Solar Measuring Instruments

Pyranometer
The sun generates radiation over the range of wavelengths from 0.15 to 4.0 µm which is known
as the solar spectrum. The amount of this radiation is called as global solar radiation or
sometimes known as short-wave radiation. The global solar radiation can occur when both the
solar radiations like direct & diffuse receives from the hemisphere on the plane of the
pyranometer. It is hard to find out an environmental development on the earth which is driven
directly otherwise indirectly through the energy of the sun. The measurements of global solar
radiation are used in various applications for various purposes. Solar energy determines the
efficiency of the panel because these panels will change the energy from the sun’s energy to
electrical. The amount of electromagnetic radiation on a solar panel can be measured to know
how much power a solar panel can use from the sun. To overcome this, a pyranometer is used to
measure solar radiation from all directions.

What is Pyranometer?

Definition: A type of actinometer used to measure irradiance of solar energy within the preferred
location as well as flux density of solar radiation. The range of solar radiation extends between
300 & 2800 nm.

The SI units of irradiance are W/m² (watts /square meter). Usually, these are used in the fields of
researches like climatological & weather monitoring, but current attention is showing interest in
pyranometers for solar energy worldwide.

The WMO (World Meteorological Organization) was adopted this device which is changed with
respect to the standards of ISO 9060. These devices are standardized depending on the WRR
(World Radiometric Reference) and it is continued through WRC (World Radiation Center),
Davon in Switzerland.

Pyranometer Design/Construction

The pyrometer design or construction can be done using the following three components.
Thermopile

As the name implies, it uses a thermocouple used to notice dissimilarity in temperature between
two surfaces. These are hot (labeled active) and cold (reference) accordingly. The labeled active
surface is a black surface in flat shape and it is exposed to the atmosphere. The reference surface
depends on the difficulty of the pyranometer because it changes from a second control
thermopile to the covering of the pyranometer itself.

Glass Dome

Glass dome in the pyrometer limits the response of spectral from 300 nm to 2800 nm from 180
degrees of view. It also protects the thermopile sensor from rain, wind, etc. This construction of
the second dome gives extra radiation protection among the inner dome & sensor compared to a
single dome because a second dome will reduce the instrument offset.

Occultation Disc

The occultation disc is mainly used to measure the radiation of blocking beam & diffuse
radiation from the panel surface.

Pyranometer Working Principle

The working principle of the pyranometer mainly depends on the difference in temperature
measurement between two surfaces like dark and clear. The solar radiation can be absorbed by
the black surface on the thermopile whereas the clear surface reproduces it, so less heat can be
absorbed.
The thermopile plays a key role in measuring the difference in temperature. The potential
difference formed within the thermopile is due to the gradient of temperature between the two
surfaces. These are used to measure the sum of solar radiation.

But, the voltage which is generated from the thermopile is calculated with the help of a
potentiometer. The information of radiation needs to be included through planimetry or an
electronic integrator.

Types of Pyranometer

Pyrometers are classified into two types like thermopile pyranometer, photodiode-based
pyranometer.

Thermopile Pyranometer

This type of pyranometer is used to measure the flux density of the solar radiation from a 180°
angle. Usually, it measures 300nm to 2800 nm with a largely level spectral sensitivity. The first
generation of this pyranometer includes the sensor that works as an active part by dividing black
& white sectors equally. Irradiation was measured from the two sectors like white & black within
the temperature. Here, the black sector is exposed to the sun whereas the white sector doesn’t
expose to the sun.

These pyranometers are normally used in climatology, meteorology, building engineering

physics, photovoltaic systems & climate change research.

Photodiode-based Pyranometer

Photodiode based pyrometer is also known as a silicon pyrometer. This is used to detect the
segment of the solar spectrum between 400 nm & 900 nm. This photodiode changes the
frequencies of the solar spectrum to current at high speed. This change will be influenced
through the temperature with the raise in current, generated by the temperature rise.

These types of pyranometers are executed wherever the amount of irradiation of the noticeable
solar spectrum needs to be measured and it can be done by using diodes with exact spectral
responses.
These are used in cinema, lighting technique & photography; sometimes these are connected
closely to photovoltaic system modules.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The pyranometer advantages and disadvantages are

 The temperature coefficient is extremely small

 Standardized to ISO standards

 Measurements of performance ration & performance index are accurate.

 Response time is longer compare to PV cell

The disadvantage of the pyranometer is, its spectral sensitivity is imperfect, so it does not
observe the complete spectrum of the sun. So errors in measurements can occur.

Pyranometer Applications

The applications are

 The solar intensity data can be measured.

 Climatological & Meteorological studies

 PV systems design

 Locations of the greenhouse can be established.

 Expecting the requirements of insulation for building structures

Pyrheliometer

We know that the sun is the main energy source on earth. So by using this, the production of
energy can be done through solar energy harvesting. So life is constant on earth because the sun
generates sufficient heat energy for keeping the soil warm, and this energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. Generally, it is known as solar radiation. This solar radiation reaches
the earth through the atmosphere by absorbing, reflecting, and scattering. So that it results in the
energy reduction in the flux density. This energy reduction is very important because above 30%
loss will occur on sunshine, whereas 90% loss will occur on a cloudy day. So the utmost
radiation which contacts the surface of the earth through the atmosphere must be below 80%. So
the solar energy measurement can be done using an instrument like Pyrheliometer.

What is Pyrheliometer?

Definition: The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to measure the direct beam of
solar radiation at the regular occurrence. This instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to
follow the sun continuously. It is responsive to wavelengths bands that range from 280 nm to
3000 nm. The units of irradiance are W/m². These instruments are specially used for weather
monitoring & climatological research purposes.

Pyrheliometer Construction & Working Principle

The external structure of the Pyrheliometer instrument looks like a telescope because it is a
lengthy tube. By using this tube, we can spot the lens toward the sun to calculate the radiance.
The Pyrheliometer basic structure is shown below. Here the lens can be pointed in the direction
of the sun & the solar radiation will flow throughout the lens, after that tube & finally at the last
part where the last apart includes a black object at the bottom.

The irradiance of solar enters into this device through a crystal quartz window and directly
reaches onto a thermopile. So this energy can be changed from heat to an electrical signal that
can be recorded. A calibration factor can be applied once changing the mV signal to a
corresponding radiant energy flux, and it is calculated in W/m² (watts per square meter). This
kind of information can be used to increase Insolation maps. It a solar energy measurement, that
is received on a specified surface region in a specified time to change around the Globe. The
isolation factor for a specific area is very useful once setting up solar panels.

Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram

The circuit diagram of the pyrheliometer is shown below. It includes two equal strips specified
with two strips S1 & S2 with area ‘A’. Here, a thermocouple is used where its one junction can
be connected to S1 whereas the other is connected to S2. A responsive galvanometer can be
connected to the thermocouple. The S2 Strip is connected to an exterior electrical circuit.

Once both the strips are protected from the radiation of solar, then the galvanometer illustrates
there is no deflection because both the junctions are at equal temperature. Now ‘S1’ strip is
exposed to the solar radiation & S2 is protected with a cover like M. When S1 strip gets heat
radiations from the sun, then strip temperature will be increased, thus the galvanometer
illustrates deflection.

When current is supplied throughout the S2 strip, then it is adjusted and the galvanometer
illustrates there is no deflection. Now, again both the strips are at equal temperature.

If the heat radiation amount occurred over the unit area within the unit time on S1 strip is ‘Q’ &
its absorption co-efficient, so the heat radiation amount which is absorbed through the S1 strip
S1 within unit time is ‘QAa’. In addition, the heat generated in unit time within the S2 strip can
be given through VI. Here, ‘V’ is the potential difference & ‘I’ is the flow of current through it.
When heat absorbed is equivalent to the heat generated, so

QAa = VI

Q=VI/Aa

By substituting the values of V, I, A and a, the value of ‘Q’ can be calculated.

Different Types

There are two types of Pyrheliometers like SHP1 and CHP1

SHP1

The SHP1 type is a better version compare with CHP1 type, as it is designed with an interface
including both improved analog o/p & digital RS-485 Modbus. The response time of this kind of
meter has below 2 seconds & independently calculated temperature correction will range from -
40°C to +70°C.

CHP1

The CHP1 type is the most frequently used radiometer used to measure solar radiation directly.
This meter includes one thermopile detector as well as two temperature sensors. It generates an
utmost o/p like 25mV beneath usual atmospheric situations. This type of device totally obeys the
most recent standards which are set by ISO and WMO about the criteria of the Pyrheliometer.
Difference between Pyrheliometer and Pyranometer

Both the instruments like Pyrheliometer & Pyranometer are used to calculate solar irradiance.
These are related in their intention but there are some dissimilarities in their construction &
working principle.

Pyranometer Pyrheliometer

It is one kind of acidometer mainly used to measure This instrument is used to measure direct
the solar irradiance over a planar surface. ray solar irradiance.

In this, the thermoelectric detection

It uses thermoelectric detection principle principle is used

In this, the measurement of increasing temperature In this, the increasing temperature can be
can be done through thermocouples which are calculated through thermocouples that are
linked in series otherwise series-parallel to build a allied in series/series-parallel to create a
thermopile. thermopile.

This is frequently used in meteorological research This is also used in meteorological

stations research stations

This instrument calculates direct solar

This instrument calculates global solar radiation. radiation.

Advantages

The advantages of the Pyrheliometer include the following.

 Very low power consumption

 Operates from a wide range of voltage supplies

 Ruggedness

 Stability
Pyrheliometer Applications

The applications of this instrument include the following.

 Scientific meteorological

 Observations of Climate

 Testing research of Material

 Estimation of the solar collector’s efficiency

 PV devices

Sunshine Recorder

A sunshine recoder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given location. The
results provide information about the weather and climate as well as the temperature of the
geographical area.

There are two types of sunshine recorder

i) Campbell-Stokes Recorder
ii) Blake- Larsen Recorder

Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

1. Principles and Structure : A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder concentrates sunlight

through a glass sphere onto a recording card placed at its focal point. The length of the burn
trace left on the card represents the sunshine duration. The device’s structure is shown in
Figure (a). A homogeneous transparent glass sphere L is supported on an arc XY, and is
focused so that an image of the sun is formed on recording paper placed in a metal bowl FF'
attached to the arc. The glass sphere is concentric to this bowl, which has three partially
overlapping grooves into which recording cards for use in the summer, winter or spring and
autumn are set (Figure (b)). Three different recording cards (Figure (c)) are used depending
on the season. The focus shifts as the sun moves, and a burn trace is left on the recording
card at the focal point. A burn trace at a particular point indicates the presence of sunshine at
 that time, and the recording card is scaled with hour marks so that the exact time of sunshine
occurrence can be ascertained. Measuring the overall length of burn traces reveals the
sunshine duration for that day. For exact measurement, the sunshine recorder must be
accurately adjusted for planar leveling, meridional direction and latitude. Campbell-Stokes
and Jordan sunshine recorders mark the occurrence of sunshine on recording paper at a
position corresponding to the azimuth of the sun at the site, and the time of sunshine
occurrence is expressed in local apparent time.

(2) Reading of Recording Paper To obtain uniform results for observation of sunshine duration
with a Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder, the following points should be noted when reading
records:

(a) If the burn trace is distinct and rounded at the ends, subtract half of the curvature radius of
the trace’s ends from the trace length at both ends. Usually, this is equivalent to subtracting 0.1
hours from the length of each burn trace.
(b) If the burn trace has a circular form, take the radius as its length. If there are multiple circular
burns, count two or three as a sunshine duration of 0.1 hours, and four, five or six as 0.2 hours.
Count sunshine duration this way in increments of 0.1 hours.

(c) If the burn trace is narrow, or if the recording card is only slightly discolored, measure its
entire length.

(d) If a distinct burn trace diminishes in width by a third or more, subtract 0.1 hours from the
entire length for each place of diminishing width. However, the subtraction should not exceed
half the total length of the burn trace.

Jordan Sunshine Recorders:

A Jordan sunshine recorder lets in sunlight through a small hole in a cylinder or a semicylinder
onto photosensitized paper set inside the cylinder on which traces are recorded. One common
type has two hollow semicylinders arranged back to back with their flat surfaces facing east and
west (Figure (a)). Each flat surface has a small hole in it. The Jordan sunshine recorder used by
JMA is the same in principle, but consists of a hollow cylinder with two holes as shown in
Figure (b).

The instrument has its cylinders inclined to the relevant latitude and their axes set in the
meridional direction. Photosensitized paper with a time scale printed on it is set in the cylinders
in close contact with the inner surface. When direct solar radiation enters through the hole, the
paper records the movement of the sun as a line. Sunshine duration is ascertained by measuring
the length of time the paper was exposed to sunlight
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Solar Flux Density (S. d.): The amount of solar energy per unit area on a sphere centered at
the Sun with a distance.

The sun is a free energy source with a solar flux intensity worth considering. At Earth, the
flux is about 1400 W/m2. The closer you get to the Sun the greater the flux. Conversely, the
further you get from the sun, the lower the flux.

Latitude or Angle of latitude (φ): The latitude angle is the anglebetween a line drawn from
a pointon the earth‘s surface to the center of the earth and the earth‘s equatorial plane.

Declination angle (δ): If a line is drawn between the center of the earth and the sun, the
anglebetween this line and the earth‘s equatorial plane is called the declination angle (δ).

δ = 23.45 x sin[(360/365)(284+n)] degrees

Observer’s meridian at P
Hour angle (ω): is the angular distance between the meridian of the observer and the
meridian whose plane contains the sun.(or) The hour angle at any moment is the angle
through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with
the sun rays.

ω= [T s -12:00] x 15, where ω=Hour Angle(Degrees) , Ts= Solar time ω +ve in afternoon
and –ve in fore noon since at solar noon the hour angle is zero

Solar altitude angle (α): is defined as the angle between the central ray from the sun, and its
projection on horizontal plane containing the observer.

Solar zenith angle (θz): Angle between the sun ray and the normal to the horizontal plane.

Solar azimuth angle (γs): measured clockwise on the horizontal plane, angle between due
south and the projection of the sun‘s central ray.
Slope or Tilt Angle(β):

It is the angle between the inclined plane surface of collector and the horizontal. +ve when
sloping is towards south

Surface azimuth angle(γ):

It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between the line due south and the horizontal projection
of the normal to the inclined plane surface. +ve when measured from south towards west.
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

A flat-plate solar collector is one of the three main types of solar collectors, which are key
components of active solar heating systems. Flat-plate collectors are the most common
solar collectors for use in solar water-heating systems in homes and in solar space heating.

Construction:

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing) on
top. Small tubes run through the box, carrying the water or other fluid, such as antifreeze,
to be heated. The tubes are mounted on a dark-colored metal absorber plate. Absorber
plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat better
than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal—typically copper or
aluminum—because the metal is a good heat conductor. The sides and bottom of the
collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.
Working:

Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing
solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes
attached to the absorber plate.

Flat-plate collectors heat the circulating fluid to a temperature considerably less than that
of the boiling point of water and are best suited to applications where the demand
temperature is 30-70°C (86-158°F) and/or for applications that require heat during the
winter months.

Types of Flat Plate Collector Devices

We can categorise flat plate collector devices on two main grounds –

A] Based on Glaze

Glazed Panels – Glazed or Glazing Panels are insulated panels that embrace a glaze
covering. They block infrared radiation and provide insulation to the solar plate. Under the
glazing, there is an absorbent in which the working fluid flows. Glazed FPCs are commonly
used in household water heating installations.

Unglazed Panels: These flat plate collector devices are not glazed. Unglazed panels are
usually utilised for swimming pool heating installations. They are inexpensive but less
popular. Their temperature range is less than 30° C.

B] Based on Configuration

Parallel Absorbing Plate: In a Parallel flat plate collector, the heat can be dispersed with a
larger volume of circulating fluid via the branches present inside. It can be installed in both
horizontal and vertical orientations.

Series Absorbing Plate: Such FPCs include a sole continuous circuit. It has a high heat
jump and a lesser volume of circulating fluid.

Advantages of a Flat Plate Collector

 A Flat plate collector facilitates the collection of direct energy from all directions
and diffuses thermal radiation.

 It is a clean, pollution-free system of energy generation.

  The power utilised by FPCs is natural & renewable.

 Flat plate collector devices have relatively low maintenance costs and longer
working life.

 It is easy to fabricate and economical.

 It can be installed effortlessly. FPCs are fixed to a mounting structure in tilt and
orientation in which they receive maximum sunlight.

EVACUATED TUBE SOLAR COLLECTOR

The evacuated tube solar collector is also known as a vacuum tube solar water heater. It
consists of many parallel transparent glass tubes which are connected to the heater pipe.

These glass tubes are cylindrical in shape. So, they can trap the maximum heat from the sun
and increase the temperature of the fluid in the pipe.

The cylindrical shape of the tubes receives the sun‘s rays at a perpendicular angle.
Therefore, even when the weather is cloudy, the evacuated tube solar collector efficiently
performs its functions.

Components of Evacuated Tube Solar Collector

There are four major components in an evacuated tube solar collector that perform the
function of heating water for utility. Let‘s explore each of those components.

1. Evacuated Tubes

They are made of low emissivity borosilicate glass, which has low iron content and high
durability. Moreover, it employs an all-glass seal and AL selective coating, which facilitate
the use of the solar energy spectrum for generating heat.

These tubes of an evacuated tube solar collector ensure high efficiency in bright and
diffused sunlight.

2. Copper Header

The copper header is excellent at transferring heat. It is corrosion-resistant and has a brazed
connection. It uses a dry plug-in method of connection, which makes the installation and
replacement convenient.
 3. Aluminium Manifold

The manifold has a powder-coated aluminium casing for increased longevity and structural
integrity. In addition, the lightweight aluminium casing ensures convenient installation and
reduces the roof load.

The glass wool insulation of the manifold and special UV stabilised silicon seal maintains
the temperature of the tube.

4. Heat Pipes

The evacuated tube solar collector has a U-shaped tube, which allows the free flow of the
glycol solution. The heat pipes have a copper structure which ensures the heating of fluid at
a low temperature of about 30 ⁰C.

The oxygen-free copper of the heat pipes has high purity, which is crucial for increased
durability.

Types of Evacuated Tube Solar Collector

There are primarily two types of vacuum tube collectors. They are listed below:

1. Direct-flow evacuated tube solar collector

It is also known as a U-pipe collector. It has two pipes inside the tube. One pipe is for the
fluid inlet, and the other is for the outlet. The pipes are properly fixed because they allow
the flow of fluid inside and outside the tube. Therefore, it is difficult to replace them.

It is generally believed that direct flow evacuated tubes are more energy efficient because
there isn‘t any heat exchange between the fluids. Moreover, this collector can trap diffuse
and direct solar radiation without the requirement of solar tracking.

2. Heat pipe evacuated tube solar collector

It has a copper heat pipe that attaches to an absorber plate inside a sealed solar tube. The
heat pipe has a hollow and evacuated space, which contains liquids like alcohol or special
additives.

The evacuated space allows heating of fluid at normal atmospheric pressure. As the sun
rays hit the surface of the absorber, the liquid inside it starts boiling, and the hot vapour
rises to the top of the pipe.
The fluid picks up the heat when it flows through the manifold. Afterward, the fluid in the
heat pipe cools down and flows back to the tube. This process of heating and condensation
keeps repeating till the sun shines.

Evacuated Tube Collector

Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or copper fin is attached to a metal
heat pipe running through the inner tube. The fin is covered with a selective coating that
transfers heat to the fluid that is circulating through the pipe. This sealed copper heat pipe
transfers the solar heat via convection of its internal heat transfer fluid to a ―hot bulb‖ that
indirectly heats a copper manifold within the header tank.

These copper pipes are all connected to a common manifold which is then connected to a
storage tank, thus heating the hot water during the day. The hot water can then be used at
night or the next day due to the insulating properties of the tank.

The insulation properties of the vacuum are so good that while the inner tube may be as
high as 150oC, the outer tube is cooler to touch. This means that evacuated tube water
heaters can perform well and can heat water to fairly high temperatures even in cold
weather when flat plate collectors perform poorly due to heat loss.
However, the downside of using evacuated tubes is that the panel can be a lot more
expensive compared to standard flat plate collectors or solar batch collectors. Evacuated
tube solar collectors are well suited to commercial and industrial hot water heating
applications and can be an effective alternative to flat plate collectors for domestic space
heating, especially in areas where it is often cloudy.

Direct Flow Evacuated Tube Collector

Direct flow evacuated tube collectors also known as ―U‖ pipe collectors, are different from
the previous ones in that they have two heat pipes running through the centre of the tube.
One pipe acts as the flow pipe while the other acts as the return pipe. Both pipes are
connected together at the bottom of the tube with a ―U-bend‖, hence the name.

The heat absorbing reflective plate acts like a dividing strip which separates the flow and
the return pipes through the solar collector tubes. The absorber plate and the heat transfer
tube are also vacuum sealed inside a glass tube providing exceptional insulation properties.

The hollow heat pipes and the flat or curved reflector plate are made out of copper with a
selective coating to increase the collectors overall efficiency. This particular evacuated tube
configuration is similar in operation to the flat plate collectors, with the exception of the
vacuum provided by the outer tube.

Since the heat transfer fluid flows into and out of each tube, direct flow evacuated tube
collectors are not as flexible as the heat pipe types. If a tube cracks or breaks it can not be
easily replaced. The system will require draining as there is a ―wet‖ connection between the
tube and manifold.
Solar Air Collectors

Solar hot air collectors are mounted on south-facing vertical walls or roofs. Solar
radiation reaching the collector heats the absorber plate. Air passing through the collector
picks up heat from the absorber plate.

Freezing, overheating and leaks are less troublesome for solar air collectors than for liquid
collectors. But since liquid is a better heat conductor, solar collectors using water or a heat
transfer fluid are more suited to hot water heating for the home. A solar hot air collector is
most often used for space heating. There are two types of air collectors: glazed and
unglazed.

Glazed Air Collectors

Glazed air collectors heat air through circulation. A fan moves cold air from the home to
the collector. After passing through the collector, the heated air is ducted back to the home.
There are multiple system designs:

 through-pass air passes through from one side of the absorber to the other. This
system has the most surface area, making it an efficient way to transfer heat. Lower
pressure, though, can require more fan power. Deterioration of select types of
absorber materials after years of exposure to solar radiation can worsen air quality
and performance.

 back, front and combination passage in these cases, air is directed to either the
back, front or both sides of the absorber. This system is more prone to dust
accumulation, which eventually lowers the absorber efficiency. In cold weather, the
air passing by the glazing is also prone to heat loss.

Unglazed Air Collectors

An unglazed solar air collector is relatively inexpensive. These collectors are best for areas
with high ventilation needs and fewer space heating needs. Therefore these collectors are
most commonly used in commercial applications, and are less suitable for residential use.
Solar Distillation

In the Solar distillation process solar energy is used to evaporate water and its condensate is
collected within the same closed system. Unlike other forms of water purification methods
like desalination, this methodology can be used to turn salt or brackish water into fresh
drinking water. Solar still is the structure that houses the distillation equipment.
Appropedia.org explains the solar still process as: ―A place where an influent solution
enters the system and the more volatile solvents leave in the effluent leaving behind the
salty solute behind‖. Solar distillation differs from a more energy-intensive methodology
like the reverse osmosis, or simply boiling water due to its usage of ‗free‘ and eco friendly
solar energy.

Implementation

Solar water distillers find application mostly in remote areas where there is limited access
to freshwater and centralized distribution systems. In these areas technical expertise is
made use of to introduce the system and personnel in usage and maintenance of the
system. An important criterion for installation of these systems is that the area should be
flat and open with good access to water and sunlight. The ―roof‖ of the system is fitted with
a transparent glass cover tilted at an angle so as to catch maximum sunlight. Solar energy
can access the underlying still basin by penetrating through the cover. The untreated water
is collected in the still basin. Solar energy heats up this water and then evaporates and
separates it from the contaminants. It is important that the material used in still basin should
be able to absorb heat. Examples of such materials are leather sheet, silicon, reinforced
plastic, or steel plate. The slanted cover funnels the condensed water into a pipe tube, which
is attached to a storage container so it can be used for drinking water.
Solar Cooker

It is a device that uses energy from sunlight for the purpose of cooking and heating. We
generally use stove, gas oven or electricity for cooking, which are based on conventional
sources of energy, but a solar cooker uses solar energy, which is a renewable form of
energy.

Solar Cooker is a device that harnesses heat from solar energy and use it for cooking and
heating. Unlike the gas stove and other cooking devices which use conventional and non-
renewable forms of energy, solar cooker uses renewable and non pollution form of energy.
It is a non-polluting and clean device that doesn‘t cause any emission. It concentrate
sunlight falling on it which causes the increase in temperature and thus helps in cooking.
Although it slowly cooks the food but save the nutrition of the food. Because of its good
properties, government of India provides subsidy on Solar Cooker to promote it.

Working Principle of Solar Cooker

Solar Cooker is working on the following principles:

Using Mirrors to Focus Sunlight or Concentrate Sunlight

A highly reflective concave mirror surface is used for cooking by using sunlight. The
concave mirror concentrates and directs the sunlight into a small cooking area. This helps
to increase the magnitude of the sunlight, which produces a high temperature, enough to
cook. The solar cookers are designed to achieve temperatures ranging from 65°C to 400°C,
which is enough for cooking.

Converting Light Energy to Heat

The concentrated sunlight is directed onto a receiver that is a cooking pot. The light energy
transforms into heat by the interaction between the light and the material of the receiver.
This process is known as conduction. The conversion can be maximized by improving the
conducting materials and retain heat. To absorb maximum light , black painted pot is used
in Solar Cooker.

Trapping Heat

Once we retain heat in Solar Cooker, we have to keep it inside as much as we can. For this ,
we have to minimize the effects of convection. By isolating the air inside the Solar cooker
from the external air, we can reduce the effects of convection. By using a glass lid on the
cooking pot we can reduce the loss of heat through convection along with enhances light
absorption from the top of the solar cooker. The glass lid is used to hold heat inside the
cooker and captures incoming sunlight.

Types of Solar Cooker

Solar Cookers are generally four types

 Panel Cooker

 Parabolic Cooker

 Evacuated Tube Cooker

 Box Cooker

Panel Cookers

Panel cookers are looking like an open and three sided box. Panel cooker is generally used
for cooking of soups, meats, vegetables, casseroles, and desserts etc.

Box‘s three side panels are covered with shiny material which acts as a reflector. The shiny
panels are hitted by the sunlight and then reflected into the center of the box. For capturing
the sun rays inside the box, a ‗heat trap‘ is used. Heat traps are able to pass UV rays. Inside
of the heat trap, cooking pots are placed. When the UV rays hit the cooking pot, the
molecules of the cooking pot begin vibrating. During vibrating, light ray transforms into
heat. Through this process, The generated Temperatures ranges from 121° C to 149°C.

Parabolic Solar Cookers

Parabolic solar cookers look like parabolic satellite dishes. Parabolic Solar Cooker is
generally used for frying and grilling.

A reflective shiny material surface fully covered the dish. When the dish is hitted by
sunlight, it reflects the sunlight to the center focal point. At the focal point of the reflective
surface, a cooking vessel is placed . The high temperatures range from 500°F ( 260°C) to
700°F (371°C).

Evacuated Tube Cookers

Evacuated Tube Cooker is newly launched and less popular device.

Evacuated Tube Cooker is made from a large evacuated glass tube which is surrounded by
shiny reflector panels. In this glass tube, the temperatures are from 550°F (290°C) or
greater. Evacuated Tube Cooker is used to cook meat, bread, vegetables, and dessert.
Box Type Solar Cooker

Box type solar cooker is commonly used in the form of solar cooker. Box type solar cooker
contains mainly four components – Black box, Glass sheet, Mirror and a cooking pot.

Black box: The black box is a type of metal box or wooden box. It is insulated type box.
To absorb maximum heat, it‘s inside portion is painted by black colour.

Glass Sheet: Glass Sheet is made of toughened glass. It allows the reflected light into the
box.

Mirror: The highly reflective mirror is used in box type solar cooker. The mirror is fixed
in an angle from which the maximum sunlight reflected on the glass sheet of the box.

Cooking pot: Cooking pots are the containers that are used for cooking. It is made by
aluminium that is blackened externally.

Application of Solar Cooker

Applications of Solar Cooker are as follows –

 Solar cooker is used to Roasting coffee beans , popcorns and peanuts for
commercial purposes.

 Water Distillation is done by Parabolic Solar Cooker. Water distillation is done by

boiling the water constantly.
  Many industries can achieve more than 2400°C from solar cooker which melts iron
very easily.

 Separation of Beeswax and melting the capping

 Melting of Wax is done by solar cooker.

 Sterilization of Medical apparatus such as needles, gauge bandages.

 It is also used for Ironing. Even it is not a conventional way on ironing. Iron is
heated by parabolic solar cooker and then it is used for ironing cloths.

 Purification of Water . Solar cooker is used for water purification by heating water.

 Solar cooker is used for Dehydrating foods. The lid of the cooking pot is partially
opened, so that it prevents from the excess heating.

Advantages of Solar Cooker

 Solar Cooker keeps environment pollution free. It doesn‘t affect on environment.

 Fuel is not required for cooking in Solar Cooker.

 The food that is cooked in Solar Cooker, contains high nutrition value.

 Solar Cooker is available in various sizes. So that a family can buy solar cooker
according to the number of their family members.

 Solar Cooker is a government scheme, so a reasonable subsidy will be provided to

the buyers.

Disadvantages of Solar Cooker

 Solar Cooker takes too much time to cook any food.

 Solar Cooker is working only in the presence of sunlight. At night Solar Cooker is
not working.

 In cloudy weather, it is very hard to cook food by using solar cooker.

 During strong winds, solar cooker‘s working process is less effective

SOLAR POND

A solar pond is a large-area collector of solar energy resembling a pond that stores heat,
which is then available to use for practical purposes. Researched designs include saltwater
ponds, gel ponds, and others such as shallow ponds with covers, deep ponds with glass or
plastic containment devices. Their common features are to store the energy in the incoming
solar radiation in the heated depths of the pond, and to suppress the convection currents that
would otherwise lead to heat loss to the surroundings.

The most common form of solar pond is a salt-water solar pond. Salt water ponds exist
naturally in a variety of locations, the first ponds being discovered in Eastern Europe at the
beginning of the 20th century at a natural salt lake in Transylvania. Most of the salt water
ponds operated today, however, are artificial, simulating natural solar ponds but taking
advantage of engineering technologies to advance their operation and application for
practical purposes.

WORKING OF SOLAR POND:

The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively as a solar
energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water. This gradient results in water
that is heavily salinated collecting at the bottom of the pond, with concentration decreasing
towards the surface resulting in cool, fresh water on top of the pond. This collection of salty
water at the bottom of the lake is known as the "storage zone", while the freshwater top
layer is known as the "surface zone". The overall pond is several meters deep, with the
"storage zone" being one or two meters thick. These ponds must be clear for them to
operate properly, as sunlight cannot penetrate to the bottom of the pond if the water is
murky. When sunlight is incident on these ponds, most of the incoming sunlight reaches the
bottom and thus the "storage zone" heats up. However, this newly heated water cannot rise
and thus heat loss upwards is prevented. The salty water cannot rise because it is heavier
than the fresh water that is on top of the pond, and thus the upper layer prevents convection
currents from forming. Because of this, the top layer of the pond acts as a type of insulating
blanket, and the main heat loss process from the storage zone is stopped. Without a loss of
heat, the bottom of the pond is warmed to extremely high temperatures - it can reach about
90°C. If the pond is being used to generate electricity this temperature is high enough to
initiate and run an organic Rankine cycle engine. It is vital that the salt concentrations and
cool temperature of the top layer are maintained in order for these ponds to work. The
surface zone is mixed and kept cool by winds and heat loss by evaporation. This top zone
must also be flushed continuously with fresh water to ensure that there is no accumulation
of salt in the top layer, since the salt from the bottom layer diffuses through the saline
gradient over time. Additionally, a solid salt or brine mixture must be added to the pond
frequently to make up for any upwards salt loses.

Figure 2: Salinity profile of solar pond

APPLICATIONS:

The heat from solar ponds can be used in a variety of different ways.

They are ideal for use in heating and cooling buildings as they can maintain a fairly stable
temperature.

These ponds can also be used to generate electricity either by driving a thermoelectric device
or some organic Rankine engine cycle - simply a turbine powered by evaporating a fluid (in
this case a fluid with a lower boiling point).
Finally, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low cost of this thermal
energy can be used to remove the salt from water for drinking or irrigation purposes.

EXAMPLES OF SOLAR PONDS

 Bhuj Solar Pond

 El Paso Solar Pond
 Pyramid Hill Solar Pond

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

 Low investment costs per installed collection area.

 Thermal storage is incorporated into the collector and is of very low cost.
 Diffuse radiation (cloudy days) is fully used.
 Very large surfaces can be built thus large scale energy generation is possible.
 Expensive cleaning of large collector surfaces in dusty areas is avoided.
 Solar ponds can only be economically constructed if there is an abundance of
inexpensive salt, flat land, and easy access to water. Environmental factors are also
important. An example is preventing soil contamination from the brine in a solar
pond. For these reasons, and because of the current availability of cheap fossil fuels,
solar pond development has been limited.
 Solar ponds can be effectively used as replacements in industries that use fossil fuel
to generate thermal energy. Solar ponds can be used for process heating,
refrigeration, water desalination, production of magnesium chloride, bromine
recovery from bittern, enhancement of salt yield in salt farms. It will be the future
energy source.
Solar Chimney

The Solar Chimney or tower is a renewable type power plant. Solar towers are like
an inverted funnel, with wide skirt to collect air to then turn a turbine in the tower.

Working
Incident solar radiation heats the air under a large transparent collector roof. The
temperature difference causes a pressure drop over the height of chimney resulting
in an upwind which is converted into mechanical energy by the turbines and then
into electricity via conventional generators.

The technology
The collector
Hot air for the solar chimney is produced by the greenhouse effect in a simple air
collector consisting only of a glass or plastic film covering stretched horizontally
two to six meters above the ground. The height of the covering increases adjacent to
the chimney base, so that the air is diverted to vertical movement with minimum
friction loss. This covering admits the short-wave solar radiation component and
retains long-wave radiation from the heated ground. Thus the ground under the roof
heats up and transfers its heat to the air flowing radially above it from the outside to
the chimney.
The energy storage
Water filled black tubes are laid down side by side on the soil under the glass roof
collector. They are filled with water once and remain closed thereafter, so that no
evaporation can take place. The volume of water in the tubes is selected to
correspond to a water layer with a depth of 5 to 20 cm depending on the desired
power output characteristics.

Principle of heat storage underneath the roof using water-filled black tubes

Since the heat transfer between black tubes and water is much larger than that
between the ground surface and the deeper soil layers, even at low water flow speed
in the tubes, and since the heat capacity of water (4.2 kJ/kg) is much higher than that
of soil (0.75 - 0.85 kJ/kg) the water inside the tubes stores a part of the solar heat
and releases it during the night, when the air in the collector cools down.

The chimney
The chimney itself is the plant's actual thermal engine. It is a pressure tube with low
friction loss (like a hydroelectric pressure tube or penstock) because of its optimal
surface-volume ratio. The upthrust of the air heated in the collector is approximately
proportional to the air temperature rise DTcoll in the collector and the volume, (i.e.
the height Hc multiplied by the diameter Dc ) of the chimney. In a large solar
chimney the collector raises the temperature of the air by about 35 K. This produces
 an updraught velocity in the chimney of about 15m/s. It is thus possible to enter into
an operating solar chimney plant for maintenance without difficulty. Chimneys
1,000 m high can be built without difficulty. The television tower in Toronto,
Canada, is almost 600 m high and serious plans are being made for 2,000 metre
skyscrapers in earthquake-ridden Japan. But all that is needed for a solar chimney is
a simple, large diameter hollow cylinder, not particularly slender, and subject to
very few demands in comparison with inhabited buildings.

The turbines
Using turbines, mechanical output in the form of rotational energy can be derived
from the air current in the chimney. Turbines in a solar chimney do not work with
staged velocity like a free-running wind energy converter, but as a cased pressure-
staged wind turbogenerator, in which, similarly to a hydroelectric power station,
static pressure is converted to rotational energy using a cased turbine - in this
application installed in a pipe. The power output of a cased pressure-staged turbine
of this kind is about eight times greater than that of a speed-stepped open-air turbine
of the same diameter. Air speed before and after the turbine is about the same. The
output achieved is proportional to the product of volume flow and the fall in
pressure at the turbine. With a view to maximum energy yield the aim of the turbine
regulation system is to maximize this product under all operating conditions.

ADVANTAGES
 Due to the heat storage system the solar chimney will operate 24h on pure solar
energy.
 Solar chimneys are particularly reliable and not liable to break down, in comparison
with other solar generating plants.
 Unlike conventional power stations, solar chimneys do not need cooling water.
 Cultivation of crops.
 Solar towers built in deserts instigates plant growth.

DISADVANTAGES
 High construction cost
Requires a large amount of initial capital
 Efficiency & Production Cost
 Cost/kWh is higher than traditional forms of natural gas energy production
 Requires large amount of land
 Not suitable for areas with high cost/acre.