ICT Applications
Computers in Medicine
Computers are used in many areas of medicine, such as:
» keeping patient records and pharmacy records
» use of 3D printers in many areas of surgery and customized medicines.
Patient and Pharmacy Records
Accurate records are essential for correct diagnosis and treatment.
Up-to-date medical history aids in the diagnosis process.
Databases allow data sharing between medical practitioners and pharmacies.
Helps prevent unsafe drug interactions.
Enables quick access to patient records, crucial in emergencies.
Medication can be prescribed electronically, avoiding paper prescriptions.
Required Data on a Patient Database:
Unique identification number
Name and address
Date of birth
Gender (male or female)
Medical history (recent medicine/treatment)
Blood group
Known allergies
Doctor
Current treatment
Current diagnosis
Important additional information (X-rays, CT scans, etc.)
Use of 3D Printers
3D printers are advancing quickly in many fields, especially medicine, with
numerous global innovations emerging.
Surgical and Diagnostic Aids
3D printers can create anatomical parts for diagnosis and surgery.
Scanning methods include:
CT (computed tomography) produces images in thin slices (less than 0.1 mm).
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio waves for
imaging.
3D printers create representations of organs, blood vessels, and tumors.
Doctors use these models to explain conditions and procedures to patients,
enhancing engagement.
Surgeons can plan operations more effectively by visualizing what is needed
in advance.
Some 3D printers create hard nylon objects for pre-surgical planning,
reducing errors in surgery.
Prosthetics
Note
3D printers are used to create prosthetic limbs.
Myoelectric prosthetics are very expensive, costing tens of thousands of
dollars.
3D-printed prosthetics can cost as little as $100.
Further research is needed in this area.
Current results are promising, helping more people afford replacements for
missing limbs.
Tissue Engineering
Recent advancements in 3D printing have enabled the creation of bio-compatible
materials and artificial cells within printed objects. This complex bio-printing
process involves collaboration among various experts and has successfully
produced multi-layered skin, bone tissue, and vascular grafts. Research
continues toward growing patient-specific replacement organs.
Artificial Blood Vessels
One particular type of tissue engineering is the 3D printing of artificial blood
vessels using human cells. These bio-printed tissues work in much the same way
as natural blood vessels. Biomimetic blood vessels can be fabricated using 3D
printing and bio-inks.
Customized Medicines
Note
Customized Medicines:
• 3D printing techniques allow for tailored medicines, termed patient-centric
medicine.
• 3D printed medicines are also known as printlets (printed tablets).
• New potent medicines require a review of manufacturing methods.
• 3D printing enables personalized medicine with controlled release into
patients.
• Multiple medicines can be combined in a single printlet for optimal release.
Vapour Printing Technique:
• Vapour printing uses 3D inkjet technology to layer multiple medicines.
• Involves evaporating powdered medicine and combining it with nitrogen gas.
• The gas is sprayed onto a cooled surface, crystallizing into a thin film.
• Thin films are built up to form tablets with controlled geometry.
• Traditional tablets are compressed and uniform in shape.
Advantages of 3D Printing Technology:
• Tailor-made medicines for individuals.
• Enhanced control over medicine release.
• Cost savings from expensive modern medicines.
• Improved targeting of the medicine for optimal effects.
• Reduced overdose risks and fewer harmful side effects, particularly in
chemotherapy.
Future Possibilities:
• Medicines could be sent to pharmacies as blueprints for customization.
• Local pharmacies could print customized medicines using the supplied
materials.
Expert Systems
Note
Expert Systems:
• Developed to mimic expert knowledge in various fields
• Examples include:
• Prospecting for oil and minerals
• Diagnostics (car engines, circuit boards)
• Medical diagnosis
• Strategy games (e.g., chess)
• Tax and financial planning
• Route scheduling for delivery
• Identification of plants, animals, and chemicals
Advantages of Expert System:
• High level of expertise
• High accuracy
• Consistent results
• Ability to store vast amounts of information
• Traceable logical solutions
• Multiple types of expertise possible
• Fast response time
• Unbiased reporting and analysis
• Probability indication of suggested solutions
Disadvantages of Expert Systems:
• Significant training required for users
• High setup and maintenance costs
• Cold responses in certain contexts
• Quality depends on input information
• Users may incorrectly assume infallibility
Typical Expert System:
User Interface
Method of interaction between the expert system and user
Interaction through dialogue boxes, command prompts, or other input
methods
Questions typically have yes/no answers based on previous responses
Explanation System
Informs user of reasoning behind expert system's conclusions and
recommended actions.
Provides explanations for symptoms like impaired vision, lack of
coordination, weak muscles, slurred speech, and patient's work history.
Provides conclusions and suggested actions, including percentage probability
of accuracy.
Allows user to probe deeper if necessary.
Inference Engine
Main processing element of the expert system.
Acts as a search engine examining knowledge base for matching queries.
Gathers user information through series of questions and responses.
Problem-solving part of the expert system using inference rules in the rules
base.
Uses user information to find matching objects in the knowledge base.
Knowledge base
The knowledge base is a repository of facts.
It stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a number
of expert resources.
It is basically a collection of objects and their attributes
Rules Base
The rules base is a set of inference rules.
Inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions (the
methods used closely follow human reasoning).
They follow logical thinking like the example above; usually involving a series
of ‘IF’ statements
Setting up an Expert System
Gathering information from human experts or written sources.
Creating a knowledge base to populate the gathered information.
Creating a rules base with inference rules for the inference engine.
Setting up the inference engine as the main processing element.
Developing a user interface for communication between the user and the
expert system.
Testing the system with known outcomes to compare results and make
necessary changes.
Note
Example 1, medical diagnosis:-
Input screen:
User sees an interactive screen first.
System asks questions about the patient’s illness.
User answers (multiple-choice or yes/no).
Further questions are based on earlier answers.
Expert system:
Inference engine compares entered symptoms with a knowledge base.
Rules base helps in matching symptoms to possible illnesses.
System gives a probability of the illness being correct.
Suggests possible solutions, remedies, or next steps.
Explanation system gives reasons for the diagnosis to help user understand and trust
it.
Output screen:
Diagnosis is shown as text or images (e.g., anatomy diagrams).
User can request more details to narrow down illness and treatment.
Example 2, oil prospecting:-
Interactive user screen with multiple-choice and yes/no questions
Questions focus on geological profiles
Operator inputs answers about geological profiles
Next questions depend on previous responses
Inference engine uses rules base to search knowledge base
System outputs probability of finding oil
Indicates probable depth of deposits as a % probability
Explanation system outlines the reasoning of conclusions
Makes predictions on geological deposits above soil
Produces contour maps of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.
Example 3, route scheduling for delivery vehicles:-
An expert system can find the best route for delivery vans. It determines the fastest and
cheapest paths and suggests the number of vehicles and drivers needed. The inputs
needed for the delivery system are:
The number of drop-off points and their location
The distance between the drop-off points
The type of vehicle used
Delivery times expected at each drop-off point
Layout of the road network
Computers in the retail industry
Point of sales (P0S) TERMINALS
Info
Barcodes and POS Terminals
Barcodes are found on most products.
They enable quick recognition of product details via barcode readers.
Supermarkets use POS terminals with barcode readers to scan items.
Scanning retrieves the price and updates the computer system.
Structure of Barcodes
Barcodes consist of dark and light lines of varying thickness.
A number beneath the barcode has four parts: country code,
manufacturer’s code, product code, check digit.
The check digit validates the barcode reading.
Automatic Stock Control with Barcodes
Barcodes are attached to all supermarket items.
Each barcode links to a stock file with price and stock levels.
Customers scan items at POS terminals; manual entry is required if
scanning fails.
The system searches for the barcode in the stock file.
Upon finding a match, it retrieves the price and description.
Stock levels are updated and reduced by one after purchase.
If stock is low, an automatic order to suppliers is placed using the barcode
link.
The item is flagged to prevent repeated orders until new stock arrives.
New goods update stock files and remove flags upon arrival.
Customer Checkout Process
The procedure is repeated for all items in the basket.
Customers receive an itemized bill with prices.
Daily takings files are updated.
Loyalty card points are updated if applicable.
Self-checkout stations allow customers to scan their own items.
Electronic funds transfer at point-of-sales
(eftpos)
When payment is made by card or electronic device at the POS terminal, it is
called electronic funds transfer at the point-of-sale (EFTPOS). The checkout
process is similar to paying at a restaurant. Payment methods include chip and
PIN, contactless cards, and NFC devices.
1. Chip and Pin:-
Payment process involves inserting card into a reader
Reader connects with chip in the card
Customer enters PIN for a security check
PIN and encrypted data sent to the bank
Security checks include card theft and expiry date
Authorization code sent back if checks are OK
Funds transferred to supermarket’s bank
Advantages of chip and PIN cards
More secure than magnetic stripe cards
Quicker transaction process
Allows contactless payments without internet/phone line connection
Disadvantages of chip and PIN cards
Risk of fraud when entering PIN
Not accepted in some countries
2. Near Field Communications:-
NFC Payment at POS Terminal:
Electronic device (mobile phone) is held near NFC reader (terminal)
Works at a distance of up to 5 cm
Encrypted data is exchanged for payment
Security of NFC Payments:
NFC communications are encrypted
Data shared changes with each transaction
Tokenization with Mobile Phones:
Used during mobile wallet setup
User photographs credit card details
Details sent to bank securely
Bank replaces card details with tokens
Tokens programmed into the smartphone for transactions
Protection Measures:
Retailers do not access real credit card details
Theft prevention with touch ID or face ID technology
Stolen smartphones are safe from unauthorized payments
3. Contactless Card
Definition
Allow payments without entering a PIN for items up to a certain amount.
Feature a chip that emits radio waves.
Transaction Steps
1. Customers look for the contactless symbol on the terminal.
2. Shop assistant enters the payment amount.
3. Card reader prompts customer to present their contactless card.
4. Customer holds card near the card reader.
5. Terminal confirms successful reading of the card.
Advantages
Faster transactions (10 seconds vs. 30 seconds).
Uses 128-bit encryption for data protection.
Eliminates typing errors (no PIN entry required).
Retailers do not access card information.
Unique transaction number generated for each use, protected by encryption.
Disadvantages
More expensive than standard cards.
Risk of monitoring by thieves with suitable readers.
Possible double charges if used as chip and PIN.
Limited maximum transaction value (e.g., $50).
Rare unauthorized transactions without cardholder's awareness.
Internet Banking and Internet Shopping
Using internet banking requires good online security and allows users to manage
their bank accounts online. This includes transferring money, paying bills, and
ordering statements, which is helpful for those who cannot visit banks easily.
While there are many benefits to internet banking, there are also disadvantages.
As more people shop and bank online, it impacts society both positively and
negatively. The text provides a list of advantages and disadvantages of internet
banking.
Advantages of Online Shopping and Banking:
No need to travel, saving costs on fuel and fares
Reduces town centre congestion and pollution
Access to a worldwide market for cheaper products
Wider choice of goods available
Beneficial for those with disabilities and the elderly
Accessible 24/7, accommodating various work schedules
Saves time on shopping and paying bills
More leisure time for other activities
Less embarrassing to ask for loans online
Saves time by avoiding bank queues
Shops and banks reduce costs, potentially lowering prices for customers
Disadvantages of Online Shopping and Banking:
Risk of isolation and lack of social interaction
Less physical exercise compared to in-person shopping
Security issues, including hacking and credit card theft
Risk of accidental use of fraudulent websites
Requires a computer and internet access
Goods can only be seen as pictures, risking poor representation
Waiting for delivery and potential high return costs
Increased delivery traffic contributes to pollution
High-street closures lead to deserted areas
Local retailers may struggle against large companies
Higher likelihood of making errors in online banking transactions
Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking:
Companies can save costs by reducing staffing and reducing the need for
physical stores.
The global reach of the internet increases the potential customer base.
Increased costs may arise due to staff retraining and dispatch department
hiring.
Setup and maintenance of websites for online shopping and banking can be
costly.
Low customer-employee interaction may lead to customer loyalty loss.
Robberies are less likely due to fewer high-street banks.
Banks need fewer security staff, a cost-benefit.
Recognition System
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
OMR in School Registers:
OMR scans paper-based registers into computer.
Attendance records stored on central database.
Other digital methods include magnetic stripe cards and biometrics.
OMR for Multiple-Choice Question (MCQ) Papers:
OMR software scans completed MCQ forms, indicating the position of each
question on the paper.
A template is created to map out the X-Y coordinates of each lozenge,
assigning a value to each.
A light passes through the scanner, picking up the position of any filled
lozenge.
The scanned results are compared to the corresponding coordinates on the
'answer sheet template'.
If multiple lozenges are filled in, the OMR software discards that result.
Marking MCQ sheets using OMR is quicker and more accurate than manual
marking.
Results are automatically exported to a database or spreadsheet, making
analysis easier.
Advantages of OMR Devices:
Fast and user-free inputting of survey results.
More accurate than keying in data due to no typing.
More accurate than OCR methods.
Disadvantages of OMR Devices:
Requires careful design for accurate markings/shading.
Potential for errors and manual checks, which can be time-consuming and
costly.
Often only compatible with black pen or pencil.
Limited to paper-based questions, not expanding to questionnaire answers.
Barcode Readers
Uses of Barcode Readers:
Used in supermarkets and shops for automatic stock control and itemized
billing.
Used in libraries for tracking books on loan.
Used in companies for regular checks on electrical equipment.
Advantages of Barcode Readers:
Faster data entry and fewer mistakes.
Improves safety by recording component safety testing.
Allows automatic stock control.
Trusted technology.
Disadvantages of Barcode Readers:
Relatively expensive system to administer.
Not fool-proof (barcodes can be swapped around on items).
Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic stripes.
QR Code
Uses:
Used in advertising to contain business, phone, email, and website addresses.
Provide links to apps for easy download.
Store Wi-Fi network authentication details, including passwords and
encryption type.
Deliver augmented reality experiences by helping AR systems determine
object positions.
Establish virtual online stores with product information and QR codes for
automatic delivery.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR)
Note
Used to read number plates on cars in various applications.
Example: ANPR controls entry and exit in a car park.
Step 1: Vehicle Detection
Sensor detects vehicle and signals camera to capture image.
Infrared camera often used for clear images, especially at night.
Step 2: Image Processing
Algorithm isolates number plate from captured image.
Adjust brightness and contrast for clear visibility.
Characters segmented for recognition.
OCR software recognizes characters and converts to editable text.
Text string stored in a database.
Step 3: Ticket Issuance
Car park barrier raised after processing.
Motorist receives ticket showing date and time of entry.
Step 4: Payment and Exit
Motorist inserts ticket into machine to calculate charges.
Payment recorded in the database.
At exit, ANPR reads number plate and checks database.
If recognized and payment made, exit barrier is raised.
Advantages of ANPR
Automatically monitors average speed of vehicles over road stretches
Reduces the need for car park security guards, saving money
Faster than checking tickets at exit; payment links to number plate
Controls entry and exit to car parks or private roads
Acts as a security system, preventing illegal parking and unauthorized
access
Analyzes driver behavior for transport planning
Used in congestion charging systems for automatic charges in zones.
Disadvantages of ANPR
Lack of manned security can lead to vandalism and other crimes
CCTV often only used after incidents, not for prevention
Privacy invasion risks from recording number plates
Damaged or dirty number plates may not be recognized
Number plate cloning can bypass car park security.
Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFID)
Advantages of RFID:
No line-of-sight contact needed; tags read from a distance
Robust and reliable technology
Tags are difficult to forge compared to barcodes
Reduces staff needed for tracking items, lowering costs
Fast read rate (typically < 100 milliseconds)
Allows bi-directional data transfer
Bulk detection capability for multiple tags at once
Disadvantages of RFID:
Tag collision interferes with signals from multiple tags.
RFID signals can be easily jammed or interrupted.
Data/signals transmitted by tags can be easily hacked.
RFID systems have higher initial costs than barcode systems.
Tracking of Stock
RFID tags consist of a microchip for information storage and processing and
an antenna for data transmission.
Passive tags use radio wave energy to relay information, while active tags use
a small battery for power.
Passive tags are smaller and cheaper, while active tags can be read from up to
50 meters away.
RFID tracking involves livestock tracking or goods in shops, supermarkets, or
distribution centers.
1. Livestock Training:
Uses active tags to track animal locations on farms.
Allows farmers to identify animal owners, especially in areas where animals
can stray.
Stores data about animals like medical history, birth date, and identification
number.
2. Retail RFID Tags:
Similar to barcodes, but can store more information.
Automatically reads price and description at checkout.
Speeds up the checkout process by allowing multiple tags to be read
simultaneously.
Used in distribution centers for easy item location.
Allows automatic tracking from warehouse to customer, providing real-time
information.
Passports
Passports now feature tiny RFID chips and antennas.
These passive tags broadcast stored information to a computer when
presented to an RFID scanner.
The chips can contain security data like photographs and fingerprints.
The data sent to the computer is encrypted, enhancing system security.
The RFID can be read from six meters, posing a security risk, but this is
mitigated by encryption.
Uses of RFID in Vehicles
Allows or denies access to secure, private car parks.
Used in lorries and delivery vans at weigh-stations to ensure vehicle weight.
Useful on toll roads for driver registration and windscreen attachment.
Transponder reads tag and checks stored reference number, allowing barrier
opening.
Tracks progress of car production line through assembly process.
Contactless Debit/Credit Cards
Uses passive RFID tag.
Chip emits low-powered radio wave upon contact with RFID reader.
Built-in antenna for connection with contactless reader.
RFID reader picks up chip signal, initiating payment process.
Near Field Communication (NFC)
Near Field Communication (NFC) is a technology that allows smartphones to
make payments securely. It is a type of RFID operating at a specific frequency,
which requires devices to be very close to each other. NFC devices can act as
either receivers or readers, distinguishing them from general RFID technology.
There are three main modes of NFC operation:
1. Peer-to-peer mode allows two NFC-enabled devices to exchange information
by tapping them together.
2. Read/write mode involves a passive device reading data from an active one,
often used for advertising.
3. Card emulation mode lets an NFC device act like a contactless card for
payments or access to services like public transport.
NFC has a range of up to 5 cm and a transmission speed of 420 kilobits per
second, offering quick connectivity without needing to pair devices.
Biometric Recognition System
It includes:
1. Iris recognition
2. Retina recognition
3. Face Recognition
4. Finger and thumb recognition
5. Hand recognition
6. Voice recognition
1. Iris Recognition:
The iris is the colored part of the eye around the pupil.
A digital camera uses visible and near infrared light to capture a sharp photo
of the iris.
The method identifies unique patterns by photographing:
• the center of the pupil
• the edge of the pupil
• the edge of the iris
• the eyelids and eyelashes.
The system operates with contact lenses, glasses, and for blind individuals.
It serves as a unique identification method, verified in less than 5 seconds.
Used in security systems for:
• immigration control (in some countries)
• some banks in certain branches.
Global Positioning System
GPS determines the exact location of various transport modes (airplanes,
cars, ships).
Cars refer to GPS as satellite navigation systems or 'satnav'.
How GPS Works?
Satellites transmit signals to the Earth's surface.
Computers in transport modes receive and interpret these signals.
Satellites send data indicating their position and time using atomic clocks.
Accurate timing is essential for determining position relative to the Earth.
The onboard computer calculates location using data from at least three
satellites.
Car Navigation:
Onboard satellite navigation systems have stored road maps.
They show the car’s exact location and provide verbal instructions, e.g., 'After
100 meters, take the next left turn onto the A1234'.
Screens display the car’s position in relation to the road network.
Advantages of GPS and satnav:
Driver does not need paper maps, enhancing safety
Reduces errors, warns about one-way streets and closures
Estimates time of arrival
Can program fastest routes and avoid certain areas
Provides useful information like petrol station locations
Disadvantages of GPS and Satnav:
Outdated maps can lead to incorrect instructions
Basic systems may struggle with road closures
Loss of satellite signals may cause issues
Incorrect start or end points result in wrong information
Geographic information systems (GIs)
Info
A computer system that maps, models, queries, and analyzes large
amounts of data based on location.
Enables interactive queries, map data editing, and spatial information
analysis.
Combines maps with computer graphics and databases.
Enables amalgamation of information into easily understood maps.
Performs complex analytical calculations and presents results in maps,
tables, or graphics.
Allows geographers, scientists, and engineers to view data in various ways
for pattern and relationship analysis.
Enables any map-based data to be a candidate for GIS.
Data is displayed in diagrams, maps, or tables, with detailed information
available by zooming into the map.
Examples:
Emergency services use GIS to send closest personnel to locations.
Biologists and environmentalists use GIS to protect animal life and plants
in vulnerable areas.
Teachers use GIS in geography, science, or engineering [Link]
mapping in regions or countries.
Route monitoring in conjunction with route scheduling software.
Management of agricultural crop data.
Addressing public health issues, as demonstrated during the Covid-19
pandemic.
Mapping wildfire risks, as used in Australia in 2019.
Advantages of GIS:
Allows the combination of geographical and thematic data.
Enables handling and exploration of large data amounts.
Allows integration from diverse sources.
Disadvantages of GIS:
Long learning curve on GIS software.
High cost of GIS software.
Increases error chances due to large data input.
Difficulty in creating fast, user-friendly GIS programs.
Requires complex command language interfaces.
Media Communication System
Communication media refers to the delivery and reception of
data/information via telecommunications.
Satellites are used for global communication, containing antennas,
transponders, solar panels, and propulsion.
Signals are converted to analogue and beamed to the satellite from a satellite
dish on Earth.
Each signal has its own frequency and bandwidth, with larger bandwidths
allowing more data transmission.
Once data reaches the satellite, it is re-sent to Earth, with the satellite
boosting the signal before sending it back.
Satellite systems are used to transmit television, telephone, and internet data
worldwide due to the high cost and potential signal deterioration issues over
long distances.
Advantages of Media Communication System:
Cheap, faster, and safer than cables in difficult terrain.
High bandwidth.
Easy network expansion.
High security due to coded data.
Easy relocation of stations during emergencies.
Ideal for broadcasting.
Portable ground-based receivers for mobile communication.
Disadvantages of Media Communication System:
Time delay in signal receipt.
Signals can be affected by weather, obstructions, and satellite dish
orientation.
Sunspot activity can affect satellite performance.
Regular monitoring and control required for satellites not in a fixed position
relative to Earth.
