses are collectively known as the interface identifier (IID). IIDs may be
generated based on MAC (media access control) identifiers of devices / nodes or using pseudo-
random number generator algorithms

Figure: The IPv6 address format

The IPv6 addresses can be divided into seven separate address types, which is generally based on how
these addresses are used or where they are deployed.

(i) Global Unicast (GUA): These addresses are assigned to single IoT entities / interfaces; they
enable the entities to transmit traffic to and from the Internet. In regular IoT deployments,
these addresses are assigned to gateways, proxies, or WANs.
(ii) Multicast: These addresses enable transmission of messages from a single networked entity
to multiple destination entities simultaneously.
(iii) Link Local (LL): The operational domain of these addresses are valid only within a
network segment such as LAN. These addresses may be repeated in other network segments
/LANs, but are unique within that single network segment.
(iv) Unique Local (ULA): Similar to LL addresses, ULA cannot be routed over the Internet.
These addresses may be repeated in other network segments / LANs,but are unique within
that single network segment.
(v) Loopback: It is also known as the local host address. Typically, these addresses are used by
developers and network testers for diagnostics and system checks.
(vi) Unspecified: Here, all the bits in the IPv6 address are set to zero and the destination address
is not specified.
(vii) Solicited-node Multicast: It is a multicast address based on the IPv6 address of an IoT node
or entity.

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