Unit 2 – Ecosystems

UNIT-2
SYLLABUS

Ecosystems: Concept of an ecosystem. - Structure and function of an ecosystem. - Producers,

consumers and decomposers. -Energy flow in the ecosystem -Ecological succession. - Food
chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. - Introduction, types, characteristic features,
structure and function of Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem, Aquatic
ecosystems.

ECOSYSTEM
Ecology :- The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek
Words OIKOS - home + logos – study. So ecology deals with study of organisms in their natural
home interacting with their surroundings. The surroundings or environment consists of other living
organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components.
Ecosystem – The term Ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley. It is defined as a natural
unit that consists of living and non-living parts which interact to form a stable system.
Or
An ecosystem is a self-regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting with
one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Now
ecology is often defined as “the study of ecosystem.

Structure of Ecosystem :–
Composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic components constitute the
structure of an ecosystem.
Structural features: Composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic
components constitute the structure of an ecosystem.

1. Biotic Structure: The plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the
biotic component. These organisms have different nutritional behaviour and status in the
ecosystems and are accordingly known as Producers or Consumers, based on how do their get
their food.
(a) Producers: They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by
making use of carbon dioxide present in the air and water in the presence of sunlight by
involving chlorophyll, the green pigment present in the leaves, through the process of
photosynthesis. Those are also known as Photoautotroph.

There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some extent through
oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic
organisms or chemoautotrophs.

For instance in the ocean depths, where there is no sunlight, chemoautotrophic sulphur bacteria
make use of the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in the earth’s core
and released in ocean’s depths. They use this heat to convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide (H 2S)
and carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds.

(b) Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding upon other organisms
are called consumers, which are of the following types:

 Herbivores (Plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known as
Primary Consumers. e.g., rabbit, insect, man.
 Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores, they
are called Secondary consumers (e.g., frog) and if they feed on other carnivores (snake, big
fish etc.) they are known tertiary carnivores/consumers. 
 Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals e.g. humans, rat, fox, many birds.
 Detrivores (Detritus feeders Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead organisms,
wastes of living organisms, their castoffs and partially decomposed matter e.g. beetles,
termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.
(c) Decomposers: They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules
to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients. Various bacteria and fungi
are decomposers.
In all the ecosystems, this biotic structure prevails. However, in some, it in the primary
producers which predominate (e.g. in forests, agro ecosystems) while in others the decomposers
predominate (e.g. deep ocean).

2. Abiotic Structure:
The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure. It
includes climatic factors, edaphic (soil) factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and toxic
substances.

a) Physical factors: The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours,
average temperature, maximum-minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude and
altitude, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. are some of the important physical
features which have a strong influence on the ecosystem.
b) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, level of toxic substances, salts causing
salinity and various organic substances present in the soil or water largely influence the
functioning of the ecosystem.
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES:

Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic way. It receives energy from
the sun and passes it in through various biotic components and in fact, all life depends upon this
flow of energy. Besides energy, various nutrients and water are also required for life processes,
which are exchanged by the biotic components within themselves, with their abiotic components,
also regulate them in a very systematic manner, and show mechanisms to encounter some degree
of environmental stress. The major functional attribute of an ecosystems are as follows:
i. Food chain, food webs and trophic structure.
ii. Energy flow
iii. Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
iv. Primary and Secondary production
v. Ecosystem development and regulation

Function Of Ecosystem
The major functional attributes of an ecosystem are as follows:

a) Food Chain:- The sequence of eating and being eaten is known as food chain.

Types of food chain:

I) Grazing food chain:– It starts with green plants (primary producers) and culminates
incarnivores.
e.g. : grass------>rabbit ------ >fox---->tiger

II) Detritus food chain:– It starts with dead organic matter which decomposers consume.
e.g. : - dead plants ------> soil mites----->insects--- >lizards
b) Food Web:
It is defined as a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each
trophic level.

Significance of Food Chain And Food Webs -

 Energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through them.
 Helps to maintain the ecological balance.
 Food chain shows a unique property called BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION ( the increase
in toxicity of some non-biodegradable components as we move from one trophic level to
another)

c) Trophic Structure – The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a definite
manner and their interactions along with population size are expressed together as trophic
structure.
d) Energy Flow:-
Energy flow takes place through food chain. The source of energy for most of the ecosystem
is the SUN. It is always “UNIDIRECTIONAL” and “CONTINUOUS”. Energy flow follows
the two laws of THERMODYNAMICS :

1st law of thermodynamics- It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it
can be transformed from one form to another. The solar energy captured by the green plants (
producers) gets converted into biochemical energy of plants and later into that of consumers.
2nd law of thermodynamics – It states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other words it
gets converted from a more concentrated to dispersed form. The energy gets dissipated as it
moves from one trophic level to another and at each trophic level 90% loss occurs and only 10%
of the energy gets transferred. Hence this is otherwise known as 10% LAW.

Ecological pyramids:

Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producers
at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological pyramid.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:

Pyramid of numbers:

It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. The producers in
the grassland Ecosystem are grasses, which are small and very large in number. Therefore, the
producers form a broad base. The herbivores are insects while tertiary carnivores are hawks or
other birds, which are, become gradually narrower forming an upright pyramid. Similar is the
case with the herbivores, carnivores and top carnivores in pond, which decrease in number
higher trophic levels.
 In a forest ecosystem, big trees are the producers, which are less in number and
hence form a narrow base. A larger number of herbivores including birds, insects and several
species of animals feed upon the trees (on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark etc.) and form a much
broader middle level. The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards etc. are less in number
than herbivores while top carnivores, as lion, tiger etc. are still smaller in number. Therefore, the
pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle.

Pyramid of biomass:
It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid
of biomass can also be upright. The pyramid of biomass in grassland and aquatic ecosystem.
The producers accumulate a huge biomass while the consumers total biomass feeding on them
declines at higher trophic levels, resulting in broad base and narrowing top.

The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. The total biomass of
producers is (phytoplankton) much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects),
Carnivores (small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus, the pyramid takes an inverted
shape with narrow base and broad apex.
Pyramid of Energy:

The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid.
Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and it is always
upright.

At each successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of
heat, respiration etc, Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence,
there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as we move from
producers to top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright.

e) CYCLING OF NUTRIENTS (BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES)

The cycling of chemicals from abiotic to biotic components of the ecosystem and vise
versa is known as BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING.
Besides energy flow, the other important functional attitude of an ecosystem is
nutrient cycling. Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen; hydrogen, phosphorus etc.
move in circular paths through biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as
biogeochemical cycles. Water also moves in a cycle, known as hydrological cycle. The nutrients
to move through the food chain and ultimately reach the detritus compartment (containing dead
organic matter) where various microorganisms carry out decomposition. Various organically
bound nutrients of dead plants and animals are converted into inorganic substances by microbial
decomposition that is readily used up by plants (primary producers) and the cycle starts afresh

Nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amounts (78%) and it is fixed either by the
physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and /or cyanobacteria (blue green
algae). The nitrogen in taken up by plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino
acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and pass through the food chain. After death of the plants and
animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues is decomposed but several groups of ammonifying
and nitrifying bacteria, which convert them into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again
used by plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates, into molecular nitrogen or N2, which is released,
back into the atmosphere and the cycle goes on.
Carbon cycle:

Green plants take up Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide as a raw material for photosynthesis,
through which variety of carbohydrates and other organic substances are produced. Through the
food chain, it moves and ultimately organic carbon present in the dead matter is returned to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide by microorganisms. Respiration by all organisms‟ produces carbon
dioxide, while the latter is used up is plants.

Phosphorus cycle:

The reservoir of Phosphorus lies in the rocks, fossil fuels etc. that is excavated by operate for
using it as a fertilizer. A good proportion of phosphates moving with surface runoff reaches the
oceans and is lost into the deep sediments. Our limited supply of phosphorus lying in the
phosphate rocks of this earth are thus over-exploited by man and a large part is taken out of the
normal cycle due to loss into oceans. Therefore, human beings are makings the phosphorous
cycle acyclic. Sea birds, on the other hand, are playing as phosphorus rich and the droppings or
excreta of the birds return the phosphorus on the land.
f) PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY -

Primary Productivity – It is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is converted into organic
substances by the process called photosynthesis by the producers.

Secondary Productivity- The energy stored at consumer level for the use by the next trophic
level is known as secondary productivity.

g) ECOSYSTEM REGULATION (HOMEOSTATIS) -

The ecosystem by itself tries to resist the change and maintain itself in equilibrium with
the environment due to a property known AS HOMEOSTATIS. It is an inherent property to all
living organisms to resist the change. But this resistance is within a maximum and minimum
range, which is known as “HOMEOSTATIC PLATEAU.” Within this range, the system
counteracts the changes or deviations which are known as “NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
MECHANISM.” Positive feedback mechanisms add accelerated stress and tend to take the
system away from optimal conditions.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION -

Definition –The process by which one community replaces another over a period of
time andsimultaneously several changes also occur.

In this process the first establishing community is called “PIONEER COMMUNITY”

Ecologically succeeding or the next following stages are known as “SERAL STAGES”

Ecological succession starts on different substrates-

I) HYDROSERA/ HYDRARCH – Starts in the water bodies like ponds, swamps.
II) MESOSERA / MESARCH – Starts in an area which has adequate moisture.
III) XEROSERA / XERARCH – Starts in a dry area with little moisture.
PROCESS OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:

Nudation: – Development of bare area due to different causes ( like disasters or climatic
factors)
Invasion: Entry of one or more species in the bare area through dispersal of seeds or migration.

Ecesis – Establishment of the species in that particular area is known as Ecesis.

Aggregation – The established species form groups: this formation of groups is known as
aggregation.

Competition and co action – Creatures compete for food, water and space; and creatures
influence each other in many ways( co action)

Reaction – Living organisms use the resources for their development and in turn they have
strong influence on the environment.

Stabilization - This is the final stage known as climax stage or equilibrium stage where in only
the species which are able to sustain the changes only can survive till this stage.

e.g ecological succession in hydrosera

FREE FLOATING -----> ROOTED FLOATING ----->MARSHY VEGETATION --- >WOOD

LAND (Shrubs and herbs) ----- >FORESTS (tall trees) Primary Succession

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSION:

It is the development of biotic community from abiotic or lifeless community (Example, barren
rock) or a denuded/barren land that is devoid of life forms. This stage begins with tough
organisms that can grow under adverse conditions called as pioneer stage. These species grow
best because there is little competition for space and resources. Example, mosses, dandelion,
foxglove, willow. New species migrate to the new area utilizing the nutrients available, such as,
lichens growing on a rock, mosses growing on a stone wall.

Examples :

a. Barren Rock- It forms the abiotic community.

b. Lichens- They invades the barren rocks and comprises the biotic community. As they were
the first to invade the rocks, they are known as pioneers. Lichens obtain nutrients from the
rock and produce primitive soil when dead.
c. Most - Replaces the lichens in due course of time and enhances the soil formation.
d. Herbs- Herbs replace the moss and its roots produce carbonic acid which dissolves the
rocks, thereby enhancing the soil formation.
e. Shrubs- Shrubs replace herbs and contribute to humus/organic content to the soil. Example,
wild raisin.
f. Deciduous Trees- Replaces the shrubs. Example, white birch.
g. Conifers- Conifers outgrow the deciduous trees and provide shade to them
(Example, balsam fir). This stage of vegetative succession is the last, hence the
conifers comprises the climax community.

Secondary Succession-

It is the development of new community over the well-developed existing

community, thereby replacing the first community. It occurs as a result of
natural catastrophes such as fire, volcano, flooding or by human interference.
It happens in a short period of time because the soil is already formed and
seeds may be present.
Example, forest community replaced by cultivated crop lands due to human
involvement.
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM :
Let us consider types, characteristics features, structure and functions of some major
ecosystems.

FOREST ECOSTSTEM:
These are the ecosystems having a predominance of trees that are interspersed with a large
number of species of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens, algae and a wide variety of wild
animals and birds.
Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various types:

a) TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS:

They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator. They are
characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which
favour the growth of trees.
We come across different types and layers of plants and animals in the tropical rain
forests. E.g. the emergent layer is the topmost layer of the tallest broad-leaf
evergreen trees, below which lies the canopy where top branches of shorter trees form
an umbrella like cover. Below this present the understory of still smaller trees. On
the tree trunks some woody climbers are found to grow which are known as lianas.
There are some other plants like Orchids which epiphytes i.e. they are attached to the
trunks or branches of big trees and they take up water and nutrients falling from
above. The orchids have special type of leaves to capture and hold the water. Some
large epiphytes can hold as much as 4 litres of water, equivalent to a small bucket!
Thus, these epiphytes almost act like mini-ponds suspended up in the air, in the forest
crown. That is the reason why a large variety of birds, insects and animals like
monkeys have made their natural homes (habitats) in these forests.
The understory trees usually receive very dim sunlight. They usually develop dark
green leaves with high chlorophyll content so that they can use the diffused sunlight
for photosynthesis. The shrub layer receives even less sunlight and the ground
layer commonly known as forest floor receives almost no sunlight and is a dark
layer. Most of the animals like bats birds insects etc. Occupy the bright canopy layer
while monkeys, toads, snakes, chameleons etc. Keep on moving up and down is
sunny and darker layers, Termites, fungi, mushrooms etc. grow on the ground layer.
Warm temperature and high availability of moisture facilitate rapid breakdown
(decomposition) of the dropped leaves, twigs etc. Releasing the nutrients rapidly.
These nutrients are immediately taken up by the mycorrhizal roots of the trees.
Interestingly, the flowers of forest trees are very large, colourful, fragrant and
 attractive which helps in pollination by insects, birds, bats etc. Rafflesia arnoldi, the
biggest flower (7kg weight) is known to smell like rotten meat and attracts flies and
beetles which help in its pollination
The silent valley in Kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in India which is the
natural habitat for a wide variety of species.
Being the store-house of biodiversity, the forests provide us with an array of
commercial goods like timber, fuel wood, drugs, resins, gums etc. Unfortunately
there is cutting down of these forests at an alarming rate. Within the next 30-40 years
we are likely to be left with only scattered fragments of such forests, thereby losing
the rich biodiversity.
b) Tropical deciduous forests:
They are found a little away from the equator and are characterized by a warm
climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon. A large part of the year
remains dry and therefore different types of deciduous trees are found here, which
lose their leaves during dry season.
c) Tropical Scrub forests:
They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer. Here there are small
deciduous trees and shrubs.
d) Temperate rain forests:
They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These are dominated by
coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc. They also consist of some evergreen
broadleaf trees.
e) Temperate deciduous forests:
They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. There is a marked
seasonality with long summers, cold but not too severe winter abundant rainfall
throughout the year. The major trees include broad leaf deciduous trees like oak,
hickory, poplar etc.
f) Evergreen coniferous forests(Boreal Forests):
They are fund just south of arctic tundra. Here winters are long, cold and dry.
Sunlight is available for a few hours only. In summer the temperature is mild, sun-
shines for long hours but the season is quite short. The major trees include pines,
spruce, fir, cedar etc. Which have tiny, needle-shaped leaves having a waxy coating
so that they can withstand severe cold and drought. The soil is found to get frozen
during winter when few species can survive. The leaves, also known as needles, fall
on the forest floor and cover the nutrient poor soil. These soils are acidic and prevent
other plants from growing. Species diversity is rather low in these forests.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSEM:
Grasslands are dominated by grass species but sometimes also allow the growth
of a few trees and shrubs. Rain fall is average but erratic. Limited grazing helps to
improve the net primary production of the grasslands but overgrazing leads to
degradation of these grasslands but overgrazing leads to degradation of these
grasslands resulting in desertification.

Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions:

a) Tropical grasslands:
They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high average
temperature and low to moderate rainfall. In Africa, these are typically known as
Savannas, which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. The
Savannas have a wide diversity of animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle,
antelopes etc. During dry season, fires are quite common. Termite mounds are very
 common here the termites gather the detritus containing a lot of cellulose and in turn
release methane, a greenhouse gas.
Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. Most of the
carbon assimilated by them in the form of carbohydrates is in the parenting bulbs,
rhizomes, runners etc. Which are present underground. Deliberate burning of these
grasslands can release huge quantities of carbon dioxide, another greenhouse gas,
responsible for global warming.
b) Temperate grasslands:
They are usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills, winters are very cold but
summers are hot and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or
trees to grow.
In United State and Canada these grasslands are known as Prairies, in South
America as pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and Asia they are known
as Steppes.
Winds keep blowing and evaporation rate is very high. It also favours rapid fires in
summer. The soils are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands are
cleared for agriculture.
c) Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra):
They are found in Arctic polar region where severe cold and strong, frigid winds
along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow. In summers the
sunshines almost round the clock and hence several small annual plants grow. In
summers the grow in the summer. The animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox,
reindeer etc., A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the
year and is known as permafrost. In summer, the Tundra shows the appearance of
shallow lakes, bogs etc. Where mosquitoes different types of insects and migratory
birds appear.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
These ecosystem occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation(rainfall,
snow etc.). The precipitation is less than 25 cm per year. About 1/3 rd of our world’s
land area is covered by deserts. Deserts have little species diversity and consist of
drought resistant or drought avoiding plants. The atmosphere is very dry and hence it
is a poor insulator. That is why in deserts the soil gets cooled up quickly, making the
nights cool. Deserts are of three
major types, based on climatic conditions:
a) Tropical deserts:
Like Sahara and Namibia in Africa and Thar desert, Rajasthan, India are the driest
of all with only a few species. Wind blow sand dunes are very common.
b) Temperate deserts:
Like Mojave in Southern California where day time temperatures are very hot in
summer but cool in winters.
c) Cold deserts:
Like the Gobi desert in China has cold winters and warm summers.
Desert plants and animals are having most typical adaptations for conservation of
water. Many desert plants are found to have reduced, scaly leaves so as to cut down
loss of water due to transpiration or have succulent leaves to store water. Many a
times their stems get flattened and develop chlorophyll so that they can take up the
function of photosynthesis. Some plants show very deep roots to tap the groundwater.
Many plants have a waxy, thick cuticle over the leaf to reduce loss of water through
transpiration. Desert animals like insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to
minimize loss of water. They usually live inside burrows where humidity is better and
 heat is less. Desert soil is rich in nutrients but deficient in water.
Due to low species diversity, shortage of water and slow growth rate, the desert
plant communities, if faced with a severe stress take a long time to recover.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:
Aquatic ecosystem dealing with water bodies and the biotic communities present in
them are either freshwater or marine. Freshwater ecosystems are further of standing
type (lentic) like ponds and lakes or free-flowing type (lotic), like rivers. Let us
consider some important aquatic ecosystems.
1) Pond ecosystem:
It is a small freshwater aquatic ecosystem where water is stagnant. Ponds may be
seasonal in nature i.e. receiving enough water during rainy season. Ponds are usually
shallow water bodies which play a very important role in the villages where most of the
activities center around ponds. They contain several types of algae, aquatic plants,
insects, fishes and birds. The ponds are, however, very often exposed to tremendous
anthropogenic (human - generated) pressures. They arte used for washing clothes,
bathing, swimming, cattle bathing and drinking etc. And therefore get polluted.
2) Lake ecosystem:
Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies with standing water. They have a shallow
water zone called Littoral zone, an open – water Zone where effective penetration of
solar light takes place, called Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light
penetration is negligible, known as profundal zone

Zonation in a lake ecosystem

The Dal Lake in Srinagar (J&K), Naini Lake in Nainital (Uttarakhand) and Loktak
Lake in Manipur are some of the famous lakes of our country.
Organisms:
The lakes have several types of organisms:
a) Planktons : float on the surface of waters e.g., Phytoplanktons like algae and
zooplanktons like rotifers.
b) Nektons that swim e.g., fishes.
c) Neustons that rest or swim on the surface.
d) Benthos that are attached to bottom sediments e.g., snails.
e) Periphytons that are attached or clinging to other plants or any other surface e.g.,
crustaceans.
Stratification:
 The lakes show stratification or zonation based on temperature differences. During
summer, the top waters become warmer than the bottom waters. Therefore, only the
warm toplayer circulates without mixing with the colder layer, thus forming a distinct
zonation.
Epiliminon:
Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer.
Hypolimnion:
Cold, viscous, non-circulating bottom layer.
In between the two layers is thermocline, the region of sharp drop in temperature.
Types of Lakes:
a) Oligotrophic lakes:
Which have low nutrient concentrations.
b) Eutrophic lakes:
Which are over nourished by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, usually as
a result of agricultural run-off or municipal sewage discharge. They are covered
with “algal blooms” e.g. Dal Lake.
c) Dystrophic lakes:
That have low pH, high humic acid content and brown waters e.g. bog lakes.
d) Endemic lakes:
Which are very ancient, deep and have endemic fauna which are restricted only
to that lake e.g. the Lake Baikal in Russia; the deepest lake, which is now suffering
a threat due to industrial pollution.
e) Desert salt lakes:
Which occurs in arid region and have developed high salt concentrations as a
result of high evaporation. E.g. Great salt lake, Utah; Sambhar lake in Rajasthan.
f) Volcanic lakes:
Which receives water from magma after volcanic eruptions e.g. many lakes in
Japan. They have highly restricted biota.
g) Meromictic lakes:
Which are rich in salts and are permanently stratified e.g. lake Nevada.
h) Artificial lakes or impoundments:
Which are created due to construction of dams e.g. Govindasagar lake at
Bhakra-Nangal.
3) River Ecosystem:
Rivers are large streams that flow downward form mountain highlands and flowing
through the plains fall into the sea. So the river ecosystems show a series of different
conditions.
Oceans:
These are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than 70% of our earth’s
surface and play a key role in the survival of about 2,50,000 marine species, serving as
food for humans and other organisms, give a huge variety of sea-products and drugs.
Oceans provide us iron, phosphorus, magnesium, oil, natural gas, sand and gravel.
Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play an important role in
regulating many biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle, thereby regulating the
earth’s climate.
The oceans have two major life zones:
Costal zone with relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients
and ample sunlight this is the zone of high primary productivity.
Open sea: It is deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf (The
submerged part of the continent). It is vertically divided into three regions:
Euphotic zone: Which receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetic activity.
Bathyal zone: Receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
Abyssal zone: it is the dark zone, 2000 to 5000 metres deep. The abyssal zone has no
primary source of energy i.e. solar energy. It is the world’s largest ecological unit but it
is an incomplete ecosystem.
Eastury:
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river where fresh
water and salty seawater meet. These are the transition zones which are strongly
affected by tidal action.