28-03-2025

MODULE DISCUSSION:
Functional Dependency
▪ Definition and Types
▪ Armstrong's axioms / Inference Rules
▪ Closure
• Closure of Attributes set
• Candidate Key
• Minimal Cover / Canonical Cover / Irreducible Set

Normalization
▪ Definition
▪ Anomalies of un-Normalized Relation
▪ Need of Normalization
▪ Benefits of Normalization
▪ Types of Normalization
1. 1NF
2. 2NF
3. 3NF
4. BCNF
5. 4NF
▪ Normal form
• Identifying highest Normal Form
• Dependency Preserving
• Lossless Join Decomposition
• Conversion of Normal Forms

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

▪ Definition and Types
▪ Armstrong's axioms / Inference Rules
▪ Closure
• Closure of Attributes set
• Candidate Key
• Minimal Cover / Canonical Cover / Irreducible Set

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FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Dependencies means some attributes are dependent on other attributes.
Determinant

FD: α → β Dependent

“ β functionally dependent on α” OR “ α determine β”

Note: “If value of α same in two tuples then the values of β for the same tuples must be same ”
Examples:

α β α β
2 3 2 3
1 4 1 4
2 6 2 3

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Definition: “In any relation R, a functional dependency (FD): α → β holds if two tuples
having same value of attribute α also have same value for attribute β.”
i.e. FD: α → β this is true on a Relation (R) if two tuples t1. α = t2. α then t1. β = t2. β
FD: α → β
Student If t1. α = t2. α
Roll No Name Marks Dept Course Que:- Find all the FDs ? then t1. β = t2. β
α → β
1 A 78 CS C1 Roll No → Name
2 B 60 EE C1 Name → Roll No
3 A 78 CS C2
Roll No → Marks
Dept → Course
4 B 60 EE C3
Course → Dept
5 C 80 IT C3 Roll No, Name → Marks
6 D 80 EC C2 Name → Marks
Name, Mark → Dept
Name, Marks → Dept, Course

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FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Trivial FD:-
“A FD: α → β is said to be TFD if and only if β is a subset of α (or β ⊆ α ).” Trivial
Examples:-
Roll No → Roll No
Roll No, Name → Roll No
Non-Trivial
TFD is always valid no need to check their FD further. Functional
Dependency

Non-Trivial FD:- Multivalued

“A FD: α → β is said to be NTFD if β is not a subset of α ( or α ∩ β = Φ).”

This type of FD may be or may not be valid, for validity we must be

Transitive
check it in a relation.
It is an
Example:-
example of Figure: Types of Functional
Roll No, Marks → Roll No , Department
Semi-Trivial FD Dependency

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Advantages of FD:
✔Functional Dependency avoids data redundancy.

✔It helps you to maintain the quality of data in the database

✔It helps you to defined meanings and constraints of databases

✔It helps you to identify bad designs

✔It helps you to find the facts regarding the database design

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FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Armstrong’s axioms / Properties of FD and Inference Rules:
Rule-1 Reflexivity
x→ x
Primes Rules

x→ y if y ⊆ x (i.e. TFD)
Rule-2 Transitivity
if x→ y & y→ z
then x→ z
Rule-3 Augmentation
if x→ y
then xz→ yz (i.e. z is a common attribute(s))
Rule-4 Union
if x→ y & x→ z
Secondary Rules

then x→ yz
Rule- 5 Decomposition / Splitting
if x→ yz
then x→ y & x→ z
Rule-6 Pseudo Transitivity
if x→ y & yz → a
then xz→ a
Rule-7 Composition
if x→ y & w→ v
then xw→ yv

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Attribute Closure Set:- It will contain set of attribute(s) of the relation (R) determined by ‘X’. In other
words, Closure is a set of attributes X with respect to F are all attributes that are functionally determined by
X.
It is represented by X + .

Important terms
Super Key:- “Set of attributes whose closure contains attributes of given relation”.
Candidate Key:- “Super key or minimal super key or it is a super key whose proper subset is not a super
key”.
Prime Attributes:- “A Prime attribute must be a member of some candidate key”
Non-Prime Attributes:- “A Nonprime attribute is not a prime attribute—that is, it is not a member of any
candidate key”

Uses of Closure Attribute Set

To check whether an FD A → B can be derived from an FD set F,
1. Find (A) + using FD set F.
2. If B is subset of (A) +, then A → B is true else not true.

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FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Q.1 R(ABCDE), FD:-{A → B, B → C, C → D,D → E} find all the super and candidate
keys using Armstrong’s Axioms or Inference Rules ?

A + ={A,B,C,D,E}
B + ={B,C,D,E}
C + ={C,D,E}
D + ={D,E}
E + ={E}
AD + ={A,D,B,C,E}
Here,
AB,AD,AC,AE, ABC, ADE, AEC, ……. All 2 4=16 combinations are super key and only
one ‘A’ is the candidate key.

Q.2 R(ABCDE), FD:-{A → B, D → E} find all the super and candidate keys using attribute
closure set?

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Easiest way:-
Proper subset of ACD :-
ABCDE + ={A,B,C,D,E} A + ={A,B}
ACDE + ={A,B,C,D,E} C + ={C} No Super
Super
D + ={D,E} Keys
Key ACD + ={A,B,C,D,E}
AC + ={A,B,C}
CD + ={C,D,E}
AD + ={A,B,D,E}
Candidate
key ? Therefore, ACD is the candidate key .

Is there any
other
candidate
key(s) is
possible ?

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FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Finding Candidate Keys:-
Step 1: ABCDE + ={A,B,C,D,E} Q.2 R(ABCDE),
FD:-{A → B, D → E}
ACDE + ={A,B,C,D,E}
ACD + ={A,B,C,D,E}
Prime attributes: A, C, and D

Step 2: If no prime attributes i.e. A, C, and D is not available in the right hand side
of FD then we can say that now we will not find any candidate key.

Q.3 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A → B, B → C, C → A}

Q.4 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{AB →CB, D → B, C → A}
Q.5 R(A,B,C,D,E,F), FD:-{AB →C, C →DE, E →F, D→A, C →B}

FUNCtIONaL DEpENDENCy (FD)

Canonical Cover / Minimal Cover / Irreducible Sets of FDs:-
F1 is canonical cover of this F if
1. Redundant attribute / extraneous attribute
2. Redundant FD

Steps:-
1. Splitting rule so that in every RHS has single value
2. Remove extraneous attributes from LHS
3. Remove redundant FD.
FD:-{AB → C, C → AB, B → C, ABC → AC, A → C, AC → B}
Step 1:-{AB→C, C →A, C →B, B →C, ABC →A, ABC →C, A →C, AC →B} #Apply
Splitting Rules
Step 1:-{AB→C, C →A, C →B, B →C, ABC →A, ABC →C, A →C, AC →B} # Remove
extraneous or redundant attributes
Step 2:-{B→C, C →A, C →B, B →C, A →C, C →B} # Remove redundant FD
FD:-{C →A, B →C, A →C, C →B}

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NORMaLIZatION
▪ Definition
▪ Anomalies of un-Normalized Relation
▪ Need of Normalization
▪ Benefits of Normalization
▪ Types of Normalization
1. 1NF
2. 2NF
3. 3NF
4. BCNF
5. 4NF
▪ Normal form
• Identifying highest Normal Form
• Dependency Preserving
• Lossless Join Decomposition
• Conversion of Normal Forms

NORMaLIZatION
Student
Student Student Credits Department Building Name Room No
ID Name Name
1 Rahul 5 CSE B1 201
2 Jiya 8 CSE B1 201
3 Rohan 7 EE B2 204
4 Ipsita 4 ECE B10 206
5 Swati 5 IT B7 207
6 Juli 6 ME B7 289
7 Jagat 7 CE B9 278
8 Chandra 9 IT B7 207
Normalization is the process of reduce this data redundancy problem.
Data Due to redundancy there will be three main problem in larger schema:-
Redundancy 1. Insertion Anomaly
2. Update Anomaly
3. Deletion Anomaly

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NORMaLIZatION
Data Anomaly:- “When a data is having multiple copies at one place we update the data but we
forget to update the same data at another place. Now we can’t say which data is correct because we
have different value in different place for same data. This is called as data anomaly.”

1. Insertion Anomaly:-
Suppose we want to insert a new department information i.e. department name, building
name, and room no.

2. Update Anomaly:-
Suppose CSE department has been shifted from B1 to C1 and Room No from 201 to 203.

3. Deletion Anomaly:-
Suppose a student is pass-out from CSE department and I want to delete that student record.

NORMaLIZatION
Normalization is a database design technique that reduces data redundancy and eliminates
undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion Anomalies.
Normalization is the process of making the relation free from insertion, update, and deletion
anomaly and save space by reducing the redundant or duplicate data.
How to solve Insertion, Update and Deletion Anomalies ?
Normalization rules divides larger tables into smaller tables and links them using relationships.
Student Student Student Credits Department Dept Department Building Room No
ID Name Name Name Name
1 Rahul 5 CSE CSE B1 201
PK
2 Jiya 8 CSE EE B2 204
PK
3 Rohan 7 EE ECE B10 206
FK
4 Ipsita 4 ECE ME B7 289
5 Swati 5 IT CE B9 278
6 Juli 6 ME IT B7 207
7 Jagat 7 CE
8 Chandra 9 IT

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NORMaLIZatION
Benefits of Normalization
▪ Reduce space
▪ Reduce data redundancy
▪ Solve insertion, update, and deletion anomalies
▪ It simplify the queries
▪ It is important for OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) system where insert, update, delete
and queries exists very frequently by the end user
▪ It simplify the database structure

Decomposition of a large schema is not easy so, important point is how to decompose the table so
that the data will not get loss . Therefore, we need lossless decomposition.

NORMaLIZatION
First Normal Form(1st NF)

City

State Phno
Cid
Sadd

Hno takes
Student Course

Cname
Sid Sname Composite
Attribute Multivalued
Attribute

Sid Sname Sadd Phno

1 Rahul 304,Puri, Odisha 1234,567,892

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NORMaLIZatION
Definition:- “A relation is in first normal form if and only if all the attributes are atomic domains
or each column or each attributes should contain atomic values.”
Atomic values:- “It can not be further decomposed into smaller pieces by the DBMS or we can say
individually unique.”
Decompose the
composite
Convert to 1NF:- (Student) Attributes Make different tuple
First Method for each Multivalued
Attribute

Sid Sname Hno State City Phno

1 Rahul 304 Odisha BLS P1
1 Rahul 304 Odisha BLS P2
2 Puja 256 Odisha CTC P3

NOTE:-“A column should contain the value from same domain”

NORMaLIZatION
Rules:-
1. Each column should have unique name
2. No ordering to rows and columns
3. No duplicate rows/ tuples/ records

Second Method
Student

Sid Sname Hno State City Phno 1 Phno 2 Phno 3

1 Rahul 234 Odisha BLS 2344 3334 4334

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NORMaLIZatION
Rules:-
1. Each column should have unique name
2. No ordering to rows and columns
3. No duplicate rows/ tuples/ records

Third Method (Best way)

Student Phone

Sid Sname Hno State City Sid Phno

1 Rahul 204 Odisha BLS 1 12345
1 65645
Note:- “When we convert a ER Model into relational 1 652465
schema definitely that schema is in 1NF by default. It
is an essential property of relation in our relational
schema.”

NORMaLIZatION
Second Normal Form (2 nd NF)
Rules:-
1. If it is in 1NF
2. There will be no partial dependency in the relation that is proper subset of any candidate key will
determine non prime attributes.
Example:- R(ABCDEF), FD:- {A → B, B → C, C → D, D →E}
ABCDEF + ={A,B,C,D,E,F}
AF + ={A,B,C,D,E,F}

Candidate
Key Prime attributes:- A, F
Non-Prime attributes:- B,C,D,E NPA

A→B
PA Here partial dependency exists so it is not in 2NF

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NORMaLIZatION
Q.6 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{AB →CD, C →A, D →B} Check whether the given relational schema is in
2NF or not ?
Q.7 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B,B →C, C →D} Check whether the given relational schema is in 2NF
or not ?
Q.8 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B,B →D} Check whether the given relational schema is in 2NF or not ?

Note:- “If CK is having only single attribute then definitely that relation would be in 2NF.”

Drawbacks
✔ Data redundancy
✔ Update Anomaly

NORMaLIZatION
Third Normal Form (3 rd NF):-
Student
Sid Sname DOB State Country Pincode Credit
Data
1 Rahul 1998 Odisha IN 1224 C1 Redundancy

2 Jyoti 1997 Odisha IN 1224 C2

3 Puja 1999 Punjab IN 1223 c3

Student FK Country PK

PK Sid Sname DOB Pincode Credit State Country Pincode

1 Rahul 1998 1224 C1 Odisha IN 1224

2 Jyoti 1997 1224 C2 Punjab IN 1223

3 Puja 1999 1223 c3

Pincode → Country, State i.e. NPA → NPA
This problem tends to data redundancy and this type of dependency is known as transitive
dependency. If transitive dependency is there in the table then that table is not in 3NF.

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NORMaLIZatION
Rules:-
1. It is in 2NF
2. It does not contain any transitive dependency for non-prime attributes.

Transitive Dependency
A →B&B→C

A→C
Non-prime Non-prime
attributes attributes
A table is in 3NF if and only if for each of its non-trivial FD at least one of the following conditions
holds
1. LHS is Super Key
2. RHS is prime attributes

NORMaLIZatION
Q.7 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {A → B, B → C, C → D}
Q.8 R(A,B,C,D,E,F), FD:{AB → CDEF, BD → F}
Q.9 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:-{A →B, B →C, C →D, D →A}

Note:- “Combination of prime and non-prime attributes always tends to non-prime attributes.”

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NORMaLIZatION
Boyce-Codd Normal form (BCNF)
3NF can not solve the data redundancy problem when we have multiple overlapping candidate
key like
AB
BC
CD
3NF can not handle this type of problem of cases so we need BCNF.

It is just a stronger or advanced version of 3NF.

It was developed by Raymond F. Boyce and Edgar F. Codd .

Rules:-
1. It is in 3NF
2. For each non-trivial FD i.e. X →Y, X must be super key or candidate key.

NORMaLIZatION
Q.10 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {A → B, B → C, C → A}
Q.11 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:-{A →BCDE, BC →ACE, D →E}
Q.12 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:- {AB →DCE, D →A} find highest normal form.
Q.13 R(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H), FD:-{ABC → DE, E →GH, H →G, G →H, ABCD →EF} find
highest normal form.
1NF
2NF
3NF

BCNF

Ven diagram of Normalization

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NORMaLIZatION
Q.10 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {AB → CD, AC → BD, BC → D}
Q.11 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:-{AB → CDE, D →BE}, CK:- AB,AD
Q.12 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:- {AE →BC, AC →D, CD →BE, D →E}, CK:- AD, AC, AE
Q.13 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {AB →C, ABD →C, ABC →D, AC →D}, CK:- AB
Q.14 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {A →BCD, BC →AD, D →B}, CK:- A, BC, CD
Q.15 R(A,B,C), FD{A →B, B →AC}, CK:- A,B

Important Points
❖If all CK are simple or single attribute then it would be in 2NF.
❖If all attributes of a relation are prime attributes, then it would be in 3NF.
❖If relation is in 3NF and all CKs are simple then it is in BCNF

NORMaLIZatION
Fourth Normal Form (4 th NF):-
Rules:-
1. It should be BCNF
2. It should not have multivalued dependency

Multivalued Dependency:- “Any dependency A →B is said to be multivalued dependency if single

value of A1 tuple have more than one value exists i.e. B1 and B2 also table should have at least 3
columns to have multivalued dependency (Because if we have only 2 columns in a table, we can
simply distribute the multivalued data into multiple rows and there is no need to decompose the
table) and two other columns must not depended on each other. ”
OR
Conditions for Multivalued Dependency:-
1. A → → B , for a single value of A more than one value of B exists.
2. Table should have at least three columns
3. For this table with A,B, C columns, B and C should be independent.

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NORMaLIZatION
No
Enrolment Dependency

Sid Course Hobby

It is a bad DB design so we need to decomposed. Here, Sid → → Course
1 Science Cricket and Sid → → Hobby.
1 Maths Hockey Course Opted Hobbies
2 C# Cricket Sid Course Sid Hobby
1 Science 1 Cricket
2 Php Hockey
1 Maths 1 Hockey
2 C# 2 Cricket
2 Php 2 Hockey
Note:- “Sometimes a table can have both FD and multivalued dependency.”
Example:- Let’s add a new column add to enrolment table.
Here,
So,
Sid Add Course Hobby
Sid →Add. Course Opted(Sid,Course)
1 Science Cricket Hobbies(Sid,Hobby)
Sid → → Course
1 Maths Hockey Address(Sid,Add)
Sid → → Hobby.

NORMaLIZatION
Decomposition
Decomposition means divide relation into multiple sub relation and it should follow
1. Dependency Preserving
2. Lossless
1. Dependency Preserving
R(A,B,C) R1(A,B) R2(B,C)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 1 1 2
3 2 1 3 2 2 1
4 2 2 4 2 2 2
G FD:- F={A →B, A →C,A →BC,BC →A} FD:-F1={A →B} FD:-F2{ }

If F1 ∪ F2 =F
then F ≡ G OR G ≡ F

The dependency set of original relations are been preserving after decomposition of this relation.

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NORMaLIZatION
Example:- R(A,B,C,D,E)
FD:-{A →B, B →C,C →D,D →A}
R1(A,B,C) R2(C,D,E)

A + ={A,B,C,D} C + ={A,B,C,D}
A + ={A,B,C,D} C + ={A,B,C,D}
+
A ={B,C} C + ={D}
+
B ={B,C,D,A} D + ={A,B,D,C}
B + ={C,A} D + ={C}
+
C ={C,D,A,B} E + ={E}
+
C ={A,B} CE + ={E,C,D,A,B}
AB + ={A,B,C,D} (It is duplicate because A → C and AB → C)
BC + ={B,C,D,A}
AC + ={B,C,D,A}

FD:-F1={A →BC,B →AC, C →AB} FD:F2={C →D, D→C}

NORMaLIZatION

FD:-F1={A →BC, B →AC, C →AB} FD:F2={C →D, D→C}

F1 ∪ F2=G={A →BC ,B →AC, C →AB,C →D, D→C}

FD:-F={A →B,
A + ={A,B,C,D} B →C , C →D,
B + ={A,B,C,D} D →A}
C + ={A,B,C,D}
D + ={D,C,A,B}
Note:- “Hence G covers F and F covers G. G is a superset of F. Each FD of F is a member of G”.

Sometimes BCNF decomposition will not dependency preserving but upto 3NF it is always
possible to dependency preserving decomposition.

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NORMaLIZatION
Q.16 R(A,B,C,D,E), FD:- {A →BCD, B →AE, BC →AED, D →E, C →DE}
R1(A,B), R2(B,C), and R3(C,D,E).
Q.17 R(A,B,C,D), FD:- {A →B, C → D}
R1(A,C) and R2(B,D)
Q.19 (A,B,C,D,E), FD:- {A →BCDE, BC →AED, D →E}
R1(A,B), R2(B,C), and R3(C,D,E)
Q.20 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B, B →C, C →D, D →A}
R1(A,B), R2(B,C), and R3(C,D)

NORMaLIZatION
2. Lossless Join Decomposition
R(A,B,C) R1(A,B) R2(B,C)
R
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Decomposition
2 1 2 2 1 1 2 R1 R2
3 2 1 3 2 2 1 R
4 3 2 4 3 3 2 Join

Definition:- “Data composition of a relation R is said to be lossless if it feasible to reconstruct R

from decomposed sub relations using joins. ”
Cartesian Product Natural Join R1 ⋈ R2
R1(A,B) R2(B,C) R1(A,B) X R2(B,C) R1.B = R2.B So, R1.B = R2.B
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 Extra
3 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 Records
4 3 3 2 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
3 2 2 1 3 2 1
Duplicate 4 3 3 2 4 3 2

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NORMaLIZatION
Note:- “After join we must have same record no loss in record or no extra records. ”

Property 1:- “The union of attributes of decomposed relation must be equal with the attributes of
actual relation. ”
Attribute(R1) ∪ Attribute(R2)= Attribute(R)

Property 2:- “Result of natural join should be same as the result of Cartesian product. ”

Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) ≠ Φ

Property 3:- “If the common attributes is the super key of either R1 and R2, then definitely that
would be lossless join decomposition.”
Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) = Attribute(R1)
OR
Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) = Attribute(R2)

NORMaLIZatION
Example:-
R(A,B,C) R1(A,B) R2(A,C) Natural Join R1 ⋈ R2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2
3 2 1
3 2 1 3 2 3 1 4 3 2
4 3 2 4 3 4 2 R1 ⋈ R2=R1

1. Attribute(R1) ∪ Attribute(R2)= Attribute(R) ✓

2. Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) ≠ Φ ✓
3. Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) = Attribute(R1) ✓
OR
Attribute(R1) ∩ Attribute(R2) = Attribute(R2) ✓
Therefore, R1 and R2 decomposition is lossless.

Q. R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B, B → C, C → A}, R1(A,B,C) and R2(C,D)

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NORMaLIZatION
Example:- R(A,B,C,D,E,F)
FD:-{AB → C,C → D,D → EF, F → A,D → B}
D:-{ABC, CDE, EF}

R1(A,B,C) R2(C,D,E) R3(E,F)

C is common attribute in R1 and R2

C must be the candidate key of R1 or R2
R12(A,B,C,D,E) i.e. C → AB or C → DE
So, C + →{C,D,E,F,A,B}
Lossless Join
Decomposition Lossy Join
R123(A,B,C,D,E,F) Decomposition

NORMaLIZatION
Converting of Normal Forms ((Form 1NF to 2NF)
R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B, B →C}
ABCD + ={A,B,C,D} As A →B, B →C
AD + ={A,B,C,D} So, Prime attributes:- A and D
CK A →B (PD is present so, this relation is not in 2NF)
A+ ={A,B,C} So R1(A,B,C) and R2(A,D)
A+ ={A,B,C} So, A →BC A+ ={A,B,C}
B+ ={B,C} So, B →C D+ ={D}
C+ ={C} Therefore, Check whether it is in
Therefore, F1:-{ } decomposition preserving or
F1:-{A →BC, B →C} not …… F1 ∪ F2 =F
Note:- If PA is a single It was already in BCNF {A →BC, B →C}
attribute then there will be
no PD so it is in 2NF It is decomposition preserving
as well as lossless joint
Now we can say the relation is in 2NF (As it is in lowest form)
decomposition.

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NORMaLIZatION
Q.21 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B, C → D}
Q.22 R(A,B,C,D), FD:-{A →B, B → C, C → D}
Q.23 R(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H), FD:-{A →BD,B →C,E →FG,AE →H}

thaNk yOU….

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