UNIT I: TRANSFORMERS

1.1. INTRODUCTION:
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different
voltage levels but always work at the same frequency. Basically transformer is an
electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It is commonly used in electrical power
system and distribution systems. It can change the magnitude of alternating
voltage or current from one value to another. This useful property of transformer is
mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct
currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in
construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high
efficiency as high as 99%.
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Figure below.

Fig.1-1

1.2. MAIN PARTS OF THE TRANSFORMER:

• Conservator
• Tank
• Butchholz Relay
• Breather
• Silica Gel
• Oil Level Scale
• Primary Winding
• Secondary Winding
• Drain Valve
• Porcelain Bush
• Radiator
 1. CONSERVATOR:
Conservator is a type of tank, used to help oil filling this is situated
upper portion of the power transformer mainly these are cylindrically
shaped.
2. TANK:
Basically this is a container used to keep windings (both) and cooling
oil.
3. BUTCHHOLZ RELAY:
This is a protecting device used to protect transformer windings. This
is a double ended device one end is connected to conservator other is
connected to tank. there are two windings inside the relay one for
detecting oil level going to empty and other is
connected to a alarm circuit for warning.
4. BREATHER:
Breather is a device used for absorbs the moisture content of an oil
and sucked air
5. SILICA GEL:
It is a chemical material these are the only one main component
inside the breather basically silica gel is a blue colored one after the
absorption silica gel become pink
6. OIL LEVEL SCALE:
This is an ordinary part situated on the side of the conservator for
proper oil checking oil tank wants a specific amount of oil
7. PRIMARY WINDING:
The winding which is connected to supply then the winding is called
primary winding.
8. SECONDARY WINDING:
The winding which is connected to the load then the winding is called
secondary winding.
9. DRAIN VALVE:
This valve is used for taking damaged oil from the oil tank for the
proper oil collection this valve is situated under the oil tank
10. PORCELAIN BUSH
This is an outer unit this is used to prevent unwanted leakage of
electricity
11. RADIATOR:
These are used for cooling of the transformer oil.
1.3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A transformer in its simplest form will consist of a rectangular laminated magnetic

structure on which two coils of different number of turns are wound as shown in
Figure below.

The winding to which AC voltage is impressed is called the primary of the

transformer and the winding across which the load is connected is called the
secondary of the transformer.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N 1) and secondary (N2), an
alternating emf (E2) is induced in the secondary. This induced emf (E2) in the
secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will
appear across the load. If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On the other
hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux Φ is

set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces emfs
E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
The emf E1 is termed as primary emf and emf E2 is termed as Secondary emf.
The following points may be noted carefully
a. The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
b. There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
c. The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic
flux.
d. There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency
as the input power.
e. The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(i) Core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(ii) Copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the
input primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

Can DC Supply be used for Transformers?

The DC supply cannot be used for the transformers. This is because
a. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which
current in one coil must change uniformly. If DC supply is given, the
current will not change due to constant supply and transformer will not
work.
b. Current, I = V/Z = V/(R+jXL)
In Transformer, R is very small
For DC supply, f =0 then Inductive Reactance is XL = 0, Current I is very
high. So, transformer getting to damage and there can be saturation of
the core due to which transformer draws very large current from the
supply when connected to DC.

1.4. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF THE TRANSFORMER:

We usually design a power transformer so that it approaches the characteristics of
an ideal transformer. To achieve this, following design features are incorporated:
(i) The core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis loss and high
permeability as cold rolled grain oriented (CRGO) material. Further, core
is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss. These features
considerably reduce the iron losses and the no-load current.
(ii) Instead of placing primary on one limb and secondary on the other, it is a
usual practice to wind one-half of each winding on one limb. This
ensures tight coupling between the two windings. Consequently, leakage
flux is considerably reduced.
(iii) The winding resistances are minimized to reduce Copper loss and
resulting rise in temperature and to ensure high efficiency.
Transformers are of two types: (i) core-type transformer and (ii) shell-type
transformer

Core-Type Transformer: If the windings are wound around the core in such a way
that they surround the core ring on its outer edges, then the construction is known
as the closed core type construction of the transformer core. In this type, half of the
winding is wrapped around each limb of the core, and is enclosed such that no
magnetic flux losses can occur and the flux leakages can be minimized. This type of
arrangement proves quiet useful for the flux circulation, such that each limb is
covered by the windings and hence the flux circulates through the complete core.
But during this circulations, a bit of leakages also occur.
Shell-Type Transformer: This method of construction involves the use of a double
magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central limb to ensure a
low-reluctance flux path.
 Fig. Core type and Shell type transformer

Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transforms

Core Type Shell Type

The core encircles most part of the

The winding encircles the core. winding
It has single magnetic circuit It has double magnetic circuit
The core has two limbs The core has three limbs
The multilayer disc or sandwich type
The cylindrical coils are used. Coils are used.

The winding are uniformly distributed on two The natural cooling does not exist as the
limbs hence natural cooling is effective Windings are surrounded by the core.

Preferred for low voltage transformers. Preferred for high voltage transformers.

1.5. EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary. The

sinusoidal flux Φ produced by the primary can be represented as:
Ф = Фmsinωt (1)
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is
e1 = -N1 dФ/dt = -N1d/dt(Фmsinωt)
= -ωN1 Фmcosωt = -2πfN1 Фmcosωt
= 2πf N1 Фmsin(ωt-900) (2)
From the equation of (3), it is clear that the maximum value of induced emf at the
primary is Em1 = 2πf N1 Фm
The rms value of the primary emf is,

or E1 = 4.44fN1 Фm

Similarly, E2 = 4.44fN2 Фm
In an ideal transformer, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2

Note: It is clear from equ. (2) above that emf E1 induced in the primary lags behind
the flux by 900. Likewise, emf E2 induced in the secondary lags behind flux by 900.

1.6. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO (K)

From the above equations of induced emf, we have,

The constant K is called voltage transformation ratio.

Volt-Ampere Rating

Transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current and called VA
rating.

The full load primaty and secondary currents which indicate the safe maximum
values of currents which transformer windings can carry can be given as:

Hence total losses depend on V and I. Since rating of transformer depends upon
losses and losses depend upon V and I, hence the rating of transformer depends
upon V×I, which is also termed as VI rating. As losses are independent of the power
factor of load, the rating of the transformer is also independent of load and can be
only decided based on losses. That’s why transformer is generally specified with
apparent power rating (VA or KVA) and not in KW.
1.8.Concept of Ideal Transformer

A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties:

i) Winding resistance is negligible
ii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100 % flux produced by primary links with
the secondary.
iii) Core losses (Hysteresis and eddy current losses) are neglected
iv) Magnetic core has constant Permeability i.e. Magnetization curve
becomes linear.

NOTE:
For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V1 is same as the
primary induced emf E1 as there are no voltage drops.
Ideal Transformer on No Load
Consider an ideal transformer in Fig. below. For no load I2 =0. I1 is just necessary
to produce flux in the core, which is called magnetising current is very small and
is denoted as Im. Im lags V1 by 900 as the winding is purely inductive.
According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f opposes the cause producing it which is
supply voltage V1. Hence E1 and E2 are in antiphase with V1 but equal in
magnitude and E1 and E2 are in phase.

This can be illustrated in the phase diagram as shown below:

Ideal Transformer on Load

When a load is connected to the secondary output terminals of a transformer as

shown in Figure, a current I2 flows into the load and into transformer secondary
winding N2. The current I2 which flowing in N2 produces flux Φ2 which opposite –by
Lenz’s law- to the main magnetic flux Φ1 in the transformer core. This will weaken
or slightly reduce the main flux Φ.

The reduction of main flux Φ –by Faraday’s law- could also reduce the induced
voltage in primary winding E1. Consequently E1 is now smaller than the supply
voltage V1, then the primary current would be increased due to that potential
differences. Therefore on loaded transformer, the primary current has an additional
current of I1’.

The extra current I1’ which flowing in the primary winding N1 produces flux Φ1
which naturally react according to Lenz’s law, demagnetize the flux Φ2. Therefore
the net magnetic flux in the core is always maintained at original value, it is the
main flux Φ (the flux which produced by the magnetizing current).

The magneto motive force (mmf) source N2I2 at the secondary winding produces flux
Φ2, while the mmf N1I1’ produces flux Φ1. Since the magnitude of Φ1 equal to
magnitude of Φ2 and the reluctance seen by these two mmf sources are equal, thus

N1 I1’= N2I2
1.9. Practical Transformer

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The
practical transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances and (iii)
magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.

(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there
occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss in it.

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors,

it immediately follows that both primary and secondary will have winding
resistance. The primary resistance R1 and secondary resistance R2 act in
series with the respective windings as shown below:

(iii) Leakage reactance. Both primary and secondary currents produce flux.
The flux Φ which links both the windings is the useful flux However,
primary current would produce some flux Φ which would not link the
secondary winding and is called mutual flux (for more information
review Lecture Note 2) (See Fig. below).
Practical Transformer on No Load
Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as
shown in Fig. (i). The primary will draw a small current I 0 to supply (i) the iron
losses and (ii) a very small amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence the
primary no load current I0 is not 90° behind the applied voltage V1 but lags it by
an angle f0 < 90° as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. (ii)

No load input power, W0 = V1 I0 cos f0

As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig. (ii), the no-load primary current I0
can be resolved into two rectangular components viz.

• The component IW in phase with the applied voltage V1. This is known as
active or working or iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a
very small primary copper loss.

IW = I0 cos f0

• The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° and is known as magnetizing

component. It is this component which produces the mutual flux f in
the core.
Im = I0 sin f0
Clearly, I0 is phasor sum of Im and IW,
 It is emphasized here that no load primary copper loss (i.e. I 02 R1 ) is very small
and may be neglected. Therefore, the no load primary input power is practically
equal to the iron loss in the transformer i.e.,
No load input power, W0 = Iron loss
Note. At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V2 = E2. On the
primary side, the drops in R1 and X1, due to I0 are also very small because of
the smallness of I0. Hence, we can say that at no load, V1 = E1.
Practical Transformer on Load
We shall consider two cases (i) when such a transformer is assumed to have no
winding resistance and leakage flux (ii) when the transformer has winding
resistance and leakage flux.

(i) No winding resistance and leakage flux

Fig. below shows a practical transformer with the assumption that resistances
and leakage reactances of the windings are negligible. With this assumption,
V2 = E2 and V1 = E1. Let us take the usual case of inductive load which causes
the secondary current I2 to lag the secondary voltage V2 by f2. The total
primary current I1 must meet two requirements viz.

• It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the iron losses in the
transformer and to provide flux in the core.
• It must supply a current I'0 to counteract the demagnetizing effect of
secondary currently I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be such that:

The total primary current I1 is the phasor sum of I'2 and I0 i.e.,
I1 = I'2 +I0
where I'2 = -KI2
Note that I'2 is 180° out of phase with I2.
Phasor diagram. Fig. below shows the phasor diagram for the usual case of
inductive load. Both E1 and E2 lag behind the mutual flux f by 90°. The current I'2
represents the primary current to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary
current I2. Now I'2 = K I2 and is antiphase with I2. I0 is the no-load current of the
transformer. The phasor sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current I1. Note
that in drawing the phasor diagram, the value of K is assumed to be unity so that
primary phasors are equal to secondary phasors.
Primary p.f. = cos Ф1
Secondary p.f. = cos Ф2

Primary input power = V1 I1 cos Ф1

Secondary output power = V1 I2 cos Ф2

(ii) Transformer with resistance and leakage reactance

Fig. below shows a practical transformer having winding resistances and leakage
reactance’s. These are the actual conditions that exist in a transformer. There is
voltage drop in R1 and X 1 so that primary e.m.f. E1 is less than the applied voltage
V1. Similarly, there is voltage drop in R2 and X2 so that secondary terminal voltage
V2 is less than the secondary e.m.f. E2. Let us take the usual case of inductive load
which causes the secondary current I2 to lag behind the secondary voltage V2 by f2.
The total primary current I1 must meet two requirements viz.
• It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the iron losses in the
transformer and to provide flux in the core.
• It must supply a current I'2 to counteract the demagnetizing effect of
secondary current I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be such that:

N1I'2 = N 2I2

or I'2 = N2 I2 = KI2

The total primary current I1 will be the phasor sum of I'2 and I0 i.e.,
Phasor Diagram:
Fig. below shows the phasor diagram of a practical transformer for
the usual case of inductive load, both E1 and E2 lag the mutual flux f
by 90°. The current I'2 represents the primary current to neutralize
the demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2. Now I'2 = K I2 and is
opposite to I2. Also I0 is the no-load current of the transformer. The
phasor sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total primary current I1.
Note that counter emf that opposes the applied voltage V1 is -E1.
Therefore, if we add I1R1 (in phase with I1) and I1 X1 (90° ahead of I1)
to -E1, we get the applied primary voltage V1. The phasor E2
represents the induced emf in the secondary by the mutual flux. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 will be what is left over after
subtracting I2R2 and I2X2 from E2.
Load power factor = cos Ф2
Primary power factor = cos Ф1
Input power to transformer, P1 = V1I1 cos Ф1
Output power of transformer, P2 = V2I2 cos Ф2
Note: The reader may draw the phasor diagram of a loaded transformer for (i) unity
p.f. and (ii) leading p.f. as an exercise.
1.10. Equivalent circuit of Transformer

The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and
variable resistances and reactance’s, which exactly simulates performance and
working of the machine.
For a transformer, no load primary current has two components,
Im = Io sinΦo = Magnetizing component
Ic = Io cosΦo = Active component
Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X o called no
load reractance while Ic is active component representing core losses hence is
assumed to flow through the reactance Ro. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can
be shown as in the Fig. 1. This circuit consisting of Ro and Xo in parallel is called
exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can write,
Ro = V1/Ic
and Xo= V1/Im
 When the is connected to the transformer then secondary current I2 flows. This
causes voltage drop across R2 and R2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional
current
I2' = I2/ K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of Io and I2'. This I1 causes the voltage
drop across primary resistance R1 and reactance X1.
Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig.below

But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by
transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer
calculation much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,
R2'= R2/K2 , X2' = X2/K2' , Z2' = Z2/K2
While E2' = E2/K' I2' = K I2
Where K = N2 /N1
While transferring the values remember the rule that
Low voltage winding High current Low impedance
High voltage winding Low current High impedance
Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the
Fig. Below

Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the
equivalent circuit referred to secondary.
R1' = K2 R1 , X1' = K2 X1, Z1' = K2 Z1
E1'= K E1, Io' = I1 /K' Io' = Io /K
Similarly the exciting circuit parameter also gets transferred to secondary as
Ro'and Xo '. The circuit is shown in the Fig.below,
Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z 1 and Z2', the
impedances can not be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be
done. Such circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R o
and Xo to the left of R1 and X1. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop
across R1 and X1due to Io is neglected. Hence such an equivalent circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.
So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the
Fig. below,

In this circuit now R1 and R2' can be combined to get equivalent resistance
referred to primary R1e as discussed earlier. Similarly X1and X1' can be combined to
get X1e. And equivalent circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 6.

We know that, R1e = R1 + R2'= R1 + R2/K2

X1e = X1 + X2' = X1 + X2/K2
Z1e = R1e + j X1e
Ro = V1 /Ic and Xo = V1 /Im
Ic = Io cosΦo and Im = Io sinΦo
In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary
also can be obtained.

1.11.Losses in a Transformer
The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;
1. Core or Iron losses 2. Copper losses
NOTE: The above losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in
temperature and (ii) a drop in efficiency.
1. Core or Iron losses (Pi)
These consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur in the transformer
core due to the alternating flux.

Both hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon

► Maximum flux density Bm in the core and
► Supply frequency f.
NOTE: Since transformers are connected to constant-frequency, constant voltage
supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses are practically the
same at all loads. Hence,

NOTE: The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content
whereas eddy current loss can be reduced by using core of thin laminations.
2. Copper losses (PC)

These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their ohmic
resistance. These can be determined by short-circuit test
Total copper Cu losses:

Hence, total losses in a transformer are:

1.12. EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as the
ratio of output power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW) i.e.
In practice, open-circuit and short-circuit tests are carried out to find the
efficiency,

NOTE: The losses can be determined by transformer tests.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Output power = V2I2 cosϕ2
If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary, then,

For a load of given pf, efficiency depends upon load current I2. Hence, the efficiency
to be maximum the denominator should be minimum i.e.

i.e., Iron losses = Copper losses

Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper losses are equal to
constant or iron losses.
From above, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum efficiency is:

NOTE: In a transformer, iron losses are constant whereas copper losses are
variable. In order to obtain maximum efficiency, the load current should be such
that total Cu losses become equal to iron losses.
Output kVA corresponding to Maximum Efficiency
Let PC = Copper losses at full-load kVA
Pi = Iron losses
x = Fraction of full-load kVA at which efficiency is maximum
Total Cu losses = x2 ×PC

for maximum efficiency x2 ×PC = Pi

or

⟹Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency:

NOTE: The value of kVA at which the efficiency is maximum, is independent of pf of

the load.
All-Day Efficiency
All-day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose primaries
are never open-circuited but the secondaries carry little or no load much of the
time during the day.

The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour
period is known as all-day efficiency i.e.:

NOTE: Efficiency of a transformer means commercial efficiency unless stated

otherwise.
1.13. VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference (not phasor
difference) between the no-load secondary voltage (0V2) and the secondary voltage V2
on load expressed as percentage of no-load voltage i.e.

Where 0V2 = No-load secondary voltage = K V1 V2 = Secondary voltage on load

The +ve sign is for lagging p.f. and -ve sign for leading p.f.
NOTE: It may be noted that % voltage regulation of the transformer will be the
same whether primary or secondary side is considered.
 UNIT II TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS

2.1.OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST ON TRANSFORMER

Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to determine the:
1. Equivalent circuit of transformer
2. Voltage regulation of transformer
3. Efficiency of transformer
The power required for open circuit tests and short circuit tests on a
transformer is equal to the power loss occurring in the transformer.

Open circuit or No load test on Transformer

Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed to determine 'no load loss (core
loss)' and 'no load current I0'. The circuit diagram for open circuit test is shown in the
figure below.

Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage (LV) winding is
connected to its normal supply. A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are
connected to the LV winding as shown in the figure. Now, applied voltage is slowly
increased from zero to normal rated value of the LV side with the help of a variac.
When the applied voltage reaches to the rated value of the LV winding, readings
from all the three instruments are taken.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current I 0. As I0 itself is very small, the
voltage drops due to this current can be neglected.
The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). And as the other side of
transformer is open circuited, there is no output power. Hence, this input power
only consists of core losses and copper losses. As described above, no-load current
is so small that these copper losses can be neglected. Hence, now the input power
is almost equal to the core losses. Thus, the wattmeter reading gives the core losses
of the transformer.
Sometimes, a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the HV winding.
Though, a voltmeter is connected, HV winding can be treated as open circuit as the
current through the voltmeter is negligibly small. This helps in to find voltage
transformation ratio (K).
The two components of no load current can be given as,
Iμ = I0sinΦ0 and Iw = I0cosΦ0.
cosΦ0 (no load power factor) = W / (V1I0). ... (W = wattmeter reading)
From this, shunt parameters of equivalent circuit parameters of equivalent circuit
of transformer (X0 and R0) can be calculated as
X0 = V1/Iμ and R0 = V1/Iw.
(These values are referring to LV side of the transformer.)
Hence, it is seen that open circuit test gives core losses of transformer and shunt
parameters of the equivalent circuit.

Short circuit or Impedance test on Transformer

The connection diagram for short circuit test or impedance test on transformer
is as shown in the figure below. The LV side of transformer is short circuited and
wattmeter (W), voltmere (V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the HV side of the
transformer. Voltage is applied to the HV side and increased from the zero until the
ammeter reading equals the rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated
current.

The ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (I sc).
The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared to rated voltage.
Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can be neglected. Thus, the wattmeter
reading can be taken as copper loss in the transformer.

Therefore, W = Isc2Req....... (where Req is the equivalent resistance of transformer)

Zeq = Vsc/Isc.
Therefore, equivalent reactance of transformer can be calculated from the formula
Zeq2 = Req2 + Xeq2.
These, values are referred to the HV side of the transformer.
Hence, it is seen that the short circuit test gives copper losses of transformer and
approximate equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer.

Why Transformers are rated in kVA?

From the above transformer tests, it can be seen that Cu loss of a transformer
depends on current, and iron loss depends on voltage. Thus, total transformer loss
depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does not depend on the phase angle between
voltage and current, i.e. transformer loss is independent of load power factor. This
is the reason that transformers are rated in kVA.
2.2. SUMPNER'S TEST OR BACK TO BACK TEST ON TRANSFORMER:

Sumpner's test or back to back test on transformer is another method for

determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded
conditions. Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us
parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer, but they cannot help us in finding
the heating information. Unlike O.C. and S.C. tests, actual loading is simulated in
Sumpner's test. Thus the Sumpner's test give more accurate results of regulation
and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.

Sumpner's test
Sumpner's test or back to back test can be employed only when two identical
transformers are available. Both transformers are connected to supply such that
one transformer is loaded on another. Primaries of the two identical transformers
are connected in parallel across a supply. Secondary’s are connected in series such
that emf's of them are opposite to each other. Another low voltage supply is
connected in series with secondary’s to get the readings, as shown in the circuit
diagram shown below.

In above diagram, T1 and T2 are identical transformers. Secondary’s of them are

connected in voltage opposition, i.e. EEF and EGH. Both the emf's cancel each other,
as transformers are identical. In this case, as per superposition theorem, no
current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is simulated. The
current drawn from V1 is 2I0, where I0 is equal to no load current of each
transformer. Thus input power measured by wattmeter W1 is equal to iron losses of
both transformers.
i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = W1/2.
Now, a small voltage V2 is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer. The voltage V2 is adjusted so that, the rated current I2 flows through
the secondary. In this case, both primaries and secondary’s carry rated current.
Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter W2 shows total full load copper
losses of both transformers.

i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = W2/2.

From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer can be given
as -

2.3. PARALLEL OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required?
It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than
installing bigger rated electrical power transformers.
a. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load
requirement.
b. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating
augmentation of the capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will
then be pressed into service.
c. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a
fault or is taken out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be
serviced.
d. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one
machine can be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load,
a spare of similar rating has to be available. The problem of spares becomes
more acute with fewer machines in service at a location.
e. When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site,
it may be easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers:
When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following
conditions for satisfactory performance.
• Same voltage ratio of transformer.
• Same percentage impedance.
• Same polarity.
• Same phase sequence.
Parallel Operation of Transformers With Equal Voltage Ratios
Let us now consider the case of two transformers connected in parallel having
equal voltage ratios. The two transformers are having no load secondary voltage
same. i.e. E1 = E2 = E. These voltages are in phase with each other. This is possible
if the magnetizing currents of the two transformers are not much different. With
this case the primaries and secondary’s of the two transformers can be connected
in parallel and no current will circulate under no load condition. This is
represented in the Fig. below.

If we neglect magnetizing components, the two transformers are represented as

shown in the Fig.below

The phasor diagram under this case is shown in the Fig. 3. The two impedances Z 1
and Z2 are in parallel. The values of Z1 and Z2 are with respect to secondary.
Z1 and Z2 are in parallel therefore the equivalent impedance is given by,
1/Zeq = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 Zeq = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 )
As seen from the phasor diagram
I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 = I Zeq
I1 = I Zeq/ Z1 = I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
I2 = I Zeq/ = I Z1/( Z1 + Z2 )
Multiplying both terms of above equation by voltage V 2,
V2 I1 = = V2 I Z2 /( Z1 + Z2 )
V2 I2 = V2 I Z1/( Z1 + Z2)
But V2 I x 10-3 is Q i.e. the combined load in KVA
From this KVA carried by each transformer is calculated as,
𝑍2 1
𝑄1 = 𝑄. = 𝑄.
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍
1 + 𝑍1
2
𝑍1 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 = 𝑄. = 𝑄.
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍
1 + 𝑍2
1

Parallel Operation of Transformers with Unequal Voltage Ratios

Now we will consider the case of two transformers working in parallel and
having unequal voltage ratio. This is shown in the Fig. below.
The voltage ratios of the two transformers are not equal. The parallel operation
under this case is still possible. But as seen previously there would be a circulating
current under no load condition.

Let us consider voltage ratio of transformer 1 is slightly more than 2. So that

induced e.m.f.. E1 is greater than E2. Thus the resultant terminal voltage will be E1
- E2 which will cause a circulating current under no load condition.
Ic = (E1 - E2)/(Z1 + Z2 )
From the circuit diagram we have,
E1 = V2 + I1 Z1
E2 = V2 + I2 Z2
Also, IL = I1 + I 2
V2 = IL ZL = ( II + I2 ) ZL

E1 = (I1 + I2) ZL + II Z1 .........(a)

E2 = (I1 + I2 ) ZL + I2 Z2 .......(b)

Subtracting equations (a) and (b) we have,

E1 - E2 = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2
I1 = ((E1 - E2) + I2 Z2) /Z1
Subtracting this value in equation (b),
(𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ) + 𝐼2 𝑍2
𝐸2 = 𝐼2 𝑍2 + [{ } + 𝐼2 ] 𝑍𝐿
𝑍1

. .. I2 = (E2 Z1 - (E1 - E2)ZL) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2))

Similarly, I1 = (E1 Z2 + (E1 - E2)ZL)/ (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2))
Adding the above equations,
I1 + I2 = (E1 Z2 + E2 Z1) / (Z1 Z2 + ZL (Z1 + Z2)) .............(c)
But IL = I1 + I 2
Load voltage, V2 = IL ZL
Dividing both numerator and denominator of equation (c) by Z 1 Z2,

𝐸1 𝐸2
+
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍 (𝑍 + 𝑍2 )
1+ 𝐿 1
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐸1 𝐸2
+
𝑍1 𝑍2
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍 𝑍
1 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝐿
2 1
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸1 𝐸2
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝐿 = [ ] 𝑍𝐿 =
𝑍 𝑍 1 1 1
1 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝐿 +𝑍 +𝑍
2 1 𝑍𝐿 2 1

If impedances Z1 and Z2 are small in comparision with load impedance ZL then

product Z1 Z2 may be neglected so we get,
𝐸1 𝑍2 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝐼1 = +
𝑍𝐿 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝐸2 𝑍1 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
𝐼2 = −
𝑍𝐿 (𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ) 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
But we know that
(E1 - E2) / (Z1 + Z2) = Ic
Key Point : This circulating current Ic adds to I1 but subtracts from I2. Hence
transformer 1 gets overloaded. The transformers will not share the load according
to their ratings.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. below.

The two transformers will operate at different power factor Φ 1 and Φ2 are the power
factor angles of these two transformers whereas Φ is the combined p.f. angle.
Here EA and EB have the same phase but there may be some phase difference
between the two due to some difference of internal connection as for the connection
in parallel of a Star/Star and a Star/Delta 3 phase transformers.

2.4. AUTOTRANSFORMERS:

• An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a

laminated core.
• An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the
way the primary and secondary winding are interrelated.
• “A part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary sides. On
load condition, a part of the load current is obtained directly from the supply
and the remaining part is obtained by transformer action”.
• In an Auto transformer the primary and the secondary windings are
connected magnetically as well as electrically

• The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB

acts as a secondary winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB, and
the load is connected across CB.
 • The tapping may be fixed or variable. When an AC voltage V 1 is applied
across AB, an alternating flux is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is
induced in the winding AB. A part of this induced emf is taken in the
secondary circuit.

Let,
• V1 – primary applied voltage
• V2 – secondary voltage across the load
• I1 – primary current
• I2 – load current
• N1 – number of turns between A and B
• N2 – number of turns between C and B
• Neglecting no load current, leakage reactance and losses,
• V1 = E1 and V2 = E2
Therefore the transformation ratio

• As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere turns, so the

current I2 is in phase opposition to I1. The secondary voltage is less than the
primary. Therefore current I2 is more than the current I1. Therefore, the
resulting current flowing through section BC is (I2 – I1)
• The ampere-turns due to section BC = current x turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere turns due to section BC and AC
balance each other which is characteristic of the transformer action.

VOLTAMPERE RELATIONS:
• A 2-winding Transformer transfers electrical power from primary to
secondary by induction.
• Where as in an auto transformer transfers electrical power between primary
and secondary circuits partly through the magnetic link (induction) and
partly by direct electrical connection (conduction).
• Thus auto transformer has two types of volt amperes (I) Transformed Volt
ampere and (II) Conducted Volt ampere
• Transformer action takes place in between winding AC and winding CB.
• In other words, the volt amperes across winding AC are transferred by
transformer action to the load connected across winding CB.
• Therefore Transformed VA = VAC IAC = (V1-V2)*I1.
• Total input VA to transformer = V1*I1 = output VA
 Therefore Transformed VA / Input VA = (1-K)
i.e. Out of the input volt amperes V1I1 only VAC IAC are transformed to the
output by transformer action.
• The rest of the volt amperes are conducted directly from the input.
• Therefore conducted VA = Total input VA – Tranformed VA = V1I1-(V1-V2)I1 =
V2I1
Therefore Conducted VA / Input VA = K
Neglecting internal impedance drops and losses,

Transformed Power/Input Power = (1-K)

Conducted Power/Input Power = K
2.5. COPPER SAVINGS IN AUTO TRANSFORMER
• The weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross -
sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its
number of turns and cross - sectional area varies with rated current.
• So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number
of turns and rated current of the winding..
• Therefore, weight of copper in the section A to C proportional to, = (N 1-N2)I1
• and similarly, weight of copper in the section C to B proportional to, = N 2(I2-
I 1)
• Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer = weight of copper
required in an ordinary transformer – weight of copper required in an auto
transformer
• Therefore Saving of Copper = K WTW
2.6. Conversion of two winding transformer into auto transformer:

1. Additive Polarity
2. Subtractive Polarity

1.Additive Polarity: (here Input voltage is V1 and output voltage is V1 + V2 .

Autotransformer with additive polarity is step up transformer)

2. Subtractive Polarity: (here Input voltage is V 1 and output voltage is V1 - V2 .

Autotransformer with sutractive polarity is step down transformer)
 2.7. COMPARISON OF TWO WDG TRANSFORMER WITH AUTO TRANSFORMER

• Ratings:
kVA rating as an autotransformer/kVA rating as a two winding transformer =
Primary input voltage V1 * Primary input current I1 /Primary voltage across wdg AC
* primary current in AC = V1 I1 / (V1 – V2) I1 = 1/ (1-k)
• Losses:
Per unit full load losses as auto transformer / per unit full load losses as two
winding transformer = (1-k)
• Impedance drop:
Per unit impedance drop as an auto transformer / per unit impedance drop as
two winding transformer = (1-k)
• Voltage regulations:
Regulation as an auto transformer / Regulation as two winding transformer =
(1-k)
• Short Circuit Current:
Per unit short circuit current as an auto transformer / per unit short circuit
current as two winding transformer = 1/ (1-k)
Advantages:
• An autotransformer requires less Cu than a two-winding transformer
of similar rating.
• An autotransformer operates at a higher efficiency than a two-winding
transformer of similar rating.
• An autotransformer has better voltage regulation than a two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
• An autotransformer has smaller size than a two-winding transformer of the
same rating.
• An autotransformer requires smaller exciting current than a two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
Applications:

• It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a

squirrel cage induction motor during starting.
• It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage
drop.
 • It is also used as a voltage regulator used in power transmission and
distribution system and also in the audio system and railways.
2.8.THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
 Almost all major generation & Distribution Systems in the world are three
phase ac systems
 Three phase transformers play an important role in these systems
 Transformer for 3 phase ckts is either:
 Constructed from 3 single phase transformers, or
 Another approach is to employ a common core for the three sets of
windings of the three phases
 The construction of a single three phase transformer is the preferred today,
it is lighter, smaller, cheaper and slightly more efficient
 There is an advantage that each unit in the bank could be replaced
individually in the event of a fault, however this does not outweigh the other
advantages of combined 3 ph. Unit.
 How the core of compact three phase is built with φa+φb+φc=0 and central
leg can be removed

• The windings of primary and secondary (in any construction) can be

connected in either a wye (Y) or delta (Δ)
• This provides a total of 4 possible connections for 3 phase transformer (if
Neutral is not grounded):
(a) Wye-wye Y-Y
(b) Wye-delta Y-Δ
(c) Delta-wye Δ-Y
(d) Delta-Delta Δ-Δ
• To analyze a 3-phase transformer, each single transformer in the bank
should be analyzed
• Any single phase in bank behaves exactly like 1 phase transformer just
studied
 • impedance, V.R., efficiency, & similar calculations for 3 ph. are done on per
phase basis, using the same technique already used in single phase
Transformer
• The applications, advantages and disadvantages of each type of three phase
connections will be discussed next
WYE-WYE CONNECTION
• In Y-Y connection, primary voltage on each phase is VφP=VLP/√3
• Primary phase voltage is related to secondary phase voltage by turns ratio of
transformer
• Phase voltage of secondary is related to Line voltage of secondary by VLS=√3
VφS
• Overall the voltage ratio of transformer is:

VLP 3VP
 K
VLS 3VS
• Two serious concerns on Y-Y connection
1- If loads on transformer cct. are unbalanced, voltages on phases of
transformer severely unbalanced, also source is loaded in an unbalanced
form.
2- Third harmonic voltages can be large (there is no path for passage of
third harmonic current)
• Both concerns on unbalance load condition & large 3 rd Harmonic voltages
can be rectified as follows:
• Solidly grounding the neutrals of windings, especially primary winding, this
connection provide a path for 3 rd harmonic current flow, produced and do
not let build up of large 3rd voltages. Also provides a return path for any
current imbalances in load.
• Adding a third winding (tertiary) connected in Δ
• (a) 3rd harmonic components of voltage in Δ will add up, causing a
circulating current flow within winding
• (b) tertiary winding should be large enough to handle circulating currents
(normally 1/3 of power rating of two main windings)
• One of these corrective techniques should be employed with Y-Y, however
normally very few transformer with this type of connection is employed
(others can do the same job).
•
WYE-DELTA CONNECTION
• VLP=√3 VφP, while : VLS= VφS
• Voltage ratio of each phase : VφP/ VφS=K
• VLP/ VLS= √3 VφP/ VφS= √3 K  Y-Δ
• Y-Δ doesn’t have shortcomings of Y-Y regarding generation of third harmonic
voltage since the Δ provide a circulating path for 3rd Harmonic
• Y-Δ is more stable w.r.t. unbalanced loads, since Δ partially redistributes any
imbalance that occurs.
• This configuration causes secondary voltage to be shifted 30◦ relative to
primary voltage.
• If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of
another transformer without phase shift, there would be a problem.
• The phase angles of secondary’s must be equal if they are to be paralleled, it
means that direction of phase shifts also should be the same
• In figure shown here, secondary lags primary if abc phase sequence applied,
• However secondary leads primary when acb phase sequence applied
DELTA-WYE CONNECTION
• In Δ-Y primary line voltage is equal to primary phase voltage VLP=VφP, in
secondary VLS=√3VφS
• Line to line voltage ratio ;
• VLP/ VLS = VφP/ [√3 VφS ]=K/√3  Δ-Y
• This connection has the same advantages & phase shifts as Y- Δ
• And Secondary voltage lags primary voltage by 30◦ with abc phase sequence

DELTA-DELTA CONNECTION
• In Δ-Δ connection VLP= VφP and VLS= VφS
• Voltage ratio : VLP/VLS= VφP / VφS =K  Δ-Δ
• This configuration has no phase shift and there is no concern about
unbalanced loads or harmonics

ADVANTAGES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS:

1. A three phase transformer occupied less space for same rating, compared to
a bank of three single phase transformers.
2. It weight is less
3. Its cost is less
4. Only one unit is required to be handled which makes it easy for the
operation
5. It can be transported easily.
6. The core will be of smaller size and material required for core is less.