ADVANCED

LEVEL ae
MATHEMATICS —
(Pure and Applied)
Fourth Edition

| - ?

ooo gees eee

:

44 a

E : i
| ; i
F |
 i
i]
¢A

sp,

i
+

>

t
‘

n
=<

ae ‘
,

> ee
ADVANCED LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
(PURE AND APPLIED)
~~ f*
co)
< ws

C. J. TRANTER, C.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.I.M.A.

Bashforth Professor of Mathematical Physics,
Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham

C. G. LAMBE, B.A., Pu.D.

Formerly Associate Professor of Mathematics,
Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham

“*at

PRE
me ite
a
spe
2
Pay oaowyyy
SAMA OnRtalas
AES,

HODDER AND STOUGHTON

LONDON SYDNEY AUCKLAND TORONTO
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Tranter, Clement John

Advanced Level mathematics (pure and applied).
— 4th ed.
1. Mathematics — 1961 —
I. Title. II. Lambe, Cyril
510 QA39.2

ISBN 0-340-24202-7

First printed 1966

Second edition 1970
Third edition 1973, reprinted 1975
Paperback edition 1976, reprinted 1977
Fourth edition 1979, reprinted 1980, 1981, 1983

Copyright © 1979: C. J. Tranter and C. G. Lambe

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

Printed in Great Britain for

Hodder and Stoughton Educational,
a division of Hodder and Stoughton Ltd,
Mill Road, Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent TN13 2YD
by Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd, Aylesbury, Bucks

AH78 80 ens
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
An introductory knowledge of Statistics is of increasing use in modern
life and it now forms a part of many Advanced Level Examina
tions in
Mathematics. As a consequence a short chapter on the subject
has been
added to the subject matter in this edition.
 ~
Poa
eOrTiGa M rev08 anna A
-
aaah wee whe Leak smi wale ia
fi aOdanlowm yltrs) Fexanrtgh: onan a
——— ET A ee
Se . ite

= % SMe? tb

;
<
aispou Se
W a
vray
‘ .*
~i.4 iy ® “SA
ens;
— ‘ =
oe 4
' a es 4)ke ae
HE® ae } one

2 ae=. Ws

' i Di eS: vignigaet seal.

Ni. woah eS! ‘+; %, pied Se
pes my anesa

vy a
%44 nthe ot -

ie AG a ; - Tey Si
i] - “ia Cor ss ms
¥ Ape or
Lar Ye,| ¥ 7 aw 4 PEE, Reg Wie
 PREFACE

Our previous books in this series were Advanced Level Pure Mathe-
matics and Advanced Level Applied Mathematics. Here we have
collaborated to produce a text suitable for students who are preparing
to offer the joint subject Pure and Applied Mathematics at the Advanced
Level of the General Certificate of Education. The material included
covers the syllabus laid down for this subject by the major examining
boards and is intended to be equally suitable for class work or private
study.
The inclusion of Pure and Applied Mathematics in a single volume
has enabled us to avoid some repetition. It has also made it possible
to knit the subjects more closely together. Thus, for example, vectors
treated at an early stage make the principles of Statics more readily
comprehensible and much of the subject matter of the chapters on the
Calculus paves the way for Dynamics.
The book contains more than 2000 worked examples and exercises
(with answers). Most of these have been taken from recent papers set
by the various examining bodies and our thanks for permission to use
these questions (and, in some cases, to adapt them to the metric
system) are due to the Senate of the University of London, the Joint
Matriculation Board and the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Exami-
nation Board. In the case of the worked examples, we wish to make it
clear that the examining boards are in no way committed to approval
of the solutions given.
C. J. TRANTER
C. G. LAMBE

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

In preparing this edition, the opportunity has been taken to amend

the text so that the units used are those of the Systéme International
d’Unités (SI). This system, in which the basic units of length, mass
and time are the metre, kilogramme and second has many advantages;
its use by schools, universities and industry is being actively encouraged
and it is, in the words of the Royal Society Conference of Editors on
Metrification in Scientific Journals, destined to become the universal
currency of science and commerce.
vii
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

The chief alteration in this edition is the introduction of a short

chapter on matrices. This would preferably follow Chapter 6 on vectors
and complex numbers but for practical printing reasons it has had to
be put at the end of the previous text as Chapter 22. The use of
matrices in scientific and engineering work has grown rapidly in recent
years and some knowledge of the subject is likely to be required in
sixth form work in the future.
 CONTENTS
Indices and Logarithms. Quadratic Equations. The Remainder Theorem.
Undetermined Coefficients 13
Introduction. Positive integral indices. Fractional, zero and negative
indices. Logarithms. Common logarithms. Quadratic functions and
quadratic equations. Equations leading to quadratic equations. Equa-
tions in which the unknown occurs as an index. The remainder theorem.
Undetermined coefficients,
Arithmetical and Geometrical Progressions. Permutations and Combina-
tions. The Binomial Theorem. Partial Fractions 34
Introductory. Sequences and series. Arithmetical progressions. Geo-
metrical progressions. Convergent geometrical progressions. Permuta-
tions and combinations. The formula "*1C, ="C,+ "C,_,. Similar and
repeated objects. Probability. The binomial theorem for a positive
integral index. The binomial theorem for fractional and negative indices.
Partial fractions.
Addition Formulae. Trigonometrical Equations. Small Angles. The
Inverse Notation 62
Introduction. Basic definitions and formulae. The addition formulae.
Multiple angles. Trigonometrical ratios of A in terms of tan $A. The
transformation of a cos x + b sin x. Fhe equation acos x + bsinx =c,
The factor formulae. Small angles. The inverse notation.
Relations between the Sides and Angles of a Triangle. The Solution of
Triangles 84
Introduction. The sine formula. The cosine formula. Some other
formulae for the triangle. The numerical solution of triangles. Practical
applications.
The Coordinate Geometry of the Straight Line 107
Introduction. Coordinates. The relation between Cartesian and polar co-
ordinates. The distance between two points. A proof of the addition
formulae. The coordinates of a point which divides the join of two given
points in a given ratio. The area of a triangle whose vertices have given
coordinates. Loci. The points of intersection of loci. The equation of a
straight line. The angle between two straight lines. Conditions for paral-
lelism and perpendicularity. Perpendicular distance of a given point from
a line. Equation of line passing through the intersection of two given
lines. The determination of laws from experimental data.

6. Vectors and Complex Numbers 143

Introductory. Definition of a vector. Addition of vectors. The sum of
two vectors. Vector algebra. Components of a vector. Addition by com-
ponents. The scalar product of two vectors. Vector quantities. Complex
numbers. Algebra of complex numbers. Modulus and amplitude.
Modulus and amplitude of products and quotients. The Argand diagram.
The cube roots of unity. Real and imaginary parts of a function.
ix
xX CONTENTS

as The Differential Calculus 166

Introduction. Functions and functional notation. The gradient of a
graph, The increment notation. The derivative of a function. The differ-
ential coefficient of x". The differential coefficients of sin x and cos x.
Technical processes in the differential calculus. The differential coefficient
of a constant. The differential coefficient of a sum. The differential co-
efficients of a product. The differential coefficient of a quotient. The
differential coefficient of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x. The differential
coefficient of a function of a function. The differential coefficients of
inverse functions. Table of standard forms. The differentiation of para-
metric and implicit functions. Second and higher derivatives.
8. Some Applications of the Differential Calculus 196
Introduction. The derivative as a rate measurer. Some mensuration
formulae. Some applications from dynamics. Approximations. Maxi-
mum and minimum values. Applications to practical problems. Points of
inflexion. Curve sketching.
The Integral Calculus 223
Introductory. Standard integrals. A more general list of standard in-
tegrals. Integration by change of variable. The integration of products of
sines and cosines. Integration by parts. Area as the limit of asum. The
integral as the limiting value of a sum. The relation between the definite
and indefinite integral. The example of § 9.7 solved by integration. Some
examples of the evaluation of definite integrals and calculation of area.
Definite integrals by change of variable. Numerical integration.
10. Some Applications of the Integral Calculus 259
Introduction. Further examples of the calculation of area. Mean values.
Volumes of solids of revolution. Centres of gravity. Some further
examples of centres of gravity. Moments of inertia. Some examples of
the calculation of moments of inertia. Some applications from dynamics.
Motion with constant acceleration.
11. The Logarithmic and Exponential Functions. Expansions 286
Introduction. The integral { xt dx. Some further properties of the
function f(u). The logarithmic function. The exponential function. An
integral depending on f x-* dx. The integration of rational algebraic
fractions. Further examples of integration by parts. Successive
approximations and the Taylor-Maclaurin theorem. Series for e* and
log, (1 + x). Newton’s method of approximation to the root of an
equation.
12. Elementary Differential Equations 307
Introduction. Some definitions. First order equations with variables
separable. Homogeneous equations. An important second order
differential equation. Some applications to practical problems.
13. Elementary Coordinate Geometry of the Circle, Parabola, Ellipse and
Hyperbola 325
Introduction. The equation of a circle. The tangent to a circle at a given
point. The equation of a parabola. The parametric equations of a
parabola. The equation of an ellipse. The parametric equations of an
ellipse. The equation of a hyperbola. The parametric equations of a
hyperbola. The rectangular hyperbola.
 CONTENTS xi
14. The Equilibrium of a Rigid Body 350
Applied mathematics. Force. Forces acting on a particle. Forces acting
on arigid body. Resultant of parallel forces. Moment of a force. Line of
action of the resultant. Couples. Centre of parallel forces. Conditions
for equilibrium of a rigid body. Triangle of forces. Lami’s theorem.
15. Solution of some Problems in Statics 386
Types of problem. Equilibrium under the action of four or more forces.
Elastic strings. Centres of gravity. Toppling problems. Laws of friction.
Equilibrium on an inclined plane. Problems involving friction. Problems
involving two bodies.

16. Motion in a Straight Line 414

Velocity and acceleration. Units of velocity and acceleration. Motion
with constant acceleration. Graphical methods for constant acceleration.
Differentiation of a graph. Integration of a graph. Types of graph.
Explicit expressions for the acceleration.

17. Motion in a Plane 433

Relative motion and parabolic motion. Frames of reference. Resultant
velocity. Relative velocity. Relative path. Components of velocity and
acceleration. Parabolic motion. Equations governing the motion. Range
and time. Vertex and remaining velocity. Projection from a height
Condition for a point to lie on the trajectory.
18. Newton’s Laws. Power. Work. Energy 459
Newtonian mechanics. Newton’s laws. Newton’s second law. Units of
force. Motion of a rigid body. The inclined plane. Motion of connected
masses. Work done by a force. Work done in lifting a body. Work done
by a couple. Power. Efficiency. Kinetic energy. Kinetic energy and
power. Potential energy.
Impulse. Impact. Units 485
Introduction. Impulse and momentum. Collision of particles, Impact
of water jets. Coefficient of restitution. Impact of a sphere on a smooth
fixed surface. Direct impact of spheres. Loss of kinetic energy. Units
and dimensions. Change of units.
Motion in a Circle 507
Introduction. Normal acceleration. Effective normal force. Reversed
effective force. Conical pendulum. Vehicles moving in a circle. Banking.
Circular motion with variable velocity. Motion in a vertical circle,

21. Simple Harmonic Motion. Motion about an Axis 531

Introduction. Simple harmonic motion. Other initial conditions.
Relation to uniform motion in a circle. The simple pendulum. Forces
causing simple harmonic motion. Suspension by an~elastic string.
Motion of a body about an axis. Kinetic energy. The energy equation.
The compound pendulum. Wheel turned by a falling weight.
Matrices 537
Introduction. The product of two 2 x 2 matrices. The product of two
3 x 3 matrices. Some general definitions. Some particular matrices.
Determinants. The inverse matrix. The decomposition of a matrix. The
inverse of a unit diagonal matrix. Reduction of a system of equations.
Alternative method of reduction of the system of equations. Matrices as
transforms.
xii CONTENTS
23. Statistics 578
Introduction. The mean, standard deviation and variance. Second
moment of a set of numbers. Calculation of the mean and standard
deviation. Frequency distributions. Graphs of frequency distributions.
Mean and standard deviation. Calculation of the mean and standard
deviation. Sheppard’s correction. Parameters of a frequency distribution.
The normal distribution. Standard error of the mean.

Answers to the Exercises 603

Index 627

THE sources from which some of the examples and exercises have been
taken are indicated by the following abbreviations :—

[L.U.] University of London;

[N.U.] Joint Matriculation Board of the Universities of Manchester,
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield and Birmingham;
[O.C.] Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board.
 CHAPTER 1

INDICES AND LOGARITHMS; QUADRATIC EQUATIONS;

THE REMAINDER THEOREM; UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS

1.1 Introduction
In this chapter we introduce some ideas which have been important
in the development of mathematics. We start by defining a”, where m
is a positive whole number, and develop rules for writing down the
product, quotient, etc., of two such quantities. We then discover
meanings for a” when m is negative, zero, or fractional. This is an
example of the concept of generalisation from simple to more compli-
cated ideas and is typical of much of the mathematician’s work. We
deal next with logarithms whose basic theory follows on naturally
from what has preceded.
We then consider the solutions of algebraical equations of the second
degree (quadratic equations). Whereas equations of the first degree
have but one solution, the formula derived for the solution of a quad-
ratic equation shows that, provided we extend our ideas on numbers to
include those whose square is negative, there are now two solutions.
Although we do not pursue this idea of number extension in this
chapter, it provides another example of generalisation and will form the
basis of a later treatment (see § 6.10) of the so-called complex numbers.
The remainder theorem is then discussed. This is again an example
of a type of generalisation as it enables the remainder to be found when
certain algebraical expressions are divided without the necessity of
having to perform the actual division. The chapter concludes with the
principle of undetermined coefficients; this is of great importance in
many algebraical processes.
1.2 Positive integral indices
When a quantity a is multiplied by itself a number of times, the
resulting product is said to be a power of a. For example, a x a is the
second power of a and the result is written a. Similarly a x a x ais
the third power of a and is written a°. In general, if m is a positive
integer, a” denotes the product of m factors each equal to a and the
number m, expressing the power, is called the index.
There are three fundamental laws for the combination of indices;
these relate to multiplication, division, and the power of a power and
are given below for the cases in which the indices (m and n) are positive
integers.
13
14 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(i) ae Cr” ae re, (1.1)

From the definitions of a” and a”,

™—=-axaxax...tom factors,
a”? = ax aX aiX x2 toi factors,
so that
a” xa" =axaxax...to(m+n) factors
= agin,

(ii) a” + a® = a™™". (1.2)

Here
axaxXa...tom factors
a” = Q?® = ———————.
axXa<X< a. . .to7n factors

Assuming that m > n, the n factors in the denominator will cancel with
n of the m factors in the numerator leaving (m — n) factors, so that
a™ +a" =axaxax...to(m—n)
factors
= fa heh

(iii) a)" = a™". (1.3)

In this case,
(a™)* = a" x a™X.a™ xX... . ton factors,
— qntmtm+... to n terms, by (1.1),

=aq™,

Example 1. If {(a‘)* x a®}/a" = a’, find p. [L.U.]

(at? xxaa axa gitd
—a = ay ee,
so that p = 2.

1.3 Fractional, zero, and negative indices

It is convenient to be able to work also with indices which are not
positive integers and for one set of laws to apply in all cases. The
definition of a” as the product of m factors each equal to a is clearly
meaningless unless m is a positive integer. However, we can define its
meaning when m is fractional, zero, or negative in such a way that the
first fundamental law a” x a” = a™*" is obeyed. It is then possible to
show that, with the interpretation so derived, the other two fundamental
laws of § 1.2 remain valid [see Example 3 below in the case of the
law (1.2)].
 INDICES 15
(i) The interpretation offractional indices.
Suppose p and q are positive integers and that the rule (1.1) is to be
true. Then a?/* x g?/¢ = g??/@, gr/d x gra x grid — gi?/t and so on.
Hence
a Sa x ave x... to g factors
= q?/i+P/a+p/a+ +++ toa terms — a?,

and this implies that (a?/*)" = a? so that, taking the qth root,
a?/@ = I/g?, (1.4)

that is, a?/* is the gth root of a?.

(ii) The interpretation of a°.
Since the fundamental law a” x a” = a™* is to remain true,
a” X @=a™ = q™,
Division by a” then gives, provided that a is not zero,
a@=1, (1.5)
that is, any non-zero quantity with zero index is equivalent to unity.
(iii) The interpretation of negative indices.
Since the law a” x a” = a™*" is to be true for all values of m and n,
we can write n = —m to give
a™ x a™ = q™" = @ = 1, using (1.5).
Again assuming that a is not zero, division by a™ leads to
1
q = —s
a™
(1.6)

showing that a~™ is the reciprocal of a™.

Example 2. If y = 27*!* and x = 3-+, find (without using tables) the value of xy*.
L.U.
y= 2727/8 — 84/(27)? = 33 : /
and hence
xy = 34x OH = x 3#=1,
Example 3. With the interpretation of a as 1/a", show that the law a™ = a" = a"™—"
remains valid when n is negative.
a™

a”™ —=a Se
gr —-
— = gq" _

=a"™xa™
= qr"

the last step resulting from the first of the fundamental laws, —n being positive.
16 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 1 (a)

Simplify the a

(i) a, (ii) oe
* Eh abe (iii) 5 x 48°41
— 20 x 8",

Write down, in their simplest forms

(i) the square root of 36 x*y4,
(ii) the cube root of 27 x®y*.

Express with positive indices

gate
sae 4)
Yo)
=e Y¥@)
Evaluate (i) 1092 + 10-¥2, (ii) (16"/4)%.

If a = 25 and b = 9, find the values

of
(i) a? — bY, (ii) (a — 5), (iii) (G/a)™”.
If x = 1-44, find the values of x/2, x°, x-¥/2 and (x¥/? — x-¥2) + x-V2,
If x8z = 1, x? = y and z = y”, find the value of n.

If 8°* = 64 x 4°%, express x in terms of y.

ON
SS
SEOFind the values of x if
(i) 27=4, (ii) 4°= 2, iii) @* = V2.
10. Find the value of x satisfying the equation 8x-*/*= 2/9. [0.C.]
11. If 64x~8/4 = a, find the value of x when a = 27.

12. Prove that

(x- :)(et f x-%) = 50/9 (== 2):

15. Simplify

GD) (da fo ee BaP /3 okMh)

A/S) telAUP
1/ GD) 1
cetera
TD) ee
1
coerce
14. If a” = b*, show that (a/b)*/” = q'*-»)/>, If b = 2a, find the value of b.
[L.U.]
15. Show that

(a)+ (/55)}+P+ (FES) sere

 LOGARITHMS 17
1.4 Logarithms
The logarithm of a positive quantity n to a given base a is defined as
the power to which the base a must be raised to make it equal to the
quantity m. Thus if x is the logarithm of n to base a,
a= n, (1.7)
and x is written
x = log, n. (1.8)
The two formulae (1.7) and (1.8) are equivalent statements expressing
the relation between x, n and a. Substituting for x from formula (1.8)
in (1.7), we have
Te = (potee, (1.9)
and this formula will be useful in what follows.
Writing x = 0 in (1.7), we obtain n = a = 1 and formula (1.8)
gives, with these values of n and x,
log, 1 = 0, (1.10)
showing that the logarithm of unity to any base is zero. If we write
x = 1 in equation (1.7), n = a, and (1.8) then gives
log,a = 1, (1.11)
so that the logarithm of the base itself is unity.
To find the logarithm of the product of two positive quantities m and
n, we have, using (1.9),
mn = q°fam x q'°2a” — @am+loggn

Hence, by the definition of a logarithm,

log, (mn) = log, m + log,n (1.12)
showing that the logarithm of the product of two positive quantities is
equal to the sum of the logarithms of the separate quantities. Similarly,
in the case of three quantities m, n, p,

log, (mnp) = log, m + log, n + log,p,

and so on when more quantities are involved.
The logarithm of a quotient can be found in a similar way. Thus,
equation (1.9) gives
m q'&am
a = q'°8a m—Ilog, “
n @°8a"

showing that
m
log, (=) = log,m — log, n, (1.13)
18 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

that is, the logarithm of a quotient is the difference between the logarithm
of the numerator and the logarithm of the denominator.
A similar method can also be used to obtain the logarithm of m
raised to the power p. Thus, again using formula (1.9),
m? = (ao8a™)? = gerne

giving
log, (m?) = p log, m. (1.14)
If we write p = 1/q in this result, it becomes

logs (ri) = =log, m, (1.15)

and these formulae show that (i) the logarithm of the pth power of a
positive quantity is p times the logarithm of the quantity and (ii) the
logarithm of the qth root of a positive quantity is 1]q times the logarithm
of the quantity.

Example 4. If loggq = 5 + log, 6 and c = at, prove that q = abc. [L.U.]

The first of the given relations can be written log,q — log,b = 5 and, by
equation (1.13), this is equivalent to

loga (7) = 5.

By the definition of a logarithm we therefore have g/b = a® and this can be

written q = a°b =a.b.a*. Replacing a‘ by c, it follows that g = abc.

Example 5. Simplify (i) alo&ax, (ii) a—? 108ax,

(i) Let y = alogax so that log, y = log, (alo&a*) = log,x X log, a, by (1.14).
Since, by (1.11), log,a = 1, it follows that log, y = log,x and hence that
y=x.
(ii) Let z=a™*!08,* giving logyz= log, (a~* !%s*) = —2log,x x logaa.
Hence log, z = —2 log, x = log, (x~*) and z = x? = 1/x?.
1
Example 6. Prove that log,n = logab X logan.
Let x = log, n so that b* = n, Taking logarithms to base a,
log, (b”) = log, n,
giving
x log, b = logan.
Hence
1
log, n =x = log, bx log, n. (1.16)

The result proved in this example is of importance in that it relates logarithms

to different bases. It shows that to transform logarithms from base a to base b
we have to multiply by 1/(log, 5).
 COMMON LOGARITHMS 19
1.5 Common logarithms
The logarithms generally used in numerical calculations are those to
base 10. Such logarithms are called common logarithms and the base is
often omitted in written work—thus log 32 is usually taken to mean
logiy 32. The reader is assumed to be familiar with the use of common
logarithms in arithmetical work and only very few examples will be
given here. Further examples involving the use of common logarithms
occur throughout the book.

Example 7. Given that log 2 = 0-3010 and log 3 = 0-4771 find the values of (i) log 5,
(ii) log ¥/(0°3). [0.C.]
10
(i) log 5 = log (2) = log 10 — log 2= 1 — log2 (since log 10 = 1)

= 1 — 0-3010 = 0-6990.
2 2 1 1 A} 1
(ii) log (0-3) = 3 log (0°3) = 3 log To) =3 (log 3 — log 10)

1 1 ,
EG (0-4771 — 1) =5 4 —0°5229 = —0-1743

= 1-8257,
the last form meaning —1 + 0°8257,

Example 8. Given that log 5 = 0-6990, find the number of digits in the integral part
of (5).
21 21
log (/5)2 = a log 5 = oy x 0:6990 = 7-3395.

Thus 10 has to be raised to more than the seventh power to give (1/5) and this
quantity will therefore contain 8 digits in its integral part.

Exercises 1 (b)

1. Write down the values of log, 16 and log, 2.

2. Given that log, a = c and log, b = a, prove that log,a=ac. [0.C.]

3. Prove that (i) log, p = aa (ii) log, p.log,g.log,r=1. [0.C.]

‘Dp

4. Prove that log, N log, M = log, N log, M.

If log, 10°24 = 2, find x. [L.U.]
Without using tables, find the value of
5 6 5
logs (3)+ logs (5)— log, (=): [L.U.]

7. If logs n = 4p, log, 2n = q and q — p = 4, find x. [L.U.]

20 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

8. Evaluate 5* where x = log (log 10). [0.C.]

Find, without using tables, the values of x if

(i) log x — log3 = 1, (ii) log VYx= > (iii) x = log, 216.

a 35
10. Find the values of (i) 10° 198? and (ii) log ea, + 4 log 2 — log 7.
[O.C.]
11. Given log 2 = 0-3010300 and log 3 = 0:4771213 find the value of
log (2-1 + 3-4) to six places of decimals, [O.C.]
12. If log y = 2 — log (x**), express y as a function of x not involving
logarithms; hence show that, if x = 8, then y = 25. [O.C.]
13. Solve the equation log x + log x? + log x* = 1. [O.C.]
14. Given that log 3 = 0:4771, find the number of digits in front of the
decimal point in (./3)” and find the value of x for which 3* = 100.
2
15. Express log = and log = in terms of log 2. Hence show that log 2
lies between 3/10 and 4/13. [L.U.]
1.6 Quadratic functions and quadratic equations
The general form of the quadratic equation is
ax*+ bx +c=0 (1.17)
where a, b, c are given numerical coefficients and x is the quantity
whose value is to be determined. If the factors of the quadratic function
on the left-hand side of equation (1.17) can be found, the values of x
(the roots of the equation) are most easily obtained by setting each of
the factors in turn equal to zero and solving the resulting simple
equations.
Example 9. Solve the equations 2x* — x —3 = 0.
The factors of the left-hand side are (2x — 3) and (x + 1). Hence the equation
can be written in the form’
(2x — 3) + 1) =0
so that either 2x — 3 = 0 givingx = 3/2 or x + 1 = 0 leading tox = —1.
: 6x 2x1 «19
Example 10. Solve the equation 2 eee + 3 = 0. [O.C.]
Clearing of fractions by multiplying through by 3(x — 2)(x + 2), the equation
becomes
18x(x + 2) — 3(x — 2)(2x — 1) + 19x — 2x + 2) = 0,
and this reduces to 31x? + 51x — 82 =0. This can be written
(x — 1)G1x + 82) =0
so that the two required roots are x = 1 and x = —82/31,
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 2

A similar method can be used to determine the range of values of x

for which the quadratic function ax? + bx + c takes a prescribed sign.
This is illustrated in Example 11 below.
Example 11. For what range of values of x is3x® —x +1<x+22 [L.U.}
The given inequality becomes, by transposing the two terms from the right,
sxe 2X — 150,
and this can be written
(3x + I(x — 1)< 0. (1.18)
For this inequality to be satisfied, the left-hand side must be negative and
therefore the factors (3x + 1), (x — 1) must be of opposite signs. The required
range is given by 3x + 1 >0 and x —1< 0, that is, by —1/3< x < 1. [The
inequality (1.18) is also satisfied by 3x +1<0 and x —1>0 leading to
x < —1/3 and x > 1 but these are clearly inconsistent.]
A general formula for the roots of the quadratic equation
ax*+ bx +c=0
can be found as follows. Dividing by a and transposing the term not
containing x to the right-hand side, the equation can be written
b 3
x — 5 c= — ig

and by adding the term b?/(4a”) to each side we have

2 Bie Pie
Sed
a te, Aa,a
or
b\? 5? — 4ac
(:+ a ~ 4a?
Taking the square root of each side,
bye VG" —4ac)

giving the two roots

—b + V(b? — 4ac)
x ae =“eS (1.19)
La9

If b? > 4ac, the two roots are real and unequal, if b? = 4ac the roots are
real and both equal to —b/(2a). If b? < 4ac, the expression under the
square root sign in (1.19) is negative and, since there is no real quantity
whose square is negative, the roots are in this case said to be unreal or
imaginary (see § 6.10).
22 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 12. Solve the equation 4x? — 12x +7 =0.
Comparing the given equation with the standard form ax* + bx +c =0,
a=4,b = —12,c =7. With these values of a, b and c, formula (1.19) gives

_ =(—12) t V(-12? — 4@} _ 12 + V4 — 112)

oy 2(4) — 8
24+V32 1244/72 34V2

giving x = 2-207 or 0:793.

Example 13. Find the values of A for which the equation x? — x + 1 = A(x* + x + 1),
where 4 # 1, has equal roots and find, also, the range of values of 4 for which
the roots are real and unequal. eu
Arranged in the standard form, the given equation is
(1 — Ax? —(1 + 4x +1—A4=0,
so thata = 1 — A,b = —(1 + A), c = 1 — A. The condition for equal roots,
(b? = 4ac) gives
{—(1 + AY = 401 — A — 4),
or
(1 +a? = AC — AY,
so that 1 + A = + 2(1 — 4). The solution of these two linear equations gives
A = $ or 3 and these are the required values of A for equa] roots. For real and
unequal roots the condition b? > 4ac leads to
(1 +A)? > 41 — A),
that is, after a little reduction
342 —10A
+ 3< 0.
This can be written (3A — 1)(A — 3) < 0 and hence (3A — 1) and (A — 3) must
be of opposite signs. Consistent values of A are given by 34 — 1 >0 and
A —3< 0 leading to < 4< 3 as the required range.
It is useful to obtain formulae for the sum « + f and the product «8
of the roots « and f of the standard quadratic equation ax* + bx +c
= 0 in terms of the coefficients a, b and c. The equation can be written
, b c
x 2 cas Sea
ei | (1.20)

and, since the roots are « and f, it can also be written in factor form as

(x — a(x — B) = 0.
This is equivalent to
x? — («+ B)x + «8 =0 (1.21)
and, comparing equations (1.20) and (1.21), it follows that
b
a+p=—=, up =< (1.22)
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 23
or, expressed in words,
coefficient of x
sum of roots = —
coefficient of x2’
(1.23)
coefficient of term independent of x
product of roots =
coefficient of x?
Example 14. If « and are the roots of the equation px* +- qx + r = 0, find in terms
of p,q and r, the values of x + B* and 5 + B°, [L.U.]
From (1.23),
q r

Hence,
a +
LN Ss toe
a oe
-gls =e

of+ B=va(a+ Bt= 20peS= (—4)e =recer pr LP,

oe + P=
BB =(a (+ + BX? 2 ——af
of ++f= SNe (EPP _2) _ 3pqr-¢
2q(i—2pr_+r\ Deer
Example 15. The roots of ax* + bx + c = 0, where none of the coefficients a, b or c
is zero, are «and B. The roots of a*x? + b?x + c* = 0 are 2a and2B. Show that
the equation whose roots are nx and nB is x* + 2nx + 4n? = 0.
Applying (1.23) to the two given equations we have
b c
a+ B =— 7 ap = me

b?
2a + B= — =, dof = =

Division of these pairs of relations gives

Be
a
SiGa oa
For the equation whose roots are na and nf,

sumof roots = na + np = n(x + 6)= —n= = —2n,

c
product-of roots = n’aB = rn? ee 4n*,
From (1.23), when the coefficient of x? is unity,
coefficient of x = — sum of roots = 2n,
coefficient independent of x = product of roots = 4n?,
so that the equation with roots na and nf is x* + 2nx + 4n? = 0,

Exercises 1 (c)

1. Solve the equations (i) x? — 5x + 6 = 0, (ii) 3x2 + 5x — 12=0.

2. Solve the equations

@F= 4, w x
Bs
ey ee +S
24 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Solve the equation log, (x? + 3) — log, x = 2 log, ode [O.C.]

Solve the equations, giving the roots to two places of decimals

(i) x2 — 7x +8 =0, Gi) 3x?-x—-3
=0.

Solve the quadratic equations

(i) 21x? — 17x = 8, (ii) 4x? — 12x + 9 =0.
Find the values of k if the equation x? + x +3 = k(x* + 5) has equal
roots. Find also the range of values of k if the equation has real and
distinct roots. [O.C.]
Show that there are two values of k for which the equation
3 4k Di
AoetlS. 3 ike gk a
has equal roots in x. Show further that the roots corresponding to the
two values of k are reciprocal. [L.U.]
Prove that the expression 3x” — x + 1, where x is real, can take any
assigned value which is not less than fyi? LAU
Find the range, or ranges, of values of the constant k for which the
equation x* + kx + 2k = 3 has real distinct roots. [N.U.]
If (2x? + 1)y = 2 + 1)%, prove that 0< y<3 for all real values
of x. [O.C.]
If « and f are the roots of the equation 3x? + 2 = 8x, find the values of
a? + 62 and «1 + Bo. [L.U.]
Given that « and f are the roots of the equation x — px + q =0,
form the equation whose roots are (« + £)? and (« — )?. [N.U.]
If the roots of the equation x? — ax + b = 0 are p and q, prove that
the equation whose roots are (p — 1)/g and (g — 1)/p is
bx? + (a+ 2b—-—a%)x+1—a+b=0. [L.U.]
14. If p and g are the roots of the equation 2x? — x — 4 = 0 find (i) the
value of p* + q° and (ii) the equation whose roots are p — (q/p) and
q — (pig). [0.C.]
15. Prove that, if a, b and c are real and non-zero, then the roots of the
equation (b? + c*)x* + 2(a2 + b? + c*)x + a? + 5? =0 are real and
distinct. If the sum and product of the roots are —6 and 24 respectively
prove that a? = 6b? = 3c’ [0.C]
1.7 Some equations leading to quadratic equations
The solution of some types of equation can be made to depend on
that of a quadratic. A few of the devices used in such solutions are
illustrated in the examples given below.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 25
Example 16. Solve the equation x1! — 3x—118 = 2, [0.C.]
Writing x = y*, the given equation becomes y — (3/y) = 2. Multiplication by
y and a slight rearrangement gives y? — 2y — 3 = 0 and this can be written
(y — 3 + 1) =0, leading to y=3 and —1. Hence, since x = y*, the
required values of x are 27 and —1.

Example 17. Solve the equation (2x* — x)® — 9(2x* — x) + 18 =0. [0.C.]
Writing 2x — x = y, the equation besomes y? — 9y + 18 =0, or
(y — 3 — 6) = 0.
Hence y = 3 or 6 and x is then found from the quadratics (i) 2x2 — x = 3,
(ii) 2x — x = 6. The first of these can be written
(2x — 3)(x
+ 1) =0
leading to x = 3/2, —1 while the second gives
(2x + 3)(x — 2) =0
or x = —3/2, 2. Hence the required roots are —1, 2, +3/2.

Example 18. Solve the equations x — 3y +5 =0,x*° + 4xy+y+3=0. [0.C]

When one of a pair of simultaneous equations is of the first degree, either
unknown quantity is easily expressed in terms of the other. Substitution in the
second equation then results in a single equation in one unknown. For the
pair given here, the first equation gives y = 4(x + 5). Substituting in the
second equation,
4 1
P+ SK +DN+GE+N+3=0.
Multiplication by 3 and a slight reduction gives 7x* + 21x + 14 = 0 and this
can be written 7(x + 1)(x + 2) =0 leading to x = —1 and —2. Since y
= }(x + 5), the corresponding values of y are 4/3 and 1.

Example 19, Solve the simultaneous equations x* + xy + y*? = 3, x* + 2xy + 2y3

=5.
When the two equations are of the same degree and when the separate terms
involving the unknowns are all of this degree, a solution can be found by
writing y = Ax and solving the resulting equation for A as shown below. With
y = Ax, the given equations can be written
x21 + A + A) = 3, HL + 2A + 21%) = 5,
and, by division,
144-44) 23
1+2A+2 5
This reduces to 4? + A — 2 =0giving (A — 1)(A + 2) = 0 and hence
4 =1
or —2. With the root 4 = 1, y = x and the first of the given equations gives
x? + x2 + x2 =3 so that x = +1, y = +1 is one pair of solutions. With
A = —2, y = —2x and the first equation leads to x* — 2x? + 4x* = 3 giving
x = +1, y= F2 as a second pair.
26 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1.8 Equations in which the unknown occurs as an index

When the unknown quantity in an equation occurs as an index, the
laws of combination of indices and the use of logarithms usually enable
the solution to be found. Some examples follow.
Example 20. Solve the equation 3°*2-* = (2-67)1/%, [O.C.]
Taking logarithms,
1
2x log 3 — xlog2 = = log 2°67,

giving
oe E287 pe eds
2 log 3 — log2 04265 1-6299
nes betes 0-6532 1-8150
~ 2 x 0-4771 — 0-3010 aa 5 1-8149
_ 0:4265 I
= 0-6532° ee
x 1-9075

and a “a 0-808.

Example 21. Find the values of x satisfying the equation 2” = 256 x 4-*,
Since 256 = 2° and 4 = 23, the equation can be written
27 — 28 x (2%)-* = 28-20

Hence x? = 8 — 2x giving x7 + 2x —8 =0, or (*+4)(% —2)=0. The

required values of x are therefore 2 and —4,

Example 22. Solve the equation 3* — 3741 +2 =0,

This equation can be written
(37)? — 33%) +2 =0,
which is equivalent to
(3% — 1)(3% — 2) = 0.
Hence either 3* = 1 leading to x = 0 [by equation (1.5)], or 3* = 2.
Taking logarithms this gives
x log 3 = log 2,
so that
log2 0-3010
“ios MATH
Exercises 1 (d)

1. Solve the equation x¥/3 — 4x-¥8 = 3,

2. Find values of x satisfying the equation
(3x? + 2x)? — 9(3x2 + 2x) + 8 =0.
 REMAINDER THEOREM 27
3. Solve the equation x? + 2x — 2 = 3/(x? + 2x).

Ile) J(=)-™
4. Solve the equation

5. Find two values of x satisfying the equation

V(3x + 4) =3+ V& — 3).
6. Solve the simultaneous equations
x+y+4=0,
24+ 3xy+yY+5=0.
7. Solve the simultaneous equations
x? — xy = 10, 3x + 2y = 0. [L.U.]
8. Solve the equations

pak xy — 3x = 4. [0.C.]
9. Solve the equations :
(x — 3y)? = 1, x? — 4y? + 3x = 24. [0.C.]
10. Solve the equations x + y = 72, x¥3 + y¥8 = 6, [L.U.]
11. Given that x and y have opposite signs, solve the simultaneous equations
xbytxy=-5,x°4+ P+ xy? = 49, [N.U.]
12. Solve the equation 5% = 7711,
13. Find the values of x satisfying the equation 3°41 = 27/3*,
14. Solve the equation 5% — 5%1 + 4=0.
15. Find the values of x and y from the simultaneous equations
Qe = 6Y, 3% = 3 x QVH,
1.9 The remainder theorem
A polynomial of degree n in x is an expression of the form
Ct ie or Chee ts» « Canad ot Se
where Cp, C1, Co, + + +» Cnt» Cn are constants. It is convenient to denote
such an expression by P(x), a notation which will later be generalised
(see § 7.2). With this notation, P(a) is used to denote the value of
P(x) when x = a, so that
P(a) = ca" + ca") + ca”? +. en a + Cy,
The remainder theorem states that if a polynomial in x is divided by
(x — a), the remainder is given by writing a for x in the polynomial.
28 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The proof is as follows. Let P(x) be the given polynomial in x, let

Q(x) be the quotient when P(x) is divided by (x — a) and let R be the
remainder. Then, for all values of x,
P(x) = (x — a) O%) + R,
and R is independent of x. Putting x = a, we have
P(a) = R,
since the first term on the right-hand side vanishes because of the factor
(x — a). Hence the remainder is obtained by writing a for x in P(x).
This theorem enables the remainder to be found without actually
having to perform the division. An immediate consequence of the
theorem is that if P(x) vanishes when x = a, then (x — a) is a factor
of P(x).
Example 23. Find the values of the constants a and b if (x — 1) and (3x — 1) are
both factors of the polynomial 3x4 + ax* — 6x* + bx — 1.
Here P(x) = 3x* + ax® —6x® + bx — 1 and, if (x — 1) is a factor, P(1) = 0,
giving
3+a—6+5—1=0,
or
a+b =4.,
If (3x — 1) is a factor, so is 3(x — 4) and hence P(}) = 0, giving
3(3)* + a) — 6)? + 64) — 1 =0,
or
ab 6 3 44
3 Wdaod ah od diene
The solution of these simultaneous equations for a and 5 is easily found to be
a = —1, b = 5 and these are the required values of the constants.

Example 24. Find the factors of ab(a — b) + bc(b — c) + ca(c — a).

If we set a = b, the given expression vanishes; in other words, there is no
remainder when the expression is divided by (a — 5). Hence (a — b) is a
factor and, similarly, so also are (6 — c), (c — a). The given expression is of
the third degree so that, besides the factors (a — 5), (b — c) and (c — a), there
can be no further factors involving a, b or c. There may, however, be a numerical
factor, say N, so we write
ab(a — b) + be(b — c) + ca(e — a) = N(b — c)(e — aa — 5).
To determine N we can give a, b and c any convenient numerical values.
Choosing a = 0, b = 1, c = 2, the left-hand side becomes equal to —2 and
the right-hand side to 2N. Hence 2N = —2 giving N = —1 and the required
factors are —(b — c)(c — a)(a — b).

Example 25. The equations x*+9x+2=0 and ®+kx+5=0 have a

common root, Find the quadratic equation giving the two possible values of k.
[L.U.]
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 29
Ifthe common root is «, (x — «) will be a factor of both x? + 9x + 2 and
a tS + - ya a? + 9x + 2 = Oand a + k« + 5 =0. By subtraction,
—k)jx—3=0 giving «=3/9—k). Substitution in the ti
a? + 9x + 2 = 0 then leads to aha es

so, ri
Ca a aayae
agg
a reduces to 2k? — 63k + 414 = 0 as the required quadratic equation
or K.

1.10 The principle of undetermined coefficients

We start by showing that if a polynomial expression of degree n in x
vanishes for more than n different values of x, the coefficients of each
power of x in the expression are zero. We write
P(X) = Cox” He Cyx™1 + cox" FH 0 HO X H+ Cy
where Cor C1» Cg, + + +» C, are the coefficients and suppose that P(x) = 0
when x is equal to each of the unequal values a, o%, %3,. . .,%,. Hence
(x — a), (x — a), (x — a 3),. . ., (x —«@,) are all factors of the
expression P(x) and we can write
P(x) = Co(X — a)(X — O)(x — a). . . (x — @,).
Let B be another value of x such that P(x) = 0, then
CoB — a)(B — %)(B — a3). . .(B —a,) = 0,
and since none of the factors (8 — «,), (B — %),(B — a3), . . -»(B — &,)
vanishes, it follows that cy = 0. The expression P(x) now reduces to
EY eR ON OE 3 oP gag & FH Ons
and, since this vanishes for more than n values of x, it can be shown in
the same way that c, = 0. In a similar way it can be shown that each
of the coefficients Cy, Cs, . . ., C, must also vanish.
‘We can now show that if two polynomials of degree n in x are equal
for more than 7 values of x, the n coefficients in the one are equal to
the corresponding 7 coefficients in the other. If we take the two
polynomial expressions
Cy pe Cx Peg a8 oy
and
Ge Gee gk OS e ed x a,
as equal for more than n values of x, then the polynomial
(Cy — dy)x” + (Cy — Ay)x"* + (Cy — dy)x"? +. «+ (Cn — Ina)
+c, —d,

vanishes or more than n values of x and its n coefficients are zero.

30 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Hence
Cy — do = 0, cy — dy = 0, cg — dp = 0,. « «5 Cp — dy = 9,
c, — 4, = 9,
leading to
Co = do, Cy = dh, Co = doy. « »5 Cy = Any, Cy = A,
We have established above the important result that iftwo polynomials
in x are equal to each other for more than n values of x, we may equate
the coefficients of the like powers of x. This result is often called the
principle of undetermined coefficients and has important applications.
Some examples of its use are given below.
Example 26. Find three constants A, B and C such that
£koe-X +1 = Ae — 1f + B@ —1)+€.
The sign = is used to denote equality between two expressions for all values of
the variable involved. When two expressions are separated by such a sign we
can, by the principle of undetermined coefficients, equate the coefficients of like
powers of the variable.
In this example,
2% —x+1= A(x —1?4+ Bex -1D+C
=A(Xxe®*-—2x
+1 4+ Bx-1+C
=Ax*— (2A —B)x+A—B+C.
Equating in turn the coefficients of x*, x and the term independent of x,
A=2, —(2A —B)=—-1,A—B+C=1.
The solution of these simultaneous equations is A = 2, B = 3, C =2 and
these are the required values of the constants.

Example 27. If x* + ax? + bx + c is a perfect cube, show that ab = 9c.

Let x° + ax? + bx +c =(x + Ap
= x* + 3Ax? + 3A% + AS.
Equating the coefficients of x*, x and the term independent of x,
=a 32 =) =e:
From the first two of these relations ab = 94%, and substituting for 4° from the
third relation, we have ab = 9c.

Exercises 1 (e)
1. Find the value of the constant A if the remainder is 22 when the expres-
sion 3x* + Ax* — 4x + 6 is divided by (x — 4).
2. Find the value of the constant p for which the polynomial x4 + x?
+ px* + 5x — 10 has (x + 2) as a factor. [N.U.]
3. When x‘ + 3x? + Ax* + Bx + 43 is divided by (x + 4), the remainder
is 3; when it is divided by (x — 3), the remainder is 10. Find A and B.
[Ores
 EXERCISES 31
Find the values of A and wu if (x — 1) and (2x — 4) are factors of
2x8 + Ax? + 4x + uw. What is then the third factor?
If (x — 1) and (x + 2) are factors of bx* + cx? — 2x + 1, find the
values of 6 and c; find also the remaining factor. [O.C.]

When x* + px + q is divided by x — h the remainder is the same as

when the quadratic expression is divided by x — 2h. Find two possible
values of A. [L.U.]

Find the values of a and b if the expression ax* + bx* — 28x + 15 is

exactly divisible by (x + 3) and leaves a remainder —60 when it is
divided by (x — 3). When a and b have these values, find all the values
of x for which the expression is zero. [O.C.]

Use the remainder theorem to find the factors of

(x — yP + (vy — 28 + (z — x)
Express x*(y — z) + y(z — x) + 24x — y) as the product of four
linear factors.

10. Show that the quadratic equations x? + bx + c = 0, x*+ Bx+C=0

have a common root if (C — c)? = (B — b)(bC — Be).
Prove that, if the equations x* + ax + b = 0 and cx? + 2ax — 3b = 0
have a common root and neither a nor 5 is zero, then

5a*(c — 2)
ap OC
: (c + 3)? isco
12. Find the values of the constants A, B and C when

XV=Ax—1DX—-—24+Be—-)N4+C [O.C.]

13. If x° + 3ax? + bx + c is a perfect cube, prove that b? = 27c?,

14. Find values of A, B and C such that

peAid Se =—
A + —
B +
Cc
(x — 1)(x+2)3? x-—-1 x+2 (*+2)

iS. Find the values of a and 6 which make the quartic expression
x4 — 2x8 + 3x? + ax +6
a perfect square.

Exercises 1 (f)
If a = xy", b = xy" and c = xy", show that at b’-c?~¢ = 1,
Ifa® = bY = c* and b? = ac, show that (x + z)y = 2xz.
32 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Show that

© (5) * (a) (a) oF

: q*\ tt ql\ +2 a” ae ly

w (8+ (E)" ae
x2\ a+b xatb a*/b 1

Find the value of x from the equation 81°” = 27 and find also the
values of x and y satisfying the simultaneous equations
logx
+ logy=1,x+y=I11.
Solve the equation 21 = 2*+1 x 5*, [O.C.]
If log, (1 + #) = 4, log, (1 + Hs) = m and log, (1 + #7) = 2, show
that
log, 1 + #5) =1—m—n. [L.U.]
If (log, x)? = log, x log, x, find the value of a.
If y = 5(x + 2)/(x? + 5) prove that, for real values of x, —} < y < 2}.
[0.C.]
Find the range of values of k for which the equation
ax. 1
xx+1) ‘
has real roots. [N.U.]
10. If the roots of the quadratic equation x? — px +g =O arek,k +1,
find the relation independent of k which must hold between p and gq.
If q = 6, find the possible values of k. [N.U.]
hs The roots of the equation ax* + bx + c= 0 are w and f. If « = 4,
find the relation between a, b and c. Deduce that « and f are both real
if a and c are of the same sign. [L.U.]
12. The roots of the equation x? + ax + b = Oare a, 8. Find the equation
whose roots are Ax + uf, wa+AB. If the original equation is
x* — 4x — 5 = 0, find the values of A/w so that the new equation
shall have one zero root.
13. Find the range of values of k for which the equation x? + 7x — 2
+ k(x” — 5x + 2) =0 has real roots. Find the roots in the case
where they are equal. Find also the values of k for which the roots are
(i) reciprocals, (ii) equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, showing that
in case (ii) the roots are not real. [L.U.]
: 1 1\?
14. Verify that x? + aS («+ 2]— 2, Hence find the roots of the
equation
i 16 (:- :)Teal
3 (=+ 2) [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 33
ies Solve the equations
(i) 2.2 — 9.27 + 4 = 0, (ii) 4441 — 5.2741 =0, [0.C.]
16. Solve the equations
(i) log @? + 6) = 1 + log(x — 1), (i) VGx+ 4) =3+4 V(x — 3).
[O.C.]
WA Show that the equation 20x4 + 48x? — 65x? — 72x + 45 = 0 can be
written

Fey Bibs 5 WoPe [0.C.]

Hence find the four roots of the equation.
18. Solve the simultaneous equations
(i) 4x + y = 5, 4x7 + y? + 24x — 4y = 10,
(i) Vet Guta
eer,
trea
gp pss oe: [L.U.]
19: Prove that, if the equations x* + 2x + p=0 and x*—29¢x+1=0
have a common root, then
(1 — p)?
+ 41 — p)(1 +g)
+ 4p(1 + 9)? =0
—15+ 3
and hence show that, if p = * then gq = 7) [O.C].

20 . A polynomial P(x) is divided by x? — x and the remainder is A + Bx.

Determine the constants A and B. [N.U.]

21. If (x — 1) and (x + 2) are factors of P(x) = x5 + bx® + 4x? + cx — 4,

find the values of b and c. Show that, with these values of b and c,
(x + 1) is also a factor of P(x) and find the fourth factor.

22 Find the value of c which will make 2x4 — x* — 11x?+ cx —3

exactly divisible by (x + 1). Show that, with this value of c, the above
expression is exactly divisible by (x + 1)? and hence solve the equation
2x4
— x8 — 11x? + cx —3 = 0. [O.C.]

23% When a polynomial is divided either by ax — b or bx — a, where a is

not equal to b, the remainders are equal and the quotients are Q,(x)
and Q,(x) respectively. Show that (ax — 5) is a factor of Q,(x) and
that (x — 1) is a factor of Q,(x) + Q,(x). (N.U.]

If x3 + 5x2 — 2x — b and x? + 12x” — x — 2b have a common factor

and b + 0, find the two alternative values of b. [0.C.]

25. If x* + ax® — 3x2 — 2ax + a’ is a perfect square and has a factor

(x + 2), find a. When a has this value, obtain the square root of the
expression in its factorised form. [O.C.]
 CHAPTER 2

ARITHMETICAL AND GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSIONS;

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS; THE BINOMIAL
THEOREM; PARTIAL FRACTIONS

2.1 Introductory
Series of numbers or powers of x, each term of which is derived from
the preceding one by a definite law, are important in mathematics.
They are, in fact, encountered in elementary arithmetic without being
recognised as such. For instance, when a fraction such as 4 is put into
decimal form, it is written 0-3 which is simply a short way of writing
vo + rio + ros +. . . and this is an example of one of the two very
simple series discussed in the first part of this chapter. Although the
above series is “unending,”’ it represents precisely the number 3 and this
representation leads to the ideas of limits and convergence touched on
in § 2.5. Such ideas are of great value in more advanced work.
Another important topic in modern mathematics is the theory of
probability and a few of the simplest ideas on which it is based are
introduced in §§ 2.6-2.9. We then go on to a famous formula, first
discovered by Newton, known as the binomial theorem. This formula
not only permits the full or expanded form of expressions like
(2x + Sy)” to be written down without actually performing the suc-
cessive multiplications involved, but it also enables us to represent
expressions such as +/(1 + x) by a series of terms in ascending powers
of x.
The chapter ends with a brief description of the method of splitting
up an algebraical fraction into two or more simpler fractions. This
process is of use in work involving the binomial theorem and it will also
be found to be of great value in later work in the integral calculus.
2.2 Sequences and series
A set of numbers or algebraical expressions each of which can be
obtained from the preceding one by a definite law is called a sequence
or a progression. Each of the numbers or expressions forming the set
is called a term of the sequence. For example, the sets
(1) 12,3, 4, + 2 te Ul) Ay oy is Ae, 2 eee (il) ee Ot
are all sequences.
It is possible to give a simple formula for the nth or general term of
each of the above sequences. Thus for (i) the nth term is n, for (ii) it
is x” and for (iii) it is n®. When a formula for the nth term of a sequence
34
 ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSIONS 35
is known, successive terms can be written down by giving successive
integral values to n. Thus the sequence whose nth term is n° is 1, 8, 27,
64, . . . while that with mth term (1+ -)is 2, 8, $4, $25... ., these
sequences being found by writing n = 1, 2,3, 4,. . . in the formula for
the general term. When the terms of a sequence are linked together
with signs of addition or subtraction, the resulting expression is known
as a series. Thus
@1+3+5+...+20+4 21,
(ii) x —x?7+x8-...,,
are both series. The first series ends at the term 21 while the absence of
a last term in (ii) indicates that it is “unending.”
2.3 Arithmetical progressions
A sequence in which each term is obtained from the preceding one
by adding or subtracting a constant quantity is called an arithmetical
progression. Thus the sequences,
Ly 3,130
1k 335
a4,a+d,a+2d,a+3d,...,
are such progressions. The difference between each term and the pre-
ceding one is called the common difference of the progression and, in
the above two examples, the common differences are respectively 2
and d. When three quantities are in arithmetical progression, the middle
one is called the arithmetic mean of the other two. Thus a is the arith-
metic mean of a — danda + d.
In the progression
a,a+d,a+2d,a+ 3d,..., (2.1)
it will be noted that the coefficient multiplying d in each term is one
less than the number of the term in the sequence. Thus a + 3d is the
fourth term and the nth term will be given by
nth term = a + (n — 1)d. (2.2)
To obtain the sum s,, of ” terms of the sequence (2.1), we have
S,=at(atd+at+2md@+...+¢¢U—2d)+(-—d+]4, (2.3)
where / is the last or nth term and is given by (2.2) as
l=a+(n— Dd. (2.4)
If we now write the terms on the right-hand side of (2.3) in the reverse
order,
me Pee Ueteb att a $28) tad ta. 020¥ ¢
36 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Adding (2.3) to (2.5) and noticing that the sums of terms in correspond-
ing positions are all (a + J),
2,=(a+)D+@t+)D+@4+)+...ton terms
= n(a + /).
Hence
Sy = gna + /) (2.6)
= jn{2a + (n — 1)d}, - (27)
when we substitute the value of / given by equation (2.4).

Example 1. Sum the sequence 3, 5,7,9,. . . to 200 terms. [O.C.]

Here the common difference, found by subtracting successive terms, is 2 and
the first term is 3. Hence a = 3, d = 2, n = 200 and formula (2.7) gives

= 100(6 + 398) = 40400,

Example 2. Find three numbers in arithmetical progression such that their sum is 15
and their product is 45.
Let the required numbers be a — d,aand a + d. Then the sum of the numbers
is 3a and, since this is 15, a = 5. The product of the three numbers is
(a — d)a(a + d) or a(a? — d?),
Hence
a(a® — d*) = 45,
and, since a= 5, 5(25 —d’) = 45 leading to 25 —d?=9, d* = 16 and
d= +4. Hence the required numbers are 5 F 4, 5 and 5 + 4, that is, 1, 5
and 9.

Example 3. A polygon has 25 sides, the lengths of which starting from the smallest
side are in arithmetical progression. If the perimeter of the polygon is 1100 cm,
and the length of the largest side is ten times that of the smallest, find the length
of the smallest side and the common difference of the arithmetical progression.

If the shortest side is acm and the common difference of the progression is
dcm, the largest side (which is the 25th) is of length a + 24d. Since this is 10
times the shortest side,
a + 24d = 10a
giving 9a = 24d or d = 3a/8. Since the perimeter of 1100cm is the sum of
all 25 sides, substitution of s,, = 1100 and n = 25 in equation (2.7) gives
*P {2a + (25 — 1)d} = 1100.
Writing d = 3a/8 and making a few reductions,
2a+ (24 x 32) = NOX?
8 25
leading
to
line 1100 x 2
25
Hence a = 8 cm and the common difference d, being 3a/8, is 3 cm.
 GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSIONS 37
2.4 Geometrical progressions
When each term of a sequence is obtained from the preceding one by
multiplying by a constant quantity, the sequence is said to be a geo-
metrical progression. Examples of such sequences are
2, Ate oe OE?
and ON
5G 0, Gree 3
The ratio of each term to the preceding one is called the common ratio
and, in the above examples, the common ratios are respectively 2 and r.
When three quantities are in geometrical progression, the middle one is
said to be the geometric mean of the other two. Thus a is the geo-
metric mean of a/r and ar, and »/(ab) is the geometric mean of a and b.
In the geometrical progression
GAAP 2OP Ero os (2.8)
the index of r in each term is one less than the number of the term in the
sequence. For example, ar? is the fourth term and the nth term is
given by
ntbrterm ‘== are: (2.9)
To obtain the sum s, of n terms of the progression (2.8), we have
Sn =atartar+...+ar™3 + ar? + arr,
and, multiplying throughout by r,
rs, =ar+ar?+are+...+ ar" + ar™! + ar".
If we subtract and notice that all the terms except the first and last
cancel in pairs,
S, — 'S, = a—ar",
giving
a(l — r”)
an (2.10)

as the required formula for s,,.

Example 4. Find three numbers in geometrical progression such that their sum is 26
and their product is 216.
Let the numbers be a/r, a and ar. Their product is a® and, since this is 216,
a® = 216 giving a = 6. Since the sum of the numbers is 26 we have

OG Lr = 26
r
so that 6r? — 20r + 6 = 0 or 3r? — 107 + 3 = 0. This gives (3r — 1)(r — 3)
= 0 so that r = $ or 3. The required numbers are therefore 6/3, 6 and 6 x 3,
or 6 x 3, 6 and 6/3, and each set leads to 2, 6 and 18.
38 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 5. A geometrical progression has a for its first term. Find its common ratio
if eight times the sum of six terms is equal to nine times the sum of three terms.
[0.C.]
If r is the common ratio, formula (2.10) gives for the sums s, and s, of three and
six terms respectively
ar) : ~ Aer 2) al — £77
S67 Deane l—r l—-—r
Since these are in the ratio of 8 to 9,
1+r=8
leading to r? = 4 andr = 3.

Example 6. Starting with a square of side 10 cm,aseries of squares is constructed with

the diagonal of each square equal to the side of the previous one. The areas of
successive squares are denoted by A, (A, being 100 cm?), Az, Ag,. . .. Find the
smallest value of n for which A, < 1 cm’, [O.C.]
The length of the side of the second square is 10/+/2 cm, that of the third square
is 10/(4/2)? cm and so on, thelength of the side of the mth square being 10/(1/2)""*
cm. The area A, of the nth square is therefore given by
7. | 10 :_ 100
n (/2*1 Qn

Since 2° = 64 and 2? = 128, A, will be less than unity when n — 1 = 7, that

is when n = 8.

Exercises 2 (a)

Write down the first three and the sixth terms of the sequences whose
nth terms are

() 3n—2, Gi) 44, Git) (— ID, Gy) 7 n

Find the sum of 65 terms of the progression 1, 2-1, 3-2, 4:3,. . .. [O.C.]
Given that a and c are the first and third terms of an arithmetical
progression, find the common difference and the sum of the first nine
terms. [O.C.]

The second term of an arithmetical progression is —4 and the sixth

term is —24. Find the fifteenth term and the sum of the first fifteen
terms. [L.U.]
Find how many terms of the progression 5, 9, 13, 17,. . . have a sum
of 2414. [0.C.}
Find an expression for the sum of the first terms of the arithmetical
progression 8, 11, 14,. . .. Find the value of z if this sum is 385.
[0.C.]
The sum of the first eight terms of an arithmetical progression is 60 and
the sum of the next six terms (from the ninth to the fourteenth) is 108.
Find the first term and the common difference. [O.C,]
 GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSIONS 39

If a, 6b, c, d™ are in arithmetical progression, prove that

b = 2ac/(a + c) and find b/d in terms of a and c. ER OA

Prove that log x + log (xy) + log (xy) +... is an arithmetical

progression and show, without using tables, that when x = 160 and
y = 4, the sum of the first nine terms of the progression is 9. [O.C.]

10. Given that 27 is the fourth term of a geometrical progression whose

first term is 8, find the common ratio and the seventh term. [O.C.]

il Sum the series 2+6+18+54+... to thirty terms; by using

logarithms, verify that this sum is greater than 2 x 10%. [O.C.]

12. The sum of the first three terms of a geometrical progression is 38 and
the fourth term exceeds the first by 19. Find the values of the first term
and of the common ratio. [O.C.]

13. Given that x — 2, x — 1 and 3x — 5 are three consecutive terms of a

geometrical progression, find the possible values of x and of the common
ratio of the progression. [0.C.]
14. In a geometrical progression of increasing positive terms, the sum of
the first six terms is nine times the sum of the first three terms. Find the
common ratio of the progression. [N.U.]

43: The first term of a geometrical progression is a and the nth term is b.
Obtain the common ratio and express the product of the first n terms as
simply as possible in terms of a, b and n. [N.U.]

16. The sum of three consecutive terms of a geometrical progression is

3-5 and the middle one of these terms is unity. Find the other two
terms. [L.U.]

L7. The first m terms of a geometrical progression are aj, Go, dg, . » »» Gn:
Prove that its sum is (a,a, — a,”)/(a, — a4).

18. Show that the arithmetic and geometric means between the two positive
quantities a and b are respectively 4(a + b) and +/(ab). Deduce that
the arithmetic mean is greater than the geometric mean.

19. Three unequal numbers a, 5, c are such that 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in arith-
metical progression and a, c, b are in geometrical progression. Prove
that 5, a, c are in arithmetical progression. [L.U.]

20. A geometrical progression and an arithmetical progression have each

a first term of 32 and each a sixth term of 243. Find the common ratio
of the geometrical progression and the common difference of the arith-
metical progression. The sum of six terms of the geometrical progression
can be written 3° — 2°; find x. Find also the sum of eleven terms of the
arithmetical progression. [0.C.]
40 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

2.5 Convergent geometrical progressions

The sums of two, three and four terms of the geometrical progression
1,4, 4,4,. . . are respectively %, 4, 4 and these differ from 2 by 3, 4, $-
In other words the sum of two terms differs from 2 by the second term
of the progression, the sum of three terms differs from 2 by the third
term and the sum of four terms differs from 2 by the fourth term.
Similarly it will be found that the sum to 7 terms differs from 2 by the
nth term. As the terms of the above progression are clearly getting
progressively smaller, we can conclude that the sum of n terms never
exceeds 2, never reaches 2 but can be made as close to 2 as we wish by
taking n to be sufficiently large. The value 2 is called the limit of the sum
of the progression and series for which such a limit exists are said to be
convergent.
If we consider the general geometrical progression a, ar, ar®,...
the sum s,, of n terms is given by equation (2.10) as
mLest ee)
vere

This can be written in the form

=p eae ea ee (2.11)

and, if r lies between 0 and 1, the value of r” decreases as n increases.

As, for the moment, we are assuming that r is positive, r” cannot be
negative and hence must tend to some positive limit / as n increases.
Since r*t! = r x r", r+ and r” are both ultimately equal to / and we
have / = rl, showing that as r 4 0, / must be zero. It can be shown in
a similar way that if r lies between —1 and 0, the limiting value of r”
is also zero. Hence, provided —1<r<1, the value of the term
ar"/(1 — r) in equation (2.11) becomes closer and closer to zero as n
increases and the limit of the sum of the progression, denoted by s, is
given by
a
AY es: (2.12)

for we can make s, as near to a/(1 — r) as we please by making n

sufficiently large.
The last paragraph can be summarised by saying that the geometrical
progression a, ar, ar?,. . .is convergent when —1 <r < 1 and that the
limit s of its sum is given by s = a/(1 — r). Rather loose expressions
are often used in connection with convergent series. For instance the
limit of the sum is sometimes called “the sum to infinity” and a con-
vergent geometrical progression is often referred to as an “‘infinite’”’
 CONVERGENT GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSIONS 41
geometrical progression. Such expressions are open to objection and
it is best to avoid their use as far as is possible.
When the common ratio r of a geometrical progression lies outside
the range —1 to 1, there is no limit to the sum of the progression.
Thus the sum of the progression 1, 3, 9, 27,. . . in which r = 3 be-
comes more and more unmanageable as more and more terms are
included. In such cases, the series involved are said to be divergent.

Example 7. Evaluate 0-3 as a fraction.

0-3 means x5 + x30 + ross +... . and this can be written
3 fayLeber)
10 tio tig t:--):

The series in the brackets is a convergent geometrical progression with first

term unity and common ratio ys. By (2.12) the limit of its sum is 1/(1 — 7s)
or 6°. Hence we have
03 =i x7 =f.

Example 8. The first term of a convergent geometrical progression is 3/5. A new

series is formed by taking the square of each term and the limit of the sum of the
new series is nine-tenths the limit of the sum of the first series. Find the common
ratio of the first progression. [N.U.]
If the common ratio of the first progression is r, that of the second will be r?
and their respective first terms are 3/5 and 9/25. By (2.12), the limits of their
sums are
3/5 9/25
yer ance ar
and hence we have

This reduces to 3(1 +r) = 2 giving r = —1/3.

Exercises 2 (b)

1. The second and fourth terms of a convergent geometrical progression

of positive terms are respectively 36 and 16. Find the first term of the
progression and the limit of its sum.
2. The limit of the sum of convergent geometrical progression is 6 and the
first term is 4. Find the fourth term and the sum of the first four terms.
By expressing 5-27 in the form of a series, show that it is equal to 5355.

4. The limit of the sum of a convergent geometrical progression is m and

the limit of the sum of the squares of its terms is n. Show that the first
term of the progression is given by 2mn/(m? + n).
5. Show that the limit of the sum of the convergent geometrical progression
whose first two terms are +/3/(4/3 + 1) and V/3/(/3 + 3) is 3/2.
42 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

6. Find for what values of x the geometrical series

; 1 1-—x (i — x)?
eae er pee
43 1 1+x (1 + x)?
se ataes
G@) Tax + G+ a0? + 3xp
converge and prove that the limit of the sum of the first series is }.
7. The sum of the first two terms of a convergent geometrical progression
is unity and the nth term is equal to twice the difference between the
limit of the sum and the sum of terms. Find the first term and the
common ratio of the progression.
8. A convergent geometrical progression has a positive common ratio r.
If the sum of the first m terms differs from the limit of the sum by less
than 1 per cent., prove that n log (1/r) > 2. Ifr = 4, determine the least
value of n satisfying this condition. ([L.U.]
9, The first three terms of a convergent geometrical progression are
aah detainees
eg sD ap
2—x (Q—x? (—x
where —1 < x < 1. Find the sum of all the other terms. (L.U.]
10. The third term of a geometrical progression is equal to the sum of the
first two terms. Find, in surd form, the possible values of the common
ratio. If the first term of the progression is now taken to be 2, find in
its simplest surd form, the limit of the sum of the progression in the case
in which it is convergent. (N.U.]

2.6 Permutations and combinations

Possible selections of groups of two letters from the four letters
A, B, C and D are AB, AC, AD, BC, BD and CD. Each selection is
called a combination and it is possible therefore to make 6 different
combinations from four objects taken two at a time. If, however, we
are concerned with the arrangements of the four letters A, B, Cand D
taken two at a time, these are
AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD,
BA, CA, DA, CB, DB, DC,
and there are therefore 12 such arrangements. Each arrangement is
called a permutation and there are 12 different permutations from four
objects taken two at a time. Thus in forming combinations only the
number of objects contained in each selection is important, whereas
in forming permutations, the order of the component objects also has
to be considered.
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 43
We now obtain a formula giving the number of permutations which
can be made from n dissimilar objects taken r at a time. Here we have
to fill r places from m objects and the first place can clearly be filled in
n ways. When the first place has been filled, the second place can be
filled in (2 — 1) ways for now we have only (n — 1) objects with which
to fill it. Each way of filling the first place can be associated with each
way of filling the second so that there are n(n — 1) ways of filling the
first two places. Proceeding in this way, the first three places can be
filled in n(n — 1)(n — 2) ways and the r places in
nn — 1)(n—2)...(n—7r +1)
ways. A convenient notation for the number of permutations of n
objects taken r at a time is “P, and hence
"P =n(n—1\(n—2)...(n—r+1) (2.13)
the number of factors being r (the number in the suffix of the symbol
"P,). The number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time, or
the number of arrangements of m objects among themselves, is given,
on writing r = n by
“P =n(n — 1)n —2) ©. . 3.204,
there now being n factors. The product n(n — 1)(n — 2). . . 3.2.1 is
called ‘“‘factorial n” and written (n)!, or sometimes, |n.
To find the number of combinations which can be made from n
dissimilar objects taken r at a time, let "C, (a notation similar to that
of "P,) be the required number. Each of these "C, combinations
consists of a selection of r objects which can be arranged among them-
selves in "P, or (r)! ways. Hence the product of (r)! and "C, is the total
number of arrangements "P, of n objects taken r at a time, so that
heMap ead Oe Od og
=n(n—l)\(n—2)...(~—rt+1)

giving
n(n —1)(n—2)...(2n—r+ 1)
"°C. = Patines be HORI rama | (2.14)

An alternative formula for "C, can be obtained by multiplying the

numerator and denominator of the right-hand side of (2.14) by (n — r)!.
Since (n—1r)!=(#—r)”—r—1).. .3.2.1, the numerator will
now contain all the numbers n, (” — 1), (n — 2),. . . down to unity
and will therefore be (7)!. Hence
" C, (n)!
= inary! (2.15)
44 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 9. How many different arrangements can be made by taking (i) five, (ii) all,
of the letters of the word numbers ?
(i) Here we require the number of permutations of 7 letters taken 5 at a time.
This is
7?P,=7X6X5xX
4X 3 = 2520.
(ii) In this case we require the number of permutations of 7 letters taken 7 at a
time, that is,
7? =(N!=7X6x5xX4x3x2x
1 = 5040.

Example 10. A sub-committee of five, including a chairman, is to be chosen from a

main committee of ten members. If the chairman is to be a specified member of
the main committee, in how many ways can this be done?
As the specified member of the main committee always has to be included,
we have to find the number of ways in which selections of 4 can be made from
the remaining 9. This is °C, and, using (2.14), the required number is
9x8x7x6
ax3¢2x
1." 12%
2.7 The formula **1C, = "C, + "C,_,
The method of Example 10 above can be used to obtain a formula
which will be required later in this chapter (§ 2.10). Suppose we have
(n + 1) objects; the number of selections from these objects taken r
at a time such that a specified object is always excluded is "C, for we
have to make selections of r objects from only n. The number of selec-
tions taken r at a time such that a specified object is always included is
"C,_, for now we have to select from n objects for the remaining (r — 1)
places in each selection. The sum of "C, and "C,_, will therefore give
the number of selections with the specified object excluded and included
and this is "*1C,, the number of selections taken r at a time from (n + 1)
objects. Hence
Ge CLP Cy (2.16)
This formula can also be obtained by substituting (2.15) and the
corresponding result when r is replaced by r — 1 in the right-hand side
and showing that this reduces to (2.15) with n + 1 replacing n. The
details are left as an exercise for the reader.
2.8 Similar and repeated objects
So far it has been assumed that the objects of which arrangements
have been made or from which selections have been taken are all
dissimilar. Formulae for the number of permutations or combinations
when the objects are not all dissimilar are rather complicated and such
cases are probably best treated on their merits. Some examples are
given in the following paragraphs.
To find the number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time
when p of the objects are exactly alike, let x be the required number.
 SIMILAR AND REPEATED OBJECTS 45
Then if the p like objects were replaced by p dissimilar objects (different
from the remaining (n — p) objects), from any one of the x permutations
we could form (p)! new permutations without altering the position of
any of the remaining objects. If this change were made in each of the
x arrangements, we should obtain x x (p)! permutations. With this
change, the objects are all different and can be arranged among them-
selves in ()! ways, so that
x X (p)! =(n)!
giving

x=—\ (2.17)
Similarly the number of permutations of objects taken all at a time
when p are alike of one kind, g alike of a second kind, r alike of a third
kind and so on is
(n)idt give
OOO! ..
Example 11. How many different arrangements of letters can be made by using all
the letters of the word algebra? In how many of these arrangements will the a’s
be separated by at least one other letter ?
Here we have 7 letters of which two are similar. The required number of
arrangements is therefore, by (2.17),
@! 1X6xX5xX4x3xX2XxK1 _
@! =),
i oe oe rea 2520.

If we treat the two a’s as one letter, the number of arrangements in which the
a’s are together is
()!=6x5x4x3x2x1=720.
The number of arrangments in which the a’s are separated is the difference,
2520 — 720, or 1800.

Sometimes the number of arrangements of n objects taken r at a time is

required when each object may be repeated up to r times in any arrange-
ment. Here, the first place may be filled in m ways and, when it has been
filled, the second place may also be filled in m ways for we are allowed,
if we wish, to use the same object again. The first two places can there-
fore be filled inn x n or n? ways. Similarly the first three places can be
filled in n? ways and so on. The total number of arrangements is
therefore n’.

Example 12. How many entries must be made in a football pool of eight matches to
ensure a correct forecast ?
The result of each match may be a home win, an away win or a draw so that a
forecast of the result of the first match can be made in three ways. The result
46 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

of the second match can similarly be entered in three ways so that, to cover all
possibilities, the first two matches will require 3° entries. For the first three
matches, 3* entries will be necessary and so on. Hence for all eight matches,
the number of entries required to ensure a correct forecast will be 3° or 6561.

2.9 Probability
The probability of an event in a single trial is defined as its relative
frequency in a large number of trials. If a coin is tossed 1000 times,
we would expect it to fall head upwards about 500 times and tail
upwards about 500 times giving a relative frequency of heads of about
500/1000, or 4, and we say that the chance of a head in a single trial is }.
The theory of probability is based on the axiom that, as the number of
trials increases, the relative frequency of an event tends to a limit and
this limit may often be deduced by considering the nature of the event.
Thus we can see no reason why the limit of the relative frequency of
heads when a coin is tossed should be anything but 4. Similarly if a
symmetrical six-sided die shows the numbers 1 to 6, there is no reason
why the relative frequency of one number should be greater than that of
another—in (say) 6000 trials we would expect each number to turn up
about 1000 times giving a limiting relative frequency forecast of 4.
If an event occurs m times in a large number (m + n) trials, the
probability p of it occurring in a single trial is given by the limiting value
of m/(m + n) when m and n become large. Similarly the chance q of it
not occurring is the limiting value of n/(m + n), so that p + gq = 1 and
q =1-—p. Probabilities therefore range between 0 and 1, 0 indicating
impossibility and 1 certainty. Sometimes percentages are used in this
connection, a two per cent. chance meaning a probability of two in a
hundred. If the chances for and against an event are p and q, the odds
for and against are respectively p to g and qg to p. Thus odds of 5 to 2
against an event happening implies that the probability of it occurring
is 2/7 and of it not occurring is 5/7.
If the probability of an event occurring is p and that of another
independent event occurring is p’, the probability of both occurring is
pp’. The probability of the first, occurring and of the second not
occurring is p(1 — p’), that of the second occurring and not the first is
(1 — p)p’, while the probability of neither occurring is (1 — p)(1 — p’).
All these results follow directly from the definition of probability.

Example 13. Find the probability that a hand of thirteen cards dealt from a pack shall
contain only black cards.
The number of possible hands is °*C,, and the number of favourable hands is
*°C,5, for selections of 13 cards have to be made only from the 26 black cards
in the case of the favourable hands. The required probability is therefore
°C, 4/"*C,, = 1/61055, approximately.
 PROBABILITY 47
(a) Success at the second throw only implies failure at the first and hence the
required chance = (1 — p)p’ = (1 —#) xd =a.
(6) The chance for failure at both throws
= (1 — pl —p) =(1 — 1 — 8) = 8.
Exercises 2 (c)

1. How many different four-digit numbers can be made from the digits
6, 4, 2, 7 and how many of these will be between 2000 and 3000?

2. In how many ways can a team of eleven players be picked from fourteen
possible players ?
3. In how many ways can three prizes be distributed to six candidates when
each candidate can have all the prizes?
4. Find the number of different arrangements of eight letters that can be
formed from the letters of the word nineteen. {L.U.]

5. Seven men volunteer to dig a trench. Find the number of ways in which
some or all of the men may be chosen for the job. ~ [L.U.]
6. In how many ways can a car registration number be made by arranging
the letters A, M, S and the figures 4, 4, 1 if the letters and figures must
each occur in groups of three.
7. How many numbers of four digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2,
3, 4 when each digit can be repeated four times. Calculate the sum of all
these numbers. [L.U.]

8. There are six boys and twelve girls at a party. If each boy dances with a
girl, in how many different ways may the six mixed couples be selected ?
If the remaining six girls also join the dance in pairs, find also the
number of different ways in which the nine couples can be selected.
[L.U.]

9. Find how many different numbers can be formed with the digits 0, 1, 2,
2, 2, 3, 3, 4, each number containing eight digits and not beginning with
0. Find also how many of these numbers are odd. [L.U.]
Example 14. Show that the chance of scoring a total of9in a single throw with two
ordinary dice is 1[9. If, in attempting to score 9 in a single throw, two throws are
made (each with two dice), find the chance of (a) succeeding at the second throw
only, (b) failing at both throws. {L.U.]
The total number of combinations of numbers which can be thrown with two
dice is 36, for any one of six different numbers can be thrown with each dice.
The only combinations which give a total of 9 are 4 + 5,5 + 4,3 + 6,6 + 3
and the number of favourable combinations is 4. Hence the required chance
p = 4/36 = 1/9.
If p and p’ are respectively the chances of throwing a total of 9 in the first and
second throws, p = p’ = 1/9.
48 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
10. The odds against a student solving a certain problem are 4 to 3 and the
odds in favour of a second student solving the same problem are 7 to 5.
Find the chance that the problem will be solved if both students attempt
it.
11. A box of ten radio valves are all apparently sound although four of them
are actually substandard. Find the chance that, if two valves are taken
from the box together, they are both substandard. (N.U.]
12. When three marksmen take part in a shooting contest, their chances
of hitting the target are 4, 4 and }. Calculate the chance that one, and
only one, bullet will hit the target if all three men fire at it simultaneously.
(N.U.]
13. Five books on mathematics and four books on physics stand in a row.
Find the probability that there will be a mathematics book at each end
of the row.
14. A committee of four is to be chosen from a number of people, of whom
two are women. If the probability of both women being on the com-
mittee is twice that of neither being on it, find the number of people
available. Find also the probability of only one woman being on the
committee. [L.U.]
15. Smith and Brown are two of eight men who seat themselves in a railway
carriage, four men sitting on each side. What is the chance that they
will be seated next to one another? {E203}

2.10 The binomial theorem for a positive integral index

The binomial theorem gives the expansion in a series of ascending
powers of x of the two-termed or binomial expression (1 + x) when this
expression is raised to the nth power. We start by giving the results,
which can easily be verified by actual multiplication, for the cases when
the index n takes the positive integral values 2, 3 and 4. These are

(1+ xP =142x4¢2%=1 tied’

3 Dy!
(1+ x = 1 + 3x 4 3x8 + x= 1 + ox
[=
+ x
joe
+ x, (2.18)
(1+ xt=1 +4 4x + 62 + 4.9 4 4

=4
a T+7x+ 4.3
ieee
tox ce
4.3.2
+ eee
193% +.

The reason for the apparently complicated way in which the coefficients
of the various powers of x have been written in the final expressions on
the right of (2.18) is that this enables a forecast to be made for the
coefficients in the expansion of (1 + x)" when n is any positive integer.
 BINOMIAL THEOREM 49
By inspecting (2.18), it can be seen that
(i) the indices of x in the various terms on the right successively
Increase by unity, the index of the last term being the same as
the power to which (1 + x) is raised,
(ii) the first term and the coefficient of the last term are each
unity; those of the other terms are, in the notation of equation
(2.14), #C, in the expression for (1 + x)?, 8C, and 8C, in those
of (1 + x)® and 4C,, 4C,, 4C, in those of (1 + x)*.
This suggests that the result for any positive integral value for the
index n will be
Cl + x) = 7 + "Cex t+ "CoP. ROO x”.
(2.19)
Assuming that the result (2.19) is valid, multiplication by (1 + x) and
collection of the terms in like powers of x gives
(+ xt a1+ (Ct Ix + ("G+ "Gxt...
+ (°C, + °C,_y)x7 +. xt,
Since, by equation (2.16), "C, + 1 = "*1C, and "C, + "C,_, = "HC,,
this can be written
(+ xP =1 4+ Cx t+ HCP tw tC tw et,
(2.20)
Hence if the assumption made in (2.19) is true for a positive integral
index n, equation (2.20) shows that it is true also when n is increased to
n+ 1. But we know from (2.18) that the assumption is true when
n = 2, 3 and 4, and hence we can infer it is true also when n = 5,
therefore it is true when 7 = 6, and so on. Hence the result (2.19) is
true for any positive integer n. This method of establishing the truth
of the theorem contained in (2:19) is known as proof by induction and
is a powerful method used in many branches of mathematics.
If the expansion of (a + x)” is required, we can write
x n

+x —ar(1+
a

ma (14 9G2+°G
Gt. 47S +. +3)
x2 f x”

me Oy aX + Cae
eC ax. ae ok xX”.
50 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The numerical coefficients in the binomial expansion are conveniently

given by the following table (Pascal’s arithmetical triangle)

Index | Coefficients

The first and last entries in each line of coefficients are unity and the
other entries are formed by summing the one immediately above that
required and the next entry on the left. Thus the first of the entries
10 in the fifth line is the sum of 6 and 4 and so on. The coefficients in
the expansion of (1 + x)’ are therefore obtained from the last line
given in the above table as 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1 and, when these
are available, the coefficients in the expansion of (1 + x)® can be
found in a similar way.
Example 15. Expand (c + 2y)° by the binomial theorem and apply your result to
evaluate (1-02)° correct to 4 places of decimals.
Writing c for a, 2y for x and taking m = 5, equation (2.21) gives
(c + 2y)® = c§ + Sct(2y) + 10c3(2y)? + 10c2(2y)* + Sc(2y)* + (2y)',
the coefficients 5, 10, 10, 5 being taken from Pascal’s triangle (or calculated
from the formulae for 5C,, r = 1, 2, 3, 4). This reduces to
(c + 2y)® = c + 10cty + 40c*y® + 80c#y> + 80cy* + 32y%.
Taking c= 1, y= 10-*, c + 2y = 1-02 and hence
(1-02)§ = 1 + 10 x 10-* + 40 x 10~ + 80 x 10-® + 80 x 10-8 + 32 x 10-20
= 1-000000 + 0-100000 + 0-004000 + 0-000080 +...
== 1:104080 = 1-1041 (to four places).

Example 16. If the first three terms in the expansion of (1 + x)?(1 — x)*%, where P
and q are positive integers, are 1 + 3x — 6x*, find the values of p and q. {L.U.]
Equation (2.19) gives directly
(lL +x)? =1+px+4pp—Ie+..,
while, replacing p by g and x by —x,
(Ql — x)? =1—qx+tqg—Ix?+...
Multiplying these results,
(1 + x)"(1 — x)? = 1+ (p —g)x + {hp(p — 1) + 49g — 1) — pg} +. ..
the terms not written down being powers of x above the second.
 BINOMIAL THEOREM 51
Identifying these terms with 1 + 3x — 6x3,
P— 4 = 3, pp — 1) + 499— 1) — pq = —6.
Substituting q = p — 3 from the first of these -quations in the second, we find
after a little reduction, p = 12 and it then follows that g = 9.

Example 17. Jn the expansion of (1 — 2x + ax*)* as a series of powers of x, the

coefficient of x* is zero. Prove that a = —4/3 and find the coefficient of x‘.
[0.C.]
Replacing x by x(—2 + ax), equation (2.19) gives with n = 4,
(1 — 2x + ax*)t = 1 + 4x(—2 + ax) + 6x—2 + ax)? + 4x5(—2 + ax)
+ x4(—2 +.ax)'.
As we are only interested in terms up to x‘, this can be written
(1 — 2x + ax®)*= 1 + 4x(—2 + ax) + 6x°(4 — 4ax + a*x?)
+ 4x3(—-8 + 12ax +...) +4(16+...)
= 1 — 8x + (4a + 24)x? — (24a + 32)
+ (6a?
+ 48a + 16)x4 +...
If the coefficient of the term in x* is zero, 24a + 32 = 0 giving a = —4/3.
The coefficient of x* is 6a? + 48a + 16 and, with a = —4/3, this is
6(—#)? + 48(—4) + 16,
that is, —112/3.

Exercises 2 (d)

1. Write down in its simplest form the complete expansion of (x — 4)*.

By taking x = 1/400 in this expansion, show that
(435)* = 0-01516,
correct to five places of decimals. [O.C.]
2. Employ the binomial theorem to evaluate (0:998)*° correct to four
places of decimals. [O.C.]
7 ath D\9
3. Find the term independent of x in the expansion of ie= 3}. [(L.U.]

4. In the expansion of (ax — bx~*), the coefficients of x* and x“? are the
same. Show that a+ 2b = 0. [L.U.]
5. In the expansion of (1 + px)"(1 + 9x), where p and g are numerical
coefficients and p # 0, the coefficients of x and x? are —4 and 0 re-
spectively. Find the coefficient of x, [L.U.]
6. Find a positive integer p such that the coefficients of x and x? in the
expansion of (1 + x)??(1 — x)? are equal. [L.U.]

7. In the binomial expansion of (1 + x)", where n is a positive integer,

the coefficient of x* is 14 times the sum of the coefficients of x* and x*.
Find the value of n and determine these three coefficients. {L.U.]
Sz ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
8. The ratio of the third to the fourth term in the expansion of (2 + 3x)”
in ascending powers of x is 5 : 14 when x = 2/5. Find n. [L.U.]
9. The sum of the first four terms in the expansion of (1 — 2x) is equal
to the sum of the first three terms in the expansion of (1 — x)®. Show
that this is true only if x = 0 or —1/8. [0.C.]
10. It is known that a, b, n are positive integers and that the first three terms
in the binomial expansion of (a + 5)” are 729, 2916 and 4860 respec-
tively. Find a, b and n. [O.C.]
11. Find the values of 7 for which the coefficients of x4, x® and x* in the
expansion of (1 + x)" are in arthmetical progression.
12. Prove that if x and y are positive integers the expression (x + y)®
— x5 — y* is always exactly divisible by 5. Show also that if the integers
x and y are even it is divisible by 160 and that if x and y are the same
integer it is divisible by 30. [L.U.]
13. The first three terms in the expansion in ascending powers of x of
(1 + 2x + ax*)", where n is a positive integer, are 1 + 2nx + Ax°.
Show that
a= 2(1 — n),
A = —$n(n— 1)2n— 1).
14. The expansion of (1 + x)(1 + ax + bx*) in ascending powers of x
begins with the terms 1 + x + x*. Find the numerical values of a
and b. [L.U.]
15. Prove that in the binomial expansion of (1 + 0-03)", the rth term is
less than one-tenth of the (r — 1)th term if r > 4. {L.U.]

2.11 The binomial theorem for fractional and negative indices

When the index n is fractional or negative, it can be shown (but the
proof is outside the range of this book) that the series
nn—1) , , na— 1H — 2)
1+nx+ (! x24 G)! Pale. gee EE S|

converges* if —1 <x <1 and that the limit of its sum is (1 + x)".
This result is known as the binomial theorem for fractional and negative
indices. The points of difference between it and the theorem for a
positive integral index [equation (2.19)] are
(i) when 7 is a positive integer, the series (2.22) terminates at the
term in x" and its sum is (1 + x)" for all values of x;
(ii) for fractional and negative values of n, the series (2.22) does
not terminate and it is only convergent with the limit of its
sum as (1 + x)” when x lies between —1 and 1.

* For certain values of n, the series also converges when x = 1 or when x = —1.
 BINOMIAL THEOREM $3
The following particular cases should be noted. Putting n = —1 in
(2.22), we deduce that the series 1 —-x+x27—x3 4... converges
when —1 < x < 1 and the limit of its sum is (1 + x)-. Changing x
into —x, it follows that the series 1+ x+x24+239+... converges
when —1 < x < 1 and that the limit of its sum is (1 — x). These
two series are geometrical progressions with first terms unity and
common ratios --x respectively and the limits of their sums as given
here are in agreement with those given by (2.12). Putting n = 4 in
(2.22), we find that the series 1 + 4x — 4x? + vex? —. . . converges
when —1 <x <1 and the limit of its sum is \/(1 + x). Finally,
putting m = —2 and writing —x in place of x in (2.22) shows that the
series 1 + 2x + 3x? + 4x9 +. . . converges when —1 <x <1 and
the limit of its sum is (1 — x)-?.
When x is small compared with unity, the values of x, x2, x8,...
are progressively smaller, and successive terms of a convergent series in
ascending powers of x contribute less and less to the limit of its sum.
Thus a first approximation to (1 + x)" for small x is given by
(i + x)* ~1+4+ nx,
a better approximation being
(1 + x)® 214 nx + $n(n — 1)”,
and so on. Similarly
1 + ax
= (1 + ax)(1 + bx)
1 + bx

= (1 + ax){l — bx + 4b(6 — 1)? -.. |}

~1+(C@-— )b)x,

when the terms in x?, x3,. . . are neglected.

Example 18. Obtain the firstfour terms in the expansion of (1 + x). Hence find the
cube root of 1-012 correct to seven decimal places. [L.U.]
Writing n = } in (2:22),
+ - 1) 24% - NG —2 Pk ibetis

me Xx
SeoBly
2/(1-012) = (1 + 0-012)%
0-012 (0-012)? 5(0-012)* Be
SE Meg Gr EC RT
= 1 + 0:0040000 — 0:0000160 + 0-0000001 —. . . = 1:0039841.
54 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 19. Show that, if x is so small in comparison with unity that x and higher
powers can be neglected
(1 —4x)i+3x)b . 3 33, LU]
a+x! | 5*- ee [Lz

The given expression can be written (1 — 4x)#(1 + 3x)#(1 + x)~t and, using
appropriate values for n and x in (2.22) this is equal to
= —1
(1+ 4-40) + EY aye ; |f + 46x) + BY yt. ‘ 4
—}(-4 -1
x {1+ (px + PCED sy, . |
=(1—2x-28%—.. )\i+¢x—x4+..)1—dx+
hE -..,)
=(1+x—x94. 5 5—2e—2x8 =. oe i + Be
=(1—x—5x°+..)1 —x +3 -...,)
=l—dt+ heft... —xt¢heO—... — 58+... = 1 — ie — PH,
when terms in x* and above are neglected.

2.12 Partial fractions

The process of simplifying a group of algebraical fractions separated
by addition or subtraction signs is assumed to be well known. For
example, the expression

x—1l x+2° (+2?

can be simplified to give the simple fraction 9/{(x — 1)(x + 2)?}. In
work involving expansions, and later in the integral calculus, it is often
useful to be able to carry out the reverse process. In other words, we
require to be able to split up a single fraction whose denominator can
be factorised into two or more partial fractions.
This reverse process, called resolution into partial fractions, depends
on the following rules
(i) if the degree of the numerator of the given fraction is equal
to or greater than that of the denominator, divide the numer-
ator by the denominator until a remainder is obtained which
is of lower degree than the denominator;
(ii) to every linear factor like (ax + b) in the denominator, there
corresponds a partial fraction of the form A/(ax + b);
(ili) to every repeated factor like (ax + b)? in the denominator,
there correspond two partial fractions of the form A/(ax + b)?
and B/(ax + b); similarly for factors like (ax + 5)’, there
are three partial fractions A/(ax + 5)8, B/(ax + b)?,
C/(ax + b) and so on;
(iv) to every quadratic factor like (ax® + bx + c), there corres-
ponds a partial fraction (Ax + B)/(ax? + bx +c) and re-
peated quadratic factors are treated as in (iii) above.
 PARTIAL FRACTIONS 55
The application of these rules is illustrated in the examples which
follow.
Example 20. Resolve 4/(x* — 4) into partial fractions.
The factors of x* — 4 being (x — 2) and (x + 2), we assume that
4 A B Ax +2) + Bx — 2)
Sewers sa (x —2)x+2) —
The denominators of the expressions on the left and right being the same, the
numerators must be the same and hence
A(x + 2) + Bx — 2) = 4. (2.23)
The values of A and B can be found from this identity by the principle of
undetermined coefficients. Thus, equating the coefficients of x and of the term
independent of x,
° A+B=0, 2A—2B=4,
and the solution of this pair of equations is A = 1, B = —1.
Another and, in the case of linear factors such as we have here, simpler method
of evaluating A and B from the identity (2.23) is to give x suitable numerical
values so that A and B can be found separately. Thus by putting x = 2 in
(2.23) we have 44 = 4 giving A = 1, and, by putting x = —2, —4B=4
leading to B = —1. Hence
4 1 1

Example 21. Express (2x + 1)/{(x — 1)(x + 2)*} as the sum of three partial fractions.
When x is small, so that x* and higher powers of x may be neglected, obtain the
expansion of the given function in the form a + bx + cx*. State the range of
values of x for which the expansion is valid. [O.C.]
Here we have a repeated linear factor and we assume
Aah
(x— 1x +22
IE EO
x—-1° (x+2%
>x+2
_ A(x +2)? + Ba —1) + Ce —I +2)
a (x — 1)(x + 2)
The identity from which A, B and C are to be determined by equating coefficients
is
A(x + 2)? + Be — 1) + C& — IY + 2) = 2x +1,
and this can be written
(A+ Oxr+(444+B84+0)x+44-B-2C=2x +1.
Hence A + C=0,44 +B4+C=2,4A — B—2C=1, giving A = —C = },
B=1, and
2x +1 4 ! $
(x—1(x+2)2 ae x—-1° as &+27% as xX+ 2
This can be written
2x +1 Al al 1 Ra 2( x"
oat =) —x(1— —-(1+5) >
ay Om) a eee aN es
and it is now in a form in which the binomial expansion of (2.22) can be applied.
56 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Thus

+P RP +4
poms 2, 2

ptt nit)
=F{b+(-1(—y + PS (or +.
{1 + (=1) (2) 4 Voeae) (2) ens 4
~(i-x4ge—...)-jatetet..)

Tee egy
Mifet-s)
*,Amal
eS 267
In the above we have expanded the binomial expressions (1 + x/2) and (1 + x).
The expansions are valid when —1 < $x < 1 and when —1 < x < 1; taking
these inequalities together, all the expansions are valid when —1 < x < 1.

x4 + 5x8 + 9x? + 6x + 5
Example 22. Express in partial fractions.
(x + 2)0?
+ 1)
In the previous examples, the numerator was of lower degree than the de-
nominator. Here the numerator is of degree 4 and the denominator of degree 3
so that preliminary division is necessary. This division gives a quotient of
x + 3 and a remainder of 2x? + x — 1. Hence
IAA SHO 9x8 46x ES ie pln
ni,Soll
Cohen ee @ + DG +)
We now assume that
2x? +x Shee . FA gee ie
(Xt Dt + 1) Feo” oot I
_ AG? + 1) + Bx + O} + 2)
bd (x + 2)? + 1) :
the numerator of the fraction with quadratic denominator (x* + 1) being
chosen in accordance with rule (iv). The identity from which A, B and C are
to be found is therefore A(x? + 1) + (Bx + C)\(x + 2) =2x2°+x—-1.
This can be written

(A + B)x’ + 2B + C)x +At+2C=2+x—-1,

and, equating the coefficients of like powers of x,
A+B=2,2B+C=1,4+2C= -1.
The solution of these simultaneous equations is d = 1, B=1, C = —1 and
hence the given expression can be written in the form
“4 2 x—1
x+3+4+
x+2 ° x+1
 EXERCISES 57
Exercises 2 (e)
Ifx* and higher powers of x are neglected, find by how much #/(1 + x)
differs from 1 + 3x — $x? and hence evaluate ~/(1010) to five decimal
Places. [L.U.]
2. Calculate by means of the binomial theorem, the value of (16°32)-? to
five places of decimals. [0.C.]
3. Expand (1 + 3x)-# by the binomial theorem up to the term in x® and
calculate, to four places of decimals, the value of (0-97)-4. [O.C.]
4. Obtain the first three terms in the binomial expansion of (1 + 4x)+ in
ascending powers of x. By writing x = 4, find the cube root of 9,
giving your answer to three decimal places. [L.U.]
5. Prove that

ee
rat fori Sean ee VEEpeer
TD
and show that, if x is small, the expression is approximately equal to
$x(1 — x). [0.C.]
6. If x* and higher powers of x can be neglected, show that
1 5
4—xi+4+xni=4- 53° — sax. [L.U.]

7. If —1 < tx <1 and t +0, find the values of a, b and t for which the
expression (1 + x + 4x")(1 + ax) + (1 — x + 4x*)(1 + bx) is the
same as the expansion of 2(1 + tx)~* as far as the term in x°. (L.U.]
8. In the expansion of (1 — kx)-*, -1<kx<1, k #0, k #—1, in
ascending powers of x, the coefficients of x* and x* are equal. Find the
two values of k and the coefficients of x* corresponding to these values.
9. Prove that if a? > 2, then
; 1 1 1
eee oe aes 1) f @e—1)~
2 = — oe
&a— 1 16a — 1
Om ee

Use this result when a? = 51 to show that 140/99 is a close approxi-

mation to the value of 1/2. [O.C.]
10. Find the relation between aand b if the coefficients of x*in the expansions
of (1 + ax + x?)® and (1 — bx?)-4 are equal. [0.C.]
11. If —1 <x <1, find in its simplest form the coefficient of x” in the
expansion of
1+ x\3
1-—-x

in ascending powers of x. [N.U.]}

58 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12. Express in partial fractions

; 1 9 x ae 1
Ontexte GENE Yai
Express in partial fractions
(i) x2 + 2x + 1 Gi) 5x3 + 2x? + 5x,
YA ea 2 x4— 1
14. Express the function
Tx + 2
(x + 2)%(x — 2)
in partial fractions and hence obtain the expansion of the function in
ascending powers of x as far as the term in x‘, stating the necessary
restrictions on the values of x. [O.C.]

Express
10(x + 1)
(x + 3)? + 1)
in partial fractions. Hence obtain the expansion of the given function
in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x*, stating the necessary
restrictions on the value of x. [0.C.]

Exercises 2 (f)

An arithmetical progression has 2 for its first term. Find its common
difference if the sum of 33 terms is equal to six times the sum of 13
terms. 1O:C]
The pth and gth terms of an arithmetical progression, where p # q, are
in the ratio 2p — 1: 2g — 1. Show that the sum of the first p terms is to
the sum of the first g terms as p? is to q’. (L.U.]
Find the difference, if any, (a) between 316 and the sum of sixteen terms
of the geometrical progression 2, 6, 18, etc., (6) between 316 and half
the seventeenth term. [O.C.]
The mth term of a series is (an + 5r”) where a and r are constants and
r #1. State the sum of the first 7 terms. In the series 18 + 36 + 64
+..., it is given that the mth term is of the form stated above. Find
a and r and the sum of the first ten terms. [N.U.]
The sum of the first # terms of a series is 2n + 3n®. Show that the
series is an arithmetical progression and find the sum of the first m
terms occupying odd places in the series. [N.U.]
Show that there are two geometrical progressions in which the second
term is —4/3 and the sum of the first three terms is 28/9. Show also that
one of these progressions is convergent and, in this case, find the limit
of its sum. {L.U.]
 EXERCISES 59
If a geometrical progression with common ratio (1 + c)/( — c) is
convergent, prove that c must be negative, but that it is otherwise
unrestricted. Two such progressions, one with c = c, and the other
with c = cy, each have their first terms unity. If S, and S, are the
corresponding limits to their sums, show that
Sy — Sg = (cy — €2)/2cyC9.
Hence deduce that S, > S, when c; is less than cg numerically. [L.U.]
Find the limit of the sum of the series

l+r+(litar’+(il+at+a)r+...,,
where a, r are both less than unity and the coefficient of the term in r”
in the series is 1 +a+a?+...+ a,
Using all the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, how many arrangements can be
made (i) beginning with an even digit, (ii) beginning and ending with
an even digit?
How many different six figure numbers can be made from the six
digits 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,3? Find also how many different five figure numbers
can be made from these digits.
11. A touring cricket party consists of 14 players, 5 of whom can bowl.
How many distinct teams of 11 players can be selected containing at
least 3 bowlers and how many of these contain one specified bowler?
[L.U.]
12. Four different positive integers, each less than 10, are chosen at random.
Find the probability that their sum is even. {L.U.]
Three stamps are taken at random from a box containing 5 orange,
4 brown and 3 blue stamps. Find the probability that (i) three are of
the same colour, (ii) all three are of different colours, (iii) two are of the
same colour and the third is of a different colour. [L.U.]

An entry in a football pool contains 27 different forecasts of 8 matches.

' Find the odds in favour of the entry containing an all-correct forecast.
Show that, if the order of the groups is immaterial, the number of ways
in which 4n different objects can be divided into 4 groups of 7 each is
(4n)!/{(n!)4(4)!}. Deduce that the number of different sets of four
bridge hands which can be dealt from an ordinary pack is 52!/(13!)*.

In the expansion of (1 + ax + 2x*)* in powers of x, the coefficients of

x? and x are 27 and —192 respectively. Find a and the coefficients of
x8 and x", [L.U.]

ae Obtain in its simplest form, the binomial expansion of (1 — x)! as far

as the term in x*. Use your result to evaluate the fourth root of 77 to
five significant figures. [L.U.]
60 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

18. Show that for a certain range of values of x,

iy 9, Spas
aa
2
(La)
1 + x?
and prove that the error in using 1 + 2x — 2x° as an approximation
for the function is 2x°(1 + x*)-?.
The expansion, in ascending powers of x, of the expression
ax* + bx +c
(1 — x)4
begins with the terms 1° + 28x + 3°x®. Find the values of a, b, c and
verify that, when a, b, c have these values, the coefficient of x’ is
(r + 1)%. {L.U.]

20. If —1 < x < 1, find the coefficient of x" in the expansion in ascending
powers of x of
A + Bx + Cx?
(Wares P
Determine A, B and C so that this expansion reduces to
£3 x if 2? x8 ot atxhat In bhatt? tal
Show also that
al ae? ‘alam n*
Ztptat-.--trt-..-=6 (N.U.]

21. Write down and simplify the first three terms in the binomial expansions
of (1 + x)? and (1 + x)-?.
AB is a chord, of length 2ka, of a circle of radius a, The tangents to
the circle at 4 and B meet in C. Show that, if k is so small compared
with unity that k’ is negligible, the area of the triangle ABC is a*k?
+ fark. [L.U.]

22. Use the binomial theorem to write down the first four terms of the
expansion of (1 + y)~? in a series of ascending powers of y. Hence
find, in terms of cos 0, the coefficients c,, Cg, Cz in the expansion of
(1— 2xcos@+ x*)-t in the form 1 + cx + cgx® + cgx? +...
Prove that, when 0 = 0, every coefficient in the series is equal to +1.
[You may assume throughout that the expansions are valid.]_ [N.U.]

23. If x is so small that cubes and higher powers may be neglected and if
(2x + 1)%
T+ Gee pa PF OFF RM
determine the values of P, Q and R. (L.U.]
 EXERCISES 61
Express in partial fractions the function E given by
4x +1
rE =
(x — 3)? + x + 1)
Hence expand E as a series in ascending powers of x as far as the
term in x°. [0.C.]
23; Express in partial fractions
2x? + 7
a=
(x
2)%x
+ — 3)
Hence, if x is so /arge that x~ can be neglected, prove that

E= 42x? — 2x* + 25x — 17). (0.C.]

 CHAPTER 3

ADDITION FORMULAE; TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS;

SMALL ANGLES; THE INVERSE NOTATION

3.1 Introduction
This chapter opens with a brief recapitulation of elementary trigono-
metry starting from the definitions of the trigonometrical functions as
the ratios of the sides of a right-angled triangle. This is probably the
simplest way of starting a study of trigonometry and one which leads
directly to its use in problems involving heights and distances.
It should be noted, however, that the use of the trigonometrical
functions in mathematics is by no means confined to problems of this
type. Many natural phenomena (for instance, the phases of the moon or
of the tides) are periodic in the sense that they repeat themselves in a
regular way and the trigonometrical functions, which are themselves
periodic, are very useful in representing such occurrences. Such applica-
tions are probably best left until the student is adept in manipulating
elementary trignonometrical formulae and it is the purpose of the
remaining part of the chapter to provide an opportunity to acquire
the necessary skill.
3.2 Basic definitions and formulae
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the basic definitions and
formulae of elementary trigonometry and this paragraph is intended
simply to be one of recapitulation.

Fia. 1

The trigonometrical ratios of an acute angle are defined in terms of

the sides x, y, r of a right-angled triangle POX (Fig. 1) by
sin 0 = y/r, COs Oi X/r, tan 0 = y/x, (3,4)
62
 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAB 63
and

at
cosec 6 = me
eee
sco= cosy? | Cot
1
= “Wi (3.2)

Immediate consequences of these definitions are

sin 6 cos 6
tané = sos” wt 6= xare (3.3)

sin? 6 + cos? 6 = 1, (3.4)

sec? 6 = 1 + tan? 0, cosec? 9 = 1 + cot? 6. (3.5)

By considering the elementary geometry of right-angled triangles in

which the angle 6 is respectively 45° and 60°, it is easy to show that

sin 45.=="cos 4). = V2 tanas> 1"

_ fe} ° 1 (°]

sin 60° = cos 30° = 34/3, tan 60° = cot 30° = +/3, (3.6)

sin= 30°fo = cos 60° <n= 4, tan 30° (ue,= cot60°eee= V3

1

These values are conveniently summarised in the following table, which

also gives the values of the ratios for 0° and 90°.

6 sin? 6 cos? 0 tan? 0

This table is worth remembering as is also the relation

(ieee
x degrees = 780 radians. (3.7)

The trigonometrical ratios of the general angle are also given by the
above relations but appropriate signs have to be given to x and y
according to the quadrant in which P lies. These signs are the same as
those used in ordinary graphical work; for example, when P lies inthe
second quadrant as shown in Fig. 2, x is negative and y is positive.
64 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The length of OP (= r) is always taken to be positive. Positive angles

are those swept out when OP rotates in an anti-clockwise direction
(Fig. 2) and angles generated when OP rotates clockwise as in Fig. 3
Y

Fic. 2 Fic. 3

are called negative angles. The following can be deduced from diagrams
such as those shown below
sin (180° + 6) = + sin 8, cos (180° + 0) = — cos 9,
sin (360° + 6) = + sin 6, cos (360° + 9) = cos 8,
sin (90° + 6) = cos 8, cos (90° + 6) = F sin 0, (3.8)
sin (270° + 6) = — cos 9, cos (270° + 6) = + sin 9,
sin (—6) = — sin 8, cos (—@) = cos #.
The corresponding relations for the tangent, cosecant, secant and
cotangent are then easily found from equations (3.2) and (3.3). Fig. 4

Cosine

Fic. 4

shows which of the fundamental trigonometrical ratios is positive in

each quadrant and should be a useful aid to memory.
Graphs of the fundamental trigonometrical ratios sin 0, cos 6 and
tan 9 are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. These graphs show the periodic
 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAE 65

nature of the trigonometrical ratios; the value of each ratio is repeated

after a certain interval called the period. The periods of sin and cos 8
are both 360° (or 27 radians) while that of tan 0 is 180° (or 7 radians).
Equations involving the trigonometrical ratios differ from algebraical

Fic. 6. Graph of tan 0

of solutions.
equations in that they often have an unlimited number
on 2cos ?9=1 -+ sind. By using
For example, consider the equati equation
writin g cos? @ = 1 — sin? 9, the given
equation (3.4) and
reduces to 2 sin? 9 + sin 9 — 1 = 0 and this can be written
(2 sin 6 — 1)(sin@ + 1) =0
(3.6), sin 30° =4 and,
leading to sin@ = or sind = —1. From
glancing at Fig. 5, other angles whose sine is } are. ..., —210°, 150°,
66 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

390°,. . .. Similarly sin 6 = —1 when 0=... ., —90°, 270°, 630°,

. If, as often happens, only those solutions which lie between
0° and 360° are required, the appropriate solutions are 30°, 150°
and 270°.
3.3 The addition formulae
Formulae expressing the trigonometrical ratios of the sum of two
angles in terms of the trigonometrical ratios of the separate angles are
known as addition formulae and we start by deriving them for a re-
stricted range of angles. Generalisation of the results to cover all
angles can be made but the process is rather troublesome: a compact
general method of derivation of the formulae making use of a result in
coordinate geometry is available and this is given later (§ 5.5).

Fic. 7

Formulae for sin(A + B) and cos(A + B) in which the angle

(A + B) is acute can be obtained from Fig. 7. Here the angle POX is
A, the angle QOP is B, R is any point on OQ and RS, RT are per-
pendicular to the lines OX, OP respectively. TM and TN are per-
pendiculars from T on to OX and RS. Since RS, RT are perpendicular
to the arms OX, OP respectively of the angle POX, the angle SRT is A.
From the right-angled triangle SRO
OR sin (A + B) = SR = SN + NR = MT + NR, (3.9)
since SMTN is a rectangle by construction. The right-angled triangle
OMT gives MT = OT sin A, and the right-angled triangle OTR gives
OT = ORcos B. Hence MT = ORsin A cos B. Also from the right-
angled triangle RNT, NR = RT cos A, while the triangle ORT gives
RT = ORsin B. Thus NR = ORcosA sin B. Substituting for MT
and NR in (3.9) and dividing by OR, we have
sin (A + B) = sin Acos B + cos A sin B. (3.10)
 THE ADDITION FORMULAB 67
The corresponding formula for cos (A + B) is obtained similarly;
thus, from Fig 7,
OR cos (A + B) = OS = OM — SM = OM — NT.
Also,
OM = OT cos A and OT = OR cos B so that OM = OR cos A cos B.
Again,
NT = RTsin A and RT = ORsin B giving NT = ORsin A sin B.
Substitution and division by OR then leads to
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B. (3.11)
Equations (3.10) and (3.11) give the fundamental addition formulae.
By writing —B in place of B and using the last result listed in (3.8),
they become
sin(A — B) = sin A cos(—B) + cos A sin (—B)
= sin A cos B — cosA sin B, | (3.12)
and
cos (A — B) = cos A cos (—B) — sin A sin (—B)
= cos Acos B + sin A sin B. (3.13)
By division of equations (3.10) and (3.11),
sin(A + B) _ sinAcos B+ cosA sinB
tan(A + B)=
cos(A +B) cosAcosB—sinA sin B
-
tan A + tan BE (3.14)
1 — tan A tan B
dividing the numerator and denominator by cos A cos B. This is the
addition formula for the tangent and, replacing B by —B, we also have
tand+tan(—B) tanA —tanB 3.15
Sa By et —tanAtan(—B) 1+ tanAtanB iP)
Example 1. If A and B are acute angles such that sin A = $/5 and tan B = , find
the value of (A + B) by means of the addition formula for sin(A + B). [0.C.]
From the given values of sin A and tan B, it is easily seen that A and B are the
angles of two right-angled triangles whose sides are of the lengths shown in
Fig. 8. The remaining sides of the two triangles are found by Pythagoras’
68 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

theorem to be of lengths 2\/5 and 1/10 respectively and hence we have

sind == V5, cosA=2 V5, sinB=—7, cos B=—; 3

Substitution in formula (3.10) then gives

sin(4 + B) = 13 V5+75
1
V10 5Y10 v2
and hence A + B = 45°.

Example 2. [ftan « = %, tan B = vs and tan y = 3, show that tan(x + B + y) =1.

Using the addition formula (3.14) and the given values of tan « and tan B,
yee
tan ( + 2) = —— = > = s
5

Writing (3.14) in the form -

=
tana +8 +y)=tan{(«+A)+7}=% eee
fan
te tacen
and substituting for tan (« + 8) and tan y we have
+4 29
tan(a +B + y) [Rae BS
=,
Be
See = 1,

Exercises 3 (a)

Find the angles x between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equations
(i) tan x = —0-4560, (ii) sin $x = —0-5678. [O.C.}
Solve the equations, giving values between 0° and 360°
(i) cos x = tan 155°, (ii) sin 3x = cot 108°. [0.C.]
Find the values of 6 between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
tan 0 = 3. Which of these values satisfies the pair of equations
sin 9= —%, cos = —#?
Find values of x, between 0° and 360°, which satisfy the equations
(i) 6sin?x — 5cosx —2=0, (ii) 4tanx — 2cotx = Scosecx.
{O.C.]

Solve the equation tan (45° + x) + cot (45° + x) = 4 for those values
of x which lie between 0° and 360°. [0.C.]
Eliminate 0 between the equations
x = tan + cot 6, y = sin 8 — cos 0. [O.C.]}
If x = a(l — cosec 6) and y = a(sec@ + tan), prove that
xy +a(2a — x) = 0. [0.C.}
 MULTIPLE ANGLES 69
3 2a—b
8. If ana oS
t = av’ and tanf = bys” find the values of (« —— )
between 0° and 360°. [L.U.]
9. Iftana = 3, tan B = 3 and tany = 4, prove
that tan(% + B — y) = $.
[O.C.]
10. Use the addition formulae for the sine and cosine to show that
1+ cot Acot B
Sure aR cot B— cot A_
Deduce that, if cot A = 4, cot B = 2 and cot C = 3, then
cot (A — B— C) =3. [O.C.]
ll. If F(cosa + usin «) = «4W where wu = tanA, prove that
_ _Wsind
~ cos (a — A)
12. If tana tan 8 = k, show that
(1 + k) cos (a + f) = (1 — k)cos(a — Bf).
13. If xcosa + ycosB = cand xsin« — ysin B = 0, show that
KEM BeORe atI
sinfB sine sin(« + )
14. If A+ B+ C = 180°, show that
sin A sin (A + 2C) + sin Bsin (B + 2A) + sin Csin(C + 2B) = 0.
15. Show that sin(A + B+ C)
= cos Acos Bcos C (tan A + tan B + tan C — tan A tan B tan C).
Deduce that, if A, B and C are the angles of a triangle, then
cot A cot B + cot Bcot C + cot Ccot A = 1. {L.U.]

3.4 Multiple angles

The trigonometrical ratios of 2A are easily found in terms of those
of A by writing B = A in formulae (3.10), (3.11) and (3.14). Thus, from
(3.10),
sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A,
giving
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A. (3.16)
Also, from (3.11), we have similarly
cos 2A = cos? A — sin? A. (3.17)
By writing sin? A = 1 — cos? A, this can be written in the alternative
form
cos 2A = 2cos? A — 1, (3.18)
70 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and, by writing cos? A = 1 — sin? A, yet another form of (3.17) is
cos 2A = 1 — 2sin? A. (3.19)
Sometimes, especially in the integral calculus, it is useful to be able to
express cos?A and sin?A in terms of cos 2A. This can be done by
rearranging the last two formulae in the forms
cos? A = #(1 + cos 2A), sin? A = $(1 — cos 2A). (3.20)
Finally, writing B = A in (3.14),
2 tan A
tan 2A = gre Fi (3.21)
Formulae for the sine, cosine and tangent of 3A can be found in terms
of those of A as follows. Writing B = 2A in (3.10),
sin 3A = sin Acos 2A + cos A sin 2A.
Substitution of cos2A = 1 — 2 sin? A and sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
from (3.19) and (3.16) then gives
sin 3A = sin A(1 — 2 sin? A) + 2 cos? A sin A
= sin A(1 — 2 sin? A) + 2(1 — sin? A) sin A
= 3sin A — 4sin? A, (3.22)
where we have used cos? A = | — sin? A in the second step. Similarly
cos 3A = cos A cos 2A — sin A sin 2A
= cos A(2 cos? A — 1) — 2 sin? A cos A
= cos A(2 cos? A — 1) — 2(1 — cos? A) cos A
= 4cos? A — 3 cos A. (3:23)
Starting from (3.14) with B = 24,
scare eee tan A + tan2A .
1 — tan A tan 2A’
substitution for tan 2A from (3.21) and a little reduction then leads to
3 ae 3

1 — 3 tan? A

Example 3. Show that cos* 6 + sin® 6 = 1 — } sin*® 20. (L.U.]}

cos® 6 + sin* 6 = (cos? @ + sin* 6)(cos‘ 8 — cos? 6 sin? 6 + sin‘ 6)
= (cos? 6 + sin? 6){(cos* 6 + sin? 4)? — 3 cos? 6 sin® 6}
= 1 — }sin* 20,
since cos? 6 + sin? 9= 1 and sin20 = 2 sin 6 cos @.
 HALF-ANGLE FORMULAB 71
Example 4. Find all the values of x between 0° and 360° for which cos 2x = sin x.
[L.U.]
Using formula (3.19) in the form cos 2x = 1 — 2sin* x, the given equation
is 1 —2sin*x =sinx or 2sin?x +sinx—1=0. This can be written
(2 sin x— 1)(sinx+ 1) = 0 leading to sinx = } or sinx = —1. The angles
between 0° and 360° for which sin x = $ are 30°, 150° and those for which

shy = —I1 are 270° only. Hence the required values of x are 30°, 150°,

3.5 The trigonometrical ratios of A in terms of tan $4

Formulae (3.16) and (3.17) can, with a little manipulation and use
of the relation sec? _A = 1 + tan? A, be written
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2 tan A cos? A
2tanA _2tanA (3.25)
sec? A=. 1 + tan?A’
and
cos 2A = cos* A — sin? A = cos? A(1 — tan?A)

_i-tan’A_1—tan’A (3.26)
sec? A 1 + tan? A
Writing A = 4x and ¢t = tan 4x, these become
, 2t 1-?
ol aig RP oe ae

and, by division, (3.27)

2t
tanx = (3

These formulae are useful in the solution of certain trigonometrical

equations (see § 3.7) and have other applications.
Example 5. If tan }x = cosec x — sin x, prove that tan? }x = —2+ 5. [L.U.]
Writing ¢ = tan $x and using (3.27), the given equation becomes
Cats 2
eS Ts oe
This reduces to t4 + 42° — 1 = 0 and, solving as a quadratic in t?, we have
O=H—-44 V164+ 4) = —24 V5.

Exercises 3 (b)

2sin6+sin20 _sin8 U
1. Sieve Unt Sons 1 coke [L. J

2. Find the values of x between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
cos 2x + 7sinx +3 =0. [O.C.]
72 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Show that sin (A + 60°) sin (A + 120°) = sin 3A/(4 sin A). [L.U.]
Find the angles between 0° and 360° satisfying the equation
cos 3x — 3cos x = cos 2x + 1. [O.C.]
cot 6 — A tan 0
Prove that peck
-- > tan esal
6 cos 26f ,,
(N.U.]

Show that (2 cos 9 + 1)(2 cos 8 — 1)(2 cos26 — 1) = 2.cos46 + 1.

[O.C.]
Prove that cos 20 sec 0 — 2 sin 39 cosec 20 + 2cos 6 = 0. [O.C.]
Prove that (2 cos 20 — 1) tan 30 = (2 cos 26 + 1) tan ®. [O.C.]
By writing x = 2cos 9, verify that the equation x* — 3x-—1=0
reduces to cos 39 = 4 and hence find the three roots of the equation
in x correct to two decimal places. 1L.UE
Find the solution of the equations sin (x + y) = 2sin (x — y),
2x = 47 — y, for which x and y are positive acute angles. [L.U.]
If sin 30 = p and sin? 6 = ? — q, prove thatp® + 16g° = 1297. [L.U.])
If sec 6 — tan 6 = x, prove that tan 40 = (1 — x)/(1 + x). {L.U.]
If tan 4x = b/a, find the value of a cos x + 5 sin x in terms of a and b.
Given that tan x = 3/4, find the values of sin 2x, tan 2x and sin 4x.
Find the square root of (1 + sin 6)(3 sin 6 + 4 cos 6 + 5) in terms of
tan 40. [L.U.]
3.6 The transformation of a cos x + 5 sin x into the form R cos (x — a)
It is often useful to be able to express a cos x + 6 sin x in the form
Rcos (x — «) where R and « are quantities to be found. We start by
writing
a b :
acosx+ bsinx= vie + |Va + 8)cos xX + Wa +B) sin x},
(3.28)
and then introduce an acute angle « whose tangent is b/a. This is the
angle shown in the right-angled triangle of Fig. 9, the base and height

Via%b*)

Fic. 9
 THE EQUATION acosx+bsinx=c 73
of this triangle being a and b respectively. The hypotenuse of the
triangle is clearly +/(a? + 5b?) and
a
cos « = sin
«= a Bard
Va + 5? Va + b)
Substitution in (3.28) then gives
acosx + bsinx = \/(a? + b*)\(cos x cos a + sin x sin a)
= 1/(a + b*) cos (x — «),
when use is made of (3.13). Hence
acosx
+ bsinx = Rcos
(x — «) (3.29)
where
R= /(@ + 5) and tana = b/a. (3.30)
In a similar way acosx + bsinx can be expressed in the form
R sin (x + 8) where R = 4/(a? + b?) as before but tan B = a/b.

Example 6. Find the maximum and minimum values of cos x + /3 sin x and show
that the smallest positive value of x for which this expression takes its maximum
value is 60°.
We have
1
cos x + V3sin x =2 (5cos x + sinx)

= 2(cos x cos 60° + sin x sin 60°) = 2 cos (x — 60°).

The maximum and minimum values of the given expression are therefore those
of 2 cos (x — 60°); since the cosine varies between 1 and —1, these are there-
fore +2. The expression is a maximum when cos (x — 60°) = 1 and this
occurs when x — 60° = 0°, +360°, +720°, ..., the smallest positive value of
x being given by x = 60°.

3.7 The equation a cos x + bsinx =c

The equation acos x + bsin x = c, where a, b and c are known
numerical quantities often occurs in practical problems. Here we
consider two methods of solution.
In the first method, a cos x + b sin x is transformed as in § 3.6 into
the form Rcos(x —«) and we therefore have Reos(x —«)=c
giving
) c c
cos (x — « 5 PP ES

Provided c is less than +/(a? + 5?) in absolute value, x — « can then be

found by the use of a table of natural cosines and, as the value of « can
be found from the relation tan « = b/a, values of x can be deduced.
If c exceeds »/(a? + 5?) in absolute value, there are no real solutions.
74 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The second method of solution makes use of the formulae (3.27)

expressing sin x and cos x in terms of t = tan $x. Using these formulae,
the equation a cos x + b sin x = c transforms into
1— =) b ( 2t Vy
eV at 4: ee Sy; a
and this reduces to
(a+c)?—2bt+c—a=0.
The roots of this quadratic give values of ¢ = tan$x from which
appropriate values of x can be found.
Details of the two methods are given in Example 7 below.
Example 7. Find the values x between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation
8 cosx +9 sinx = 7°25.
Method (i). By § 3.6, 8 cos x + 9 sin x = Rcos (x — =) where
R= v/(8? + 9%) = 145 = 12:04 and tan « = 9/8 = 1-125.
The acute angle whose tangent is 1-125 is 48° 22’ and hence the given equation
can be written
12-04 cos (x — 48° 22’) = 7-25
giving
cos (x — 48° 22’) = 7:25/12:04 = 0-6021.
Angles whose cosines are 0-6021 are 52° 58’, 307° 2’, . . . and hence x = 52° 58’
+ 48° 22’ = 101° 20’, x = 307° 2’ + 48° 22’ = 355° 24’ and a series of other
angles which are outside the range required.
Method (ii). Writing t = tan $x, the given equation becomes
—. ( 2t )
8(5 +9 (3) = 7:25
and this reduces to 15-251° — 181 — 0-75 = 0. The roots of this quadratic
equation are 1-220 and —0-0403. Hence tan $x = 1-220 or tandx = —0-0403
and these lead to 4x = 50° 40’ and 177° 42’. Hence x = 101° 20’ and 355° 24’
as before.

3.8 The factor formulae

The factor formulae derived below express the sum (or difference) of
two sines (or cosines) as the product of sines and cosines. We start
with formulae (3.10) and (3.12),
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
sin (A — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B,
and, by addition and subtraction, obtain
sin (A + B) + sin(A — B) = 2sin A cos B, (3.31)
sin (A + B) — sin(A — B) = 2cos A sin B. (3.32)
 FACTOR FORMULAB 715
In the same way, formulae (3.11), (3.13) for cos(A + B)andcos(A — B)
lead to
cos (A + B) + cos(A — B) = 2cos A cos B, (3.33)
cos (A + B) — cos(A — B) = —2sin Asin B. (3.34)
Writing A+ B=C, A — B=D, it follows by addition and sub-
traction that d=3(C+ D), B=4(C— D). Making these sub-
stitutions in formulae (3.31) to (3.34), the required factor formulae are
given as
sin C+sin D =2sin (C + D)cos}(C— D),
sin C — sin D = 2cos #(C+ D) sin #(C— D),
(3.35)
cos
C + cos D= 2cos #(C+ D) cos 4#(C — D),
cos C — cos D = —2 sin #(C + D) sin3#(C— D),
and the negative sign on the right-hand side of the last of these formulae
should be noted.

Example 8. Show that

cos 9 + cos 36 + cos 50 + cos 70 = 4 cos 6 cos 20 cos 40. {L.U.]
Applying the third of formulae (3.35) to cos 9 + cos 36 and cos 56 + cos 78,
we have
cos6 + cos 30 + cos 50 + cos76 = 2 cos 26 cos 8 + 2 cos 66 cos 0
= 2 cos 6 (cos 26 + cos 68)
= 4 cos 6 cos 46 cos 26,
when, in the last step, (3.35) is applied to cos 20 + cos 66.

Example 9. Find the values of y between 0° and 360° such that, for all values of x,
sin (x + y) + sin(x — y) = sin x. P . [N.U.]
By the first of formulae (3.35) sin(x + y) + sin(x — y) =2sinxcosy.
Hence 2 sin x cos y = sin x and, if this is to be true for all values of x,
2cos y = 1 leading to cos y = 3. Angles between 0° and 360° for which this
is true are 60° and 300°.

Exercises 3 (c)

1. Express cos x+ sinx in the form R cos (x — «) giving the values of

R and «. Hence find the maximum and minimum values of
cos x + sin x.
the values
2. Express W(sin« + 2 cos «) inthe form R cos (« — f) giving
of R and tan. Show that the maximum value of the expression is
W/(1 + p*) and that this occurs when tan a = 1/y.

3. Find a positive number S and an angle 8 between 0° and 360° such that
21 cos 9 — 20sin 6 = Ssin (6 + £). (N.U.]
76 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Find the values of x between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equations
4. 3cosx+sinx = 1. (L.U.}

5. cosx+7sinx = 5.
6. T7cosx — 6sin x = 2. [O.C.]}
7. Ssinx — 6cosx = 4. [O.C.]

8. 12cosx —S5sinx+3=0. [O.C.]

9. Prove that
(i) cos 20° + cos 100° + cos 140° = 0,
(ii) sin 85° —cos 55° = sin 25°.
10. Show that sin 6 (cos 20 + cos 40 + cos 66) = sin 36 cos 40. [O.C.]
11. Show that sin? (A + B) — sin? (A — B) = sin 2A sin 2B. [L.U.]
12. If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle, show that
sin A + sin B + sin C = 4cos $A cos $B cos $C.
13. Find the values of x between 0° and 180° which satisfy the equation
cos x = cos 2x + cos 4x. {L.U.]
14. Show that
sin 6 sin 30 + sin 20 sin 60 + sin 30 sin 99 = 2 sin 36 sin 76 cos 26.
[L.U.]

15. Ifcos6 + cos¢ =a, sin# + sing = 5, prove

(i) cos (0 — ) = #(a? + 6? — 2), (ii) tan $0 + 4) = dja.
Hence solve the simultaneous equations cos 6 + cos¢ = —1,
sin 6 + sin ¢ = 1-5 for values of 6 and ¢ between 0° and 180°. [L.U.]
3.9 Small angles
Fig. 10 shows the graphs of y = sin x, y = x and y = tan x plotted

Fic. 10
 SMALL ANGLES 77
on the same diagram for values of x in radian measure. It is apparent
that, for 0 < x < 4n,
sinx <x < tanx (3.36)
and that these quantities are approximately equal to each other for small
values of the angle x. Thus when x is measured in radians and when
it is small, we can write
sin x ~x, tanx~x (3.37)
and, by division,
cosx ~ 1. (3.38)
Some idea of the order of these approximations can be obtained by
taking, as an example, an angle of 4° whose radian measure is 0:0698:
the values of the sine, tangent and cosine are respectively 0-0698,
0:0699, 0:9976. Even for an angle as large as 10° (0-1745 radians) the
percentage errors of the approximations are only about 4, 1 and 14
respectively.
The above inequalities and approximations can also be inferred from
Fig. 11 in which the chord AB subtends an angle x radians at the centre
O of a circle of radius r. The tangent to the circle at B meets OA
B

aw A 4

Fic. 11

produced at 7. If OD is the bisector of the angle AOB, it will bisect

the base AB of the isosceles triangle AOB at right-angles at D. Hence
OD =rcos4x, AB = 2BD = 2rsin}x and the area of the triangle
AOB =4 0D. AB = }(r cos $x. 2r sin $x) = $7? sin x. The area of
the sector AOB is 4r2x and since OBT is a right angle, BT = r tan x and
the area of the triangle OTB = $ OB. BT = $r’ tan x. It is clear that
area of triangle AOB < area of sector AOB < area of triangle OTB,
so that
dr? sin x < $r°x < $7’ tan x,
and the inequalities (3.36) follow on division by }r°. It is also clear
that the area of the three figures approach equality as the angle AOB
diminishes. so that the approximations (3.37) can also be established
by a consideration of these areas.
78 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Dividing the inequalities (3.36) by sin x, we have

1 < x/sin x < 1/cos x.
These can be written
1 > (sin x)/x > cos x
and these in turn can be expressed in the form
sinx
LB Savegames 8 Poe ge 2

Now, 1 —cosx =2sin?4x and, since sinx <x (implying that

sin 4x < 4x), we have 1 — cos x < 2(4x)? or 1 — cos x < $x*. Hence,

0<1- == <4,

and 1 — (sin x)/x can therefore be made as small as we please by making

x sufficiently small. Another way of expressing this is to write
sin x
—=1l1-—e
x
where é is a positive quantity which can be made as small as we please
by taking x to be sufficiently small. Yet another way of expressing the
same thing is to say that the Jimiting value of (sin x)/x as x tends to
zero is unity.
Example 10. Find an acute angle which approximately satisfies the equation
sin x = 0-48,
Since sin x is nearly equal to 0:5, x is nearly equal to $7 radians. Letx = 47 +
where ¢ is therefore small. Then
0-48 = sin (47 + €) = sin $7 cos é + cos 4m sine.
Since sin 47 = 4, cos $7 = 44/3 and, because ¢ is small, cos e =~ 1, sine ~we
we have
lo ov3
0:48 = 3 LE ze
giving
2
é= ae VE; x 0:02 = —0-0231.
Hence e« = —0-0231 radians = —1° 19’ and x = 30° — 1° 19’ = 28° 41’,

Example 11. Assuming that sin x = x — kx*, where k is a numerical constant, is a

sufficient approximation to the value of sin x when x is a small angle, use the
formula for sin 3x to show that k = }.
From (3.22), sin3x = 3sinx —4sin?x and writing sin 3x = 3x — k(3x)',
sin x = x — kx’, this gives
3x — 27kx8 = 3(x — kx*) — 4(x — kx
= 3x — 3kx8 — 4x,
when we neglect terms of higher order than x* in the last term on the right-
hand side. This gives, after division by x°, 27k = 3k + 4 leading to k = }.
 INVERSE NOTATION 719
3.10 The inverse notation
If sin 6 = x where x is a given quantity numerically less than or
equal to unity, we know that @ can be any one of a series of angles.
For example, if sin 6 = 4, 6 = 7/6, 57/6, 13/6, . . . or 6 = —7n/6,
—117/6,.. .. The inverse notation 6 = sin— x is used to denote the
angle whose sine is x and the numerically smallest angle satisfying the
relation x = sin 6 is said to be the principal value of sin x. In what
follows we shall deal only with principal values and hence we shall
understand the notation 6 = sin~! x to mean that 0 is the angle between
—4n and $7 radians whose sine is x and hence, for example, sin- (3)

In a similar way, 6 = cos~) x will be taken to denote the smallest

angle whose cosine is x. Since the cosine takes the same values for
negative as for the corresponding positive angles and a notation is
required which gives an unique value to 6 when x is given, it is conven-
tional to take 6 to be the angle between 0 and x radians whose cosine is x.
For example, cos! (4) = 4m and cos“! (—4) = 4.
The similar notation 6 = tan“! x is taken to mean that 6 is the
smallest angle between —4n and 4n radians, whose tangent is x. Thus
tan! (1) = iz, tan“! (—1) = —4z and, since the tangent can take all
values, it is no longer necessary to restrict x to the range —1 <x <1
as in the case of sin- x and cos“! x. Similar definitions apply to the
inverse cosecant, secant and cotangent.
It follows from these definitions that
sin (sin~! x) = x, cos (cos! x) = x, tan(tam'x)=x (3.39)
and these relations are used in some of the exercises which follow.
Care should be taken to avoid confusion between the inverse sine,
cosine and tangent and the reciprocals of the sine, cosine and tangent.
The latter should always be written 1/(sin x) or cosec x, 1/(cos x) or
sec x and 1/(tan x) or cot x.
Example 12. Show that 2 tan~ (}) — tan- (7) = 47. [O.C.]
Let « = tan-! (4), 8 = tan“ (4) so that tana = 3, tanB =4. Also
2 tan-! (4) — tan-1 (4) = 2« — B
= tan {tan (2a — A)}
— oe — tanB \
mae ay + tan 2« tan B
Since tan « = 4,

so that substituting tan 2« = 4/3, tan B = 1/7, we have

2
q

= tan) (#¢) = tan) (1) = 47.

80 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 13. Find x from the equation 2 sin-x + sin-1(x*) = $7. [O.C.)}
Let sin-'x =a, sin-!(x*) =f so that sine =x, sinf =x*. The given
equation can be written 2a + B = 4m giving cos (2« + 8) = cos 4n = 0, and
this can be written
cos 2a cos 8— sin 2« sin B = 0.
Now cos 2a = 1 — 2sin?a = 1 — 2x’, sin2« = 2sin «cosa
= 2sin «(1 — sin? «t= 2x (1 — x},
sin 8 = x*, cos B = (1 — sin?
£)* = (1 — x*)#. Hence
(1 — 2x21 — x*)t — 2x(1 — x°)# x7? = 0.
Hence either (1 — x*)# = 0 leading to x = +1, or (1 — 2x*)(1 + xt = 2x3.
Squaring this second equation and making a few reductions we obtain 3x* = 1
and hence x = 41/+/3. Of the four values of x given above, it will be found
on substitution in the given equation that only x = 1/+/3-satisfies it when we
limit ourselves to principal values of the terms sin~’ x and sin“ (x*).

Exercises 3 (d)
Find the limit as ¢ tends to zero of (tan ¢)/¢ where ¢ is measured in
degrees. [L.U.]
Use the approximations sin x ~ x, cos x ~ 1 to show that when x is
small and in radians,
. Sin px as 1
(i) aos =f (ii) cos (477 + x) =a — x),

(iii) tan(a + x) ~~tan « + x sec?a.

If 6 is a small angle measured in radians, find the limit as @ tends to
zero of (sin 30 + tan 26)/0.
If sin (« + 6) = k sin « and 6 is small, show that 0 ~ (k —1) tana.
In a right-angled triangle ABC, C is the right angle, BC = a and AC
= b. Show that the angle ABC lies between b/+/(a? + b*) and b/a
radians.
A star whose distance from the earth is 1:61 x 10° km subtends at the
earth an angle of 15 seconds. Find the approximate value of its diameter.
Without using trigonometrical tables, find in degrees and minutes an
angle x near 90° such that cos x = 0:0364.
Given that »/3 = 1:73205, find without the use of any tables, the value
of 0 (in radians) which satisfies the equation sin (47 + 0) = 0-87. [L.U.]
The elevations to the top Q of a flagstaff PQ from three distant points
A, B, C which are in a horizontal line with P are 0, 20 and 36 respectively.
Prove that AB ~ 3BC. [L.U.]
10. Evaluate sin (1/+/2), cos~! (— »/3/2), tan! (—2), sec-} 2.
11. Show that
(i) sin“ (§) — sin“ (qs) = sin“ ($$),
(ii) tan~* ($) + tan“ (3) + tan“ (#) = dr.
 EXERCISES 81
If tan—1
a + tan
5 + tan“
c = 7, show that a+b +c = abe.
Show that sin“! x + cos“! x = }7 = tan x + cot x.
Find a positive value of x satisfying the equation
tan (2x) + tan“ (3x) = }z.
Solve the equation cos“ (x+/3) + 2 sin x = 4.

Exercises 3 (e)

Find the values of x, between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equations
(i) tan (Sx/3) = —0-5620, (ii) tan (x + 45°) + 3 tan (x — 45°) = 0.
If tana = (x cos #)/(1 — x sin 6) and tanB = (x — sin 9)/cos 6, show
that sin (6 + £) cos (0 — «) = sinacos 8. Deduce that, if « and f are
acute angles (x > f), then 6 = a — B or 90°. [O.C.]
If A, B and C are the angles of a triangle, show that
sin? A + sin? B + sin? C = 2 + 2cos Acos Bcos C. [0.C.]
Given that tan @= x, show that tan30 = {./1 + VA + x*)}/x and
use this result to prove that tan 15° = 2 —+/3 and that tan 105°
= —2— 3. [O.C.]

Show that if x = 18°, then cos 2x = sin3x. Hence find the exact
value of sin 18° and prove that cos 36° — sin 18° = 3. [L.U.]
Without using tables, evaluate cos* 15° + sin* 15°. [L.U.]
If ¢ = tan 4x, find the values of ¢ which satisfy the equation
(a + 2) sinx + (2a — 1)cosx
= 2a+1
where a is a non-zero constant. Hence find two acute angles which
satisfy the equation when a = 1/3. [0.C.]
Express the function 4 sin x — 3 cos x in the form R sin (x — a) where
‘Ris positive, stating the values of R and «. Deduce the solution of the
equation 8 sin x — 6 cos x = 5 in the range 0° to 180°. [0.C.]
Express 4 cos (6 — B) — 3sin(@—) in the form Rcos(@ — a),
finding the numerical value of R and expressing tan « in terms of tan f.
Show that tan (8 — «) = 7.
10. Show that the equation 6 sin? x — 3 sin x cos x + cos* x = 2 can be
written in the form 5cos 2x + 3sin2x = 3. Hence, or otherwise,
find values of x between 0° and 360° which satisfy the equation.
11. If A and B are acute angles such that tan A = $ and tan B = 3%5, show
without the use of tables that 44 — B = 45°. [L.U.]

iZ: Find pairs of angles between 0° and 180° satisfying the equations
sin A + sin B = 0°95, A — B = 120°. [L.U.
82 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

13. Simplify the fraction

cos « + cos 2a + cos 3a + cos 4«
sin a + sin 2% + sin 3a + sin 4a
and find all the solutions of the equation
cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x + cos 4x = 0 which lie between 0° and 360°.
[L.U.]
14. Show that a triangle ABC in which
sin A (cos
C — cosB) = sin
B — sinC
is either isosceles or right-angled. [L.U.]
15. If x = cos 6 + cos 20 + cos 36 and y = sin 6 + sin
20 + sin 36, prove
that
(a) x = y cot 26,
(b) xy = }sin 20 + sin30 + $sin 40 + sin 50 + 4 sin60,
(c) + y?=3 + 4cos6 + 2 cos 26. [L.U.]
16. By expressing sec 2x and tan 2x in terms of tan x, find the values of
x between 0° and 180° such that sec 2x + 2 tan 2x = 4. [L.U.]
If, Find the values of 6 in the range 0 to 27 radians which satisfy the
equation sin 20 + cos 20 = sin 6 + cos 0. [0.C.]
18. If tan 6, tan 26 and tan¢ are in arithmetical progression, show that
tan (f — 6) = sin 26.
19. The angles of elevation to an aeroplane observed at instants separated
by half a minute in time are 0 and 20 where 6 is a small angle. If the
aeroplane is flying directly towards the observer at a constant height of
152m and with constant speed of 146 m/s, show that @ is approxi-
mately 1°.
20. Assuming the diameter of the moon to be 3475 km and her distance
from the earth to be 386,160 km find to the nearest minute the angle
subtended by the moon at a point on the earth’s surface. Find also the
distance at which the mean radius of the earth’s orbit (15 x 10’ km)
subtends an angle of one second, giving your answer correct to two
significant figures. (Take 1 radian as 3438 minutes.) {L.U.]
ai. Use the relation sin? x + cos? x = 1, the binomial theorem and the
approximation sin x ~ x to show that cosx ~ 1 — 4x, where x is
small and in radian measure. Deduce that cos 4° ~ 0-9976.
Find a value of x near 0-74 which satisfies the equation cos x = x.
23. Show that
(i) cos ($8) + 2 tan ($) = sin- (3),
(ii) 2 sin“ (x — a + $)# = cos 2 (a — 2).
 EXERCISES 83
24. If cos+a + cos! B + cosy = 7, show that
o + B+ y? + 2afy = 1.
25. Find x from the equations
AG (2)
(aps
(i) sin+ si Bye57
(=)

(ii) tan? (x + 1) = 3 tan (x — 1).

 CHAPTER 4

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND ANGLES OF A

TRIANGLE; THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES

4.1 Introduction
A triangle has six parts—three sides and three angles. If A, B and
C are used to denote the angles of the triangle, it is usual to denote the
sides opposite these angles by the corresponding small letters a, b and
c respectively (see Fig. 12).
The lengths of the sides are independent of one another except that
the sum of any two of them is greater than the third. The angles,

Fic. 12

however, are not independent for their sum is 180° and hence the
magnitude of the third angle is known if those of any two are given.
There are therefore five independent parts of a triangle and, if any three
parts are given (one of which is the length of a side), formulae can be
obtained which enable the remaining parts to be found.
In the early part of this chapter, some basic relations between the
angles and sides of a triangle are derived and here the reader should
have a further opportunity to acquire skill in manipulating trigono-
metrical formulae. We then go on to suggest ways in which the necessary
computations might be arranged when undertaking numerical work
involving these formulae. Finally, some examples are given in which
the formulae can be used in practical problems in heights and distances.

4.2 The sine formula

In Figs. 13 and 14, which apply respectively when the angle A of the
triangle ABC is acute or obtuse, O is the centre of the circumscribing
circle and BO meets this circle again at D. In both diagrams, the angle
BCD, being the angle in a semi-circle, is a right-angle. In Fig. 13, the
angle BDC is equal to the angle BAC in the same segment, while in
84
 THE SINE FORMULA 85
Fig. 14 the angle BDC is equal to the supplement of BAC as the points
A, B, Cand D are concyclic. If R is the radius of the circumscribing
circle, BD = 2R and the right-angled triangle BDC gives,
in'Fig-13, . BC = 2Rsin A,
in Fig. 14, BC = 2R sin (180° — A) = 2Rsin A,
so that in both cases a = BC = 2Rsin A.

(ix
B Ren .cs¢
a, spurs’

Fic. 13 Fic. 14

By joining AD instead of CD, we could show similarly that

c = 2R sin C and, by starting the construction from C instead of B,
that b = 2Rsin B. These three results can be displayed in the formula
a b c
sin A sinB sinC at ; alte
and this result is usually known as the sine formula for the triangle.
B

|
|
B |
|
|
a c |
|

e D
A ieD
Fic. 15 Fic. 16

In Figs. 15 and 16, BD is the perpendicular from B on to the base

CA, or CA produced, of the triangle ABC. The first diagram applies
when the angle A is acute and the second when it is obtuse. In each case,
86 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

the right-angled triangle DAB gives BD = c sin A. The area A of the

triangle ABC is then given by
A =4CA. BD = }bcsin A, (4.2)
and this can be written in the form a/(sin A) = ($abc)/A. Hence we
can rewrite the sine formula (4.1) as
a b Cc abc
sin A sin B <y ameenaa 12 (4.3)

4.3 The cosine formula

We have already seen from Figs. 15 and 16 that BD = csin A.
From Fig. 15, DA = ccos A, CD = CA — DA = b — cos A, while
from Fig. 16, AD = ccos (180° — A) = —ccos A, CD = CA + AD
=b—ccosA. Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to the right-angled
triangle DBC, we have CB? = CD* + BD* and, using the above
results,
a’ = (b — ccos A)* + c* sin?A
= b? — 2bccos A + c%(cos*? A + sin® A),
which, using the result sin?.A + cos? A = 1, reduces to
a® = b? + c*? — 2be cos A.
The two similar formulae
(4.4)
b? = c? + a® — 2ca cos B,
c? = q* + b? — 2abcosC,

can be similarly derived and these are known as the cosine formulae.

Example 1. In a triangle ABC, show with the usual notation that

sin (A — B) _.a* —
sii.Go ee [L.U.]
sin(A — B) _ sinAcos B —cos Asin B
sin CoS sinC
_ sind B sin B
= snc’ OS anc: OS4

aa fad ste A (eae ora

ear 2ca _ 2be :
when we substitute from (4.3) and (4.4), and this 1S
i easily
i found to reduce to
(a? — 5%) |c2. (4.3) (4.4), an
 THE COSINE FORMULA 87
Example 2. A triangle has sides of lengths m —n, m, m+n where m>n> 0.
Use the cosine formula to show that, if the triangle is obtuse-angled, then
4m<n< 4m. (L.U.]
Writing a = m —n, b = m,c =m +12, the sides a, b and c are in ascending
order of magnitude and the greatest angle, being opposite the greatest side,
will be the angle C. As a triangle can only contain one obtuse angle, this will
therefore be the angle C and cos C will be negative. Hence, using (4.4),
ll wl elt
> to C—O

_(n—nP
+m —(m +n? _ mm —4mn
i 2m(m — n) ~ 2m(m — n)
m— 4n
Sn = ni)
As m>n, it follows that m — 4n< 0 and }m<n. Since the sum of the
lengths of the two shorter sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the
longest side (m — n) + m>(m + n), leading to m > 2n and n < 3m.

Exercises 4 (a)
1. Show that, in a triangle ABC,
c(a? — c”) sin (A — B) = b(a — 5%) sin (A — C). [O.C.]
2. Ina triangle ABC, B= 4A. Show that 2 sin B = +/(3 — a/b).
In a triangle ABC, show that a = bcos C + ccos B. Deduce that, if
6 is any acute angle,
ccos (B + 8) + bcos (C — 8) = acos8,
csin (B + 6) — bsin(C — 0) = asin0. [0.C.]
4. If the sides a, b and c of a triangle are in arithmetical progression, show
that cos (A — C) = 2cos#(A + C).
5. Disa point on the side BC of a triangle ABC such that 2BD = 3DC
and the angle ADB = 60°. Prove that
AD = {a® + 5(b? — c*)}/5a.
If, further, the angle ABD = 60° and ¢ denotes the angle DAC, prove
that tan d = 43. [0.C.]
6. A is the area of a triangle ABC and E is the middle point of the side
CA. Prove that
BP+c?=a’?+ 4AcotA
and that
4A cot AEB = a? — c*. [L.U.]
7. In the triangle ABC, the angle ACB is double the angle ABC. Prove
that
€ 44?
b c
2008 8, [L.U.]
88 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

With the usual notation for a triangle ABC, prove that

acos A + bcos B= ccos(A — B). [L.U.]

In an acute angled triangle ABC, a semi-circle is drawn on BC as dia-

meter cutting AB in D and AC in E. Prove that the area of that part of
the semi-circle which lies outside the triangle is
4a°(2A — sin 2B — sin 2C). {L.U.]

10. If A is the area of a triangle ABC and R is the radius of the circumscrib-
ing circle, prove that
(i) A = 2R*sin A sin B sin C,
(ii) 4A = b* sin 2C + c* sin 2B.

11. D is the mid-point of the side AB of a triangle ABC and CD is per-

pendicular to AC. Prove that 2 tan A + tan C = 0.

12. Prove that the area A of the triangle ABC is given by

A = 4aR{cos (B — C) + cos A}
where R is the radius of the circumscribing circle.
13; In an acute angled triangle ABC, BE and CF are the perpendiculars
from B and C to the opposite sides. Find the magnitude of the angle A
such that the area of the triangle AEF shall be half that of the triangle
ABC.
14. If, in the usual notation for the triangle ABC, b = a + Ac show that
Acos $C = cos (A + 4C).

ips Find the largest angle in the triangle whose sides are x + « + 1,
2% + 1 and a — 1 where « > 1.

4.4 Some other formulae for the triangle

The fundamental sine and cosine formulae for the triangle derived in
§§ 4.2, 4.3 are not always the best ones to use in numerical work and we
give below some of the other forms into which these formulae may be
recast.

(i) The half-angle formulae

The cosine formula (4.4) can be written in the form
b? + c? — a? = 2bc cos A

and, using the relations

cos
A = 1 — 2sin?44 = 2 cos?
44 — 1,
 FORMULAE FOR THE TRIANGLE 89
we have

B? + c? — a* = 2be(1 — 2 sin? 4A) = 2bc(2 cos? 44 — 1).

Solving for sin* $A and cos? $A, this gives

4be sin? A = 2bc
— BF— c?+ a? = a? — (b — cP?
=(a—b+c\(a+b—0),
and
4bce cos*44 = 2b¢c+ BP 4+ 2—@=(b+c)?— a
=(6+c—ay\b+c+a).

If s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle, 2;=a+bh+c,

2s —2a=b+c—a, 2s—2b=a+c—b, 2s—2=at+b—e,
and the above can be written in the form
be sin? 4A = (s — b)(s —c), becos?4A = s(s — a),

giving
sin $A -,/(fee
sae
— oe — cos $4 = Jpee? (4.5)

On division these give

wis S}
fe
and the two similar formulae (4.6)

woe = (SE) eice a}

can be similarly derived.

(ii) The area formula

A formula for the area A of a triangle in terms of the lengths of its
sides can be derived from the formulae (4.2) and (4.5). Thus
A? = (bc sin A)? = 5c? sin? 44 cos? $A

= s(s — a)(s — b)(s — ¢),

giving
A = \/{s(s — a)(s — b)(s — ©}. (4.7)
90 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(iii) The included angle formulae

Starting from the sine formulae (4.3) in the form b = 2R sin B,
c = 2Rsin C, we have after division of numerator and denominator
by 2R,
b—c_ snB—sinC
b+c snB+sinC
__ 2cos#(B+ C) sin
1B — C)
~ 2sin (B+ C)cos +B — C)
= cot #(B + C) tan #(B — C).
Since B + C = 180° — A, cot (B + C) = cot (90° — $A) = tan $4,
this can be written,
os
tan }(B — C) = (;r “)cot $A,

and the two corresponding formulae

c—a (4.8)
tan 4(C — A) = (<7 4 cot $B,

tan #(A — B)= (SS) cot $C

can be obtained in the same way.
Example 3. If in a triangle ABC, 2a cos* }C + 2c cos*}A = 3b, show that the sides
of the triangle are in arithmetical progression.
Using the second of formulae (4.5) and the corresponding formula for ab cos? $C,
3b = 2a cos?
$C + 2c cos?
44
2s(s—c) | 2s(s — a)
ons. eae
2s(2s — a —
BMam =
inst
Balas

since 2s-a—c=b, Hence 35=2s=a+b+c giving 2b=a-+c, and

this shows that the sides a, b and c are in arithmetical progression.

Example 4. Prove, with the usual notation for a triangle, that

c cos $(A — B) = (a + b) cos3(A + B).
Using the sine formulae in the form a = 2R sin A, b = 2R sin B,c = 2RsinC
and dividing numerator and denominator by 2R,
a+b sinA+sinB sindA+sinB
caeJ SO
—=-
sin C = “sin (A By ee © = 180° — A — B,

__ 2sin}(A + B)cos}(A — B) cos}(A — B)

~ 2sin3(A + B)cos}(A +B) cos#(A + B)
and the required result follows by cross multiplication.
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 91
Exercises 4 (b)
In any triangle ABC, prove that tan $A tan 4B tan $C = A/s? where A
is the area of the triangle and s the semi-perimeter. Bod|
If the sides a, b, c of a triangle ABC are in arithmetical progression,
show that sin $A sin $C = 3 sin 4B.
In a triangle ABC prove that
at+b—c
at+tb+c
= tan $A tan BB.
Hence calculate the perimeter of the triangle, correct to the nearest
millimetre, given that a + 6 = 0-1175 m, A = 46° 52’, B = 69° 36’.
[0.C.]
Prove that in a triangle ABC,
4be cos 4A + 4ca cos? 4B + 4ab cos?4C = (a+b+c).
In a triangle ABC, prove that Vp
(a+ b + oftan$d + tan 4B) = 2ccot
iC.
The area of a triangle is 3-36 x 10-? m?, the sum of the three sides is
0-84 m and one side is 0-28 m. Calculate the lengths of the other two
sides. [L.U.]
Prove that in any triangle ABC, asin $(B — C) = (6 — c) cos $A.
If in a triangle ABC, (b — c)tan@ = (6 +c) tan4A, prove that
a= (b — c)cos}A sec 0. [L.U.]
In a triangle ABC show that (a + b) sin B = 2b sin (B + $C) cos4C.
With the usual notation for a triangle, show that
2,/(ab)cos 4(A + B) = csin8 where ccos6 = a— b,
Show further that 24/(ab) cos $ (4 — B) = (a+ 5) sin 0.
‘If in a triangle a=5, b=4 and cos(4
— B)= #4, prove that
cos C = }. [0.C.]
12. The angle A of a triangle ABC is 60° and the area of the triangle is
equal to that of an equilateral triangle with sides of length x. Show that
P+ci—a=x?

4.5 The numerical solution of triangles

When three of the six parts of a triangle are given numerically and
when one at least of these is a side, the other three parts can be found.
In principle this can be done by the use of the fundamental sine and
cosine formulae (4.3) and (4.4) but some improvement in the numerical
work involved can often be made by using the formulae (4.6) or (4.8).
92 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

It is recommended that the computational work be set out in a

systematic manner and that checks be employed whenever these are
possible. Some suggested lay-outs are shown in the examples which
follow.

(i) One side and two-angles given

Here the remaining angle can be found at once from the fact that the
sum of the three angles is 180°. If the side c, for example, is given the
diameter 2R of the circumscribing circle of the triangle can be found
from (4.3) as
c
2= = ccosec C.
sin C

Once 2R has been computed, the remaining sides a and b can then be
calculated from the sine formulae in the forms
a= 2RsinA, b = 2RsinB,

and the adaptation of the above when a or b is given instead of c should

cause no difficulty.

Example 5. Solve the triangle in which c = 1-414 cm, A = 117°, B = 45°,

C = 180° — (A + B) No. log

= 180°— (117°(117° + 45°)o) == 180° ee— 162’}o nk
an Er areas Pees! eee,
5 ibos
=18°, cosec 18° 0:5100
2R = ccosec C = 1°414 cosec 18°. (2R 0-6604
aw 2hsin Ams DR sin ite sin 63 1-9499
= 2R sin (180° — 117°) = 2R sin 63°, a = 4-077 0-6103
b = 2Rsin B = 2R sin 45°, 2R 0-6604
sin 45° 1-8495
The required solution is therefore
b = 3-235 05099
C= 18°, a=4077cm, 6 = 3-235 cm.

(ii) Two sides and the non-included angle given

To fix ideas, suppose b and c are the given sides and B the given angle.
The angle C can be found from the sine formula in the form

csin B
nC = —> (4.9)
and various possibilities can arise
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 93
(a) If b is less than c sin B, the value of sin C given by (4.9) will be
greater than unity and no triangle will exist for the given values of b, c
and B, see Fig. 17.

Fic. 17

(6) If b = csin B, equation (4.9) shows that sin C = 1 and hence

that C = 90°. In this case the triangle is right-angled at C as shown in
Fig. 18. Since, when one angle of a triangle is 90°, the other two angles
are necessarily acute, this case can only occur when B < 90°.

Fic. 18

(c) If b is greater than c sin B, the value of sin C given by (4.9) will
be less than unity and there will be two possible values of C less than
180°. If C, is the acute and C, the obtuse angle having this value of
sin C, we have now to discover if both these angles give possible
solutions.

c b

B Co i a C;
94 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If B is greater than 90°, there cannot be another obtuse angle in the

triangle and the angle C, must be excluded as a possible solution. If B
is less than 90°, values of C greater than 90° are not immediately excluded.
If, however, the given side is greater than the other given side c, such
values are excluded because the greater angle would then be opposite
the lesser side. In the remaining case in which B < 90°, b < c, there
are two possible values C, C, of C and this is often called the ambiguous
case, see Fig. 19.
Once the angle C has been found, the remaining angle and side can
be found as in Example 5. In the ambiguous case there will be two
values a,, a, of the side corresponding to the two values A,, A, deduced
for the angle A.

Example 6. Solve the triangle in which b = 9,c = 13, B= 65°.

The magnitude of the angle C is given by

ies csinB 13 sin 65°
"iy fest + el
This leads to log sin C = 0-1170 and hence sin C
= 1-309. Since this is greater than unity, there
is no possible triangle with the given sides and
angle.

Example 7. Solve the triangle in which b = 8-4, c = 14-0, B = 36° 52’.

Here the sine formula gives

csinB 14-0 sin 36° 52
sin C = No. log
B ose 8400
This gives log sin C = 0, sin C = 1 and
C = 90°,
The remaining angle A is given by _ 14:0 1:1461
sin 36° 52’ 1-7782
A = 180° — (B + C) = 180° — (36° 52’ + 90°)
bes 0-9243
= 53° 8’. 8-4 0-9243
For the side a, sin C 0-0000
sin A__ 14-0
a = CSA 14-0 sin
sin53°8’
53° 8’ 14:0 1-1461
sin C sin 90° sin 53° 8’ 1-9031
= 14-0 sin 53° 8’ = 11-2. a 1-0492
The required solution is therefore A = 53° 8’,
C = 90°, a = 11:2.
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 95
Example 8. Solve the triangle in which b = 107-2, c = 76-69, B = 102° 25’.

Here
cee 76-69 sin 102° 25’ | 76°69 sin 77° 35’ No. ide
107-2 107-2
since sin 102° 25’ = sin (180° — 102° 25’).
76°69 1-8847
Hence log sin C = 1-8442 giving C = 44° 19’, an sin 77° 35’ 1-9897
obtuse value for C being impossible as B > 90°, §——————__|—_____
} 1-8744
A = 180° — (B+ 0) 107-2 2:0302

= 180° — (102° 25’ + 44° 19’) sin C 1-8442

= ° , |
= 33° 16. 76°69 1°8847
csin A a) sin 33° 16’ 1-7392
=e =e sin AcosecC cosec44° 19 0-1558
= 76-69 sin 33° 16’ cosec 44° 1% = 60-21, a 1-7797
and the full solution is A = 33° 16’, C = 44° 19’,
a= 60°21.

Example 9. In a triangle ABC, B = 60°,b = 14 and c=16. Calculate the two

possible values of the side a. [pia]

From the sine formula

No. log
tarp 16 sin 60°
svi tee
16 1-:2041
This gives log sin C = 1-9955 and C, = 81° 48’, sin 60° 1-9375
Ch UR RIM CSIC SSBee Te OS ht SS
ambiguous case in which B< 90° andb<ce. If 11416
we denote the angles BAC,, BAC, respectively by 14 1-1461
Agta Aa (Pig 20), sin C 1-9955
16 1-:2041
sin 38° 12’ 1-7913
cosec 81° 48’ | 0-0045
a; 0-9999
16 1-2041
sin 21° 48’ 1-5698
cosec 98° 12’ 0:0045

a 0-7784

A; = 180° — (60° + 81° 48’) = 38° 12’ and

Ag = 180° — (60° + 98° 12’) = 21° 48’.
96 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Hence if BC, and BC, are denoted respectively by a, and a;,
a, = Lat AL_ 6 sin A, cosec C, = 16 sin 38° 12’ cosec 81° 48’,
sin Cy

a, = ottAdLe sin A, cosec Cy = 16 sin 21° 48’ cosec 98° 12’;

sin C,
these formulae lead to a, = 10-0 and a, = 6:0, correct to one decimal place.
(iii) Two sides and the included angle given
Again, to fix ideas, we suppose that the sides b, c and the angle A
included between them are given. The side a can be calculated from
the cosine formula
a = 5? + c? — 2be cos A,
tables of squares and square roots being useful in the numerical work.
The remaining angles B and C can then be found from the sine formulae
bsinsin
A aCe Cn, in A
sin B =

Since all the sides of the triangle are known, any question of the values
of B and C being greater or less than 90° can be settled by choosing
angles which are in the same order of magnitude as the sides opposite
them.
When using logarithms it is preferable to use formula (4.8),
b—c
tan }#(B — C)= cot 4A
b+c
to find 4B — C). Since A+ B+ C = 180°, (B+ C) = 90° —44
and the values of B and C then follow by addition and subtraction.
The remaining side a can then be determined from the sine formula.
Both methods of solution are shown in Example 10 below.
Example 10. Solve the triangle in which b = 7:00 cm, c = 3-59 cm and A = 47°,
Method (i)
Since b— c = 7:00 — 3°59 = 3-41,5 + c = 7:00 No. log
+ 3:59 = 10°59 and $A = 23° 30’, tan $(B — C)
__ 3-41 cot 23° 30’
10-59 , leading to log tan }(B — C) 3-41 0-5328
= 1-8696 and #(B — C) = 36° 32’. a ail ad atsh)
0-8945
Also 10-59 10249
1 B-b-C) 0.90? — FAs 90° = 23° 30 oe 66°30)
and addition and subtraction gives B= 103°2’, tan#(B—C)| 1-8696
G20 Ske SS—E—Eee
3-59 0°5551
The side a is then found from sin 47° 1-8641
ean cosec 29° 58’ 0-3014
= eae ;
wie 3-59 sin 47° ° cosec 29° © 58 cor |
rs 07206

= 5-255 cm.
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES 97
Method (ii)
a* = b+ ct — 2be cos A — log
= (7-00)? + (3-59)? — 2(7-00)(3-59) cos 47°
= 49:00 + 12:89 — 34-28 = 27-61, 700 08451
giving a = /(27-61) = 5-255 cm. Sedaad baloeyanssg
aes Elin
= 3055 iG c¢ cos A en
1-5350

giving log sin B = 1-9886 and an Lee

B = 76° 58’ or 180° — 76° 58’ = 103° 2’, —
3 _ 3-59
359 sinsin 47° 5-255
H 07206
0°7206

be
pirirsiss ~ |
Sac
eeksin B aaa
1-9886
giving log sin C = 1-6986 and —_—__——
3°59 0-5551
C = 29° 58’ or 180° — 29° 58’ = 150° 2’. sin 47° 1-8641
Since 5, a, c are in descending order of magnitude, 0-4192
so must be B, A, C and their sum must be 180°. 5-255 0°7206
Hence the required solution is a =5:255cm, §©£——_|_______
B = 103° 2’, C = 29° 58’, giving the same solu- sin C 1-6986
tion as by Method (i).

(iv) Three sides given

When all three sides are given, the angle can be found from the
cosine formula rearranged in the form
B+ c— @
cos A SAT Spee

with corresponding formulae for cos B and cosC. Alternatively,

one of the angles can be found in this way and the other two found by
the sine formula.

wit
When using logarithms it is, however, simpler to use formula (4.6),

and the two similar formulae for tan $B and tan $C. To save repetition
in the numerical work, these formulae can be written

tan $A = —_ Jfeonee5
Oe oy (4.10)
with corresponding expressions for tan }B and tan}C. The logarithm
for the expression under the square root sign has only to be worked
out once and the logarithmic tangents of $A, 3B, $C then follow by
subtracting log (s — a), log (s — 6) and log (s — ¢).
98 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 11. Find all the angles of the triangle in which a = 10:4, b = 12°8,
ce = 176m.
We first find s from the formula
2s =a +6 + cand then form log.
s —a,s —b,s —c. Acheckis
provided by (s — a) + (s — d)
+(s—c)=s. We then find
log {(s — a)(s — b)(s — c)/s}
by adding the logarithms of
(s —a), (s — 6), (s —c) and
subtracting that of s. The
logarithm of the square root of
this quantity follows by divi-
sion by 2 and the angles are s—a 1-0000
s—b 0-8808
found from (4.10). From the
s-—c 0-4472
working on the right we have
44 = 17° 54’, A = 35° 48’, (s — a)(s — b)(s — c) 2-3280
4B = 23° 1}, B = 46° 9, Ss 1-3096

$C = 49° 43’, C = 98° 9’. {(s — a)(s — b)(s — c)/s} 1-0184

V{(s — a)(s — bys — o/s} 0-5092

s-—a 1-:0000

tan 4A 1-5092

V{(s — a's — bs — c)/s} 05092

s—b 0-8808

tab 4B 1-6284
V{(s — aX(s — bs — c)/s} 0-5092
s-—c 0-4472

tan $C

There is a final check that the sum of the angles should be 180°.

Exercises 4 (c)
Solve the triangles in which
1 c= 12, A= 70°, B= 58° 16’.
2 a = 57:91 m, A = 27° 28’, B = 103° 19’.
3 a= 691 cm, B = 60° 3’, C = 47° 57’.
4. b=5,¢c=
6, B =.65°.
5 a=5,c=7,
A = 48° 36’.
6 b=5,c=4,C
= §3°8".
7 a= 15,c = 39, A = 22° 37’,
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 99
b= 94cm, c = 5:2cm, B= 119° 6’.
a = 0:214 m, c = 0-853 m, C = 128° 41’,
10. b = 50/3, c = 150, B = 30°.
ii. a = 46°8 m, c = 36-9 m, C = 34° 20’,
a2. b=4,c=6,
A= 70° 32’.
13. a= 15km,
b = 40 km, C = 60°.
14, o— hh. bo = tl moc=— ton:
15. a= 16m, b= 20m, c= 33 m.

4.6 Practical applications

Elementary trigonometry is often useful in the solution of practical
problems, particularly in those arising in survey work and in navigation.
By measuring certain distances and angles it is sometimes possible to
calculate other distances and angles which cannot be measured directly.
Such calculations are usually simple applications of the formulae re-
lating the angles and sides of a triangle and we give below a few typical
examples.
Example 12. The angle of elevation of the top of a vertical tower from apoint A on the
same horizontal level as the foot of the tower is x. From a point B, in a direct
line between A and the foot of the tower and at distance d from A, the angle of
elevation to the top of the tower is B. Find a formula giving the height of the tower
in terms of d, « and B.
In Fig. 21, TT’ is the tower, ABT’ is horizontal, the angle AT’T is a right angle,
the distance AB = d and the angles of elevation « and f at A and B are as
shown.
T

at
Fic. 21

Since the external angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two internal
opposite ones, it should be clear that the angle ATB is B — «. Applying the
sine formula to the triangle ATB
Tare d
sina sin(f — )
100 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
so that TB = dsin « cosec(f — «). The right-angled triangle BTT’ now gives
for the height of the tower
TT’ = TB sin B = dsin « sin B cosec (B — «).

Thus, by measuring two angles and one distance, this formula enables the
height of an inaccessible object to be found.

Example 13. Two points on a shore are 777 m apart and the distances of a lighthouse
from these points are 650 m and 525 m. The lighthouse radiates a narrow beam
which revolves at a uniform rate, making one complete revolution in 15 seconds.
Find the time taken for the beam to traverse the strip of shore between the two
points. [L.U.]

In Fig. 22, A, B are the two points on the shore

and C is the lighthouse. The semi-perimeter s
of the triangle ABC is given by 2s = 777 + 650
+525, leading to s=976, s—a=45l,
s— b= 326,s —c = 199. Hence

(s— as — a 7ps x 32
fe “ s(s—c) |} N 976 x 199! ah log.
giving $C = 41° 1’, C = 82° 2’ = 1-432 radians. The 451 2-6542
beam rotates through 27 radians in 15 seconds, so that 326 25132
the time taken to traverse the strip of shore (the time ————— -——____.
taken to rotate through the angle C) is 5-1674
1-432 x 15 976 29894
a
tice Tw
ee 3-42 seconds. ae
199
Es EE
22989
ees

35-2883

5:1674
c 53-2883

tan? $C 1-8791
650 525 tan$Cc | 1-9396
1-432 0-1559
A B 15 1:1761
ae 1-3320
Fic. 22 2a 0-7982

0-5338

Example 14. A ship P is 15-7 km froma harbour H on a bearing of 048° (N 48°

and a ship Q is 24:3 km from H on a bearing of 112° (S 68 Me Hah so
bearing of P from Q and the distance PQ. [L.U.]
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 101
In Fig. 23, SN is due north and the angles PHN, QHS are
respectively 48° and
68°. The angle H of the triangle PHQ is therefore 180° — 48° — 68° = 64°
while the sides q and p are 15-7, 24-3. Hence formula (4.8) gives

TON a (a aah 7
243 + a cot (64°)
_ 86 cot 32°

= 0-215 cot 32°.

Fic. 23

This gives 4(P — Q) = 18° 59’ and, since

P+Q
+ 64° = 180°, No. log.

H(P + Q) = 90° — 32° = 58°. 0-215 1-3324

By subtraction, Q = 58° — 18° 59’ = 39° 1’. cots2- 0-2042
QP therefore makes an angle of 68° — 39° 1’ =
tan #(P — Q) 1-5366
28° 59’ with SN and the bearing of P from Q is
360° — 28° 59’ = 331° 1’. For-the distance PQ, TS'7: 1:1959
we have sin 64° 1-9537
: 15-7 sin 64° F . as cosec 39° 1’ 0-2009
PQ =e ee 15-7 sin 64° cosec 39° 1
PQ 1-3505
= 22-42 kilometres.

Exercises 4 (d)
The angle of elevation to the top of a vertical pole from an observation
point at the same level as its foot is «. The angle of elevation to the top
of the post from a point h metres vertically above the first point of obser-
vation is 8. Show that the height of the post is
hsin « cos B cosec (« — f) metres,
102 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

of
A, B and C are three points on a level straight road, B being due East
A and C due East of B; also, AB = BC. From A the true bearing of a
tower, whose base is on the same level as the road, is « North of East,
from B the true bearing is BNorth of East and from C it is y North of
West. Prove that 2 cot B = cot « — coty. [0.C.]
A and B are two points on one bank of a straight river, and the bottom
of a vertical flagpole is at C on the other bank directly opposite A, all
three points 4, B and C being in a horizontal plane. The angles of
elevation of the top of the flagpole from A, B and D (the mid-point of
AB) are «, B and y respectively. Prove that
4 cot? y = 3 cot? « + cot? B. [0.C.]
When a boat is at a horizontal distance x from the foot of a cliff on the
edge of which is a light-house of height a, the angle subtended at the
boat by the light-house is «; when the distance is 2x, the corresponding
angle is B. Prove that 3x = a(2 cot fB — cota). Find the value of a,
to the nearest metre, if x = 240 m, a = 15° and B = 10°.
A ship is steaming on a course 030° (N 30° E) at a certain speed. At
10.00 a.m. it is 5 kilometres due W of a port P and at 10.40 a.m. it is due
N of P. Find its bearing from P at 11.00 a.m. Find also at what time the
ship will lose radio contact with the port if it can only receive signals
up to a radius of 25 kilometres. (LU)
AC is the longest side of a triangular field ABC. If AB= 50m,
AC = 80 m and the area of the field is 1000/3 square metres, calculate
the angle A and the length BC. This field lies on a plane hillside and A is
the lowest corner of the field. If the sides AB and AC make angles
of 29° and 21° respectively with the horizontal plane, calculate the angle
which the side BC makes with that plane. [L.U.]
A is the base of a vertical flagpole AC which consists of two sections
AB (of length H) and BC (of length p); W is an observation post at a
vertical height h(< H) above the level of A and at a horizontal distance
dfrom A. Prove that, if the angle BWA is denoted by 6, then
(d? + h?) tan 6
H=
d+htan@
If h = 10m, d= 100m and @ = 11°, calculate to the nearest metre,
(i) the value of H and (ii) the value of p if the angle CWA is 128°.
An aeroplane is observed flying on a constant course y East of North at
a constant height. When its true bearing is @ West of North, the angle
of elevation is x, and when its true bearing is ¢ East of North, the angle
of elevation is 8. Prove that y is given by
banks sin ¢ tan « + sin 0 tan B
cos ¢ tan « — cos 6 tan B
Prove also that, if 0 = ¢, the angle of elevation 6 when the true bearing
is North is given by tan 6 = 4(tan « + tan f) sec @. [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 103
P and Q are two points on level ground on the same side of a level
straight road, P being nearer the road than Q; Aisa point on the road
such that the road is the tangent at A to the circle through P, Q and 4;
B is the point on the road, at a distance a from A at which P and Q are
seen in the same direction, which makes an acute angle f with the road.
Prove that, if the angle PAQ is «, the distance between P and Q is
2a sin « sin B
cos x + cos B
Prove also that, if « = 6 and BP = 2PQ, then tana =41/2. [0.C.]
10. A and B are two towers, B being 4 km due East of A. The true bearings
of a flagpole C from A and Bare «° East of North and «° West of North
respectively; the true bearings of a second flagpole D from A and B
are (x + £)° East of North and (« — f)° West of North respectively.
Assuming that A, B, C and D are on level ground, prove that D is
4 sin*Bcosec 2x km South of C and 2 sin 2B cosec 2x km East
of C. [0.C.]
11. From a point on the side line of a football field at a distance 2h from a
corner flag the angle between the directions to the goal posts at the
same end as the flag is x. Denoting the angle between the directions to
the nearer post and the flag by 0, show that
d d
tan 2 6 + sad
5p tan 8 +1 eeeap cot & = 0,

where d is the distance between the posts. If, when the distance 2h is
changed to h, the angle « changes to 2x, determine d in terms of h and
tan «. [N.U.]
i, D is the mid-point of the base BC of a triangular plate ABC. When the
plate is freely suspended from the point A, the line AD is vertical and
the side AB makes an angle « with this vertical. Using the usual notation
for the triangle ABC, show that
cot « = (c/b) cosec A + cot A.
13. Two roads OA, OB cross at right angles on a level plain. Two trees A, B
on the road side are at respective distances a and b from the cross-roads
O. An observer at a point P in a field inside the angle AOB observes
the angle APO to be « and the angle OPB to be B. If the angle AOP is
6, prove that
a— bcotB
tan 6 = [L.U.]
b—acota

14. A radar tower leans towards the North. At equal distances North and
South of its foot and in the same horizontal plane, the angles of eleva-
tion to the top of the tower are « and 6 (x > #). Show that the angle of
inclination 6 of the tower to the vertical is given by
2 tan 6= cotB — cot a.
Calculate 9 when « = 42°, B = 32°.
104 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A flat triangular metal sheet is attached at one corner to a small peg on

horizontal ground. A second corner is fixed to the top of a vertical post
4 m high, the foot of the post being 8 m North of the peg. The remaining
corner is attached to a vertical pole, which is 6 m West of the post, at a
point 7 m above the ground. Determine the angle of inclination of the
plane of the sheet to the horizontal. (.08

Exercises 4 (e)

The internal bisector of the angle BAC of a triangle ABC meets BC at

D. Prove that AD = csin B sec 3(B — C). [O.C.]
If A is the area of the triangle ABC, show that
4A = b* sin 2C + c? sin 2B.
Prove that in any triangle ABC, b(cot A + cot B) = ccosec A.

In a triangle ABC, perpendiculars from the vertices to the opposite

sides are AD, BE, CF. Find the angles of the triangle DEF in terms of
those of the triangle ABC and prove that the perimeter of the triangle
DEF is acos A + bcos B+ ccos C. Ut
The angle C of a triangle ABC is 60°. Show that
1 1 3
Pte
e eae
D is the mid-point of the side BC of a triangle ABC and the angles
BAD, CAD are respectively § and ¢. Show that

tan 40 — ¢) = 6 - 3)tan $A.

Prove, in the usual notation for a triangle, that if

b+c_cta_a+b
,
11 ;6 a etomalat
then
snA_sinB_ sinC cosA _cosB_ cosC
7 6 S07” ages 1Oge aaa Le
O is the centre and R the radius of the circle circumscribing the triangle
ABC. AO, BO and CO meet the opposite sides in L, M, N respectively.
Show that
(i) AL cos (B — C) = bsin C,
end 1 1 2
(ii) — + + CN=R [L.U.]}
AL BM
If A is the area of the triangle ABC, show that
2A(tan
B + tanC) = a tan B tan C.
 EXERCISES 105
10. Calculate the angles B and C of a triangle ABC given that 4 = 64° 28’,
b = 11:56 mand c = 14-68 m, and find the area of the triangle.
i. Find the smallest angle of the triangle in which a = 12:34m, b =
14-56 m, c = 8-58 m. [0.C.]
iz Calculate the largest angle of the triangle for which a = 8-75 m,
6 = 10-32 m, c = 7:39 m. [O.C.]
13; In a triangle ABC, b = 91, c = 125 and tan}4 = 17/6. Show that
a = 204. [O.C.]
14. Two sides of a triangle are of lengths 5 km and 6 km and the sum of the
angles opposite them is 100°. Find the angles and the radius of the
circumscribing circle of the triangle. [L.U.]
15. In a triangle ABC, the angle C is given and 5c = 4a; prove that there
are two possible values of b if cos C > 3/5 and find the corresponding
values of B if cos C = 44/13. [0.C.]
16. If in a triangle ABC, a < b and sin A < a/b, show that the difference
between the two values of c is 24/(a2 — b? sin? A). - [N.U.]
Ff: Find the third side of the triangle in which two sides are of lengths
sin 0 and sin (120° — @) and the angle included between these sides is
60°.
18. In the triangle ABC, prove that ccos (A — B) = (a + b)sin4C. If
the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is 21 m, the length of
the third side is 15 m and the angle opposite the third side is 52°, solve
the triangle completely. [L.U.]

19: In a triangle ABC, the sides AB, AC are equal and contain an angle 20.
The circumscribing circle of the triangle has radius R. Show that the
sum of the lengths of the perpendiculars from A, B, C to the opposite
sides of the triangle is 2R(1 + 4 sin 6 — sin? 6 — 4 sin? 0). [N.U.]
20. A horizontal tunnel AB is bored through a ridge in a direction per-
-pendicular to the line of the ridge, and a path goes from A to B over the
ridge. Show that if / is the length of the tunnel and «, are the inclina-
tions of the two portions of the path to the horizontal, the height of
the ridge above the tunnel is / sin « sin Bcosec (x + f). What is the
length of the path if /= 1000 m, « = 10° and 8 = 73°?
fae A vertical tower AB stands on the top of a hill which may be assumed to
be a plane inclined at 8° to the horizontal. BCD is the line of greatest
slope of the hill through B, the foot of the tower. The angles of elevation,
above the horizontal of A from C and D are 29° and 20° respectively
and the length of CD is 125m. Find the height of the tower. [L.U.]
22: A man walking along a straight horizontal road from which the spire of
a church in an adjoining field is always visible, notes that the angle of
elavation is «. After a distance a the angle of elevation is f and after a
106 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

further distance b the angle of elevation is again 8. Show that the

greatest angle of elevation is 0, where
4a(a + b) cot? 6 = (2a + b)* cot? 8 — b* cot? «. [L.U.]
23. ABCD is a trapezium in which the parallel sides are AD, BC and the
side CD is perpendicular to them. If the angle ABD is «, show that
ane (BC?+ CD?) sina
~ BCsina + CDcosa
A statue h metres high, standing on the top of a tower, subtends at a point
distant d metres in a horizontal line from the base of the tower the same
angle as that subtended at the same point by a man $/ metres high stand-
ing at the base of the tower. Show that the height H of the tower is given
by the equation H® + hH — 4d? = 0.
he The angles of elevation to a stationary balloon measured by three
observers are 9, 0 and ¢. The observers are positioned in a straight
horizontal line, the middle observer being at equal distances d metres from
each of the others. Show that the height of the balloon above the
observers is given by the formula
(d sin 8 sin p)+/{2 cosec (8 + ) cosec (9 — ¢)} metres.
 CHAPTER 5

THE COORDINATE GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIGHT LINE

5.1 Introduction
In this chapter we apply algebraical methods to the solution of
certain geometrical problems involving straight lines. We start by
explaining the coordinate systems usually adopted and go on to develop
formulae for the distance between two given points, the area of a
triangle with given vertices, and so on.
A brief section is devoted to the determination of the equation re-
lating the coordinates x and y of a point which moves so as to satisfy
prescribed conditions and we then show that, when this equation is of
the first degree in x and y, the path of the point is a straight line.
Special forms of this first degree equation are then discussed with
relation to specific properties possessed by the line.’ Formulae are
derived for the angle between two lines whose equations are given, for
the distance of a given point from a given line and conditions are
established so that two given lines may be parallel or perpendicular.
Finally, the fact that a first degree equation in the variables con-
cerned implies a straight line graph is used to deduce mathematical
formulae from sets of physical measurements.
5.2 Coordinates
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the way in which points
are plotted in elementary graphical work. Thus, the position of a point
y'

|
(x,y)
|)

> x
O M 3
Fic. 24

P in a plane is specified by its perpendicular distances OM, MP from

two fixed perpendicular lines OY, OX (Fig. 24). The point O is called
the origin, the lines OX, OY are the axes and the distances OM, MP
are referred to respectively as the abscissa and ordinate of the point P.
107
108 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If OM = x, MP = y, the point P is said to have coordinates x and y,

and the symbol (x, y) is used to denote the position of such a point.
The sign convention used is briefly as follows; for a point to the right
of the axis OY the abscissa is positive and for a point to the left it is
negative, while the ordinate is positive or negative according as the
point lies above or below the axis OX. Thus, in Fig. 25, the points

Peng
© (3,-1)
P
0+3,-2)
Fic. 25

P,, P,, P3 and P, are those with coordinates (4, 3), (—2, 2), (—3, —2
and (3, —1) respectively.
The above method of specifying the position of a point in a plane is
due to the philosopher Descartes. It is not essential to use perpendicular
axes as has been done in Figs. 24 and 25 but it is often convenient to
do so and, in this book, we shall always take the axes to be mutually
P
(r,@)

5 oe
Fic. 26

at right-angles. When referred to such axes, the distances x and y of

Fig. 24 are said to be the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of the point
P. There are other coordinate systems, such as the one outlined below,
but the Cartesian system is by far the most important.
Sometimes the position of a point P in a plane is conveniently specified
by its distance OP from the origin and the angle which OP makes with
some fixed direction OX. Thus, in Fig. 26, the length OP = r and the
angle XOP = 0. The quantities r and 6 are said to be the polar co-
 CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES 109
ordinates of the point P referred to an origin O and an initial line OX
and, in this system of coordinates the position of the point P is
denoted by the symbol (, 6).
5.3 The relation between Cartesian and polar coordinates
In Fig. 27, the point P has rectangular Cartesian coordinates (x, y)
and polar coordinates (r, #) and it is clear from the diagram that
x = OM = OP cos POM= rcos 6,
(5.1)
y = MP = OP sin POM= rsin 0.
These equations enable x and y to be found when r and 6 are known and
conversely, if x, y are known, the polar coordinates are given by
r=x?+y*, tand = y/x. (5.2)
Equations (5.2) do not, however, determine r, 9 uniquely for
r= ++/(x* + y’) and 6 can take an indefinite number of different

Fic. 27

values. To obtain an unique correspondence, we take r = +7 (x? + y’)

and determine 6 as the angle which lies between 0 and 27 radians satisfy-
ing the two equations cos 0 = x/r, sin 6 = y/r.

Example 1. Find (i) the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of the point whose polar
coordinates are (6, 7/3) and (ii) the polar coordinates of the point whose Cartesian
coordinates are (—5, 12).

@ r=6, 0 =7/3, so that

= 6 cos (7/3) = 6 X 4 = 3,
y = 6sin (a/3) = 6 X $V3 = 33 = 5196.

(ii) x = —5, y = 12, giving

r= /((—5)? + 127} = (25 + 144) = V(169) = 13,
cos 9 = —5/13, sin 6 = 12/13.

The last two equations lead to @ = 180° — 67° 23’ = 112° 37° = 1:9655 radians.
110 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

5.4 The distance between two points with given coordinates

In Fig. 28, let P, Q be points with rectangular Cartesian coordinates
(x,, yz) and (x2, yz). PM, QN are drawn perpendicular to the axis OX
and QR is perpendicular to PM. Then
QR = NM = 0M —-ON=%,—%

Fic. 28

The right-angled triangle POR gives

PQ = V(QR* + RP?)
= V{%1 — 2)? + O1 — y2)} (5.3)
and this is the required formula for the distance PQ in terms of the
coordinates of P and Q.
In the derivation of formula (5.3), the coordinates of the points P
and Q have been taken to be positive. When due regard is taken of the
sign conventions for the coordinates, it will be found that the formula
remains valid for all positions of the two given points.
Example 2. Prove that the three points A(5, 1), B(6, 9), C(— 1, 5) are the vertices o)
an isosceles triangle. [O.C.]
Using formula (5.3), we have
AB? = (5 — 6)? + (1 — 9)? = 1 + 64 = 65,
AC? = (5 + 1)? + (1 — 5)? = 36 + 16 = 52,
BC? = (6 + 1)? + 9 — 5)? = 49 + 16
= 65.
Hence AB = BC and the triangle ABC is isosceles.

5.5 A proof of the addition formulae of trigonometry

A compact derivation of the formula for cos (A — B) where A and
B are angles of any magnitude can now be given. In Fig. 29, diagrams
 ADDITION FORMULAE 111
are given for (i) 90°< A < 180°, 0< B< 90°, (ii) O0< A < 90°,
180° < B < 270° and corresponding diagrams can be constructed
for angles of any size. OP, OQ are each of unit length and the rect-
angular Cartesian coordinates of P and Q are therefore respectively
(cos A, sin A) and (cos B, sin B). In both cases shown in the diagram,
the cosine of the angle POQ is equal to cos(A — B) and the cosine
formula applied to the triangle POQ gives
PQ? = OP? + 0Q? — 20P.. OQ cos POO
= (1)? + (1)? — 2(1)(1) cos (A — B)
= 2—2cos(A — B).
Using formula (5.3) for the distance between the points P (cos A, sin A)
and Q(cos B, sin B),
PQ? = (cos A — cos B)? + (sin A — sin B)?
= 2 —2cos Acos B — 2sinA sin B,

when use is made of the relations cos? A + sin? A = 1, cos? B + sin? B

= 1. Equating these values of PQ?,
cos(A — B) = cos
Acos B + sinA sinB,
and the addition formulae for cos (A + B), sin(A + B), sin(A — B)
can be deduced from this by replacing B by —B, 90° — Band B — 90°
respectively.
5.6 The coordinates of a point which divides the join of two given points
in a given ratio
In Fig. 30, A and B are respectively points with coordinates (>, y,)
and (x, y2) and we wish to find the coordinates (x, y) of a point P
which divides the line AB in the ratio m:n. Draw AM, BN, PK
112 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

perpendicular to the axis OX and draw AS parallel to OX to meet PK,

BN in Rand S respectively. Then OM = x,, OK = x, ON = x, and
AR = MK= OK — OM =x — x, RS = KN = ON — OK = x, — x.
Since PR and BS are parallel,

so that

and, solving for x,

By drawing AM’, PK’, BN’ perpendicular to O Y, we could show in the

same way that the ordinate of P is given by

Hence the coordinates (x, y) of a point P which divides the join of the
points A(x;, y,) and B(xg,.y2) internally in the ratio m:n are given by
__ MX, + XY _ M2 t Myr
m+n ’ m+n (6.4)

If the point Q (Fig. 30) divides the line AB externally in the ratio m : n,
its coordinates will be found in a similar way to be given by
MX_ — NX; MYyz — Nyy
+= a ae -—
m—n m—n (5.5)
 AREA OF A TRIANGLE 113
Example 3. The points A(x, Yi), B(Xa, Va), C(Xs, Ys) are the vertices of a plane triangle
and D is the mid-point of the side AB, Assuming that the centroid G of the
triangle is a point in CD such that CG:GD =2:1, find formulae for the co-
ordinates of G in terms of those of the vertices of the triangle,
Since D divides the join of A and B internally in the ratio 1 : 1, its coordinates
are, by formulae (5.4) with m = n = 1, given by

x=3(4+%), y= 2(y1 + Yo).

If the coordinates of G are (%, ¥), since G divides the join of C and D internally
in the ratio 2 : 1, formulae (5.4) give

- _ Aa + x)} +15) __ 24 + yo)} + 10s)

oO 2 +1 Te as Frvln :
or
x= Hx, + x3 +3), J= 1 BV ercta Vs)» (5.6)

5.7 The area of a triangle whose vertices have given coordinates

Let the vertices of the triangle ABC be the points A(x,, v1), B(%2, V2)
and C(x3, y3). Draw AL, BM and CN perpendicular to the axis OX

iy
C

A
B
| |
| |
D4
O os atl M
Fic. 31

(Fig. 31). Then each of the figures ALNC, CNMB and ALMB is a
trapezium and the area of the triangle ABC is equal to the sum of the
areas ALNC, CNMB less the area ALMB. Hence

area A ABC = 4LN(AL + CN) + 4NM(CN + BM)

— 4LM(AL + BM)

= (x3 — X)(Yi + Ys) + 3%2 — X3)(a + Ye)

—(X_ — x) + ye)

= Hx(yo— Ys) + Xo(¥s — Yo) + X81 — Ya)}s (5.7)

the last line being a slight rearrangement of the one above it. By
114 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

taking x, = y, = 0, the point C coincides with the origin O and the

above formula gives
area AOAB = 3(x1y2 — Xoyy)-

If the formula (5.7) is to give a positive value for the area, it should be
noted that it is necessary to take the points A, Band Cina special order.
This is such that, in starting from the point A and proceeding round the
perimeter of the triangle in the order A, B, C, the area of the triangle
must always be on the /eft.
The area of any plane polygon can be found in a similar way. Per-
pendiculars are drawn from the vertices of the polygon on to the axis
OX (or on to a line parallel to OX through the vertex with the smallest
ordinate) and the area can then be found in terms of those of various
triangles and trapezia. A typical instance is shown in Example 5
below.

Example 4. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are the points (0, 2), (2, 6)
and (6, 4).

The three given points have been plotted in Fig. 32. It will be seen that, if we
take A to be the point (0, 2), we have to take B as (6, 4) and C as (2, 6) if we

Y Cc

Fic. 32

are to keep the area on the left as we proceed round the triangle in th e order
P §
A, B, C. Hence in formula (5.7),

x, =0,), = 2, X, = 6, Yo = 4, xs = 2, ys = 6
and
area AABC = }{0(2 — 6) + 66 — 2) +22 — 4)}
= 10 sq. units.
 AREA OF A TRIANGLE 115
Example 5. Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are the points (1, 1),
(3, 5), (—2, 4) and (—1, —5).
In Fig. 33, the four points (1, 1), (3, 5), (—2, 4) and (—1, —5) are denoted by
A, B, Cand D. Perpendiculars AL, BM, CN are dropped from A, B, C on toa

line through D (the point with the smallest ordinate) parallel to OX. From
the figure,
area ABCD = area trapezium CNMB — area triangle CND — area triangle
ADL — area trapezium ALMB
= £(5)(9 + 10) — 4(1)O) — $(2)(©) — 4(2)(6 + 10)
= 21 sq. units.

Exercises 5 (a)

1. Find the rectangular Cartesian coordinates of the points whose polar

coordinates are
@ (V2,47), Gi) (2, $7), Gili) (V2, 2), (iv) , 37).
2. Plot the points with Cartesian coordinates
@ G1), Gi) (—3,2), ii) (-3, -2), Gv) Gd, —D,
and find their polar coordinates.
3. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle with vertices A(—4, —4),
B(O, 1), C4, 4) and show that the angle ACB is a right angle.
116 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

When two points B, C are given, there exist two positions of a point A
such that the triangle ABC is equilateral. Find the coordinates of these
positions of A when
(i) Bis (1, 1) and Cis(—1, —1), (ii) Bis (5, 5) and Cis (3, 3). [0.C.]
Show that the distance between two points whose polar coordinates are
(r,,9;) and (rg, 5) is »/{ry? + ro? — 2ryr. cos (6, — 4,)} and find the
perimeter of the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (2, 7) and (4, 47).
Find the rectangular coordinates of a point equidistant from the three
points (2, 3), (4, 5) and (6, 1).
Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line joining the
points (2, 4) and (1, —3) internally and externally in the ratio: 2:1.
In what ratio does the point (3,3) divide the line joining the points
(—6, 18), (18, —22)?
A, B, C are the points (—6, —3), (10, 5), (7, 13) and D, E, F are respec-
tively the mid-points of BC, CA and AB. Calculate the lengths of
AD, BE and CF.
10. The coordinates of the vertices A, B, C, D of a quadrilateral ABCD are
respectively (2, 5), (8, 7), (10, 3) and (0, 1). E, F, G, H are the mid-
points of the sides AB, BC, CD, DA respectively. Show that the mid-
points of EG and FH coincide.
if. Find the area of the triangles with vertices
(i) (0, 0), (2, —7), (2, 2
(ii) (—2, 3), (—7, 5), G, —5).
12. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are the points with polar
coordinates (1, $7), (2, 477) and (3, 47).
13. Show that the triangle with vertices (0, 2), (2, 6), and (6, 4) is isosceles
and right-angled: find its area. [O.C.]
14, Find the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are the points (1, 1),
(2, 3), (3, 3) and (4, 1).
15. Show that the figure whose vertices are the points (—1, 2), (1, 0),
(3, 2) and (1, 4) is a square and find the area of that part of the square
which lies in the first quadrant.
5.8 Loci
When a point moves so that its position is restricted by a given
condition or conditions, the path traced out by it is called a Jocus. For
example, if a point moves in a plane so that it is always at distance 5
from the origin O, its coordinates (x, y) satisfy the relation +/(x? + y*)
= 5, for the expression on the left is the distance between the points
(x, y) and (0, 0). This equation can be written x? + y? = 25 and is the
equation of the locus of the point (x, y). In this particular example, the
path traced out is clearly a circle, centre the origin and radius 5, and
x? + y® = 25 is the equation of such a circle.
 LOCI 117
In general, if a point moves in a plane so as to satisfy some condition
such as that given in the above example, the path of the point will be a
definite locus or curve and the relation between the coordinates (x, y)
of the point will only be true for points lying on the locus. Conversely,
to every equation relating x and y there is, in general, a definite geo-
metrical locus.
Two examples of the method of formation of equations of loci are
given below.
Example 6. The coordinates of the points A, B are (4, 0) and (0, 3) respectively. Find
the equation of the locus of a point P(x, y) which moves so that PA = PB. [O.C.]}

The points A and B are shown in Fig. Y re)

34 and also three possible positions P,, 4
P,, Ps of the point P.

We have

PA® = (x — 4)? + y’,

PB? = x3 + (y — 3),
and, since PA = PB,

(«— 4 +y=24+(y — 3) a BY, (4,0)

Fic. 34

This equation reduces to 8x — 6y = 7 and is the required equation of the locus

of P. On geometrical grounds, it is clear that the locus of P is the perpendicular
bisector of the line AB and the equation 8x — 6y = 7 therefore represents this
bisector (shown dotted in Fig. 34).
Example 7. Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its distance
from a line parallel to the axis OY through the point (—a,0) is equal to its
distance from the point (a, 0).
In Fig. 35, AB is the line through the point C(—a, 0) parallel to OY and S is
the point (a, 0). P is the point (x, y) and the distance PM is equal to the sum
; AY
118 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
since
of the abscissa x of P and the length a of OC. HenceePM=x+a and,
ly the points (x, y) and (a, 0), PS? = (x — a)? + y*. Since
P, S are respective
PM? = PS',
(x +a? =(x-aP+y
or, after a little reduction, y? = 4ax. This is the required equation of the locus
of P and the shape of the curve, shown dotted in Fig. 35, can be obtained by
plotting the graph of y* = 4ax. The curve is known as a parabola and is
discussed in more detail in Chapter 13.

5.9 The points of intersection of loci

The coordinates of the points of intersection, or common points, of
two loci will simultaneously satisfy the equations of the loci and the
Y.

Fic. 36

problem of finding the coordinates of such points reduces to that of

solving a pair of simultaneous equations. As an example, consider the
loci whose equations are y = x and y? = 4ax. Solving these as a pair
of simultaneous equations by substituting for y from the first equation
in the second, x*® = 4ax giving x = 0 or x = 4a. The corresponding
values of y are also 0 and 4a so that the points of intersection are the
points (0,0) and (4a, 4a). Fig. 36 shows the graphs of the two loci
plotted on the same diagram and it will be found that the coordinates
of the common points O, P read from the graph agree with the cal-
culated values.
Example 8. Find the distance between the common points of the loci y + x = 1 and
y=x— 6x4+7.
Substituting y = —x + 1 from the first equation in the second, the abscissae
of the points of intersection are given by
—x+1=x*-—6x+7
or, x? — 5x +6 =0. This can be written (x — 2)(x — 3) = 0 so that x =2
or 3. The corresponding values of y, given by y = —x + 1, are —1 or —2
and the coordinates of the common points are therefore (2, —1) and (3, —2).
The distance between these points is ~/{(2 — 3)? + (—1 + 2)}} = V/2.
 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 119
Exercises 5 (b)
Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its distance
from the origin is always equal to its distance from the point (10, 3).
[0.C.]
Find the equation of the locus of a point which moves so that its distance
from the point (9, 12) is always twice its distance from the origin. [O.C.]

The point A is (—6, 0) and B is (0, 4). Find the locus of a point P which
moves so that PA? = 3PB?. [0.C.]

Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
points (2, 3) and (8, 5).

A and B are respectively the points (2, 1) and (6, 4). Find the equation
of the locus of a point P which moves so that the angle APB is always
90°.

A, B, C, D are respectively the points (0, 1), (0, 7), (3, 0) and (5, 0).
Find the equation of the locus of a point P which moves so that the
areas of the triangles PAB and PCD are equal in magnitude.

Find the coordinates of the points of intersection and the length of the
common chord of the curves y = 2x” and y? = 4x.
Find the coordinates of the common points of the loci x — 4 = 0 and
x? + y? — 6x + 3y + 10 =0. Find also the coordinates of the mid-
point of the line joining these common points.
The equations of the sides of a triangle are x — 3y + 6 =0, 2x — y
+2=0 and x + 2y —14=0. Find the coordinates of its vertices.
[0.C.]
10. Find the values of a and b if the loci ax + Sy =7 and 4x + by=5
intersect at the point (2, —1). If the loci meet the x-axis at A and B
respectively, find the length of AB. [0.C.]
i The equations of the sides AB, BC, CA of a triangle are x + y = 6,
x—y+2=0, 3x — y= 6 and D is the mid-point of BC. Find the
coordinates of A, B, C, D and verify that AB? + AC* = 2AD? + 2BD*.

12. The vertices of a triangle are A(1, 7), B(—4, —3) and C(5, —3). Find
the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides BC and CA.
Deduce the coordinates of the centre of the circle circumscribing the
triangle ABC and find its radius. [0.C.]

5.10 The equation of a straight line

We have already seen that an equation in x and y represents a
definite locus or curve and it may have been noticed (e.g. Example 6)
120 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

that, when the locus is a straight line, its equation is of the first degree
in x and y. We now show that the general first degree equation
Ax + By +C=0, (5.8)
in which A, B and C are constants, always represents a straight line.
Let P,(x1, yi), Po(X2, Yo), P(X, 3) be any three points lying on the
locus represented by the equation (5.8). Since the coordinates of the
points must satisfy (5.8) we have
Ax, + By, + C =0, Ax. + Byg + C=0 and Ax, + By; + C=0.
Subtracting the second of these equations from the first and the third
from the second,
A(x, — X_) + Bi: — yo) = 0 and A(x, — X3) + BO, — yz) = 0.
By equating the values of the ratio A/B given by these two equations
we have

giving
(1 — X2)V2 — Ys) = (2 — X3)1 — Ya),
and this can be rearranged in the form
X%y(V2 — Ys) + Xe(V3 — Vd + X3(V1 — Yo) = O.
Using formula (5.7), it follows that the area of the triangle formed by
the three points P,, Pj, P, is zero. Since P;, P,, P3 are any three points
on the locus represented by equation (5.8), the locus must be a straight
line (for a curved line could not be such that the area of the triangle
formed by any three points on it should be zero).

5.11 Special forms of the equation of a straight line

It is often useful to be able to write the general equation
Ax + By +C=0
of a straight line in a form in which the constants A, B, C are
related to some geometrical properties of the line. These might be
the slope of the line and the coordinates of a point on it, the intercepts
made by the line on the axes OX, OY, etc., and it is the purpose of this
paragraph to develop special forms of the equation in terms of specific
properties possessed by the line.

(i) In terms of the slope and intercept on the axis OY

In Fig. 37, CP is the line, CQ is parallel to the axis OX and PP’ is
parallel to the axis OY. The line makes an angle 6 with the axis OX
and the intercept OC made by the line on the axis OY is taken to be c.
 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 121
If the coordinates of any point P on the line are taken to be x and y, the
figure shows that CQ = OP’=x, PQ = PP’ — QP’ = PP’ — OC
=y—c, and
tan
9= PQ _y~e
COM ig ¥
The quantity tan@ is called the slope of the line and if we write
m = tan 6, we have
y=mxt+e (5.9)
as the relation between the coordinates x and y of any point P on the
line; this is the required equation of the line in terms of its slope m
and the intercept c made on the axis OY.

Fic. 37

By writing the general equation Ax + By + C = 0 in the form

A Cc
ie alae
and comparing it with equation (5.9), we see that the ratios A/B, C/B
of the constants in the general equation can be expressed in terms of the
slope m and intercept c by
a E
PAS PALE ee 3G
= —C, (5.10)

For a line of slope m passing through the origin O, c =0 and the

equation of such a line is y = mx. For a line parallel to the axis OX
and at distance c from it, m = 0 and its equation is y = c. In the same
way, the equation of a line parallel to the axis OY and distance d from
it is x = d.
(ii) In terms of the slope and coordinates of a point on the line
By (5.9) the equation of any line of slope m is y = mx + c. If the
point whose coordinates are (%,, yx) lies on the line, these values will
122 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

satisfy the above equation and y, = mx, + c. By subtraction of these

two equations,
YN = mx — xX) (5.11)
is the required equation of the line of slope m which passes through the
point (x;, 4).
Example 9, The point A has coordinates (6, —2). Find the equation of the line through
A which is parallel to the line 4x — 3y = 5. [0.C.]
The equation of the given line can be written
yusx-s
4 5

showing that its slope is $. Since a parallel line will also have this slope, writing
m = %, x, = 6, y; = —2 in (5.11), the required equation is
yt2=sx — 6)
and this reduces to 4x — 3y = 30.

(iii) In terms of the coordinates of two points on the line

If one of the given points has coordinates (x,, y,), the equation of a
line passing through it is [equation (5.11)]
y — yy = m(x — x).
If the second of the given points has coordinates (x2, y,), the above
equation will be satisfied by x = x2, y = 2 so that
Vo — Vy = M(Xq — Xy).
By division, to eliminate m,
ca Rl De OP Aes |
(5.12)
te a A
is the required equation of the straight line passing through the points
4, Vos (X25 Ya).

Example 10. The line joining the points (4,0) and (3,2) meets the axis OY at the
point (0, b); find b. [0.C.]
Writing x, = 4, y, = 0, x, = 3, yg = 2 in (5.12), the equation of the line is

easyee
3-47 2-0
and this reduces to 2x + y = 8. The ordinate of the point of intersection of
this line with the axis OY is obtained by writing x = 0, and hence b = 8.

(iv) In terms of the intercepts on the coordinate axes

In Fig. 38, the line is shown as making intercepts of lengths a and b
on the coordinate axes OX, OY respectively. The coordinates of the
points A and B are respectively (a, 0), (0, b) and these coordinates will
satisfy the general equation Ax + By + C=0. Hence 4a+C=0
 EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 123
and Bb + C=0 giving A = —C/a, B= —C/b. The equation of
the line is therefore
(—C/a)x + (—C/b)y + C=0
and this reduces to
sly
atpml (5.13)
In working problems on the straight line, a suitable choice of the
equation of the line often simplifies the algebraical work. We conclude
this section with some illustrative examples.
\é
B

Oo
Fic. 38
Example 11. A line MN which passes through the fixed point (2, 3) cuts OX at M and
OY at N. Lines MP, NP, which are parallel to OY, OX respectively, intersect at
P. Find the equation of the locus of P. [O.C.]
The equation of a line of slope m through the point (2, 3) is, by (5.11), y — 3
= m(x — 2). This can be written mx — y = 2m — 3 or, in the form of (5.13),
cecea anes asi
_ —(2m — 3) 3
m
Hence OM = (2m — 3)/m, ON = —(2m — 3) and the equations of the lines
MP, NP ate, see Fig. 39, respectively
2m — 3 3
x= =2—-—-, y=—2m +3.
m m

*¢

Fic. 39
124 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
The coordinates (x, y) of the point P satisfy these equations and the equation
of the locus of P is given by eliminating m from them. The equations can be
written x — 2 = —3/m, y — 3 = —2m so that by multiplication
(x — 2)(y — 3) = 6.
This reduces to xy = 3x + 2y and this is the required equation of the locus of P.

Example 12. Find the coordinates of the point where the line 2y = 3x — 7 meets the
line joining the points (4, —2) and (—1, 3).
By (5.12), the equation of the line joining the points (4, —2), (—1, 3) is
As an Vi nay
—1—4 3 -—(-2)
and this reduces to x + y = 2. The coordinates of the point of intersection of
this line with the line 2y = 3x — 7 are the solution of the simultaneous equations
x+y=2 and 3x —2y =7
and this is easily found to be x = 78, y = —%.

Exercises 5 (c)

1. Find the equation of the straight line which

(i) passes through the points (—8, 6) and (4, —3);
(ii) makes intercepts of —4 and 2 respectively on the axes OX, OY;
(iii) cuts off an intercept of 2 units on the negative y-axis and makes an
angle of 135° with the positive x-axis.
2. Find (i) the slope and (ii) the intercepts on the coordinate axes of the
line 3x — 4y = 12.
3. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection P of the straight lines
2x + y = 2, x — 2y = 6. Find also the equation of the line joining P
to the point (4, 3).

4. Find the equations of the diagonals of the parallelogram whose sides

have the equations
3x+y=1, 3y=5x +3,
3x + y=15, 3y=5x— 11. [L.U.
5. The points (5, 10) and (14, —2) are opposite corners of a parallelogram,
of which the origin is a third corner. Find the coordinates of the fourth
corner, and the equation of the diagonal through (5, 10). [O0.C.]

6. A line whose gradient is ? passes through the point (5, 2) and meets the
x-axis at A and the y-axis at B. Find its equation, and also the length
of AB and the coordinates of the mid-point of AB. [0.C.]
7. Find the equation of a straight line which is parallel to the line 3x +
4y = 0 and which passes through the point of intersection of the lines
x — 2y = aand x + 3y = 2a.
 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES 125
Three points A, B, C have coordinates (8, 1), (1, 2) and (4, —2) re-
spectively. Lines are drawn through A and C parallel respectively to
BC and BA, and these lines meet at D. Find the equations of AD and
CD, and hence find the coordinates of D, the fourth vertex of the paral-
lelogram ABCD. Verify by calculation that the angle ACB is a right
angle and find the area of the parallelogram. [O.C.]
A straight line meets the axes OX, OY respectively at the points A, B
and C is the point (—5, 4) on the line. If 24C = BC, show that the
equation of the line AB is 8x — Sy + 60 = 0.
10. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle the middle points of whose
sides are (5, 3), (2, 1) and (3, 7).
At. The straight line y = m(x — 2a) through a fixed point (2a, 0) meets the
lines x = aand y = bin Pand Q respectively. If O is the origin and A
the point (a, 0) find the equations of the lines OP, AQ and the co-
ordinates of their point of intersection R. If m varies, show that the
locus of the point R is the straight line 2bx — ay = ab. [L.U.]
12; Find the equations of the two lines which pass through the point (3, 3)
and form with the positive x and y axes triangles of area 24 sq. units.
13. Two parallel lines AP, BQ pass through the points A(5, 0) and B(—S, 0)
respectively. Find the slopes of these lines if they meet the line 4x + 3y
= 25 in points P and Q such that the distance PQ is 5 units. [L.U.]
14. Show that the points (—1, —2), (3, 0) and (7, 2) lie on a straight line.
Find the slope of this line and the intercepts made by it on the axes
OX, OY.
15: If O is the origin, A the point (8,0) and B the point (0, 6) find the
coordinates of the points P and Q where the line 3x + 2y = c meets
OA and AB respectively. If the area of the triangle OPQ is half that of
the triangle OAB, find the value of c. [L.U.]

5.12 The angle between two straight lines

Fig. 40 shows the two lines AB, CD with equations y = mx + q
and y = mx + Cs. P is the point of intersection of the lines and the
126 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

angles made by the lines with OX are respectively 6,, 9, so that

m, = tan 6, and m, = tan 9. Since the external angle PAX of the
triangle PCA is equal to the sum of the interior angles PCA and APC,
the angle BPD between the lines is given by
angle BPD = angle APC
= angle PAX — angle PCA = 0, — 6,.
Hence
tan 6, — tan 6,
tan BPD = tan(, — 6) = 777 45 tanO,
3 mM, earns My,

vstadldicbeastt Riad 3
when use is made of the relations m, = tan 6, m, = tan 6,. The angle
between the lines y = m,x + c, and y = mx + Cg is therefore

tan rey (;
pe+ atc)
=| (5.14)

It should be noted that if the quantity in brackets in (5.14) is positive,

it is the tangent of the acute angle between the lines (the angle BPD of
Fig. 40); if this quantity is negative, it is the tangent of the obtuse angle
(the angle CPB).
If the angle between the two lines
Axx + By + Cy = 0, Apex + By + C, =0

is required, we note that from (5.10) their respective slopes m,, mg are
given by

ny=-> 1 %m=—
1 B, 2

Substitution in (5.14) and a little reduction then shows that the required
angle is given by
A,B,
Pel | — A,B.
tan— ( 1 ‘).
(5.15)
A,A, + BB,
Example 13. Find the angles between the pairs of lines
@ y = 3x +7, 3y =x +8,
(ii) x + 2y = 1, 3x +y +12 =0,
(i) The slope m, of the first line is 3 and, by writing the equation of the second
line in the form y = 4x + 4, its slope m, is 4. Hence, from (5.14), the angle
between the lines is given by

wart (2 gee (A) cae

 PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY 127
(ii) Comparing the given lines with A\x + By + C,=0, Ax + Boy + Cy
= 0, A, = 1, B, = 2, A, = 3, By, = 1, so that (5.15) gives the required angle as

GB)
tan { — MA) Statins (l= 40.
(1)(3) + (2)
Example 14. Find the equations of the two straight lines which pass through the point
(3, —2) and make angles of 60° with the line /3x + y = 1.
In Fig. 41, P is the point (3, —2) and AB the line 1/3x + y = 1. This equation
can be written y= —+/3x + | so that the slope of the line AB is —+/3. It is
clear from the diagram that there are two possible lines PM, PN which make
Y

Fic. 41

angles of 60° with AB and the tangents of these angles are respectively tan 60°
= 3 and tan 120° = —1/3. Hence if m is the slope of the line PM, equation
(5.14) gives
rae sls ll
ph ah YEE
_ leading to m = 0. Similarly if m’ is the slope of PN,
m + 3
ig Meaieg B= mnt
leading to m’ = +/3. The required lines are therefore those which pass through
the point (3, —2) with slopes 0 and /3. By (5.11) the equations are
yt+2=0%—3) or y+2=0,-
and
yt2=V3~%—3) or y—V3x +373 +2=0.

5.13 The conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity

If the two straight lines y = mx + 4, y = mx + Cp are parallel,
they have the same slope and hence
mM, = Mp, (5.16)
128 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If the equations of the lines are given in the form A\x + By + C,=0
and A,x + By + C,=0, their slopes [by (5.10)] are —A,/B, and
—A,/B,. In this case the condition for parallelism is

A, _ 4s (5.17)
If the two lines y = mx + ¢,, y = m_x + Cy are perpendicular, the
angle between them is 90°. Since the tangent of an angle of 90° is
infinite, formula (5.14) shows that 1 + myn, = 0. Hence the condition
for perpendicularity is
mm, = —1, (5.18)
that is, the product of the slopes of two perpendicular lines is —1. This is
an important result and it can be expressed in a slightly different way
by saying that if the slope of a given straight line is m, the slope of a line
perpendicular to it is —1/m. Ina similar way, by using (5.15), the con-
dition for the two lines 4\x + By + C, = 0, A,x + By + C, = 0 to
be perpendicular is found to be
AA, ae B,B, = 0. (5.19)

Example 15. A straight line joins the origin to the point (18, 24). Find the equation
of the line parallel to it through the point (25, 0), and also the equation of the line
through (18, 24) perpendicular to these two lines. [O.C.]
The slope of the line joining the origin to the point (18, 24) is 24/18, or 4/3.
The line parallel to this line and passing through the point (25, 0) is
y—0=&x
— 25), or 4x — 3y = 100.
The slope of the line perpendicular to these lines is —3/4 and the line passing
through the point (18, 24) with this stope is
y—%=—Hx
— 18), or 3x + 4y = 150.

Example 16. A line parallel to 3x + 4y = 0 meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B;
the line through A drawn perpendicular to y — px = 0 meets at P the line through
B drawn perpendicular to qx + y = 0, where p and q are constants. Prove that
the locus of P is x(4q + 3) + y(3p — 4) = 0. [O.C.]
If A is the point (a, 0) and B the point (0, 5), the equation of the line AB is
(x/a) + (y/b) = 1 and its slope is —b/a. The slope of the line 3x + 4y = 0 is
—3/4 so that, since the two lines are parallel, b/a = 3/4. The slope of the line
y — px = 0 is p and the slope of a line perpendicular to it is —1/p, so that the
equation of the line PA is
1
ab i or py +x =a.
The slope of the line gy + x = 0 is —1/g, the slope of a line perpendicular to
it is gq, and the equation of the line PB is therefore
y—b=qx, or y—qx=b.
 DISTANCE OF POINT FROM LINE 129
By division, and use of the relation b/a = 3/4, we have

as the relation between the coordinates of the point of intersection of the lines
PA and PB. This relation can be written x(4q + 3) + yG3p — 4) = 0 and is the
required equation of the locus of P.

5.14 The perpendicular distance of a given point from a line

In Fig. 42, AB is the straight line Ax + By + C =0 meeting the
axes OX, OY in A and B. OR is drawn perpendicular to AB and is of

Fic. 42

length p,. Pis the point (h, k), PQ is pependicular to AB and we require
to find a formula for the distance PQ = p.
The intercepts OA, OB on the axes OX, OY are respectively —C/A
and —C/B and the length of AB is given by
a ov c : :
45=|{(-3) +(-g}]
=avert
Since the area of the triangle OAB can be written as $}OA . OB or as
$p,. AB we have
Veh
Be E Cees TA AVS
RAR
pete = 8)(2S)
B
giving
ae Cc
| a a/(A? + B®)

If HK is a line parallel to AB, its equation will be Ax + By + C’=0

and, in the same way, the perpendicular distance pp = OS is given by

P2 =
rooting cars
/( ‘Az + B?)
130 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If the line HK passes through the point P(h, k), Ah + Bk + C’ =0 so

that C’ = —(AA + Bk) and
a Ah + Bk
Pa ~ \/(A? + B?)

By subtraction,
Ah + BE+C
EO Di Da — Pye — (a2 + BY

If the point P lies on the same side of the line AB as the origin O, we
shall find similarly that
Ah+ Bk+C
BO Ph Pires ee

so that, summarising, the perpendicular distance of the point (h, k)

from the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Ah + Bk + C
(5.20)
VE+BF)
It is usual to quote only the magnitude of the distance irrespective of
its sign; if the positive root of »/(A? + B?) is always taken, a difference
in sign in the distances of two points calculated from formula (5.20)
indicates that the points are on opposite sides of the given line. Formula
(5.20) is best remembered by noticing that the numerator is obtained
by substituting the coordinates of the given point in the left-hand side
of the equation of the given line and that the denominator is simply the
square root of the sum of the squares of the coefficients of x and y in
the equation of the line.

Example 17. Find the distances of the origin and the point (4,5) from the straight
line 3x + 4y = 10.
Writing the equation of the line in the standard form 3x + 4y — 10 = 0, the
distance of the origin (0, 0) from the line is, by (5.20),

3(0) + 4(0) — 10 10
Vv (3? + 4?) 5
The distance of the point (4, 5) is similarly
344) +46) —10 22
V/ (34+ 4) 5
These distances would usually be quoted as 2 and 22/5 respectively; the cal-
culated results show that the origin and the point (4, 5) are on opposite sides
of the line 3x + 4y = 10 (as can be seen if the line and points are plotted).
 LINE THROUGH INTERSECTION OF LINES 131
Example 18. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
Ax + By + C=0 and ax + by+c=0.
In Fig. 43, the given lines are shown as AB, CD and their point of intersection
is R. If P is the point (x, y) on the bisector of the angle ARC, P will be equi-
distant from both lines and will be on opposite sides of the two lines from the
origin. Hence, from (5.20), the coordinates (x, y) of P will satisfy
Ax + By +C ax +by+c
VEER VET aa

Fic. 43

If Q is the point (x, y) on the bisector of the angle ARD, Q will be equidistant
from both lines and will lie on the same side of the lines as the origin. Hence
the coordinates of Q will satisfy
Ax+Byt+C_ , axt+byt+e
Via +B) ~ +t Ve +h pay)
5.15 The equation of a straight line passing through the point of inter-
section of two given lines
Suppose the given lines are represented by the equations
Ax + By + C=0 and ax+ by+c=0. Consider the equation
Ax + By + C+ k(ax + by +c) =0, (5.23)
where k is a constant. This equation represents a straight line for it is
of the first degree in x and y. Further, the equation is satisfied by the
coordinates of the point of intersection of the two given lines since these
coordinates simultaneously satisfy the equations Ax + By + C=0
and ax + by+c=0. Hence equation (5.23) is the equation of a
straight line passing through the common point of the given lines.
The argument used above is an example of one which is of great use
in analytical geometry. It should be noted that the line given by equa-
tion (5.23) is not unique and that, by giving k different values, a family
of lines all passing through the common point of the given lines can be
obtained. In many examples, the line will be required to satisfy a
second condition, such as to have a given slope or to pass through a
132 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

second given point. This second condition enables the value of k

to be fixed and an unique result to be obtained. Some illustrations
follow.
Example 19. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point of
intersection of the lines 4x — 3y + 19 =0, 12x — Sy + 3 =0 and makes an
intercept of + 2 on the x-axis. IO:ei
Any line through the point of intersection of the given lines has the equation
4x — 3y + 19 + k(12x — Sy + 3) = 0,
and this can be written
(4 + 12k)x — (3 + Sky + 19 + 3k = 0. (5.24)
This line meets the x-axis (y = 0) where
(4 + 12k)x + 19 + 3k =0
and the intercept is +2 if
Tes
a-ak
The necessary value of k is easily found to be —1 and substitution in (5.24)
gives —8x + 2y + 16 =0. A slight reduction then gives 4x — y = 8 as the
required equation.

Example 20. Find the equation of the straight line which is parallel to the line
3x + 4y =0 and which passes through the common point of the lines
x—2y=1,x + 3y =2.
Any line through the intersection of the lines x— 2y — 1 = 0,x + 3y —-2=0
is x —2y —1-+k@ + 3y — 2) =0, or
(1 + k)x — 2 — 3k)y — 1 — 2k = 0, (5.25)
The slope of this line is (1 + k)/(2 — 3k) and the slope of the line
3x + 4y =0 is —}. Hence if the lines are parallel,
L+k 3
D2 Deh oaed.
leading tok = 2. Substitution of this value of k in (5.25) then gives the required
equation as 3x + 4y = 5.

Exercises 5 (d)

i; At what angle are the lines whose equations are ax + by + c = 0 and

(a — b)x + (a + b)y + d = 0 inclined to each other? {L.U.]

The vertices of a triangle are the points A(1, 4), B(5, 1), C(—1, —1).
Find the equations of its sides and the values of tan B, tanC. [L.U.]
Find the equation of the join of the points (1, 2) and (3, 4). Find also
the coordinates of the middle point of the join and hence write down the
equation of the perpendicular bisector of the join. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 133
P, Q, R are three points with coordinates (1, 0), (2, —4), (—5, —2)
respectively. Determine
(i) the equation of the line through P perpendicular to OR,
(ii) the equation of the line through Q perpendicular to PR,
(iii) the coordinates of the point of intersection of these lines. [L.U.]
A line through the point (2, 7) has a positive gradient and makes an angle
of 45° with the line x — 3y + 9 = 0.. Find the equation of the line.
[0.C.]
The points P(4, 2) and R(—1, 0) are two opposite vertices of a square
PQRS. The diagonal QS cuts the x-axis at M and 0 is the acute angle
between QS and PM. Show that tan 0 = 23. [0.C.]
Find the coordinates of the point Q where the perpendicular from the
point P(1, 3) to the straight line 2x — 3y = 1 cuts this line. If PQ is
produced to a point R such that PO = QR, find the coordinates of R.
[0.C.]

Prove that the diagonals of the parallelogram formed by the lines

x+2y=2, 2x+y=2, x+2y=4 and 2x+ y=4 are at right
angles to one another.
Find the equation of a line CP passing through the point C(1, 2) and
making an angle of 90° with the line x — /3y + 4=0. Find also
the perpendicular distance of CP from the origin.
10. Show that the point (1, 1) is equidistant from the lines 3x + 4y = 12,
5x — 12y + 20 = 0, 4x — 3y = 6. By drawing a rough figure, decide
whether the point is the centre of the inscribed or one of the escribed
circles of the triangle formed by the above lines. [O.C.]

11. A point P moves so that its perpendicular distance from the line
3x + 5y + 4 = 0is proportional to the square of its distance from the
point (1, 2). If the point (2, —1) is one possible position of P, find the
equation of its locus.
12. Find the equation of the straight line which is such that the x-axis
bisects the angle between it and the line 2x + Sy = 18. [0.C.]
13. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (3, 2) and
through the point of intersection of the lines 3x — 4y = 6, 2x + 3y = 1.
14. Find the equations of the lines through P, the point of intersection of the
lines x + 2y = 11 and 2x — y = 2 which are (i) parallel to and (ii)
perpendicular to the line x + 7y = 0. [L.U.]

15. Find the equation of the perpendicular from the vertex A of the triangle
ABC to the opposite side BC, the equations of BC, CA and AB being
respectively x —y = 1, x + 2y+1=0 and x — 2y = 3. Find also
the length of the perpendicular from B to AC. [0.C.]
134 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

5.16 The determination of laws from experimental data

Relations between varying quantities, such as the voltage and
current in an electrical circuit, can be shown graphically by plotting the
results of experiments on squared paper. It is often useful to see if a
formula can be deduced from such results, and formulae so deduced
are said to be empirical (this simply means that they are deduced from
experiment and not entirely from theory).
If the points plotted from the results of an experiment lie approxi-
mately on a straight line we know, from what has preceded, that the
relation between the variables involved (say x and y) will be of the first
degree and we can assume that the relation will be of the form
y=met+e
where m and ¢ are constants. Further, the values of these constants
can be deduced by finding the slope of the line and the intercept made
by it on the axis OY, or by substituting in the equation the coordinates
(as read off from the graph) of two points on the line. The details are
shown in Example 21 below.
Example 21. In an experiment carried out at constant pressure, the volumes v cn® of
gas at temperature 6°C are given by the following table

10 21 33 50

103-7 107-7 112-0 118-4

By plotting v against 8, show that the approximate relation between these variables
is v = a0 + b and determine values of the constants a and b.
Fig. 44 shows a plot of the recorded values of v and 6. In practice, this plot
should be on a larger scale and it will be found that the points do not lie exactly
 LAWS FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA 135
along a straight line but that a line can be drawn from which none of the points
deviates greatly. In drawing the line, its position should be fixed by ensuring
that the plotted points are evenly distributed about it, some being above it and
some below. This can be conveniently done by moving a stretched thread or a
transparent scale with a fine line scratched on its lower surface and seeing that
the points do not deviate systematically from the thread or line. Since the
plotted points do here lie approximately along a straight line we can assume
that v and @ approximately obey a formula of the type v = a9 + b. Reading
from the graph, we see that a rise of 70°C in temperature is accompanied by a
rise of 125-7 — 100 = 25-7 cm® in volume; the slope of the line is therefore
25-7/70 = 0-367 and this is the required value of the constant a. We also see
that the line cuts the v-axis when v = 100 so that 6 = 100. Alternatively,
reading the coordinates of two points P and Q (chosen to be well spaced to
minimise errors in reading from the graph), we find that P is (0, 100) and Q is
(70, 125-7). Substituting these values of @ and v in the equation v = a@ + b,

100 = 6, 125-7 = 70a +b

and the values a = 0-367, b = 100 are given by the solution of this pair of
equations.

It should be noticed that if a law of the form y = ax" + b, where

n is a known quantity, is suspected of being true, this can be checked by
seeing if a plot of y against x” yields a straight line. If it does, the values
of the constants a and b can be deduced as before. Cases in which n is
not known are treated later.

Example 22. Show that the data

ts satisfied by an equation of the form y = ax* + b and find values of the constants
_aand b.
If the relation between x and y is y = ax* + 6, there will be a linear relation
between y and the cube of x. First forming a table of x® and the corresponding
values of y, we have

and these values are plotted in Fig. 45. Since the plotted points lie on a straight
line, the law relating x and y is of the form y = ax* + b. Reading from the
graph, the slope of the line is given by
a=%i =},
and, since the intercept on the y-axis is zero, b = 0.
136 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The measurements of two related sets of physical quantities often obey

a “power” law of the form y = Ax", where the multiplier A and the
index n are constants. Taking logarithms, this relation gives
log y = log A + log (x")
=n log x + log A,
showing that the graph of log y against log x will be a straight line of
slope n and making an intercept log A on the axis of log y. As it is
possible, by using a stretched string or a transparent scale, to decide

Fie. 45

if a set of points do or do not lie along a straight line, the graph of

log y against log x will reveal if the given values of x and y do or do not
obey a law of the form y = Ax”. If they do, the values of n and log A
can be deduced as before.
Example 23. The following table shows the values of a quantity p obtained experi-
mentally for the given values of a quantity v

Show that the relation between p and v is of the type pv’ = c, where b and c are
constants and determine approximate values of b and c. [L.U.]
Tabulating log p against log v from the data
 LAWS FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA 137
it should be remembered that the logarithms of numbers less than
unity are
negative, so that
log 0:89 = 1-9494 = —1 + 0-9494 = —0:0506;
this, and the other entries in the above table, have been rounded
off to three
places of decimals for the purpose of plotting. If we assume a relation between
p and »v of the form pv’ = c, logp + b logv= loge, or logp = —b
log» +
log c, and the plot of log p against log » should give a straight line. That this
is So is shown by Fig. 46 and the slope (—5) of the line is

Fic. 46

the negative sign being affixed as the line makes an obtuse angle with the positive
direction of the axis of logv. Hence b = # and, since the intercept made on
the axis of log p is unity, it follows that log c = 1, leading to c = 10,

Exercises 5 (e)
1, In a certain experiment, the recorded values of the load P lifted by an
effort E were given by

Show that E and P are approximately related by the equation

E = aP + band find the values of the constants a and 5.
138 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Show that the points whose coordinates are given by

lie on the straight line y = mx + c and determine the values of m and c.

Corresponding values of x and y are given by

Show that x and y are related by an equation of the form y = ax* + b

and deduce values for a and b.

Corresponding values of two variables 6 and ¢ are given by

By plotting 0 against f°, show that 6 and r are approximately related by

6 — c = af’ and find the values of « and c.

Measurements of the coefficient of friction yz of steel tyres on a rail at

speeds V gave the following results

30 38 49

0-066 0-051 0-041

Show that these results approximately follow a law of the form

V = (a/u) + band find values of a and 6. Use your result to calculate
the coefficient of friction ~ when V = 45.

Variables x and y are related by a law of the form y = kx". Approximate

values of y for various values of x are given by the table

From the graph of log y against log x, deduce the values of k and n.
[L.U.]
 EXERCISES 139
The following table shows some values of V obtained experimentally
for the given values of ¢

By plotting log V against log ¢ show that, allowing for small errors of
observation, there is probably a relation between V and ¢ of the type
V = At” and find approximate values of A and n. [L.U.]
Given that x and y are related by a law of the form y = Ax", complete
the following table

tS

1-265 2-000 2-449

When a quantity of air is compressed to pressure p, the corresponding

temperature ¢ (degrees Centigrade) is given by

Verify that the law T = kp”, where T = t + 273 is the absolute temper-
ature of the air, is satisfied by the data and find values of the constants
k and n.
10. The values of two variables y and z are given in terms of a third variable
x by the table

Verify that relations of the form y = Ax” and z = mx + c apply and

find the values of A, m, mand c. Use your results to find two values of
x for which y = z.

11. Two variables x and y are related approximately by the equation

yl/A = 10 and corresponding values of x and y are

By plotting log y against x, determine the values of A and k.

140 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12. The following readings were recorded in an experiment

x and y are known to satisfy a relationship of the form ay = b® where

a and b are constants. By plotting log y against x, draw a graph and
from it determine probable values of a and 6 (to two figures) consistent
with these readings,

Exercises 5 (f)
Given the points A(2, 14), B(—6, 2), C(12, — 10), verify that the triangle
ABC is right-angled. Calculate the coordinates of the point D on AB
produced such that AC = CD. [N.U.]

Find the distance between the point (2, 4) and the point of intersection of
the straight lines 4x — 3y + 4=0,5x+ 7y+8=0. [O.C.]

Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex of the parallelogram ABCD

given that A, B, C are the points (—1, 6), (—2, —2), (5, 2) respectively.
Prove that the parallelogram is a rhombus and find its area. [O.C.]

The vertices of a triangle are the points (3, 4), (9, —4) and (—3, —8).
Calculate the area of the triangle and the coordinates of the centre of
the circumscribing circle. {L.U.]
ABC is a triangle in which 4 is (1, 1), B(6, 5) and C(4, 7). AD and BE
are the medians drawn from A and B. Find the coordinates of the two
points of trisection of BE and verify that one of these lies on AD.
(L.U.]
A variable straight line passes through the fixed point (h, k) and meets
the axes OX, OY at P and Q; prove that the locus of the mid-point of
PQ is (h/x) + (k/y) = 2. [O:C]

Show that the lines y = mx + 1 and x + my = 9m + 6 meet at right

angles. Find the equation of the locus of their point of intersection.
[L.U.]
O is the origin, Q is (a, b) and P is a variable point: R divides PQ in the
ratio m:n where m and n are positive; S divides PQ in the ratio
m:(—n). Prove that, if OR is perpendicular to OS, the equation of
the locus of P is n(x? + y*) = m(a? + 5). [O.C.]
The vertices A, B of a triangle ABC are on the axes OX, O Y respectively.
The triangle is right-angled at A and AB, AC are of lengths 3 and 4
units respectively. If AC makes an angle 6 with OX, show that the locus
of C as @ varies is given by the equation 16x? — 24xy + 25y? = 256.
{L.U.]
 EXERCISES 14]
10. Prove that the three points (2, 3), (—4, 7) and (5, 1) lie on a straight
line. Calculate the intercepts which this line makes with the axes.
[O.C.]
il. Find the equations of the two straight lines drawn through the point
(4, 3) which make an isosceles right-angled triangle with the straight
line 2x + 3y = 6, having the right angle at the point (4, 3). [O.C.]
12. AB is the line (x/a) + (y/b) = 1. Write down the equation of the line
CD whose intercepts on OX, OY are a*/h and b/k respectively. Find
the coordinates of Q, the point of intersection of AB and CD. Prove
that, if the point (h, k) lies on AB, the equation of the line joining Q
to the origin is kx + hy = 0. [O.C.]
13% Find the reflection of the linex — y = 4intheline2x + y=1. [L.U.]
14. The line 2x — 3y = 5 bisects at right angles a line PP’. If P is the point
(—1, 2), find the coordinates of P’. 03
13: Verify that the two points (a cos a, a sin x) and (a cos f, asin f) lie on
the line x cos (« + B) + ysin$(« + B) = acos $(« — f) and are at
distance 2a sin 4(« — ) from each other. Find the distance of the line
from the origin. [L.U.]

16. In the triangle LMN, the coordinates of L and M are (2, 3) and (4, —6)
respectively. If N lies on the straight line x + 2y + 3 = 0, prove that
the locus of the centroid of the triangle is x + 2y + 1 = 0. Find also
the perpendicular distance between the locus and the given line. [O.C.]

17. A line CP is drawn through the point C(6, 3) perpendicular to the line
joining the points A(1, 2) and B(S, 5) meeting it in P. Another line CQ
is drawn to pass through the mid-point Q of AB. Calculate the angle
PCQ and the area of the triangle PCQ. [L.U.]

18. The straight lines OA, OB through the origin and of slopes m,, my
respectively meet the line y = a at the points H and K; the perpen-
diculars to the lines at H and K intersect at P. Prove that the coordinates
a Olnare
atm, + ms) a(mym, — 1) ;

If the length HK is 3a, prove that P lies on the curve 4ay + x? ee

19; Show that the straight line / whose equation is

(1 + 2Ayy — (2 + 3A)x + 2A—- 3 = 0
es through the point 4(—8, —13). The line / meets the
Ee ate lat Se point B; calculate the coordinates of P and show
that the values 2 = —5 and 3 give the points H, K respectively where
the line x + y = 1 meets the axes OX, OY. Find the value of A such
that the line / passes through the mid-point of HK. [0.C.]
142 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

20. Find the equations of two perpendicular straight lines, both of which
pass through the point of intersection of the line 3x + 4y —-7=0,
5x — 12y + 7 = 0 and one of which passes through the point (2, 9).
Pah, It is thought that two variables p and v are related by the formula
de ai
ie ah
where b and c are constants. Show that the truth of this can be decided by
testing if either the graph of v against 1/p or that of pu against p is a
straight line.
Pap. Corresponding values of x and y are given by

By calculating y/x for each value of x and plotting a graph of y/x

against y, show that the relation between x and y is (10y/x) — y = 5.
Pie} The quantity Q of a liquid passing per second through an orifice under
a head H is given by the formula Q = KH". Determine the constants
K and n from an experiment in which

The following table shows a series of pressures p at corresponding

volumes v for steam and air

p (steam)

P (air)

Verify that a law of the type p = C/v" holds for both steam and air,
and find the value of 7 in each case.
a8: Quantities x and y are connected by the relation y = log (a + bx),
where a and 6 are constants. Plot 10” against x from the table of values

and hence find estimates for a and b. [L.U.]

 CHAPTER 6

VECTORS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

6.1 Introductory
In Statics and Dynamics it is necessary to establish theorems con-
cerning the compounding and resolution of forces, velocities, acceler-
ations and other quantities. Much repetition is avoided by showing
that these are all vector quantities which can be represented by a straight
line or vector, and proving some general theorems for vectors as such.
These theorems on vectors constitute a sort of algebra with rules
similar to those of ordinary algebra. The use of vector symbols also
leads to compactness which is of great value in more advanced parts
of applied mathematics. The first part of this chapter can be regarded
then as an application of what has been learned in Trigonometry as well
as a preparation for later work in Statics and Dynamics.
The second part of the chapter is an introduction to the theory of
complex numbers which involve the imaginary number /(—1). It
will be shown that such numbers can be manipulated in much the same
way as real numbers and that they provide a valuable extension of the
concept of number. The method of representing complex numbers
graphically can be interpreted in terms of vectors and in the theory of
complex numbers, as in the theory of vectors, we are able to represent
a pair of numbers by a single symbol.
6.2 Definition of a vector
A vector is a straight line of a given magnitude drawn in a given
direction.
If I walk 5 kilometres due East and then 4 kilometres due North-East
my displacement can be shown diagrammatically. A line AB of length

45°

Fic. 47

5 cm drawn parallel to the top of the page represents the displacement

to the East and a line BC of length 4 cm inclined at 45° to AB produced
represents the second displacement (Fig. 47).
143
144 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Here the lines AB and AC are vectors. They are marked with arrows
in the diagram to show their sense, that is that they are drawn from A
to B and from B to C rather than the reverse. The sense of a vector is
usually indicated by the order of the letters and this is sometimes con-
a
firmed by an arrow. Thus we may write the above vectors as AB and
—>
BC. Times bold type is used to denote a vector. Thus we may write a
vector as AB, or it may be referred to by a single letter such as a. In
written work it is convenient to underline the letters, writing AB or a.
The magnitude of a vector is called its modulus. Thus the modulus
of the vector AB is the length AB, which is 5. The modulus of a vector
a is denoted by the letter a (in italics). The direction of a vector may
be given as its inclination to a fixed direction such as AX (Fig. 47).
The vector whose direction is that of a given vector a and whose modulus
is unity is called the unit vector in the direction of a and is denoted by
the symbol 4.
A vector as such is not considered as having any definite location
and equal and parallel vectors are equivalent. Thus the statement
a = b means that the vectors a and b are equal in magnitude and are
parallel.
When dealing with vectors one refers to ordinary numbers, that is
numbers not associated with a direction, as scalars. The effect of
multiplying a vector by a scalar is to alter its magnitude while leaving
its direction unaltered. Thus 2AB is a vector whose direction is the same
as that of AB but whose modulus is twice that of AB. Hence, since 4
has unit modulus, aa is a vector whose modulus is a and whose direction
is that of a, and a4 is, in fact, merely an alternative way of writing a.
Thus a = aa.

6.3 Addition of vectors

In Fig. 47 the vectors AB and BC represent displacements to the
East and North-East respectively and it is clear that the result of the
two displacements is a displacement from A to C. Thus the vector AC
represents the total or resultant displacement.
AC is called the vector sum of AB and BC and by an analogy with
ordinary algebraical summation we write

AC = AB + BC. (6.1)
The vector sum of two vectors is thus defined as the third side of a
triangle of which the given vectors are two sides. By measurement on
an accurate diagram it will be found that AC = 8-32 cm and angle CAB
= 19° 52’. This gives the magnitude and direction of AC and shows
 SUM OF TWO VECTORS 145
that
Baar the
Ggresultant displace
P ment is 8-32 killlometre
t s i
in a direction
irecti

pi an additional vector CD is drawn from C (Fig. 48) it is easily seen

that
AD = AC+ CD
= AB + BC+ CD. (6.2)

B
Fic. 48
Thus any number of vectors can be summed by placing them end to
end and their sum is the vector drawn from A to close the polygon
that they form.
6.4 Calculation of the sum of two vectors
Let AB be a vector whose modulus is 4B and whose direction makes
an angle « with a fixed direction AX; let BC have modulus BC and
be inclined at an angle f to AX (Fig. 49). Then the angle between the
C

A
ZEN ——
Fic. 49

positive directions of the vectors is 6, where 0 = 8 — a, and @ is an

external angle of the triangle ABC.
Applying the cosine rule to the triangle ABC, we have
AC? = AB? + BC? — 2AB. BC.cos ABC,
and, since cos ABC = cos (180° — 6) = — cos 6,
AC? = AB? + BC? + 2AB. BC.cos 6. (6.3)
146 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

This gives the modulus AC of the vector AC. The positive sign of the
term containing cos 6 should be noted.
Applying the sine rule to the triangle ABC we have
BC: 3 44G
sin CAB sin ABC’

and hence, since sin ABC = sin (180° — 6) = sin 6,

BC sin 0
sin CAB = AC (6.4)

This gives the direction of the vector AC, since its inclination to AX is
a + CAB.
Example 1. ABC is an equilateral triangle. A vector of modulus 3 has the direction
of the side AB and a vector of modulus 2 has the direction of BC. Find the sum
of these vectors.
Let the side AB have length 3 units (Fig. 50); mark off D on BC so that

>
Fic. 50

BD = 2 units. Then AD is the sum of the vectors AB and BD. By the cosine
rule
AD? = 3 + 2? —2.3.2.cos60° = 7,
giving
AD = 2:646 units.
By the sine rule
sin DAB _ sin 60°
2 2:646
Hence
: 13732
sin DAB = 5-64" 0°6545,

and
DAB = 40° 53’,
Thus the sum has modulus 2:646 and is inclined at an angle 40° 53’ to AB.
 VECTOR ALGEBRA 147
6.5 Vector algebra
We have used the summation sign of algebra to indicate the vector
sum of vectors. This usage can be justified by showing that this kind of
summation obeys the laws of ordinary algebraical summation.
The commutative law of algebra states that the order in which two
quantities are summed is irrelevant, that is a+b=b+a. This law
D C

Fic. 51

holds for vector summation. Let AB and BC be two vectors and AC

their vector sum (Fig. 51). Complete the parallelogram ABCD. Then
since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal and parallel the vectors
AD and BC have the same modulus and direction, and so have the
vectors AB and DC. That is AD = BC, DC = AB. Now by vector
addition
AC = AB + BC and AC = AD + DC.

A B
Fic. 52

Hence, replacing AD and DC in the second equation, we have

AB + BC = BC + AB.
The associative law of algebra states that a + (b+ c)=(a+ 6) +¢,
where the quantities in brackets are added first. This also holds for
vector summation. From Fig. 52 it is easily seen that
AD = AB + (BC + CD) = (AB + BC) + CD.
148 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Subtraction is included in vector algebra by defining the vector —b

as a vector whose modulus and direction is the same as that of b but
which is drawn in the opposite sense to b. Then
a—b=a-+(—b).
The vectors a + b and a — b are shown in Fig. 53.

Fic. 53

The student may also wish to verify that the associative and dis-
tributive laws of algebraical multiplication apply to the multiplication
of vectors by scalar quantities. Thus if m and n are scalars,
m(na) = n(ma) = mna,
(m + n)a = ma + na,
n(a + b) = na + nb.
Example 2. Prove that, if 4 and are positive scalar quantities, AAB + wAC =
(A + wAD where ADB + uDC = 0.
Since ADB + “DC = 0 the directions of DB and DC must be the same but in
opposite sense. Therefore D (Fig. 54) is a point on BC which divides BC in the
C

B
Fic. 54

ratio of A to 4. Now AB = AD + DB and AC = AD + DC, therefore

AAB = AAD + ADB, AC = wAD + uDC.
Adding we have
AAB + “AC = (A + ») AD + ADB + uDC
= (A + u) AD.
 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR 149
6.6 Components of a vector
Let r = OP join the origin of coordinates to a point P whose co-
ordinates are (x, y) (Fig. 55). The vector r is called the position vector
of the point P. The angle POX is 6, where tan 6 = y/x, and (r, 0) are
the polar coordinates of P so that x = rcos 0, y =rsin 0. Then
OP = ON + NP, (6.5)
where ON has modulus x(= rcos 6) and direction OX and NP has
modulus y(= r sin 8) and direction OY. The vectors ON and NP are
¥

Fic. 55

called the components of the vector OP in the directions OX and OY

respectively and OP is the vector sum of its components.
A unit vector in the positive direction of the x-axis is denoted by
the symbol i (italics) and a unit vector in the positive direction of the
y-axis by j (italics). With this notation ON = xi, NP = yj, and the
equation (6.5) becomes
r= OP = xi + yj. (6.6)
Alternatively we may write
r=rcos#[email protected],
and, since the modulus r is a scalar quantity,
r= r(icos 0 + jsin 9). (6.7)
In this form the modulus rv is shown as multiplying the unit vector
icos 0 + j sin 6 whichis f. Thus, for example, a vector r whose modulus
is 4 units and whose direction makes an angle of 30° with OX has
components
4 cos 30° = 3-464, 4sin 30° = 2.
and we may write
r = 3-464 + 2).
150 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If a vector is given in terms of its components, its modulus and

direction are easily found. For example, let r = 3i + 4j. Then
r? = 32 4 4? = 25,
p=,
tan 0 '= 4/3 = 1-333,
@ = 53° 8’.

Thus r has modulus 5 units and its direction is inclined at 53° 8’ to OX.

6.7 Addition by components

When the sum of several coplanar vectors has to be found this is
most easily done by expressing each vector as a sum of its components
and adding the components. Since all the components parallel to a
direction OX have the same direction their sum is obtained by simple
addition, and similarly for the components parallel to the perpendicular
direction OY.
Let the vectors to be summed be
In = Xql + Yajs
where m= 1, 2, 3,... ../“then

Ntrmtrt..-=%jtx+t+xt+...)i
+Qityotyst+. .
Thus if R is the modulus of the sum and @ its inclination to OX, we have

R= Vy txytxgt..P+tyetyst-- 7} (6.8)
and
tan eee et ok
Xy + Xe + Xy +. ie (6.9)

Example 3. Vectors whose moduli are 3, 4, 6 and 7 act in directions making angles
30°, 90°, 135° and 240° respectively with a direction OX. Find their sum.
The vectors in terms of their components parallel to and perpendicular to OX
are
3(i cos 30° + 7 sin 30°) = 2:598i + 1-5),
4(i cos 90° + 7 sin 90°) = 4j,
6(i cos 135° + j sin 135°) = —4-243i + 4-243),
T(i cos 240° + 7 sin 240°) = —3-5i — 6-062).
Adding the components we find for the sum
R = —5:145i + 3-681).
Hence
R = {5-145 + 3-681%} = 6-326,
 SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS 151
and
tan? = — ie —0°7153,
5-145
@ = 180° — 35° 34’ = 144° 26’,
Thus the sum has modulus 6-33 and its direction makes an angle of 144° 26
with OX,

6.8 The scalar product of two vectors

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is defined as the number
ab cos 6, where a and 5 are the moduli of the vectors and 6 the angle
between their directions. The scalar product is denoted by a. b.
Since cos 0° = 1 and cos 90° = 0, it follows that the scalar product
of parallel vectors is the product of their moduli and the scalar product
of perpendicular vectors is zero. So for the unit vectors i and j
=j. j=l, i.j=j.i=0. (6.10)
The square of a vector a is defined as a. a and written as a®, and we
have a® = a’,
Since b cos 6 is the magnitude of the projection of the vector b on
the direction of a, the scalar product of two vectors is the product of
the modulus of one and the projection of the modulus of the other on
its line. Since the projection of the modulus of b + ¢ on any direction
is the sum of the projections of b and c on that direction, it follows that
a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c,
and hence the distributive law of multiplication holds for scalar pro-
ducts. Hence
(yi + yrj) - oi + yoj)
= XyXoi? + YyYoj? + Aol -f + Vr%e2j-i
= XyX_ + Vio»
when we use the relations (6.10). Therefore if 6 is the angle between
the directions of these two vectors, we have
V (x42 + yy?)/(%22 + yo”) cos O = 4X2 + Vio. (6.11)
Example 4. Find the angle between the directions of the vectors 3i + 4j and Si — 12).
Here
xe + ye = 295 Xs" + ye = 169,

Xy%_ + Wye = —33,

so that, from (6.11)
5 x 13 x cos0 = —33,
giving
cos 6= —33/65 = —0°5077
and
8 = 120°.31’.
152 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

6.9 Vector quantities

A vector quantity is one that can be represented in magnitude and
direction by a vector, and which is such that two or more such quantities
can be added by vector summation. We have seen that displacement
can be represented by a vector and the effect of two displacements is
obtained by vector addition. Therefore displacement is a vector
quantity.
Now velocity is defined (see § 8.2) as displacement in unit time and
the sum of two velocities is the sum of two displacements in unit time.
Therefore velocity is a vector quantity.
Similarly, acceleration is defined (see § 8.2) as change of velocity
in unit time and the sum of two velocity changes can be obtained by
vector addition. Therefore acceleration is a vector quantity.
The basic law of Dynamics is Newton’s second law (see § 18.3)
F = ma which states that force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Since the mass is a scalar quantity this implies that the force has the
same direction as the acceleration. Hence, since acceleration is a vector
quantity so is force, and Newton’s law can be written in vector form as
F = ma.

Strictly, this applies to forces acting on a particle of negligible dimen-

sions and further consideration is necessary before applying this
equation to a rigid body.
The implications of this important principle will be considered later.
For the moment it is sufficient to note that the vectors we have been
considering in this chapter may represent displacements, velocities,
accelerations or forces acting on particles.
Example 5. A bomb which is falling vertically with velocity
200 m/s explodes and breaks into fragments. Each frag- \> 100
ment is given an additional velocity of 100 m/s in some
direction by the explosion. Prove that the fragments ‘a\
continue to move downwards within a cone of semi-vertical
angle 30°.
Let a fragment be thrown in a direction inclined at 6 to
the downward vertical. Let v be its new velocity inclined
at an angle « to the downward vertical (Fig. 56); v is 200
obtained by vector addition of the velocities of 200 m/s
and 100 m/s. Then
v® = 200? + 100? + 2 . 200 . 100cos8,
giving
v = 100\/(5 + 4 cos 6),
and
. 100. sin 0
sin a = —— sin 8 = pos Bis Fic. 56
/(5 + 4 cos 6)
 VECTOR QUANTITIES 153
The maximum value of sin « occurs (see §8.6, Example 9)9)when
wh cos @ pm i 1/2,
§ ple
6 = 120°, and then
Mine sin 120° 1
~ V¥5—2) 2
Therefore, the maximum value of « is 30° and no fragment will deviate b
than 30° from the vertical. Rata, waewees OR

Exercises 6 (a)
The medians of a triangle ABC meet at G. Prove that
AG = 4(AB + AC).
Hence show that AG = 44/(2b? + 2c? — a’).
Express as a product of its modulus and a unit vector the sum of the
vectors i — 3), 3i + 3j, —3i + 4), 4@ + 2)).
If OP = i — 3j and OQ = 4i — Sj, find the vector PQ and calculate
its modulus. If OR = 4i + 5j and OS = 2i + 2j prove that PQ and
RS are perpendicular. :
If OA = ai + bj, OB = ci + dj, prove that the area of the triangle
OAB is +0:5(ad — bc).

Find the area of a triangle formed by the vectors 2i + 37, 3i + 4j.

D, E, F are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle.
Prove that AD + BE + CF = 0.
Show that the triangle ABC, where A is the point (5, 7), B is (7, 4),
C is (8, 9), is right-angled at A and find its area.
Ifa + b= aéand4.é = 0, show that b = av/2.
E and F are the mid-points of the diagonals AC and BD of a quadri-
lateral ABCD. Prove that AB + AD + CB + CD = 4EF.

P is a point in the side BC of a triangle ABC and Q is another point.

Prove that, ifAP + PB + PC=PQ, AB=CQ.

In any triangle ABC, CB = AB + CA. By squaring both sides of this

equation prove that BC? = CA? + AB* — 2CA. AB cos A.
ABCD is a square. Prove that
3AB + 4BC + 5CD + 8DA + 3AC = DB.
13. The resultant of two intersecting forces P and 2P is P./3. Find the
angle between the forces and the angle made by the resultant with the
force of magnitude P. [L.U.]

14. Forces 3, 2, 1, 4 newton act at a point along the lines OA, OB, OC,
OD respectively. AOB = 60°, AOC = 150°, AOD = 270°. Find the
magnitude of the resultant and its inclination to OA.
154 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

15. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Find the sum

4AB + 5BD + 2CD + 3DE + 6EF + 3FA.
6.10 Complex numbers
We have seen (§ 1.6) that the quadratic equation ax? + bx +c =0
has roots given by
—b + \/(B? — 4ac)
rae 2a >

which are real and distinct if b? > 4ac and coincident if b? = 4ac. If
b? < 4ac we can still find two solutions of the quadratic by introducing
an imaginary number whose square is —1. This number is denoted by
the symbol i, so that
i= V/(-), #®=-1.
With this notation we have the solution, when b? < 4ac,
—b + ir/(4ac — b?)
2a ;
Thus the equation x? — 4x + 13 = 0 has the roots 2 + 3i and 2 — 3i.
If either of these two values is substituted for x in the quadratic and i?
is replaced by —1 it will be found that the result is zero.
An expression of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers,
is called a complex number and aand b are called the real and imaginary
parts of the number respectively. Such numbers can be manipulated in
the same way as rational or irrational numbers according to the
fundamental rules of algebra and they provide an extension of the
concept of number which is of enormous value in more advanced
mathematics.
We may think of the complex number a + ib as being an ordered pair
of numbers which may represent, for example, the x and y coordinates
respectively of a point in a plane. We speak of an ordered pair meaning
that a + ib is not the same number as b + ai, just as the point (4, 5) is
not the same point as (5, 4).
Thus two complex numbers a + ib and c + id are equal if, and only
if, a= cand b=d. The sum of the numbers is defined as
(a + ib) + (c+ id) =(a+c)+ib+4+ 4). (6.12)
The product of the numbers is defined as
(a + ib) X (c + id) = ac + iad + ibe + i2bd
= (ac — bd) + i(ad + be). (6.13)
From this it is clear that the product of any number of complex numbers
will always reduce to an expression such as a + ib when ?? is replaced
by —1 wherever it occurs.
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 155
6.11 Algebra of complex numbers
The fundamental rules of algebra which are used in the manipulation
of real numbers are
(a) the commutative law of addition
at+b=b+a,
(6) the associative law of addition
(a+b)+c=a+(b+0),
(c) the commutative law of multiplication
ab = ba,
(d) the associative law of multiplication

(ab)c = a(bc),
(e) the distributive law of multiplication
(a + b)c = aac + be.

In each case the operation enclosed in brackets is understood to be

performed first. It is easily seen that the operations of addition and
multiplication of complex numbers defined in § 6.10 can be carried out
in accordance with these laws. So, for example
(a + ib) x (c + id) = (c + id) x (a+ bb),
and similarly for the other laws. Thus complex numbers are a logical
extension of the concept of real numbers and can be manipulated in the
same way.
Division by complex numbers presents no further difficulty. We
define the quotient 1/(a + ib) as

a+b @tba-bh
2+ 2+ ‘A+R
Thus division by a complex number is equivalent to multiplication by
another complex number.

Example 6. Show I Z +
a = 72 + 27).

Multiplying numerator and denominator of the expression by 4 — 5i, we have

2+3i_@ + 3i(4 — 5i) _ 8 — 1572+ 127— 107
4+5i (44 504 — 5) 16 — 2577
2342 2342
~16+25° i
156 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

6.12 Modulus and amplitude

The modulus of a complex number a + ib is defined as the positive
real number r = +/(a? + 62). The modulus is written as |a + ib].
The conjugate of a complex number a + ib is defined as the complex
number a — ib. The product of a number and its conjugate is the square
of its modulus, since on multiplying out (a + ib)(a — ib) = a® + BD.
Thus we have seen

Also
la + ib] = (a + 5?) = |a — id}.

The amplitude of a complex number a + ib of modulus r is defined

as the angle 6 which is such that
rcos 6. = 4, «7 sin 6.1), (6.14)
and hence
b
tan 9 = =] (6.15)

The two equations (6.14) are consistent since they give

a b2 a + b?
cos? § +- sin? 6 = a
Pp 7 ay

The angle 6 may have any value from 0 to 360° or from 0 to 27 radians
and the quadrant in which it lies depends on the signs of aand b. Thus,
for example, |3 + 4i| = 5 and we have

5cosid
= 3, Sisind =i4; tan 0 = 5

and § = 53° 8’ since both sin 6 and cos 0 are positive. For —3 + 4i,
cos 9 = —3/5, sin 6 = 4/5, 6 = 180° — 53° 8’ = 126° 52’; for 3 — 4i,
cos 0 = 3/5, sind = —4/5, 6 = 360° — 53° 8’ = 306° 52’: for
—3 — 4i, cos 0 = —3/5, sin = —4/5, 6 = 180° + 53° 8’ = 233° 8’.
Thus the four numbers +3 + 4i all have the same modulus but
different amplitudes.
It follows that any complex number can be written in the form
rcos 6 + ir sin 6 = r(cos 6 + isin 6). Thus

(3 + 47) = 5(cos 53° 8’ + isin 53° 8’).

 MODULUS AND AMPLITUDE iy
Example 7. Find the modulus and amplitude of (2 + i)®(1 — i)/(1 + 3i).
By multiplication
(2+ i? =3 + 4,
so that
2+ i701 -)=84+4)0 —)=74+i7.
Hence
Q+o-)_
Es
714iTY
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 — 3i we have
ee ee ee ee
(oye Fas oe
The modulus is given by +/(1 + 27) =4/5 and the amplitude 6 by
V5 cos 6 = 1, /5sin 6 = —2, tan@ = —2.
The angle satisfying these equations is, since sin is negative and cos @ positive,
6 = 360° — 63° 26’ = 296° 34’.

6.13 Modulus and amplitude of products and quotients

The modulus of the product of two complex numbers is the product
of their moduli and the amplitude of the product is the sum of their
amplitudes. This can be seen as follows.
Let the moduli of the numbers be r,, r, and their amplitudes 6, 0,.
Then
r,(cos 6, + isin 6,) X r(cos 6, + isin 63)
= r,r,(cos 8, cos 6, — sin 6, sin 6, + isin 0, cos 6, + isin 8, cos 6,)
= rrp{cos (8, + 8.) + isin (6, + 4,)}
Hence the product has modulus r,r, and amplitude 0, + 6).
Similarly the quotient of two complex numbers has modulus equal to
the quotient of their moduli and amplitude equal to the difference of
their amplitudes. This follows since
1 f cos 6, — isin 0,
ro(cos 0, + isin 2) —ra(cos 8, + isin 6,)(cos 6, — i sin 6.)
__ cos 6, — isin
Eo,
Therefore
ACO 6, + isin 6,)(cos 6, — isin 6
r(cos 0, + isin O,) — frulradtcos 8,4 isin 2)(cos Pp 2
= (r,/r2)(cos 6, cos 6, + sin 6, sin 6,
+ isin 6, cos 0, — isin 4, cos 9;)
= (r1/r2){cos (6, — 64) + isin (0; sap 6.)}.

Hence the quotient has modulus r,/r, and amplitude 6, — Oo.

158 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

6.14 The Argand diagram

Complex numbers may be shown graphically and compared on what
is called the Argand diagram or, more simply, the complex plane. This
merely consists of rectangular axes OX and OY with the complex
number a+ ib represented by the point P whose coordinates are
(a,b) (Fig. 57). With r= (a? + 5?) and tan# = b/a, the polar
coordinates of P on the same diagram, with OX as the initial line, are
(r, 0). Thus at the same time the real and imaginary parts a and b of
the number are shown and also by joining the representative point to
the origin the modulus r and the amplitude 6 are shown. OX is called
the real axis of the diagram and OY the imaginary axis.
Many geometrical problems can be solved by the use of the Argand
diagram. Thus we may consider a variable complex number z whose
¥

a
Fic. 57

real and imaginary parts are x and y, so that z = x + iy, and the equa-
tion of a curve on the diagram may sometimes be expressed in terms of z.
For example, the equation of a circle of radius r about the origin may
be written as |z| =r. Similarly, if the amplitude of z has a constant
value «, which is written as am z = a, we have the equation of a straight
line through the origin. The equation am (z — z,) = « is the equation
of a straight line through the point representing 2.
If z, and z, are the complex numbers x, + iy, and x, + iy, respec-
tively, then
2 — Za = (%1
— Xe) + 11
— yo)
and
|Z, — Z| = V/{Q — X42)? + 01 — ye)";
so that |z, — z,| is the distance between the points representing z, and
2g. Further, if z, — z, = 23 — Z,, we know that |z, — z.| = |z, — z,|
and am (2 — Z,) = am (Zs — 24), so that the line joining the points
representing z, and z, is equal and parallel to that joining the points
representing z, and Z,.
 THE ARGAND DIAGRAM 159
The sum of two complex numbers z, and z, is shown on the Argand
diagram as a sum of vectors which are the lines drawn from the origin
to the points representing the numbers. Let P and Q represent the
numbers z, and z, respectively and R represent zg which is their sum
(Fig. 58). Then the equation

Z3 — 713 =2,—0

shows that the lines PR and OQ are equal in length and parallel, and
so OPRQ is a parallelogram. The vectors joining the origin to the

Y R

Fic. 58

points P, Q and Rare OP, OQ and OR, and OR is therefore the vector
sum of OP and OQ. The difference of the two complex numbers z,
and z, is obtained in the same way by addition of the vectors represent-
ingz, and —z,. Thus in Fig. 58, Q’ is the point representing —z,
and OR’ which is the vector sum of OP and OQ’ gives the point R’
representing Z, — Zp.
It is seen here that, as represented on the Argand diagram, complex
numbers can be treated as vectors, with magnitudes given by their
moduli and directions given by their amplitudes, whose sums and
differences can be obtained by vector addition and subtraction.
Example 8. Complex numbers 2,, Z2, Z3 are represented by points P,Q, R respectively
on the Argand diagram and O is the origin; z,=3+4i, z2=4 + 6i,
Z, = 1+ 27. Prove that OPQR is a parallelogram and find its area.
Here z, — Zs = 2,, So that RQ and OP are equal and parallel and the figure is
therefore a parallelogram (Fig. 59). Also, in terms of moduli and amplitudes,
Z, = 5(cos 0, + isin 9.)
160 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
where cos 0, = 3/5, sin 0, = 4/5, and
Z, = V5(cos 9, + isin 45)

where cos 0, = 1/1/5, sin 0, = 2/+/5.

Hence

sin (0, — 0.) =—z -=-—z-°== Be)

and the area of the parallelogram is OR . OP . sin(@; — 9,) =2.

Fic. 59

6.15 The cube roots of unity

The equation x* = 1 may be solved by writing
*®-—-l=@—-—)DejP+x4+1=0,
giving
eles
x =)Orn See

There are thus one real cube root and two complex cube roots of unity.
The modulus of each complex root is unity and the amplitudes are
given by

so that 6 = 120° or 240°, that is 27/3 or 47/3.

Since x8 + 1 = (x + 1)? — x + 1), the cube roots of —1 are

=-—lorx=
1+ 5)ix/3
 THE CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY 161
In this case the modulus is again unity but the amplitudes are 60° and
300°, that is 7/3 and 57/3. The cube roots in each case are shown on the
Argand diagram (Fig. 60).
A more general theorem gives the real and complex roots of quantities
directly. We have seen (§ 6.13) that the amplitude of a product of
complex numbers is the sum of their amplitudes and hence, if n is a
positive integer,
(cos 6 + isin 6)” = cos né + isin nO. (6.16)

< Y

Fic. 60

This is known as Demoivre’s theorem for positive integer index. Writing

¢ = nO this becomes

(cost + isin ‘)=cos¢ + ising

and hence
cos 2+ isin 3= +/(cos ¢ + isin ¢). (6.17)

We can use this formula to find the roots of unity. Thus if n = 3,

cos¢ + ising = 1 if 6 = 2r7, where r= 0, 1, 2,. . . etc. Therefore
a cube root of unity is cos (2r7/3) + isin (2r7/3), and taking r = 0,
1, 2 in succession we find the values
Dee Le 4r |, 4a
1 cos + isin =, cos > + isin 5"

Similarly, if cosé + isind = —1, ¢ = (2r + 1)7 where r=0, 1,

2,. . .,8o that a cube root of —1 is cos (2r + 1)7/3 + isin (27 + 1)n/3,
and taking r = 0, 1, 2 gives the values

1
—l, cos ecg3 + isin
e Page3, cos alee
3 isin a3
162 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The cube root of a, where a is any real number, is a¥/* multiplied by one
of the cube roots of unity.

6.16 Real and imaginary parts of a function

If z is a complex number we may write it as z = x + iy, where x
and y are real numbers. It is sometimes necessary to find the real and
imaginary parts of functions of z. Some examples of the procedure
follow.
z—1
Example 9. Find the real and imaginary parts of Pa

Writing z= x + iy we have
z—-1 x+iy-1 @-)+¥y

Multiplying numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator

we have
zZ—-1 {%¢—-)+HKOt)—5}
on (+1%+y
_(@+y—1) +2
— &t+i+y
In this form the real and imaginary parts are separated.

Example 10. IfZ= (z — 6i)/(z + 8) and z = x + iy where x and y are real, find the
real and imaginary parts of Z. Prove that if Z is purely imaginary the locus of Z
on the Argand diagram is a circle, whereas, ifZ is real, the locus is a straight line.
[0.C.]
_xtiQV-§
Here
“(x + 8) + iy
— & +i — OX] +8) — }
(x + 8)? + ¥*
_@ + y® + 8x — 6y) + i(—6x + 8y — 48)
(x+8%+y
This shows the real and imaginary parts ofZ. If Z is imaginary, x* + y® + 8x
= 6y = 0, that is, (x + 4)? + (y — 3)? = 25, so that the locus of z is a circle
with centre at the point —4 + 3i on the Argand diagram and radius 5. If Z is
eel —6x + 8y — 48 = 0, and this is the equation of a straight line on which
z lies,
Exercises 6 (b)
1. Express in the form a + ib
O2+H, G) 2-3/6 +4), Gi) A-)A+5, Gy a+ 4
2. Express in the form a + ib
GH)A-DVA+d, Gi) 1/0 — 9,
@U-H/A+),
Ge) 11-45 tiene wae gale ok
 EXERCISES 163
Find the modulus and amplitude of
Qa-), @Md-/)*, Gi 1+ 2064+ 4), Gv) 24+04
Find the modulus of
(i) (2 — 3i)(3 + 41) (6 — 91)(4 + Ti)(2 + 3i)
(6 + 4)(15 — 8i)’ a) (12 — 5i)9 — 18i)
If @ is a cube root of unity show that @”, where 7 is a positive integer, is
also a root. If x=a+ b, y= aw + bw* and z = aw* + bw, show
that x* + y? + z* = 6ab.

Find the roots of the equation (1 — x)® = x3,

By equating +/(S + 12i) to a + ib, where a and b are real, find the
value of the square root.
Prove that, if P and Q represent complex numbers z, and z, in the
Argand diagram where O is the origin and |z, — z,| = |z, + z,|, then
OP is perpendicular to OQ.

If w is a cube root of unity form the quadratic equation whose roots

are w and 1/w.

Find the four roots of the equation z* — 4z* + 16 = 0.

Find the modulus and amplitude of the roots of the equation
2+ 27=0. [0.C.]
Find the modulus and amplitude of
(2 + i — d/(1 + 34) and of (2 — 1°3i — 1)/G@ + 3). [0.C.]
Find the roots of the equation z* — 16 = 0.
Prove that, if |z + 1] = 2|z —1|, z lies on a circle whose radius is
4/3. [O.C.]}
. Find the modulus and amplitude of
z= (2 — d/GBi — 1), z2 = G — 3)(2 + A) and of 2. +z. [0.C]
Exercises 6 (c)
An aeroplane flies 50 kilometres on bearing 45°, then 80 kilometres on
bearing 300°, and finally 60 kilometres on bearing 240°: Find its distance
and bearing from its starting point.
In a triangle ABC let the perpendiculars from B and C to the opposite
sides meet in D. Prove that AC.(DA + AB) = 0, AB. (DA + AC)
= 0, and hence that DA. BC = 0, showing that the perpendiculars
drawn from the vertices to the opposite sides are concurrent.
ABC is a triangle in which AB= 7m, BC=3m, CA=Sm, Find
the sum BC + 3AC + 2BA.
164 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

ABCD is a quadrilateral; P, Q, R, S are the mid-points of its sides and

O is any point in its plane. Show that the system of forces represented
by OA, OB, OC, OD has the same resultant as the system represen
by OP, OQ, OR, OS. [L.U.]
Two forces are completely represented by the sides AB, AC of a triangle
ABC. Show that their resultant is completely represented by 2AD,
where D is the mid-point of BC. A point O within a given triangle
PQR is such that forces completely represented by OP, OQ, OR are in
equilibrium. Prove that O is the centroid of the triangle. (L.U.]
L, M, N are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle. The
perpendiculars from M and N to CA and AB respectively meet at K.
Prove that AB. (AK — 4AB) = 0, AC. (AK — 4AC) = 0, and hence
that BC .(AK — AL) = 0, and that the perpendiculars to the sides
BC, CA, AB from L, M, N, respectively, are concurrent.
R is the resultant of forces P and 2P acting at O, the angle between
their lines of action being 60°. A third force S is greater than R and
also acts at O. If the maximum and minimum values of the resultant
of all three forces are 26 and 12 newton find P in newton. [O.C.]

When moving East at 10 km/h the wind seems to blow from due North.
When the speed is doubled it appears to come from the North-East.
Find the speed and true direction of the wind.
Five wires radiating from the top of a telephone pole produce the
following horizontal pulls; 2000 N due South, 1900 N due East, 2050 N
due North-East, 1850 N at 30° East of North and 2100 N due North-
West. Find the magnitude and direction of the total pull on the post.
10. Given that f(z) = (7 — 2/(1 — z*), where z=1-+ 2i, show that
|z| = 2|f@|.
1: If z= 1+ i, mark on an Argand diagram the points A, B, C, D,
representing z, z*, z*, z*. Find the moduli and amplitudes of z* — z4
and z* — z*. Show that the angle BDC is am {(z* — z‘)/(z? — z‘)} and
that the angles BDC and ACB are equal. {L.U.]
12. If Zy = ps + i Z3 = —2 + 4i and 1/z, = 1/z, + 1/z., find 23. If 215 Ze

and z, are represented on an Argand diagram by P, Q and R respectively

and O is the origin, show that R is the foot of the perpendicular from O
to the line PQ.

13. In an Argand diagram points P, Q, R represent respectively the complex

numbers a, B, (1 — k)a + kB, where k is real. Prove that R lies on
PQ and PR/RQ = kj(1 — k).
14. Find the three roots of the equation 8x* = (2 — x).
15. Find the modulus of
@) (1 — 2) 49/1 — 21%, Gi) (1 — kK? + 2ik)/(1 + &), & real.
 EXERCISES 165
16. Prove that, if (z — 2i)/(2z — 1) is purely imaginary, the locus of z in
the Argand diagram is a circle and find its centre and radius. [0.C.]
17. Prove that, if (z — 6i)/(z + 8) is real, the locus of the complex number
z in the Argand diagram is a straight line. [0.C.]}
18. Ifz, = (1 + 7/)/(1 — iand z, = (17 — 7i)/(2 + 22), find the moduli and
amplitudes of 24, Zo, Z1 + 29) 2429. [O.C.]

19, Show that if z is a complex number and the real part of (z — )/(z — 1)
is zero, the locus of z in the Argand diagram is a circle and find its
centre and radius. [O.C.]
20. Prove that, if Z= X¥ + iY = (z — 1)/((z + 2) and z is a complex
number with modulus 1 and amplitude 0,
(i) Y/X = —3cot30, Gi) (X¥+ 1)? + Y?=1. [0.C.]
 CHAPTER 7

THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

7.1 Introduction
We now commence the study of a subject in which the chief operation
is rather different from the operations of addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, etc., used in elementary algebra. The subject concerned is the
CALCULUS (the word is derived from the Latin term for a pebble
used in reckoning) and the operation involved is that of taking a /imit.
Such an operation has already been briefly mentioned in connection
with convergent geometrical progressions (§ 2.5) and again in connection
with small angles (§ 3.9) but from now on it will be used continually.
Two limits are of special importance in the calculus. The first of
these is the so-called derivative and its study forms the subject of the
differential calculus of which the basic ideas are given in this chapter.
The other is the integral and this will be introduced in Chapter 9.
Both of these concepts have a wide variety of applications and have been
significant in the development of many scientific theories.
In laying the foundations of the calculus it is necessary to be precise
about what exactly is meant by terms like small, large, etc. For example,
“small” is a purely relative term—a million is usually considered to be
a large number but a million grains of sand is a small amount when
compared with all the sand on our coasts. A reference standard is
therefore essential when defining “a small quantity” and it is only by
starting with precise definitions that the calculus can be developed into
a tool which can be used with confidence. The reader is therefore
advised to pay particular attention to the fundamental concepts—once
these have been understood, he will then find that the technical pro-
cesses involved are not at all difficult to use.

7.2 Functions and functional notation

When two variable quantities x and y are so related that the value of
one quantity y depends on some values of the other quantity x, then
y is said to be a function of x. The relation between the two variable
quantities may be given by a simple formula such as

y=5x°+ 3x42
or y = cos x, or the relation may be given by a graph or by a table
of numerical values. In many practical cases a graph or table relating
two variable quantities is available but it is often impossible, or very
166
 FUNCTIONS AND FUNCTIONAL NOTATION 167

difficult, to express the relationship by a mathematical formula. For

example, a recording barometer plots the atmospheric pressure p
against the time ¢ and, although p is a function of 1, it is usually not
possible (because of the complexity of the weather) to express p in
terms of t by a mathematical formula.
When general, rather than particular, functions of x are under
consideration, it is convenient to write y = f(x), F(x) or d(x)...
This notation does not mean that y is the product of f, F,¢,. . . and x
but is simply an abbreviation for the words “y is a function of x”.
The different letters f, F, ¢,. . . are used to denote different functions.
If y = f(x) and we wish to specify the value of y corresponding to a
given value, say x = 4, we write the result as /(4). For example, if
Sx) = 5x? + 3x + 2,

(4) = 5(4)? + 344) +2 = 804 124+2= 94

and this is the value of y when x = 4. Similarly if ¢(x) = cos x,
$(4n) = cos (fn) = 1/4/72. .
Functions such as y = 5x* + 3x +2 and y =cos~x possess the
property that y is determined for all values of x (this is usually expressed
by saying that the function is defined for all values of x) and there is
one, and only one, value of y corresponding to each value of x. Many
functions do in fact possess this property but it is not in any way
essential. For instance, if x is positive, the function y = 24/x is not
single-valued, since to each positive value of x, there correspond two
real values of y. If x = 0 there corresponds only the single value y = 0,
while if x is negative there are no real values of y satisfying the relation.
Functions such as we have considered above are called explicit
functions. The variable quantity x is termed the independent variable
and the second variable y, whose value depends on that given to x, is
referred to as the dependent variable. Sometimes the relation between
the two quantities x and y is given in a form such as

x? — 2xy?>+4=0,
or x? + y+4 tany = 3;

these are called implicit functions. In the first of these examples, we

could solve for y to obtain
x44
ee)
and in this form y is an explicit function of x. In the second example
it is not possible to express y explicitly in terms of x. Although implicit
functions are important in mathematics, we shall be almost entirely
concerned with explicit functions in this book.
168 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 1. Iff(x) = x* + 5x + 6, find the values off(1) and (0). What values of
x make f(x) = 0?
To find the value of f(1), we write x = 1 in the expression x4 + 5x +6. Thus
fl) = (1)? + 5) + 6 = 12.
Similarly
fO) = OF + 50) + 6 = 6.
f(x) =0 when x*+5x+6=0 and this can be written in the form
(x + 2) (x + 3) = 0 giving x = —2 and —3.

Example 2. Iff(x) = x* + cos x, find the values off(0) and f(m). For what value of
x, between 0 and 7m radians, is f(x) = 47°?
f() = ©? + cos0 = 1,
f(a) = (x)? + cos 7 = r* — 1 = 8°870.
When f(x) = 37°, we have x? + cos x= ($7)*, and this equation is satisfied
by x = 4r.

7.3 The gradient of a graph

The variation of a function is conveniently shown by plotting its
graph. This is illustrated in Fig. 61 by the graph of the simple explicit

Fic. 61

function y = x*. It will be seen that as the independent variable x

increases from zero through positive values, the dependent variable y
also increases. The reverse is true when x increases to zero from
negative values. We could describe this change by saying that y de-
creases for increasing x so long as x < 0 and that y increases when
x> 0.
In Fig. 61, P is the point with coordinates (x;, y,) and Q the point
(Xe, ¥2). The difference in the values of the ordinates at P and Q is
Yo — y, while the difference in their abscissae is x, — x, and the average
rate of change of y as x changes from x, to x, is defined as
Jaren
Rhea;
%4 (7.1)
 THE GRADIENT OF A GRAPH 169
From the diagram this is seen to be the tangent of the angle QPR, PR
being parallel to the line OX, and this quantity is called the slope of the
chord PQ.
To fix ideas, take the abscissae x, and x, of the points P and Q to be
respectively 2 and 3. The ordinate of P, which is given by the formula
y = x with x = 2, is y, = 2? = 4 while that of Q is similarly y, = 3?
= 9. The slope of the chord PQ is then given by formula (7.1) as

9—4
ee he
3—2

If we take another point Q,, nearer to P than Q, say one whose abscissa
is 2.3, its ordinate is (2.3)? or 5-29 and the slope of the chord PQ,
will be
5-29—4 1-29

Taking other points Qj, Qs, Q4,. . ., each one nearer to P than the
preceding one, and taking their abscissae to be 2:2, 2-1, 2:05, . . ., the

[2)

Q4

Fic. 62

slopes of the chords PQ2, PQs, PQ, . - »» calculated in the same way,
will be found to be 42, 4-1, 4-05, . . .. :
A rough sketch (not to scale) of that part of the curve of Fig. 61
which lies between the points P and Q is shown in Fig. 62. It will be
seen that as the points Q,, Oz, Qs, Q4,- - - approach nearer and nearer
-
to the point P, the slopes of the chords PQ,, PQs, PQs, PQs, --
4-3, 4:2, 4-1, 4:05, . . . of these slopes
decrease. The calculated values
170 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

suggest that they may be approaching a limiting value which might

well be of magnitude 4.
The truth of the conjecture that the slope of the chord PQ approaches
a limiting value of magnitude 4 as Q approaches P can be decided as
follows. Let the abscissa of the point Q be 2 + h so that its ordinate
is (2 + h)? and the slope of the chord PQ is given by
(2+h?—2 h4+h) =4+h.
2+h)-—2 Ah
As the point Q approaches P, the value of h becomes smaller and smaller
and the limiting value of the expression 4 + h, as h decreases to zero,
is 4. Put in another way, we can find A and the abscissa 2 + h of a
9|

Tt
Fic. 63

point Q so that the slope 4 + h of the chord PQ differs from the value
4 by as little as we please. For example, if we wish to find the abscissa
of Q such that the slope of the chord PQ is 4-0001, we take A = 0-0001
and the abscissa of Q as 2-0001.
The line through the point P of slope 4 is the limiting position of the
chord PQ as Q approaches closer and closer to P and is the tangent to
the graph at the point P. The slope of this tangent is defined as the
gradient of the graph at P. The sign of the gradient should be noted.
If the shape of the graph is such that the tangent makes an acute angle
with the positive direction of the axis OX, the gradient is positive while
it is negative at points for which this angle is obtuse. This is illustrated
in Fig. 63 which again shows the graph of y = x*. The gradient of
the graph is positive at the point P where the tangent PT makes an acute
angle PTX with OX. At the point P’, the angle between the tangent
P’T’ and the line OX is the obtuse angle P’T’X and the gradient at P’
is negative.
7.4 The increment notation
In finding the gradient of the graph of y = x? in § 7.3 we used the
letter h to denote the difference between the abscissae of the points
 THE INCREMENT NOTATION 171
P and Q and then allowed the value of h to decrease to zero. In what
follows we shall often be concerned with operations of this nature and
it is convenient to introduce here a notation for a small change in the
value of a variable quantity.
We use the symbol 6x, called ‘delta x”, to denote a small increase, or
increment, in the value of a variable x. This notation does not mean
6 multiplied by x but implies that 6x = x, — x where x, differs from
x by a small quantity. When y is a function of x, the symbol dy is
used to denote the change in the value of the dependent variable y
corresponding to a change 6x in the value of the independent variable x.
In Fig. 64, P is the point (x, y) on the graph of a function y = f(x)
Y

Fic. 64

and Q is a neighbouring point (x + dx, y + dy). P’ and Q’ are the pro-

jections of P and Q on the line OX and PR is parallel to this line.
Then OP’ = x, PP’ = y, OQ' =x + 6x, QO’ = y + dy. It follows
that
OR iGO RO 00 = PP
ay roy =P = Oy,
and that
PR= P’Q' = OO’ — OP’
Is + Ox —x= 6x.

The average rate of change of y as x changes to x + dx is measured by

the tangent of the angle OPR and this is the ratio dy/dx. The gradient
of the graph at the point P, or the slope of the tangent atP to the graph,
is the limiting value of this ratio as dx approaches zero.
As an example of the use of this notation, the gradient of the graph
172 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
of y = x? at the point P with coordinates (x, y) would be found as
follows. At the point P, we have

yumm
and at the neighbouring point Q with coordinates (x + dx, y + dy),
y + dy = (x + dx).
By subtraction,
= (x + dx)?
— x? = (2x+ dx)dx
and hence
oy
yx t OE.

As 6x approaches zero (a convenient notation for which is ‘‘as 6x — 0”),

we see that the ratio dy/6x approaches the value 2x. The gradient of the
graph of y = x* at the point (x, y) is therefore 2x and at the point with
abscissa 2, this gives the value 4 found in § 7.3.
Exercises 7 (a)
1. If f(x) = 2x? + 3x — 2, find the values of f(4) and f(—4). What values
of x make f(x) = 0?
2. If f(x) = 3x? + sin x, find the values of f(0), f(47) and f(—7).
3. If f(x) = x* + 4x + 3, find an expression for f(x + 1).
4. F(x) is a quadratic in x. If F(—2) = —1, F(O) = 1 and F(1) = 5, find
this quadratic.
5. Given that f(x) = (x — 1)/(x? + 1), find (0) and f(x + A).
6. If F(x) = log x, show that F(ab) = F(a) + F(6) and that F(a*) = 3F(a).
7. Express y explicitly in terms of x when
(i) x* + 4)?= 2x and (ii) xy + Y= x’,
8. Find the slope of the chord joining the points with abscissae 1 and 2
respectively on the graph of the function y = 8 + 3x?.
9. Pis the point (x, y) and Q the point (x + dx,y+ dy) on the graph of
y =8 — 5x*. Show that

us= —10x — 5(6x)

and deduce the gradient of the curve at the points where x = 0 and
x=1.
10. Show that the gradient of the graph of y = —1 + 3x — }x2 when x = 2
is double that when x = 4. Find the abscissa of the point on the graph
at which the gradient is —1. [O.C.]
 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 173
11, An expression of the second degree is denoted by f(x). If f(1) = 7,
f@® = 23 and f(3) = 17, find the gradient of the graph of f(x) at x = 2.
[O.C.]
12, Calculate the gradient at the point (2, }) of the curve whose equation is
y = 1/x*. (N.U.]
13. Find the gradients of the graph of y = 5x — x* — 6 at the two points
where the graph intersects the axis of x.
14, Find the coordinates of the point at which the tangent to the graph of
y = x* — 8x + 14 is paralle to the axis l
of x.
15. Draw a graph, using the same scales for x and y, of y=x*-— 4x43
for values of x between x = 2:8 and x = 3-2. Draw the tangent to the
graph at x = 3 and measure its slope. Compare this with the limiting
value of dy/dx at x = 3 as dx approaches zero.

7.5 The derivative of a function

In § 7.4 we found that, for the function y = x®, the limiting value of
the ratio dy/dx as 6x approached zero was 2x. Such limiting values
are the central point of the differential calculus and they are known as
derivatives or differential coefficients. For the general function y = f(x),
the derivative of y with respect to x is denoted by the symbols
dy
qm OY oO I’)

and its definition is

dy din jee (7.2)

6z—0

where the expression on the right means the limiting value of the
quotient inside the brackets as 6x approaches zero. In evaluating this
limiting value, we start with f(x + 6x) — f(x) which represents the
change in value of y corresponding to a change 6x in the value of x
and this is the quantity previously denoted by dy. This quantity divided
by 6x is evaluated and the limiting value is found by ignoring allthe
terms containing 6x, (6x)? and higher powers in the resulting expression.
Thus equation (7.2) can be written in the equivalent form
dir. 4) 73
% = lim,(2) ss
and we deduce that, when 6x is small,

Y pte) on by xf'ayes 4)
174 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

is an approximation which improves as 6x becomes progressively

smaller.
The operation of finding the derivative of a function by calculating
the limit in equation (7.2) will be referred to as “differentiating from
the definition” or as “differentiating from first principles” and we give
some examples of this process. Before doing this, however, we shall
give a geometrical interpretation of the approximation of (7.4). Fig. 65
gives an enlarged view of part of Fig. 64 and P, Q are neighbouring
points with coordinates (x, y), (x + 6x, y + dy) on the graph of the
function y = f(x). PR is parallel to the axis OX and PT is the tangent
to the graph at P. The gradient of the graph is the tangent of the angle
(wy) which the tangent PT makes with the line OX; it is also the de-
rivative f’(x) of the function f(x). From Fig. 65, it will be seen that
Q

T Sy

rt
—8x
Fic. 65

TR = PR tan y and, since tan y = f(x) and PR = 6x, it follows that

TR = f'(x)éx. QR is the change in the value of the ordinate of a point
on the graph y = f(x) as the abscissa changes from x to x + 6x so
that QR = dy. The approximation (7.4) can therefore be written in
the form QR ~/f'(x)éx or QR PRtany. Fig. 65 shows that the
error in this approximation is the distance QT and makes it clear that
this error decreases as the distance PR diminishes.
As an example of finding the derivative from its definition, consider
the function y = 2x2 + 3x + 4. Here
J(x) = 2x7 + 3x +4 and f(x + dx) = 2(x + dx)? + 3(x + 6x) + 4.
Hence
dy = f(x + dx) — f(x)
= 2(x + dx)? + 3(x + dx) + 4 — (2x? + 3x + 4)
= (4x + 3)dx + 2(6x)*,
and
ie
5 AE +3 + 2662). (7.5)
The limiting value of this ratio as 6x approaches zero is 4x + 3 showing
that the derivative of the function 2x? + 3x + 4 is 4x + 3. Except
 DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT OF x" 175
when x = —3, for which value 4x + 3 vanishes, we can choose a range
of values of 6x so that 2(5x) is negligible in comparison with 4x + 3
and the terms 4x + 3 are called the principal part of the expression
on the right-hand side of equation (7.5). Thus for the function
y = 2x* + 3x + 4, the derivative (dy/dx) is the principal part of the
ratio (dy/dx) and this is a general property of all functions which
can be differentiated.
7.6 The differential coefficient of x”
If y = x”, then y + dy = (x + 6x)" and, by subtraction,
dy = (x + dx)” — x".
Assuming that n is a positive integer, (x + 6x)" can be expanded in a
terminating series by the binomial theorem to give
—1
dy = x" + nx™Wdx) + a Ra x"-(Sx)2 +... + (3x)" — x"
so that a slight reduction and division by 6x leads to
—1
2 = nxn) + mel x"*(6x) +... + (6x).

Neglecting all the terms in (dx), (dx), . . ., (6x), the limiting value
as 0x approaches zero of the expression on the right is nx". This
limiting value is the required differential coefficient and hence

ify=x", then = = nxt, (7.6)

Although we have assumed in the above that n is a positive integer,

the result (7.6) remains true when 7 is negative or fractional. A proof
for such values of n will not be given here but we shall use the result
(7.6) for negative and fractional values of n when this is called for.
Example 3. Differentiate 1]x from first principles.
Herey = 1/x andy + dy = 1/(x + 6x), so that
1
Cs ag x
x — (x + dx) —6x
=" x(x + Ox) x(x + dx)
Thus
éy —1
dx x(x + dx)
and the limit of this expression as 6x approaches zero is —1/x*. [If we express
this by saying that the derivative of x-* is —x~*, we see that the result dy/dx
= nx"! when y = x", proved only for positive m, is true in the case n = —1.]
176 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

7.7 The differential coefficients of sin x and cos x

If y = sin x then y + dy = sin (x + 6x) and, by subtraction,
dy = sin (x + dx) — sinx
= 2 cos (x + 46x) sin (46x),
by the second of formulae (3.35). Division by dx and a slight re-
arrangement gives

2 = cos (x + 46x (ae.

By §3.9, the ihe value as 6x approaches zero of the expression in

{ } is unity and the limiting value of cos (x + 36x) is cos x. Hence the
limiting value of éy/dx is cos x and we have established the result

if y = sinx, then wy= COS x. (7.7)

Similarly if y = cos x, y + dy = cos (x + 6x),

dy = cos (x + dx) — cos x
= — 2sin (x + 46x) sin (46x).
Hence
6 sin (46x
= — sin (x + 46x ){ me |

showing that
: dy :
if y=cosx, then i = 7 Sin x (7.8)

Example 4. Differentiate 3x + sin 2x from first principles.

Let y = 3x + sin
2x, so that y + dy = 3(x + dx) + sin 2(x + dx), and by
subtraction
dy = 3(x + dx) + sin 2(x + dx) — 3x — sin2x
= 36x + 2. cos (2x + dx) sin (6x).
Hence
rs)
- = 3 + 2cos (2x + dx) (Se

and the limiting value of this as 6x approaches zero is 3 + 2 cos 2x.

Exercises 7 (b)
Differentiate from first principles:
iPe oe 2. + 3x+4,
3, x*— x3, 4. 1/x4. [0.C.]
 TECHNICAL PROCESSES 177
Orig 1ix8, [0.C.] 6. 1/(x+ 1).
7 1/Q — x). 8. 1/(2x + 1).
9. x+sinx. 10. sin 3x.
11. (Cos ax)/a, a constant. 12. secx. [L.U.}
13. tan x. 14. (1 — x)(2— 3x + x*). [0.C.]
15. (6x* — 4x)/x4. [O0.C.] 16. (x + 1)?/x. [0.C.]
17. If y + x = cos x, find the value of dy/dx.
18. If y = 2x? — 4x — 2, find the value of x for which dy/dx vanishes.
19. Differentiate 2x? + 5 + 4x~* with respect to x and find the value of the
derivative when x = 4. [O.C.]
20. If p(x + 1) = 3, find dy/dx.

7.8 Technical processes in the differential calculus

So far we have only considered the derivatives of very simple func-
tions. Those of more complicated expressions can be found from the
definition given in § 7.5 but the labour involved is often considerable.
Fortunately a set of general rules can be obtained and these, together
with the derivatives of a small number of standard functions, enable
the differential coefficients of more complicated functions to be found
readily.
It is the purpose of the next few sections to deal with the technical
processes involved in finding the derivatives of functions which can be
considered as sums or differences, products or quotients, etc., of simpler
functions. These processes are of great importance and the reader is
recommended to work through a large number of exercises until he is
thoroughly familiar with them.

7.9 The differential coefficient of a constant

The graph of the function y = C, where C is a constant, is a straight
line parallel to the axis of x. Its gradient is clearly zero and hence

if y = C (constant), then 2= 0, (7.9)

7.10 The differential coefficient of a sum

Suppose that y = u + v where u = f(x) and v = F(x) are two func-
tions of x. When x changes to x + dx, u changes to u + du = f(x + 6x),
v changes to v + dv = F(x + 6x) and y changes to y + dy. Hence
yt dy=ut dutovt dv
178 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and, subtracting y=u-+v, we have dy = du + dv giving, after

division by 6x,
dyax
_ duOx +,doOx
In the limit as x approaches zero, dy/dx, du/dx and dv/dx become
respectively dy/dx, du/dx and dv/dx so that
dy du dv
(7.10)
dx, yeep,
showing that the differential coefficient of the sum of two functions is the
sum of the differential coefficients of the separate functions. It is clear
that the plus sign can be replaced throughout the above by a minus
sign and the differential coefficient of the difference of two functions
is therefore the difference of the differential coefficients of the separate
functions.
These results are easily extended to cases in which three or more
functions are involved. For instance, if u, v and w are three functions
of x and y =u + v— y, then

dydx_dudx * dodx ~ dwdx

Example5. If y = x* — cos x + 5, find dy|dx.
By §§ 7.6, 7.7 and 7.9, the differential coefficients of x*, cos x and 5 are re-
spectively 4x5, — sin x and zero. Hence
S
& = 4x? — (— sinx) +0 = 4x3 + sinx.
7.11 The differential coefficient of a product
Let y = wv where u = f(x) and v = F(x) are two functions of x. As
in § 7.10 when x changes to x + 6x, u, v and y change respectively to
u + du, v + dv andy + dy. Hence
y + dy = (u + dul(v + dv) = wv + vdu + udv + (du)(6v)
and, subtracting y = uv, we have dy = vdu + udv + (du)(dv) giving,
after division by dx,

In the limit as dx approaches zero, du/éx, dv/dx, dy/dx approach

edi ape duldx, dv/dx, dy/dx and the term du(dv/6x) tends to zero.
ence
dy du dv
a
— = 0
tet ne
=
(7.11)
 DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT OF A QUOTIENT 179
showing that the differential coefficient of the product of two functions is
equal to the second function multiplied by the differential coefficient of
the first plus the first function multiplied by the differential coefficient of
the second.
An important special case of formula (7.11) is that in which the first
function u is a constant C. The differential coefficient of a constant
being zero, we then have
dy dv
xT exO+e
dx
Thus if y = Cv, dy/dx = C(dv/dx) and the differential coefficient of the
product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the con-
stant and the differential coefficient of the function. Thus if y = 5x‘,
dy/dx = 5(6x*) = 30x°.
Example 6. If y = (2 + x)(3 + x), find dy/dx.
Here u =2+x,0=3 + x4, dufdx =0+1 =1, dv/dx =0 + 2x = 2x and
(7.11) gives ;
ad
& = (3+ x\(1) + (2+ 2922)
=3 + 4x + 3x7,

Example 7. Find dy/dx when (i) y = x* cos x, (ii) y = x sin x cos x.

d
(i) D = cosx £(x4)+ x8£ (cosx)

= cos x(3x’) + x°(— sin x)

= x°(3 cos x — x sin x).
Fs Pat a Ge.
(ii) Ze = Sin x cos x F(x) + x 7 (sin x cos x).

id. 5. : d
& (sinx c08x) = cos x = (sin x) + sin x = (cos x)

= cos? x — sin? x.
Hence
eo= sin
x cos x + x(cos?x — sin* x).

7.12 The differential coefficient of a quotient

Let y = u/v where u = f(x), v = F(x) are two functions of x. By
cross-multiplication, u = yv so that, by applying formula (7.11) to
the product yu,
180 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and this may be written in the form

dx vdx vdx
Since y = u/v, it follows that y/v = u/v® and we have
dy 1ldu udv

(7.12)

as the formula — the differential coefficient of the quotient u/v.

Example 8. If y = —_-,find2 [L.U.]

Here u = x3, v = 4 — x, duldx= 2x, dvjdx = —1 and formula (7.12) gives

dy _ (4 — x)(2x) — *(— Ho 8x — x?

It was shown in § 7.6 that, if m is a positive integer, the derivative

with respect to x of x" is nx""1. The rule (7.12) for differentiating a
quotient enables us to show that the same result is true when n is a
negative integer. Thus y = x” = 1/x™ where m = —n is a positive
integer; hence by (7.12), since m is a positive integer and its derivative
is therefore mx™—1, we have
dy _ x™x0—1 X mm

= nx], since n = —m.

7.13 The differential coefficients of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x

The differential coefficients of tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x can be
derived from those of sin x, cos x, and the rule (7.12) for differentiating
a quotient. Thus
ean _ d (2 x
ax "" dx \cos x
d
COS X ;,(sin x) — sin Fe!j,(cos x)
cos? x
 DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS 181

Be cos
e x) — sin x (— sin x)
x (cos e
cos? x
cos? x + sin? x
cos? x

cos?x sec? (7.13)

Similarly
d d (cosx
fe (cot x) = 27 (=*)
Sines
, d d
sin x = (cos x) — cos xz (sin x)

sin? x
i sin x (— sin x) — cos x (cos x)
sin? x
sin? x + cos? x
sin?x

= ——,— = — cosec* x. (7.14)

Also
d Eafict
Pe (sec x) = oe (=
cos x
d d
COs x = (1) — () Fy 098 x)
cos? x
sin x
= sec x tan x, (7.15)
cos? x
and it is left as an exercise for the reader to show in the same way that

< (cosec x) = — cosec x cot x. (7.16)

Exercises 7 (c)
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
1, x5 + Sx* + 10x? + 8. 2. 5x4 — cos x + 2.
. 3x3 — (1/x?). (L.U.] 4. 2xt + 2x43.
5. (x + 2)(x? + 3). [(0.C.] 6 (1+ x (1 — 2x%).
182 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

7. (2 — 3% (0.C:). 6... (Ay, [O.C.]

9. d— x). 10. (x + 2)%.

11. G+ x)(4 — x). [O.C.] 12. sin xcos x.

13. xsinx + cosx. [(0.C.] 14. 40? —2)sinx+-xcosx. [L.U.]

15. (x? + 1) tanx. [L.U;] 16. séo x tan x, [LU

17. cosec x cot x. [L.U.] 18. xsecx + cos x.

x 1+x* We
WS ans (O.cT ater [0.C.]

aE ee
Pr eRe [0.C.] 22. (5— 2x.
(x — 1I)@ + 2)
x4 sin x
23. 5 A [L.U.] - [L.U.]

sin x 5+ 3sinx
———_: ‘Cc. os O.C.
25. T+ cosx Ss oe 3+ 5sinx el
2+ 7cosx sin x
er ease
Cs AEE———— ORS
Ce ._ eae
> [0.C.]
OAG:

x x!
re
aie 30. FeG5
ee [(0.C.]
OG

7.14 The differential coefficient of a function of a function

A function like y = (x + 2)? is a function of a function since (x + 2)?
is a function of (x + 2) and (x + 2) is a function of x. Other examples
are +/(x® + 1), sin 3x, tan (x*), etc., and the purpose of this section is
to give a simple rule by which the derivatives of such functions can be
found.
The differential coefficient of the first of the examples given above
can, of course, be found by multiplying out the expression (x + 2)?
[or by treating it as the product (x + 2)(x + 2)]. Thus,
yo=(xt2P?=x?+
4x44
and
dy
Fy xt 4 = Ax +2).
{t should be noticed that the result is exactly the same as if we had
treated (x + 2) as if it were x and used the standard result for the
differential coefficient of x*. Similarly if y = (x + a)3, where a is a
constant,
y=(x + oP = 8 + 30x? 4+ 30x +
 FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION 183

oa 3x? + 6ax + 3a? = 302 + 2ax + a®) = 3(x + a)’,

and again the result is the same as if we had treated (x + a) as if it

were x and used the standard result for the differential coefficient of x°.
Now consider y = (3x + 2). Working as before
y = (8x + 2)? = 9x? + 12x +4
and
dy
om 18x + 12 = 6(3x + 2),

so that the result is not now 2(3x + 2) but three times this. A rough
explanation is that whereas (x + 2) changes at the same rate as x,
(3x + 2) changes three times as fast. Similarly if y = (ax + b)? where
a and 6 are constants,
y = (ax + bP? = ax? + 2abx + B,
d
&Y — 2a2x + 2ab = 2a(ax + b),
dx
and we notice the result is the same as if we had treated (ax + b) as if
it were x, used the standard result for the differential coefficient of x?
and then multiplied by a, the differential coefficient of (ax + 5).
The above examples suggest that if y is a function of u where u isa
function of x, the formula for the differential coefficient might well be
dy dy du
dx du dx
(7.17)
If we apply this formula to some of the above examples, we have
(i) y = (x + 2)’, or y = uv? where u = x + 2.

Ee
du dx ek
dy dy _ du_ i
Fe aa ee ee = a £2).

(ii) y = (x + a)’, or y = uw?whereu=x

+a.

Og 2 2
a he
dy dy du
184 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(iii) y = (ax + 5), or y = u? where u = ax + b.

di
dy _dy du_ bt dis 5
se a Mage Sy 2 Oe as 2 ame EY

The formula (7.17) therefore gives the correct differential coefficients

in the above examples and it does, in fact, hold generally. A strict
proof of (7.17) is rather beyond the scope of the present book and the
following, which assumes a theorem on limits not already proved, must
suffice. If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, let du be the in-
crement in u corresponding to an increment dx in x and let dy be the
increment in y corresponding to the increment du in u. Then, provided
du + 0,

and, assuming that the limit of a product is the product of the limits,
this gives
dy dy du
ra cache X (7.17)

since dy/dx, dy/du and du/dx are respectively the limiting values of
dy/dx, dy/du and du/dx as dx approaches zero.
The formula (7.17) is an important one and the student is advised to
work through a large number of exercises involving its use. At first
it is probably wise to introduce the auxiliary function u as in the worked
examples below but, with practice, this soon becomes unnecessary
and the results can be written down directly.
Example 9, Find dy/dx when (i) y = (2x + 1)-*/%, (ii) y = sin 3x.
(i) Let u = 2x + 1 so that y= u-8/*, Then

Hence

= —3y-/2? = —3(2x + 1)-5/8,

(ii) Let u = 3x so that y = sinu. Here
dy
Pha cos u and
du
aca
giving
du
dx du dx = OS4 X 3 = 3 cos 3x.
 FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION 185
3 : ES |
Example 10. Differentiate y = J(=>) with respect to x. [L.U.]
Let u = (x — 1)/(x + 1) so that y = /u = ut and dy/du
= 4,
To find du/dx we have to differentiate the quotient @— 1)/(x + 1). This gives

du_ (x 1) S@-)-@-n4
= < (x +1)
dx (x + 1)?
_x+1-(-1) 2
pee eed. « &+
Hence
dy _dy_ du
dx du” dx
Ras 2:
Aer iors
=, (Z44) See ie
Example 11. Find dy/dx when y = sin*(3x + 4).
Let u = 3x + 4 so that y = sin® wu and this is still a function of a function.
Now let v = sin u so thaty = v*. Hence
d dv
ss== hie and 5 = cos1,

so that, applying (7.17) x v for u and u for x,

dy_dy dos
7 gel Sa Raa v* COS lu.

Also

=r COs x 3
= 9? cos u = 9 sin?
ucos u
= 9 sin? (3x + 4) cos (3x + 4).

Exercises 7 (d)
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x:
1. (2x — 3)%. 2. VW(2x — 1).

3. cos 3x. 4. sin (x?).

5. tan (2x + 1). 6. sec (x°).

7. sin 2x cos 2x. [L.U.] 8. cosec +/x.

1\? 1 + sin? x
9. («+1- )£ [N.U.] 10. Oe cite

11. sin*® x'sin 3x. 12. xV/(1 + x). [L.U.]

186 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
13. x//(1 + x). [L.U.] 14. W(1 — x?)/x*. [0.C.]

15. Vl + x9/x. [0.C.] 16. wee [0.C.]

17. /(1 + sin? x). [N.U.] 18. (1 + x)* tan 3x. [O.C.]
19. sec? x (sec? x — 2). [O.C.] 20. sin (cos x).
21. sin™xcos” x. 22. (tan x + sec x)*.
23. X° CO oy 24. 2sin? x + cos 2x.
25. If y = tan x sin 2x, show that dy/dx = 2 sin 2x.
26. If y = tan x + } tan’ x, show that dy/dx = sect* x.
27. If y= V{(1 + sin x)/(1 — sin x}, show that (1 — sin x)(dy/dx) = 1.
28. Prove that if y = +/(1 + x’) then y(dy/dx) = x.
29. If y = tan? x, show that dy/dx = 2(y? + y?).
30. If y = (cot x + cosec x)”, show that (dy/dx) + my cosec x = 0.

7.15 The differential coefficients of inverse functions

In Fig. 66, PT is the tangent at the point P to the curve representing
the function y = f(x). If PT makes an angle y with the axis OX, then

Fia. 66

If the equation y = f(x) is written in the form x = g(y), the curve

shown in Fig. 66 also represents this function. If PT makes an angle
¢ with the axis OY, then

tan¢d = 5
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS 187
But, from the figure 4 + y = 90° so that y = 90° — ¢ and

tany = tan(90° — 4) = cot$ =

giving
dy dx
7 iio 1/($); (7.18)

This formula is useful in the differentiation of inverse functions such

as tan x, sin“ x, etc. Thus, if y = tan“! x, we have x = tan y and
d
o = secky = 14 tanty = 1+ 22%
dy
Hence, using (7.18),
dy dx 1
dx i/(5) - T+ se
Similarly, if y = sin x, then x = sin y,
d.
f = cosy = (1 — sin*y) = (1 — x9,
and
. a /(F) a aos (7.20)
The differential coefficients of cos! x, sec"! x, etc., can be found in a
similar way and are left as exercises for the reader.

Example 12. If y = cos ¢ —*),fina [N.U.]

Let u = (1 — x)/(1 + x), so that y = cos u or u = cosy.
Hence,
du : ; 1
Fo Sl Ma yy =-v(l — v)
1—x\? 2/x
=—/(1- (2) }--7e
Also
du_d (1-2)
dx dx\1+x
= (hk Pais) — 0M) » mae
(1 + x}? “(+ x)
But 4 P
Pe eg PO) neoe

ea
—_—
—2
—__——_-=
leuk: Waited
=
188 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

7.16 Table of standard forms

s,
The formulae used in finding the derivatives of sums, product
quotients, etc., are of considerable importa nce. So also are the deriv-
atives of certain “standard” functions like x", sin x, cos x, etc. For
ease of reference, the formulae are collected in the table given below.
In all cases C denotes a constant and wu, v are functions of ~x.

faa
Fi Se0) a
yatta” he

d dv
ye (Cone 5=

du D
a) Seat ae

rab mag 2 Sagas

du do
dx \v}] v* :

dyoy a
dx...di .dx

=7 (5)\dy}
dx |
d
4, \C) = 0. Fy") = nxt

d d ;
ie (sin x) = cos x. ie (cos x) = — sin x.

d d
oe,(tan x) = sec? x. Pe (cot x) = — cosec? x.

d d
= (sec x) = sec x tan x. = (cosec x) = — cosec x cot x.

wond (tan (fare! x)

se) a= ee
i
1
;: £ (sin? x) =
1
v(l— x‘)
7.17 The differentiation of parametric and implicit functions
Sometimes the two variables x and y are related by two equations of
the form x = J), y = g(t) where f and g are functions of a so-called
parameter” ¢. In such cases we can regard y as being a function of a
 PARAMETRIC AND IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS 189
ine for y is a function of ¢ and ¢ is a function of x. Hence by

It follows that
Y = (dy/dt)
(dx/di) (7.21)

and this formula iis useful in ox the derivative when the equations
are given in “parametric” form.

Example 13. If x = 44 + 2t and y = 3t* — t,find dy/dx in terms of t. [0.C.]

Here
dy =_ 6t—1, GE
a = 12twag +2

and
_ @idt) _ 6t —1

When finding the derivative dy/dx in cases in which the variables are
related implicitly, it is not necessary (nor indeed is it usually possible)
to start by expressing y explicitly in terms of x. Suppose, for exami,
that the implicit relation between y and x is x* + y*? = 4x. Since y*
is a function of y and y is a function of x, the rule (7.17) gives
d bbvial dy_, ay
oe aye a 2y
and, differentiation of each term of the relation x* + y? = 4x with
respect to x leads to

so that,

t+siny =2, i) /x+ Vy =1.

Example 14. Find dy/dx when (x+y

(i) 1 +% + cosy% =0
190 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

so that
dy —1
dx 1+ cosy
ae 1 dy
GD) 57x t ay de ~°

leading
to
Amen |6A’
dx -,/(2)

7.18 Second and higher derivatives

If y is a function of x, its derivative dy/dx will itself be a function of
x and its derivative can be found by the usual rules. The result of
differentiating dy/dx with respect to x is called the second derivative ofy
with respect to x or the second differential coefficient. Proceeding further,
the derivative of the second derivative is called the third derivative
and so on.
The usual notation for the second, third, . . . and nth derivatives
of y with respect to x is
oa, Re >
dx? dx" ” axe
or, if we are using the notation y = f(x), the symbols
FAO ee oF Pe)
are often employed. There are but few cases in which the general
expression for the nth derivative of a function can be found easily and
here we shall be content to give some examples of the first few differential
coefficients.

Example 15. Find<2and<2when (i) y = x* + 3x*+ 2, (ii)

y = sin 3x.

@jy Ds
5 = dy.
48 + 6x, Za = 12x* + 6, aya.
Ds = Ax.

d @ 3.
(i) a = 3.008 3%; a = —9 sin 3x, a = —27 cos 3x.

Example 16. Prove that, if y = x sin x, then x* % — 2x2 + (2 + xy =0.

[O.C.]
y =xsin x,
dy.
ax = Sin x + x Cos x,

dy
aa = COS + cosx — xsinx = 2cosx — xsinx.
 SECOND AND HIGHER DERIVATIVES 191
Hence,
ad

S35 = 2x*cosx — x?sinx,

d
2x= = 2x sin x + 2x’ cos x,

(2 + x*)y = 2x sin x + x sin x,

and it follows that
d*y
ma
dy
RFA t+xy =0.

Example 17. A curve is given by the parametric equations x = a cos* 6, y = a sin® 6,

Show that dy/dx = — tan 0 and find the value of d*y|dx* where@ =}4n. [0.C.]
Here
dj
& = — 3a.cost 0 sin8, <x = 3a sin®6 cos6,

so that
# = (2) /(S) = 3a sin? @cos6
dx dé d0 ene Eg PT is a
The derivation of d*y/dx* needs a little care. From the above we see that to
differentiate y (a function of @) with respect to x, we first differentiate y with
respect to 6 and then divide the result by the derivative of x with respect to 0.
d*y/dx* is found in exactly the same way except that y is replaced by dy/dx.
Hence

a= lis(Be) (&) = tgp tan | (~20 os)

Mart oA a
~ —3acos?@sin@ 3acos*6@ sin 0
When 6 = }z, sin 6 = 1/1/2, cos@=1/+/2 and cos‘
@ sin @ = 1/(4+/2), so
that

dy _4v2
dx? 3a

Exercises 7 (e)
Differentiate with respect to x:
et oe Ze COE X
au, guy 2k, [N.U.] 4. 2 tan +/x. [N.U.]
5. xV/(1—x%)+sin4x. [0.C.] 6. tan (sin? x). [0.C.]
7. If x = at* and y = 2at, find dy/dx in terms of t.
2
8. If
x = a@ — sin), y = o(t~ cos
0)show that1+ (22)= cosec?
40,
192 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Prove that if
og Le el
we i+e 7 148
then
dy _ elds 3 0c
as ae ; [0.C.]

10. Find dy/dx when

(i) x8y? = x +2, (ii) xy? + cos 2y = 4.
11. If x? + xy + y® = 0, express dy/dx in terms of x and y.
i2. Find the second differential coefficient with respect to x of tan ax where
a is constant. [L.U.]

13. Iff(x) = cos 2x, find f"(x) and f”’(x).

14. If y = x* sin x, prove that

2 d’y
a3 — dy t&
4x7
ee 2 + 6y = =0. {L.U.]
~U,

15. If y = sin® x, prove that

ik
oa t 4y = 2. [L.U.]
16. If y = (sin x)/x show that
d*y _2dy

2
17. Evaluate 5 {(1 + 4x + x?) sin x}.

18. If y+ 1 = (ax + 1)(x + 1) where a and b are independent of x,

show that
2
ce hh, Bboy 2y = 0. [L.U.]

19. If x= (2 + A/(1 + 2) and y = (3 + 20)/t, prove that

dy _(1 + 2s)
dx Pf
and find the value of d*y/dx? when x = 0. [0.C.]
If x = 3¢ + f and y = 3 — #5? express dy/dx in terms of t and prove
that, when d®y/dx* = 0, then x has one of the values 0, +6/3. [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 193
Exercises 7 (f)
1. f(x) denotes a quadratic inx. Iff(—2) = 11, f() = 1 and f(1) = 8 find
the expression for f(x). Find also the values of f(® and f’(2).
2 Iff(x) = asin x + bcos x, f(0) = 1 and f(47) = +/2, find the values of
the constants a and b. What are the values of f’(0) and f”(0)?
3. Calculate the gradient of the curve y = —x* + 4x? — 3x at each of the
points where it crosses the axis of x. [L.U.]

Obtain from first principles the differential coefficient of 1/(x + 2) with

respect to x. {L.U.]

Find dy/dx when (i) y = cos x + xsin x, (ii) y = (3x — 1)(x — 3).
[O.C.]
Differentiate with respect to x:
~ i fan ee 2a x

If y = 3x?
+ 4x + 6sin
x — 6x cos
x — } sin 2x showthat
dy/dx = (3x + sin x)’. [L.U.]
Prove that
d {1 +sinx
+ cosx 1
Se coed | ape EU
If s,, denotes the sum of the first n terms of the geometrical progression
x+x7+ 25+... ., show that

(1 — x) oe= (n+ 1)s,_, — ns, + 1. [N.U.]

10. Differentiate with respect to x:

@y xtsin3x, @) TG 1 b] cos (5): LU]

11 If u = (sin x)/(cos x + sinx) and v = }(tan 2x — sec 2x), show that
du|dx and dv/dx are both equal to 1/(1 + sin 2x). {L.U.]

i2. Ify/(i — sinx) = Vi + sin x), show that

(1 — sin x) se

iB. If y = sin (3x — 4x°), show that

/(1 — x?) a = 3.
194 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

14, Differentiate with respect to x:

EY pee
va+x)) aer pri 91+x
(mee yr L0.C.]
les If y = x? + (sin x)? — 2x/(1 — x’) sin x, show that

/(1 — x?) a = 4x? sin x.

16. If y = uvw where u, v and w are functions of x, prove that

Hence show that

as sin
x cos x) = x(sin 2x + x cos 2x).

17. Ify°(1 + x*) = 1 — x?, show that

ci ae Salta
dx) 1—x4
18. If /y = tan“ x, prove that
d dy\ _
(1 +292 (a+ 25} =?

19. If y? + x? = 2yv/(1 + x’), show that

a ee
dx (1 + x’)
20. If x= sin 3¢ cos t and y = cos 3¢ sin t, show that
x dy_
af aa ~ Work [L.U.]
Zs Prove that if y = (cos x — sin x)/(cos x + sin x) then
rg d
+ yD =o. [0.C.]
pan If y = (sin x)/x? find dy/dx and d*y/dx*. Prove that
A. d
eo + 4x > + (t+ Dy =0. [L.U.]
23. If y = uv where u and v are functions of x, show that
ay du dv du d*v
dt at tae ae te
and hence evaluate the second derivative of x* sin x.
 EXERCISES 195
24. Given that 2x = ¢ + r1 and 2y = t — r-', show that
dy f+1 oF tin oF
dx f—1 de (#2?— 18
25. If x = a(6 + sin 9), y = a(1 — cos), express dy/dx and d?y/dx* in
terms of trigonometrical functions of 40.
 CHAPTER 8

SOME APPLICATIONS OF THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

8.1 Introduction
In this chapter we consider some of the applications of the differential
calculus. These include the use of the derivative as a rate measurer
and in specifying velocities and accelerations in dynamical problems,
the derivation of approximate formulae, the calculation of maximum
and minimum values and aids to curve tracing.
In developing the fundamental formulae of the differential calculus,
the symbols x and y were employed for the independent and dependent
variables. From now on the notation used will be that appropriate
to the application under discussion. If, for example, x is given as a
function of t, the first and second derivatives of x with respect to ¢ will
be denoted by dx/dt and d*x/dt®. The reader must therefore be prepared
to use the results of Chapter 7 with appropriate changes of symbols
where these are necessary.
8.2 The derivative as a rate measurer
Suppose that a body moves a distance x in a straight line in time f¢
and that x is a function of t given by x = f(t). If x and x, are the dis-
tances moved by the body in times ¢ and #,, the average velocity of the
body over the time interval t, — t is (x, — x)/(t, — 4), or in the incre-
ment notation of § 7.4 with dt = t, — t and dx = x, — x, the average
velocity over the time interval dt is 6x/dt and the limiting value of this
as Ot approaches zero is dx/dt. This is the rate of change of distance
with respect to time and is the instantaneous velocity of the body at
time ¢. Similarly if a body is moving in a straight line and its velocity
is v at time ¢, the rate of change of velocity with respect to time is
dv/dt and this is the acceleration of the body at the instant considered.
In general, if one variable y is a function of another variable x, the
derivative dy/dx can be regarded as giving not only the gradient of the
graph of y = f(x) but also the rate of change of y with respect to x.
It should be noted that y is increasing with x when the derivative dy/dx
is positive and that y is decreasing as x increases when dy/dx is negative.
Example 1. A spherical balloon is being inflated. When the diameter of the balloon
is 10 cm its volume is increasing at the rate of 200 cm*/s, Find the rate at which
its surface area is then increasing. [L.U.]
Suppose the radius of the balloon at time t seconds is rcm. Its volume V is
given by V = ézr® and, by the rule (7.17) for differentiating a function of a
function,
dV dV _ dr dr
dt
—=>=-—
a XG _= 2,

196
 DERIVATIVE AS A RATE MEASURER 197
But dV/dt is the rate of increase of volume with respect to time, so that
dV/dt = 200 when 27 = 10. Hence

200 = 1007 —

giving dr/dt = 2/7 as the rate of increase of the radius at the instant considered.
The surface area S is given by S = 4zr*, so that, again using equation (7.17),
ds _ dSdrt oat
dt Ted der
When 2r = 10, dr/dt = 2/7 so that
dS
pate 2
ee 2
= 47 x 10 tee 80 cm?/s

as the required rate of increase of surface area.

Example 2. A conical vessel of semi-vertical angle 30° is held with its vertex downwards
and its axis vertical. Water enters at the rate of 1 cubic centimetre per minute.
Find the rate at which the water level is rising when the depth of water is 6 cm
and the rate at which the plane surface area is increasing at this instant. [L.U.]

htan 30°
|
fete

Fic. 67

At time ¢ minutes let the depth of water be h cm and let the volume of water
then be V cm® (Fig. 67). The radius of the water surface is A tan 30° = h//3
and its area S is given by
S = a(h/+/3)? = ah?/3.
The volume Vof water is the volume of a cone of base radius h/+/3 and height
h, so that
V = 4a(h]//3)? x h = trl?
and, by the rule for differentiating a function of a function,
a
esldat di
espe et fe feed8 dh
Koel
fe ae a3 at
Since the volume of water is increasing at the rate of 1 cubic centimetre per
minute, dV/dt = 1 and we have
dh
1= hi
198 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 i :
ee ee centimetres per minute

when 4 = 6cm. From the formula S = 7h?/3, differentiation gives

dS dh
a he
leading to, when h = 6 and dh/dt = 1/(127),
dS 1 : 4
co §7 X 6X T= $ square centimetres per minute

as the rate at which the surface area of water is increasing.

Example 3. The distance of a lighthouse from a straight shore is d metres. The beam
from the lighthouse revolves at a constant rate of w radians per second. Find
formulae for the velocity and acceleration of the illuminated point along the shore
when the beam makes an angle 6 radians with the shore. [L.U.]

Fic. 68

In Fig. 68, L is the lighthouse and OX the shore, LP being perpendicular to OX

and of length d. At time t, the beam meets the shore at a point B and the angle
LBX is 6. The distance BP is given by BP = d cot 6 and the velocity (v) of the
illuminated point is the rate of change of BP with respect to the time. Hence
d d
v= 5 (BP) = F cot 6)

do
=ara —dcosec? ot 6. i
eee

But d6/dt is the angular velocity of the beam and this is equal to w, so that the
required formula for the velocity is v = —wdcosec*@. The acceleration is
given by
' dv d
acceleration = xa qi od cosec? )

= —od .2.cosec 6 . (—cosee 6 cot0).

= 2w*d cosec? 6 cot 6.

 MENSURATION FORMULAE 199
8.3 Some mensuration formulae
In the set of exercises which follows, and later in the book, the
following mensuration formulae will be found useful. They can be
derived by the methods of the integral calculus and some of them will,
in fact, be so derived in the chapters on that subject.

Circle
Circumference = 2zr. r = radius.
Area = mr’,
Length of arc = r6. 6 = angle between extreme radii.
Area of sector = $r?0.

Trapezium
Area = #(a + B)A. a, b the parallel sides,
h = altitude.

Prism
Volume = Bh. B = area of base,
h = altitude.

Pyramid
Volume = 4Bh. B = area of base,
h = altitude.

Cylinder
Volume = zrh. r = radius of base,
Area of curved surface = 2zrh. h = altitude.

Cone
Volume = 4ar°h = 4c tan? «. r = radius of base,
Area of curved surface = marl h = altitude,
= 7rh* tan a sec a. / = slant height,
& = semi-vertical angle.

Sphere
Volume = #zr°, r = radius.
Area of surface = 4rr?.
Surface of zone = 2zrh. h = height of zone.
200 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 8 (a)

1. An excavator removes V cubic metres of soil in ¢ minutes, where

V = 15t — (t?/60). At what rate is the soil being removed after 20
minutes ? [L.U.]
A spherical balloon is being blown up, the volume increasing at the
constant rate of 15 cm*/s. At what rate is the radius increasing when it is
10 centimetres long? [L.U.]
The volume of a solid cube increases uniformly at k? cubic centimetres
per second. Find an expression for the rate of increase of its surface
area when the area of a face is 5” square centimetres.

A block of ice in the form of a cube, whose edge is 2 metres, begins

melting and its volume decreases at a constant rate, the block remaining
cubical. If the rate of melting is such that the edge measures one metre
after 28 hours, find
(i) the length of edge after 16 hours,
(ii) the rate at which the length of edge is decreasing at this time
[N.U.]
A man f/m tall walks at the uniform rate of v m/s directly away from
a lamp which is Hm above the ground. Show that the length of his
shadow is increasing at the rate of (hv)/(H — A) m/s.
The inner and outer radii of a cylindrical tube of constant length change
in such a way that the volume of material forming the tube remains
constant. Find the rate of increase of the outer radius at the instant
when the radii are 3 cm and 5 cm, and the rate of increase of the inner
radius is 34 cm/min.
The sound of an explosion is propagated through the air as a sphere
whose radius increases at the rate of 333 m/s. At what rate is the
volume of the sphere increasing 2 seconds after the explosion? [0.C.]
An aeroplane is flying at a constant height of A metres and at a constant
speed of v m/s so that its path passes directly over. searchlight. Find a
formula giving the rate (in degrees per second) at which the searchlight
must be turned so that the aeroplane will be in the beam when its angle
of elevation is 6 degrees.
A ladder rests against a vertical pole. The foot of the ladder is sliding
away from the pole along horizontal ground. Find the inclination of the
ladder to the horizontal at the instant when the top of the ladder is
moving three times as fast as its foot. [L.U.]
10. A hollow circular cone with vertical angle 90° and height 36cm is
inverted and filled with water. This water begins to leak away through
a small hole in the vertex. If the level of the water begins to sink at
the rate of 1 centimetre in 2 minutes and the water continues to leak
at the same rate, at what rate is the level sinking when the water is
24 cm from the top?
 APPLICATIONS FROM DYNAMICS 201
11. A trough 3m long has its cross-section in the form of an isosceles
triangle. The depth of the trough is 0-2 m and it is 0-25 m wide at the
top. If water runs into it at the steady rate of 6 x 10-4 m3/s, at what
rate is the surface rising when the depth of water is 0-1 m.
12. A solid is formed by placing a hemisphere of radius x metres on one
end of a cylinder of radius x metres and height 12 metres. Express the
volume V as a function of x. If R, and R, are the rate of increase of
V with x when x = 9 m and when x = 10-5 m, show that 5R, = 4R,.
[0.C.]
13. If an angle is increasing at a constant rate, find the magnitude of the
angle at the instant when its tangent is increasing eight times as fast as
its sine.
14. A vessel is constructed so that the volume of water contained in it is
— (x8 + 24x? + 192x)
192
when the depth is x. What is the rate of increase of volume per unit
increase of x when (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 4? How many times faster does
the surface rise when x = 2 than when x = 4, if water is poured in
at a constant rate? [O.C.]

15. A narrow beam of light radiating from a point O revolves at a constant

rate, making one complete revolution every three minutes. At a certain
instant a man standing at a point A 50 m from O is illuminated by the
beam. He starts to run along a path at right angles to OA, adjusting
his speed so as to keep in the beam. If his maximum speed is 6 m/s,
show that he will be able to do this for between 28 and 29 seconds.
[L.U.]
8.4 Some applications from dynamics
We have already seen in § 8.2 that if a body, moving in a straight
line, has travelled a distance x in time ¢, its velocity v at this time is
given by
dx
mae (8.1)
We have also seen that the acceleration a acquired by the body in
time ¢ is
dv
OH ae (8.2)
It is often useful to have available alternative expressions for the
acceleration a at time ¢ and these can be found as follows. Firstly,
combining equations (8.2) and (8.1)
d [dx d*x
202 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

so that the acceleration is the second derivative of distance with respect

to time. Secondly, since v is a function of x and x is a function of t,
dv dv dx dy saan phl
eel
at Saat iol?
he al: =
(8.4)
Thus the acceleration may be expressed in any one of the three equiv-
alent forms
dv d*x dv
a? de® ax
In dynamical applications, differential coefficients with respect to
the time t are often denoted by dots placed above the dependent
variable. Thus dx/dt, d*x/dt*, dv/dt are denoted by x, ¥ and 6 re-
spectively and, in this notation, equations (8.1), (8.2) and (8.3) would
be written

Example 4. A particle P travels in a straight line AB, its distance x from A at the end
of t seconds being given by x = 2t° — 15t® + 36t + 20. Prove that the velocity
of P vanishes at two points C and D in AB and that its acceleration vanishes at one
point E at a time mid-way between the times of arrival at C and D. {[O0.C.]
The velocity v is given by
d
v= Cis 1512 + 36¢ + 20)

= 617 — 30¢ + 36 = 6(t — 2)(t — 3).

This vanishes when ¢ = 2 and 3 seconds and these are the times of arrival at the
two points C and D. The acceleration a is given by
Ss mid
a= 0 = 7,(6t — 30t + 36) = 12 — 30 = 6(2t — 5)

and this is zero when t = 2} seconds, showing that the acceleration vanishes at
a time mid-way between the times to C and D.

Example 5. If the velocity of a body varies inversely as the square root of the distance,
prove that its acceleration varies as the fourth power of its velocity.
Denoting the distance travelled by x and the velocity by v
v = k/./x, where k is a constant.
Using equation (8.4), the acceleration a is given by

sek (ic a(be

Getude ha niet “avila Wa mas 1)des 4 corsa
1k es vw eeevA
a oS

since «/x = k/v, and we have established the required result.

 APPROXIMATIONS 203
8.5 Approximations
If y is a function of x given by y = f(x) and if dy is the increment in y
corresponding to an increment dx in the value of x, equation (7.4) of
§ 7.5 gives
dy =~ f'(x)dx. (8.5)
This is an approximate formula which can be used to find the effect on
the value of a function of a small change in the value of the independent
variable.
Example 6. The pressure p units and the volume v units of an expanding gas are
related by the law pu'* = k, where k is a constant. If the volume increases by
0:3 per cent, estimate the percentage change in the pressure. [N.U.]
Here p = ku-** so that f(v) = kv 4 and f’(v) = —1-4 kv 4,
Hence
Op = —1-4ku-*
46n
iving
dp _l-4ku **
po eo dv = —1-4 aa
Dv
Now v/v is the ratio of the change in v to v and the percentage change in is
therefore 100 dv/v. Similarly the percentage change in p is 100 dp/p and we can
write
percentage change in p ~ —1-4 x percentage change in v.
The percentage increase in v being 0-3, the approximate percentage decrease
(because of the minus sign) in v is 1-4 x 0-3 = 0-42.

Example 7. Find the approximate error made in calculating the area of a triangle in
which two of the sides are accurately measured as 18 cm and 25 cm, while the
included angle is measured as 60° but is $° wrong.
If the given sides and included angle are denoted by 4, c and 4A, the area A of
the triangle is given by equation (4.2) as A = 3bc sin A. If the angle A is in
error by a small amount 6A, the error 6A in A will be given by (8.5) as
d
6A = WA (4bc sin A) 6A

= 4bce cos A OA.

Now 6 = 18, c = 25, A = 60° = 47 radians and 6A = 3° = 7/360 radians, so
that
7
6A =} X 18 x 25 x costm X 7

Exercises 8 (b)
The distance xm moved by a body in time ¢seconds is given by
x = 2+ 3t+ 2. Find the velocity and acceleration of the body
after 2 seconds.
204 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The velocity v m/s of a particle at time f sec is given by the equation

v = ct + df where cand dare numbers. If v= 3 whent = landv = 4
when ¢ = 2, find the values of c and d. Hence find the acceleration of
the particle at time 1} sec. [N.U.]
A particle moves along the axis of x and at the end of time its position
is given by x = 5 + 4sin 2r + 3cos 2t. Prove that its acceleration is
20 — 4x. Prove also that its velocity is zero when x = 0 and when
x= 10. [0.C.]
A point P moves in a straight line so that after ¢ seconds its distance
xm from a fixed point O in the line is given by the equation
x=sint+2cost.
Its velocity is then vm/s and its acceleration am/s*. Show that
v? = 5 — x*, a= —x and find the velocity of P after 2 seconds
(taking 1 radian as 57° 18’). [N.U.]
If the velocity of a body varies as the square of the distance travelled,
show that its acceleration varies as the cube of the distance.
A particle moves in a straight line and its distance x from a fixed point O
on the line at time ¢ is given by x = a(1 + cos? 7). Show that the
acceleration of the particle is 6a — 4x and find the values of x at the
points where the velocity is zero. [0.C.]
The distance x moved in a straight line by a particle in time f is given by
x = at* + bt + c, where a, b and c are constants. If v is the velocity of
the particle at time ¢, show that 4a(x — c) = v? — b. {L.U.]
A particle moves along the x-axis in such a way that its distance from
the origin after ¢ seconds is given by x = 4 — 54° + 67°. Show that its
acceleration is negative for an interval lasting 14 seconds. [L.U.]
A particle moves along a straight line Ox in the time interval0 < t< 7;
after ¢ seconds its displacement from O is x cm where x = ¢ + sin 2¢.
Calculate the values of t between 0 and 7 when the direction of motion
changes and show that the particle always remains on the same side of
O. Find also the time at which the acceleration is zero. (N.U.]
10. If y = 4x4, find the approximate percentage change in y due to a change
of 0-2 per cent. in the value of x.
i; A spherical soap bubble is of radius r and volume ». If r is subject to a
slight variation, show that the percentage increase in r is approximately
one-third of the percentage increase in v. If r increases from 1 cm to
1-03 cm, find (correct to two significant figures) the increase in v. [N.U.]
12. The base radius r and the semi-vertical angle « of a cone are measured to
be r = 6 and a = 45°. There is no error in the measurement of r but
that in « is liable to be +}°. Show that the possible error in the cal-
culated volume of the cone is a little less than 0-9 per cent.
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES 205
13. The length /m of a simple pendulum is approximately related to its
period of vibration ¢ seconds by the equation 7*/ = 2-477. If the length
of the pendulum whose period is 3 seconds is increased by 0-006 m, find
the resulting change in the period.
14. The angle C and the side b of a triangle ABC are accurately known to be
60° and 20 m respectively. The side a is measured as 30 m but there is
a likely error of +1 per cent in this measurement. Find the possible
percentage error in the calculated value of the side c.
15. The current i passing through a certain galvanometer is proportional to
the tangent of the angle of deflection 6 of the needle. If there is a
small error «° in the measured value of 0, show that the corresponding
percentage error in the current is approximately 3-49 « cosec 26.

8.6 Maximum and minimum values

Fig. 69 shows the graph of the function y = f(x). Points such as
P, Q and R, at which the tangent to the graph is parallel to the axis
x

OX, are called turning points. If a, b and c are the abscissae of P, Q

and R respectively, the value of y increases as x increases to the value a,
it decreases as x increases from a to J, it increases as x increases from
b to c and then decreases again as x increases beyond c. At the points
P, O and R the value of y is stationary and is neither increasing nor
decreasing.
The points P, Q and R are referred to as points of maximum and
minimum values, maximum at P and R and minimum at Q. It should be
noted that a maximum or minimum value is the greatest or least value
in the neighbourhood but it need not be the absolutely greatest or least
value. Thus there are points on the left of the graph of Fig. 69 where
the values of y are less than the “‘minimum value” at Q and there are
206 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

points on the right where the values are greater than the “maximum
value” at P. Again in Fig. 70, which shows the graph of y = x°(8 — x?),
there are maximum values at the points P and Q where x = #2 and
these are also greatest values, but the minimum value at x = Ois nota

Fic. 70

least value for there are points on the graph with smaller values of y
than at the origin O.
It has been pointed out in § 8.2, that y increases or decreases as x
increases according as the derivative dy/dx is positive or negative.
This is illustrated geometrically in Figs. 71 and 72 which show respec-
tively parts of the graphs of functions which increase and decrease as

y Y

O A aps x
Fic. 71 Fic. 72

x increases. In Fig. 71, the tangent at a representative point P makes an

acute angle y with the axis OX; since the tangent of an acute angle is
positive and since dy/dx = tan y, the derivative will be positive. In
Fig. 72 the angle py is obtuse and, since such angles have negative
tangents, the derivative will be negative. At turning points such as
the points P, Q, R of Fig. 69, or P, O, Q of Fig. 70, the tangent to the
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES 207
graph is parallel to the axis OX and, since the tangent of a zero angle is
itself zero, it follows that
d
=) (8.6)
at such points.
Returning to Fig. 69, shown again in Fig. 73, the sign of the derivative
has now been marked in. Immediately to the left of the point P, the
function is increasing and its derivative is positive. At the point P, the
function is neither increasing nor decreasing and the derivative is zero.

Y R

Immediately to the right of P, the function is decreasing and has a

negative derivative and so on. From these considerations it is possible
to formulate the following rules for the determination of the position
of turning points and for distinguishing between maximum and
minimum values. Thus
(i) at a turning point, dy/dx = 0;
(ii) at a point giving a maximum value of y, the derivative dy/dx
changes from positive to negative values as x increases from
values just less to values just greater than the value at the turning
oint;
(iii) ata point giving a minimum value of y, the derivative dy/dx
changes from negative to positive values as x increases from
values just less to values just greater than the value at the
turning point.
Example 8, Find the coordinates of the turning points on the curve y = x* — 3x and
decide at which point y has a maximum value and at which point a minimum
value.
Since y= x* — 3x, dy/dx = 3x* — 3 and this vanishes when x = +1. Hence
the points x = 1, y=1—3 = —2andx = —1,y = —1 + 3 = 2areturning
208 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

points. For x = 0-9 (a value a little less than the value x = J at a turning
point),
dy = 3(0-9)? — 3 = —0°57,
dx
while at x = 1-1(a value a little greater than x = 1),

dy _ 341-2
= 31? ——33 == +063.
40-
The derivative therefore changes from negative to positive and hence the point
(1, —2) is one with a minimum value of y. It is left as an exercise for the redaer
to show in the same way that the point (— 1, 2) isone with a maximum value of y.

Example 9. If sina = sin 8//(S + 4 cos 0), show that the maximum value of sina
occurs when 0 = 120°.
d ( sin 0 as -
& (sin9) =
VG + 4c086)= ap{SinOG + 4 cos 8)-"M}
= cos (5 + 4 cos 6)-1/? + sin 6. (—4)(5 + 4 cos 6)-*/2(—4 sin 4)
= (5 + 4cos 6)-*/"{cos 0(5 + 4 cos 6) + 2 sin? 6}
= (5 + 4cos 6)-9/(5 cos 8+ 4.cos? 6 + 2 — 2 cos*6)
= (5 + 4cos 9)-9/2(2 cos? 6 + 5cos 6 + 2)
= (5 + 4cos 6)-$/2(2 cos 8 + 1)(cos 6 + 2),
and this vanishes when cos 9 = —} and @ = 120°. Theexpression (2 cos 6 + 1)
changes from positive to negative as cos @ increases from values just less than
—} to values just greater and, as the terms (5 + 4 cos 6)-*/2, (cos 6 + 2) are
unchanged in sign for such changes in cos 0, the derivative of sin « with res
to 6 changes from positive to negative near the turning point. The value of
sin « for 6 = 120° is therefore a maximum value.

An alternative method of discriminating between maximum and

minimum values can be obtained as follows. Fig. 74 shows the graphs
of y = f(x) and y = f’(x), the derivative of y with respect to x, plotted
x

wh
ht
ee
ied
cain
cee
ee
UF

Fic. 74
 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES 209
on the same diagram. For points to the left of the maximum value at
P, y = f(x) is increasing and the derivative f’(x) is positive. For points
between P and Q, y is decreasing and the derivative f’(x) is therefore
negative, while for points to the right of Q, y is increasing and f’(x) is
again positive. For values of x corresponding to the two turning points
P and Q, f’(x) is zero as shown on the diagram. Considering now the
graph of y = f’(x), we see that f’(x) is decreasing for the value of x
corresponding to that of P and its derivative f*(x) or d?y/dx* is therefore
negative for this value of x. Similarly for the value of x corresponding
to that of Q, f’(x) is increasing and f”(x) is positive. Hence at a turning
point such as P giving a maximum value,
d*y , :
Fa iS negative,

while at a point such as Q giving a minimum value,

d*y
is positive.
dx*
Thus a method of distinguishing between maximum and minimum
values is given by calculating the numerical value of the second de-
rivative for the values of x in question and considering its sign. Negative
values of d*y/dx* correspond to maximum values of y while positive
values of d*y/dx* correspond to minimum values of y. This method
fails when the second derivative vanishes for the values of x under
discussion and the previous method of examining the change in sign
of the first derivative must be used in such cases.

Example 10. Find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points on the curve
y = x8 — 9x* + 24x and distinguish between them. {L.U.]
Here

& = 3x4— 18x + 24= 32 — 6x+8) = 3x — Nl — 4),

and
d*y fe >
Be = 32x — 6) = 6% 3).

dy/dx vanishes when x = 2 and when x = 4 and turning points occur at these
values of x. When x = 2,

and, as this is negative, x = 2 gives a maximum value of y. When x = 4,

d*y
Ta = (4 — 3) =6
210 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and, as this is positive, x = 4 gives a minimum value. The values of y when

x = 2 and x = 4 are respectively
y = (2)° — 9(2)? + 24(2) = 20
and
y = (4° — 9(4)? + 24(4) = 16,
so the required result is that the point (2, 20) is a point of maximum y and the
point (4, 16) a point of minimum y.

Exercises 8 (c)
Calculate the maximum and minimum values of y = x*(1 — x) and
distinguish between them. [N.U.]
Find the values of x for which the expression (x — 2)(x — 3)? has
turning points and decide which gives a maximum and which gives a
minimum value.
The function y = 2x* + ax” + bx, where a and b are independent of x,
has stationary values when x = 1 and x = —2. Find the values of
aand b. For which of these values of x is the function a maximum and
what is the maximum value? {L.U.]

Prove that the function (x* — 5x + 4)/(x* — 5x + 6 has a turning

point at x = 2:5. [O.C.]

Find the coordinates of the turning points of the function

(15 + 10x)/(4 + x),
distinguishing between maximum and minimum values, [O.C.]

Find the maximum and minimum values of the function

(x + 2)/((x3 + 14. [0.C.}
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function 4x — 3 tan x
in the rangeO<x< 7. [L.U.]

Prove that the least value of 4 sec 0— 3 tan@ for 0< 0 <4ris v7.
[0.C.]

Prove that the function 27 sec 6 + 64 cosec@ has stationary values

whenever tan 6 = $. If @ is acute, calculate the stationary value and
show that it is a minimum. [L.U.]

10. Prove that the function

is sin
x cos x
7 T+ 2sinx+ 2c08x
 APPLICATIONS TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 211
has turning points in the range 0 < x < 27 when x = fr and
x = $7,
distinguishing between maximum and minimum values. [0.C.]
11, Find the maximum and minimum values of the function
y= (4xe4+ DQ —-t [0.C.]
12. Find the value of the function x® — 6x? + 18x + 5 when its rate of
increase with x is a minimum.

13. Find the value of x for which the sum of the corresponding ordinates of
the graphs of y = 2x? — 15x? + 36x + 10 and y = x*— 4x + 6 isa
maximum. Show that, for this value of x, the ordinate of one graph is a
maximum and that of the other is a minimum.
14. If the resistance of the air is neglected, the equation of the curve des-
cribed by a particle projected with velocity V at elevation « is
y=x tana — #(gx*/V*)
sec? «
where x and y are measured horizontally and vertically from the point of
projection and g is a constant. Show that the maximum height reached
by the particle is (V/2g) sin® «.
15. Show that
y—1 y—1
a Peele
P b

where a, b and y are constants, and y > 1 isa minimum when p = +/(ab).

8.7 Applications to practical problems

Many practical problems can be solved by the method of the last
section. In some cases the quantity whose maximum or minimum
value is to be found appears at first sight to be a function of more than
one independent variable. It is, however, often possible to eliminate
all but one of these variables by using geometrical or other relations
which exist. Once the quantity has been expressed in terms of a single
variable, the method of finding its maximum or minimum value is
identical with that given in § 8.6. We differentiate with respect to the
single remaining variable and the resulting derivative is equated to zero.
This leads to an equation whose solution gives stationary values to the
quantity under discussion.
It is often unnecessary in practical problems to examine the change
in sign in the first derivative (or the sign of the second derivative if that
method is used) to distinguish between maximum and minimum values
for it is usually possible to see at once on physical grounds whether
the solution leads to a maximum or a minimum.
Some illustrative examples are given below.
212 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 11. A sector of a circle encloses an area of 25 cm*, Find the least possible
perimeter of the sector. [L.U.]
Let the bounding radii of the sector be of length r centimetres and let the
angle between them be 6 (Fig. 75). Since the area of the sector is 25 cm?,
}r*0 = 25 giving 9 = 50/r?. The perimeterP is given by
P=2r+r0
and, substituting 8 = 50/r, P is given in terms of the single variable r by

P=2r+ =. (8.7)

This expression takes a stationary value when

dP 50
Fai Pir

r r@

AX
Fic. 75

that is, when r = 5cm. Since d*P/dr? = 100/r® = 100/125 and this is positive,
the stationary value is a minimum. Substituting r = 5 in (8.7) the least peri-
meter is of length 2(5) + (50/5) = 20 cm.
Example 12. A rod AB of length a is hinged to a horizontal table at A. The rod is
inclined to the vertical at an angle @ and there is a luminous point at a height h
vertically above A(h > a). Prove that the length, in fact, of the shadow of the
rod on the table is ah sin @/(h — acos @). Prove also that the maximum length
of the shadow is ah|+/(h? — a’). [0.C.]
P

Z
Fic. 76

In Fig. 76, P is the luminous point, AC the shadow and BD is drawn at righ
angles to AP. From the figure, AD = acos 0, PD = PA — AD =h — feie
and BD = asin 9. Since the triangles PDB, PAC are similar,
AC _ PDAP
BD
 APPLICATIONS TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 213
iving

aa fC) agate ( h ) ah sin6

oe Or =asin@ h—acos0) ~ h—acos0
as the required length of the shadow. This takes a maximum value when
d(AC)/d6 = 0, that is when

ah cos 0(h — acos6) — ah sin O(a sin 6) =

(h — acos 6)? foal
The expression on the left vanishes when / cos 6 — acos? @ — asin? 6 =0
and, remembering that cos? 6 + sin* 0 = 1, this gives

cos0 = 5, sin9 = (1 — cost6)= YE 2.

Substituting these values of cos 6 and sin 6 in the formula for AC, the maximum
length of the shadow is
ah ./(? — a®)/h ah
h—aajh) ~ /@®—a’
Example 13. A lighthouse A is 0-5 kilometre due South of B, a point ona straight coast
running East and West. C is due West of B. A man at A, wishing to reach C,
rows a boat at 3 km/h, and lands somewhere between B and C, walking the rest
of the distance to C at 3:25km/h. How far from B must he land so as to
accomplish the journey in the shortest possible time? [L.U.]
Pp
Cc B
ook 5

Fic. 77

In Fig. 77, P is the point of landing, x kilometres West of B. AB =}, BP= x

~ and PC = 3 — x kilometres. Since ABP is a right angle, AP = »/(x* + })
kilometres and the times taken to travel along AP, PC at 3 and 3} km/h
respectively are
vet 2) and 43 3— x) hours.

The total time 7 for the journey is therefore given by

_V@+) 46-2)
Tr 3 rE)
and, for the journey to be accomplished as quickly as possible, this must be a
minimum so that d7/dx = 0. Now

Li ly 6Sy ta
& ~3Ve8+D13
214 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

leading to 25x = 36, 5x = 6 and x = 1% kilometres.

Exercises 8 (d)
A 100 m fence completely encloses an area in the form of a sector of a
circle. Calculate the angle between the bounding radii for which this
area is a maximum and evaluate the maximum area.
An open cylindrical vessel is to be constructed from a given amount of
uniform thin material. Show that it contains the greatest possible volume
when its height is equal to the radius of its base. [0.C.]

A rectangular tank, open at the top, is to have a capacity of 32 cubic

metres. Prove that, if x m is its length, y m its width and A m® the area
of its outer surface, then

A=xy+64( +5)
hed
Prove that, if y remains fixed while x varies, the minimum value of A is
16\/y + 64/y.. If now y is allowed to vary, find the minimum value of
A,

A sports field is to have the shape of a rectangular area ABCD with

semicircular areas at opposite ends on BC and AD as diameters. Its
perimeter is to be 400 metres long and the rectangular area ABCD is
to be a maximum. Find the dimensions of the rectangle. [N.U.]

A rocket consists of a right circular cone, of semi-angle « and base

radius r joined at its base to a circular cylinder also of radius r. The
length of the cylinder is / and the total volume of the rocket is fixed.
Prove that, if « = 30°, the area of the curved surface is a minimum when
Yr=2— V3. [0.C.]
A tube of rectangular section is to be made by folding a strip of sheet
metal 1 metre wide, one side of the tube being of two thicknesses. Find
the maximum area of the section of the tube. [L.U.]

A body is made up of a hemisphere of radius r with its plane face joined

to one of the plane faces of a circular cylinder of radius r and length x.
Prove that, if the volume of the body is 457 m°, the least value of the
total surface area is 457 m?, [O0.C.]

The loss of heat from a closed full hot-water tank is proportional to its
surface area, A cylindrical tank has flat ends and its volume is fixed.
 POINTS OF INFLEXION 215
Determine the ratio of the length to the radius for the heat loss to be a
minimum. Find also whether such a tank would retain heat more
efficiently than a cubical one of equal volume. [N.U.]
A cone of semi-vertical angle @ is inscribed in a sphere of radius a.
Prove that the volume of the cone is $7ra° sin? 6 cos‘ @ and find the area
of its curved surface. Prove that if a is fixed and 6 allowed to vary, the
maximum volume of the cone is 8/27 of the volume of the sphere. Prove
further that if the volume of the cone is a maximum, the area of its
curved surface is also a maximum. [O.C.]

10. A beam of rectangular cross-section is to be cut from a cylindrical log of

diameter d. The stiffness of such a beam is proportional to xy, where x
is the breadth and y the depth of the section. Find the cross-sectional
area of the beam (i) of greatest volume, (ii) of greatest stiffness, that
can be cut from the log. [O.C.]

11. Two corridors in a building, of widths a and 6 respectively, meet at

right angles. Prove that the length of the longest ladder which can be
carried in a horizontal position from one corridor to the other is
(a?/8 + 5?/%)3, If a= 2m, 6 = 3 m, evaluate your result to the nearest
millimetre. [L.U.]

12. A piece of wire, which forms the circumference of a circle of 0-3 metres
radius, is cut and bent so as to form two new circles. Find the radius of
each circle in order that the sum of the areas of the two circles shall be
as small as possible. [0.C.]

13. A despatch rider is in open country at a distance of 6 kilometres from the

nearest point P of a straight road. He wishes to proceed as quickly as
possible to a point Q on the road 20 kilometres from P. If his maximum
speed, across country, is 40 km/h and, along the road, 50 km/h, find
at what distance from P he should strike the road. {L.U.]

14, Post Office regulations restrict parcels to a maximum length of 1:07 m

and a maximum girth of 1:83m. Find the maximum permissible volume
of a rectangular parcel which satisfies these regulations.

15. A variable isosceles triangle is circumscribed about a circle of given

radius. Prove that the area of the triangle is a minimum (and not a
maximum) when the triangle is equilateral. [O.C.]

8.8 Points of inflexion

At any point of a curve, the value of the second derivative d®y/dx*
gives the rate of change of the gradient. In Fig. 78, the gradient is
increasing from P to Q and decreasing from Q to R. The value of
d*y/dx* is positive for points between P and Q and negative for points
between Q and R. At the point Q the value of d*y/dx? is zero and such a
216 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

point is called a point of inflexion. At such points, the curve “‘crosses

its tangent” as shown in the diagram and the coordinates of points
like Q are found by finding the values of x which make
a ye
@) 5 =0,
A d@?
(ii) the sign of a change as we pass through the point.

Uv a

Fic. 78

Example 14. Find the abscissae of the points of inflexion of the curve
yo=xt* — 48 — 18x° + 7x4 6.
Here

= 4x3 — 12x72 — 36x + 7,

Tye = 12x8 — 24x — 36 = 12(x? — 2x — 3)

= 12 + Io
— 3).

The second derivative vanishes when x = —1, x = 3 and changes sign as x

increases from just less than —1 to just greater than —1 and again as x increases
from just less than 3 to just greater. Hence points of inflexion occur when
x = —1 and when x = 3.

Example 15, Find the turning points and points of inflexion on the graph of
y = 3x4 — 4° +1.

= 12x? — 12x39 = 12x%(x— 1),

Za 36x* — 24x = 12x(3x — 2).

 CURVE SKETCHING 217
Here the first derivative vanishes when x = 0 and x = 1. When x = 0, the
second derivative vanishes; when x = 1, the second derivative is 12. Hence
x = | gives a minimum. The second derivative vanishes when x = 0 and x = }
and changes sign as x passes through these values: these two values of x there-
fore give points of inflexion. The values of y when x = 0, # and 1 are respec
tively, 1, 7 and 0 so that the point (1, 0) is a minimum and the points (0, 1),
(3, #7) are points of inflexion. As, when x = 0, both dy|dx and d*y/dx* are
are the tangent to the curve at the first of these points of inflexion is parallel
to the x-axis.

8.9 Curve sketching

It is often convenient to be able to make a rough sketch of a curve
without actually going to the trouble of calculating the coordinates of a
large number of points and plotting them. The following procedure,
carried out either wholly or in part, should lead to a general picture of
the shape of the curve.
(i) Discover if there is symmetry about either or both axes of co-
ordinates. Symmetry about the axis of x occurs if the equation
of the curve contains only even powers of y and there is sym-
metry about the axis of y if only even powers of x occur.
(ii) Look for symmetry about the origin of coordinates—such
symmetry occurs when a change in sign of x (or y) causes a
change in sign of y (or x) without altering its numerical value.
(iii) Find values of x (or y) which make y? (or x?) negative. No real
points occur on the curve for such values of x (or y).
(iv) Find where the curve crosses the coordinate axes. It crosses the
x-axis at points for which y = 0 and it crosses the y-axis
where x = 0.
(v) Find values of x, if there are any, which make y very large and
values of y which make x very large.
(vi) If the curve passes through the origin of coordinates, its be-
haviour near this point can be found by studying the value of
dy/dx for small values of x and y. Since dy/dx measures the
slope of the tangent to the curve, a small value of dy/dx means
that the curve lies near the axis of x, a large value means it lies
near the axis of y, and a value of dy/dx near to unity means
that the tangent to the curve at the origin approximately bisects
the angle between the axes.
(vii) Find the coordinates of the turning points and points of
inflexion by the methods given in the last few sections.
Some worked examples illustrating this procedure follow.
Example 16. Sketch the graph of y = (x8 — Sx + 4)/(x* — 5x + 6) indicating its
main features and show that it cannot have a value between \ and 9 for any real
value of x. [0.C.]
218 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(i) Since odd powers of x and y occur in the equation there is no symmetry
about the coordinate axes.
(ii) There is no symmetry about the origin.
(iii) Expressed as a quadratic in x, the equation can be written
(y — 1)x* — Sy — 1I)x + Gy—4=0,
and the roots of this are imaginary when
{—Sy — DP — 40 — Dy — 4) <9,
that is, when
(y — DY — 9) <0.
This shows that y cannot take values between 1 and 9 for real values of x.
(iv) The curve crosses the x-axis where x? — 5x + 4 = 0, that is, where x = 1
and x = 4; it crosses the y-axis where y = 4/6 = 2/3.
(v) The equation to the curve can be written in the form
= Der 4
4 @ =D —3)
and hencey is infinite when x = 2 and x = 3.
(vi) The curve does not pass through the origin.
ode (2x— 5)*
— 5x + 6) — Qe — DG? — 5x 4+4 2(2x
— 5)

so there is a turning point when x = 2:5. As x changes from just less than
to just greater than 2-5, dy/dx changes from negative to positive and hence
there is a minimum value of y for this value of x. Substituting x = 2-5 in
the equation of the curve, we find that the minimum value of y there is 9.
A rough sketch of the curve built up from these observations is shown in
Fig. 79.

Mi
 CURVE SKETCHING 219
Example 17. Sketch the curve y* = x°,
Since only even powers of y occur in the equation, the curve is symmetrical
about the axis of x. It is not symmetrical about the axis of y for an odd power
of x is present. When x is negative, y® is negative and there are therefore no
real points on the curve for such values of x. The curve passes through the
origin and, since y = +~x?/?,
dy 3
ie
je a5X leis

This shows that, when x is small, the slope of the curve is small and the curve
therefore lies close to the axis of x near the origin. As x becomes large, so
does y and a sketch is given in Fig. 80.
\4

Fic. 80

Exercises 8 (e)
1. Find the abscissae of the points of inflexion on the curve
y = x°(3x? — 10x — 12).
2. Show that the abscissa of the point of inflexion on the curve
y = 4x3 + Sx* + 24
is the mean of the abscissae of its turning points.
3. Show that turning points occur in the curve
y = (x — 1)9(12x? — 9x — 43)
when x = —1, x = 2 and find the abscissae of the points of inflexion.
4. For what values of x are there points of inflexion on the curve
y =x + sin x at which the tangent is parallel to the axis of x?
5. Discuss the nature of the points on the curve
y = 3x4 — 8x9 — 24x? + 96x
at which the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of x.
6. Sketch the graph of y = x + (1/x) for x > 0. [N.U.]
Draw a rough sketch of the curve y* = x(1 — x). [0.C.]
220 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Sketch the curve y? = x%x + 1)(2 — x). [L.U.]

Give a rough sketch of the curve y = (15 + 10x)/(4 + x?). [O.C.]

Indicate on a sketch the main features of the graph of

y= Pt D/O? +x4+ VD. [N.U.]

Exercises 8 (f)

A solid cube of ice is melting, each edge decreasing at the constant rate
of 0-25 cm/s. Find the rate of change of volume of the cube at the
instant when the volume is 8 cm’. real
The section of a troughis an isosceles triangle with its vertex down-
wards. The height of the triangle is 1 m, its base is 1-25 m and the
length of the trough is 3m. Water runs into the trough at the rate of
1-125 cubic metres per minute. Prove that, when the depth of water is
xm, the volume of water is 42x? cubic metres, and find in metres per
minute the rate at which the level is rising after 14 minutes.
A chemical solution is passing through a conical filter 12 cm deep and
8 cm across the top into a cylindrical jar of radius 3cm. At what rate is
the level of solution rising in the jar if the level in the filter is falling at
3 centimetres per minute when its depth therein is 6 cm?
A spherical balloon is being inflated so that, at the time when the radius
is 5 m, the radius is increasing at the rate of 0-15 m/s. Find the rate of
increase of the volume at this time. If the rate of increase of volume
thereafter remains constant, find the rate at which the radius is
increasing when the balloon has a diameter of 12 m.
Two rings A and B connected by a rigid rod 2 m long slide along two
fixed rods OX, OY at right angles and A moves along OX at the speed
of 5 m/s. Find how far A is from O when B is moving at 2 m/s.
The distance x m moved in a straight line by a body in t seconds is given
by x = 16¢(4 — #). Find the distance moved by the body when its
velocity has dropped to half its initial value.
The displacement x at time ¢ of a moving particle is given by
x = asin2t + bcos 2t.
If v is the speed at time #, prove that v = 2./(a? + b? — x%),
If a particle moves a distance x in time t such that x? = af? + 2bt +c
where a, b and c are constants, show that its acceleration is inversely
proportional to x°.
A height h is given in terms of a distance f and three angles 0, « and ¢
by the formula
_ fsin ¢ tana
sin (6 + ¢)
 EXERCISES 221
Show that when
f = 5400 m, « = 45° and 6 = ¢ = 30°, an error of 1°
in 6 leads to an error of about 31 m in the calculated height. (N.U.]
=
10. In a triangle ABC, a = 5 and A = 60°. Find the percentage change in
the radius of the circumscribed circle due to an increase of 0-02 radians
in the angle A.
it; Find the values of x for which the function
@ be
Se a-—x
(a>0,b>0)

has maximum and minimum values; discriminate between them.

12: Show that the function x(x? + a?)-5/? has a maximum value when
2x = a.
ise Find the values of x at the turning points of the graph of
= xed
VO PERF
State which is a maximum and which is a minimum.
14. If turning points on the graph of y = 2x* + ax* + 6x + 8 occur
when x = 0 and when x = 1, determine the values of the constants a
and 6. Determine also the nature of the turning points.
15. Find the values of x in the range 0 to 27 for which the function
2 sin x — x has a maximum or minimum value and distinguish between
them. [L.U.]

16. Prove that the function (1 — cos 2x)/+/(4 + 3 cos 2x) has turning points
when x = 0 and x = 37. Find the maximum and minimum values of
the function. [O.C.]

17. If the graph of 7

= ax +b
I~ G@FEDE—-D
has a stationary value when x = 0, y = — 1, find the values of the
constants a and b. Show that this stationary value is a minimum and
find the value of x for which the function is a maximum. _
18. A prism of square section contains 64 cubic metres of clay, the side of
the square being x metres. Express the length of the prism in terms of
x and find the total area of its faces. Show that the total area is a mini-
mum when the prism is a cube.
19. ABCD is a square ploughed field of side 132 m, with a path along its
perimeter. A man can walk at 8 km/h along the path but only at
5 km/h across the field. He starts from A along AB, leave AB at a
- point P, and walks straight from P to C. Find the distance of P from
A, if the time taken is the least possible. [L.U.]
222 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A piece of string 9 centimetres long has its ends tied to small rings which
can slide on a fixed straight rigid wire. If the string is tautened so that,
including the portion of the wire between the rings, the figure formed is
(i) a rectangle, (ii) a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse being one
portion of the string, find in each case the lengths of the straight portions
of the string when the area of the figure is a maximum. Show that the
ratio of these maximum areas is 9 : 44/3. [E04
al. PQRS is a rectangle inscribed in the area bounded by the curve
y = 4x — x*and the x-axis; PQ being parallel to the x-axis and RS lying
along that axis. Find the maximum area of PQRS. [L.U.]

22. Sketch the curve whose equation is 2y = x4. If O is the origin, show that
the gradients of the tangent at any point P on the curve and of OP are in
a constant ratio. Show also that, if P is in the first quadrant, the acute
angle between the tangent at P and OP is a maximum at the point (1, 4).
Find this maximum value. 1E:
Zas Find the values of the constants a and 3 if there is a point of inflexion
on the graph ofy= ax* + bx? + 2x at the point (1, 0).
Sketch the graph of y = x/(x? + 1), finding the maximum and minimum
values of y. Show that the graph lies entirely within the region bounded
by the lines y = +4. {L.U.]
ray Sketch the curve (2 — x)y? = (2 + x)x*.
 CHAPTER 9

THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS

9.1 Introduction

The preceding chapters on the differential calculus have dealt with

the rate of change of known functions. The integral calculus is con-
cerned with the inverse problem—if the rate of change of a function is
known, what is the function itself? In other words, a function y of x
has to be found when the derivative dy/dx is given, that is, y has to be
found from the equation

o = 40), @.1
where ¢(x) is a given function of x.
As an example from dynamics, suppose a particle is moving in a
straight line and that its velocity at time ¢ is u + at where u and a are
constants. Suppose also that we require to find a formula giving the
distance x travelled by the particle in this time. Since the velocity is
given by dx/dt, we have to find x from the equation
dx
=u-+at (9.2)
dt
and the solution of the problem lies in finding a function x of t whose
derivative with respect to ¢ is u-+ at. Anticipating the solution,
it is easy to verify that equation (9.2) is satisfied by the formula
x = ut + hat,
for the derivative of this expression is indeed u+ at. This solu-
tion is not, however, the only one since the formula
x = ut + 4at?+ C,
where C is any constant, also leads to dx/dt = u + at and this solution
is more general than the previous one.
The conventional way of writing the solution of equation (9.1) is
y = J(x) dx (9.3)
and y is called the indefinite integral of the function ¢(x) with respect to x.
The origin of this notation will be explained later (§ 9.8) and at present
it will merely be regarded as a means of expressing y when the derivative
dy/dx is ¢(x). In this notation, the general solution of equation (9.2)
would be written
x= flu t+ at) at
223
224 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and we have seen already that this indefinite integral is ut + }at®? + C

where C is an arbitrary constant. ; ;
There is a big distinction between direct and inverse operations in
mathematics. Differentiation is a direct operation and can be performed
according to definite rules to give an unambiguous result. Finding an
indefinite integral (the operation known as integration) is an inverse
operation; we seek a function whose derivative takes an assigned value.
It has been seen in the foregoing example from dynamics that this does
not lead to an unique solution—if there is one solution then there are an
infinite number due to the presence of the arbitrary constant C in the
general result. To discover under what circumstances there is a solution
at all is outside the scope of the present book. We shall simply state
here that there is a solution (that is, the indefinite integral exists) for a
large class of functions and we shall, in this chapter, discuss some of the
methods for finding it.
9.2 Standard integrals
There are no infallible rules by which an indefinite integral can be
found. As integration is an inverse operation, we can only be guided
by the direct operation of differentiation and this is the starting point
for the list of standard integrals given below.
This list can be obtained from the list of standard forms for deriv-
atives given in § 7.16. Each derivative in that list gives, on inversion,
an indefinite integral as shown below, C being an arbitrary constant in
each case.
d (?) —— Sahin
ay")
am = n—1 mx, nm
f= does
—
er HOG,
(except when nm= —1).
eo
Z, (Sin x) = cos x, [eos x dx= sinx + ¢.

d ; ;
Fy 008 x) = — sin x, [sinx dx= — cos x + ¢

d
7 (tan x) = sec? x, [sectx ax
=tanx+C.
d
Fy cot x) = — cosec? x, {cosec?
x dx = — cotx + C.

d 1 dx
7ser (taniat Y=ipe
rl te ee |AanFaq
ts cm fo oh txtC.

Gree is ce 1 dx :
7, (sin Be acd foe [| = sin x + C.
 STANDARD INTEGRALS 225
Differentiating with respect to x the results given on the right of the
second column of the above list, making use of the standard derivatives
on the left, it will be seen that in each case the result is the function
(called the integrand) included within the symbols J. ..dx. Thus,
since
no ) = St a
dx\n+1 ee i ae
then
: xt
fx mar Gate

Similarly, since
d
ie Sd Tee 08
dx Leoni) am 1+ x3
then
dx
[- tan“!
x + C,

and so on. It should be noted that the result given for { x" dx is invalid
when n = —1; the integral { x1 dx will in fact be discussed later
(§ 11.2). It should also be noted that

ee aie a fe
Li PAewna ieee ney eV 2).
are convenient ways of denoting integrals which should strictly be
written
1 1
las dx and |a 7) dx.

Since, by §7.10, the derivative of the sum (or difference) of two

functions is the sum (or difference) of the derivatives of the separate
functions, it follows inversely that the indefinite integral of the sum (or
difference) of two functions is the sum (or difference) of the indefinite
integrals of the separate functions. Thus, if $,(x) and ¢,(x) are two
functions of x,
J (PC) & Fo} dx = J f(x) dx J $2(x) dx, (9.4)
and the result can be generalised to three or more functions.
Also, by § 7.11, the derivative of the product of a constant and a
function is equal to the product of the constant and the derivative of the
function and it follows that the indefinite integral of the product of a
constant and a function is equal to the product of the constant and the
226 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
indefinite integral of the function. Thus, if a is a constant and ¢(x) a
function of x,
§ ab(x) dx = a f d(x) dx. (9.5)
The standard integrals and the two rules (9.4), (9.5) given above enable
the indefinite integrals of quite a large number of functions to be found
easily. Some typical examples follow.
Example 1. Evaluate §(1 + x)? dx.
Jd + x)?dx = f(1 + 2x + x*) dx
= f dx + 2Jxdx + Jx*dx
=H=xt+H4+hE4+C.

It should be noted that the given integral is first expressed as the sum of three
separate integrals and that [dx = J1.dx=Jfx°dx =x. Also the three
arbitrary constants from the three separate integrals can be combined into
a single arbitrary constant C.

Example 2. Evaluate eee) dx. (L.U.)

Since (x? + 1)/x? can be written 1 + (1/x*), we have

JES) a-f(i4d)anfarere
= fdx + Jx*dx
=x—x14+C=x-(i/ytc

Example 3. Integrate (x* — 4 + x-*)4/x with respect to x. [IN.U.]

JQ? — 4 + x) vV/x de = S(xd!? — 4x12 4 x-812)dx
= fx5l2 dx — 4fxtl? dx + [x38 dy
= ¥ x7/2 — § x8/2 — 2x18 4. C,
Example 4. Evaluate §(2x + sin x) dx.
J(2x + sin x) dx = 2f x dx + Jsinxdx
=x?—cosx+C.

Exercises 9 (a)

Integrate the following functions with respect to x

do xe, pI)
BF Am by er xe 4. (3x + 1)% [L.U.]
5. (x + D/-/x. Uk G es a)" [0.C.]

rg (+2). nul 8 (#—2)' [0.C]

 STANDARD INTEGRALS 227
9. (1 + Vx)?/Vx. 10. 3x + 2sinx + 4sec? x.
2 4+ x
Likh xe + fo
—; 12. ———-
ios

Evaluate the following indefinite integrals

13, {Gxt—x
+ de. 14, enema
2

15.
b
{(a+3~4) dx. 16. f(sin x + 3 cosec? x) dx.
x

17. f(t —x)Vxde. aes

19, |[b+ re 2= de, 20. |At

a, 2x? +1

21. By using the relation sec? x = 1 + tan? x, find the value of ftan? x dx.
In a similar manner show that f cot? x dx = C — x — cot x.
22. Use the relation cos x = 1 — 2 sin? 4x to evaluate f sin? 4x dx.
23. Use the addition formula for cos (x + «) to show that
fcosa+ajdx=sn(x+a+C.
24. Evaluate
it +e tl
a es and i) fy

25. If (1 — x*)(dy/dx) = 4, find the general value of y.

9.3 A more general list of standard integrals

If the derivative of a function f(x) with respect to x is f’(x), the
definition of the indefinite integral can be written in the form
Sf'@) 4 =f) + (9.6)
where C is an arbitrary constant. The rule (7.17) for differentiating a
function of a function shows that, if a and b are constants, the de-
rivative with respect to x of f(ax + b) is af'(ax + b). Hence
f af’(ax + b)dx = flax+b)+C
giving
{f'a@xt+bdx= :fax + b+, (9.7)
where C’ = C/a is another arbitrary constant.
228 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A comparison of equations (9.6) and (9.7) enables the integral of a

function of (ax + b) to be written down when the integral of the same
function of x is known. We can in fact say that if the integral of a
function of x is known, the integral of the same function of (ax + b) is
of the same form but it is divided by a.
As an example,

f(4x + 3)8 dx = #e(4x + 34+ C

for the integral of x? is 4x* and hence the integral of (4x + 3) will be
4(4x + 3)! divided by 4, the coefficient of x in (4x + 3). Other examples
are
f(x + 2)? = 3% +28 4+C,
4 — xd = 44 — 46,
| dx ge 1
Gxhoinn. | ase
Applying (9.7) to the list of standard integrals given in § 9.2, the
following more general list of integrals can be obtained. The integrals
in this list are important and they should be memorized. In each entry
a and 6 are constants and C is the arbitrary constant of integration.
(ax + b)"*1
[@ + b)" ax = “(n+)la_ +C, except whenn = —1.

feos(ax + b) dx = *sin (ax +b) +C.

[sin(ax + b)dx=-— *cos (ax+5 +C.

[sxe(ax + b) dx = :tan (ax + b) + C.

[cose (ax + b) dx = — :cot (ax + b) + C.,

ax 1 x
Faro,
oSsteeee
oe -1l_ee

{ dx ae ay
YP sin™ > + C,
 STANDARD INTEGRALS 229
The above all follow directly from those given in § 9.2 except the last
two which are derived as follows
iAe dx
a+ x2 |a*{1 + (x/a)}
1
2 gate 1 xrae ] x
=F to tan Oe (=) a C=a 7tan es 1 () + C,

| dx = i dx
V(a — x4) J av/{l — (x/a)}
= ;: “aiasin (;)+C=sin (:)+C.

It should be noticed that the method given above for generalising

our first list of standard integrals only applies when x is replaced by
(ax + 5), that is, by an expression of the first degree in x. It does not
apply to integrals such as f (2x*+ 3)'dx or fsin(x* + 4x 4+ 2) dx
in which x is replaced by expressions of degrees higher than the first.
It is also important not to omit the dividing factor a in the second list
and in the early stages of this type of work it is advisable to check the
correctness of an integration by differentiating the expression obtained.
This should, of course, give back the function which was to be in-
tegrated.
One other point, which often calls for explanation in the early stages
of integration, may be noticed here. If we evaluate the integral of
(x + 1)? by using the first entry in our revised list, we have
fat Dedx =x + 1%
If, however, we evaluate this integral by first squaring x + 1,
S@ + IPdx = fx? + 2x + I)dx
= 4x8 + x27 + x.
This can be written $(x° + 3x2 + 3x + 1) —34 or 4x4 1)? —} so
that the two results differ by 4. This apparent discrepancy can be
removed when the arbitrary constant, which so far has been omitted,
is included. The two results can be made identical by taking the
arbitrary constant as C in the first result and as C + 3 in the second.
Expressions for indefinite integrals obtained by different methods often
appear to differ at first sight; provided, however, that no error has
been made, it will be found on examination that all the terms involving
the variable of integration are identical and that the results only
differ by a constant quantity.
230 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 5. Evaluate § cos (ta — x) dx.
Since cos ({7 — x) = cos (—x + }n), this integral can be evaluated from the
second entry of the revised list with a= —1,b = tn. This gives

Joos (a — x) dx= (=) sin@GGr —x)+C

=—sin(ja—x+C.

Example 6. Evaluate §/(2x + 3) dx. [L.U.]

From the first entry of the table with a = 2, b = 3 and n = 3 we have
SV2x + 3) dx = f(2x + 3)?dx
_ 2x 3 Cc
~— (3/2)(2)
= (2x + 3/9? + C,
Example 7. Integrate (5 + 4x — x?)-+ with respect to x. [O.C.]
We can write 5 + 4x — x2 = 9 — (4 — 4x + x*) = 3 — (&& — 2), so that

losxvécs eto
= sin-? (=>) + Cy

using the last entry of the table with a = 3 and (x — 2) in place of x.

dx
Example 8. Evaluate fos
Here

aes |a
no +3?
dx

+ (2)

=5 es [= +e

and we have worked in the same way as in Example 7 above but used the
penultimate entry of the revised table.

Exercises 9 (b)
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
1. fsin(1 — x) dx. 2. Jos 4x dx.
1
3. fl — 4x) de. ~ emer +Va~+ 2}ai

5. f(2— x) de. an
ie
|ee
 INTEGRATION 231

[0.C] 8 Jl +2x)de. [L.U.]

feces
Jcen 7 aes dx. ‘10. oy

Od cee 12. Jfsec? 2xdx.

=; eee
13,

ey cacneaer
BS bases
17. TT eeee Lee ea

19. Show that (cosx —sinx)®?=1—sin2x and hence evaluate

S(cos x — sin x)? dx.
20. Show that
x? + 2x x?
(x — 1? a ATE Be ae

9.4 Integration by change of variable

Many integrals can be evaluated by changing the variable of inte-
gration. As will be seen from the derivation of formula (9.11) below,
this method is essentially the inverse of the formula (7.17) for the
derivative of a function of a function.
Suppose we change the variable from x to wu in the indefinite integral
I= d(x) dx. (9.8)
By the definition of the integral

<= 4) 0.9)
and, if x is a given function of u, formula (7.17) gives
| | a 1
du dx” du
Substitution of dI/dx from (9.9) then yields
dl d.
= $0) 5 (9.10)
232 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and, if we again use the definition of the integral,

d:
ro |$(x) = du. (9.11)
The following are two important special cases of formula (9.11)
(i) The integral §¢(ax + b) dx, a and b constants.
Writing ax + b = uso that a(dx/du) = 1 and dx/du = 1/a, formula
(9.11) gives

[etc + b) dx = [so ‘ *du = ={oo du

and this is the symbolic expression of the rule given in § 9.3.

(ii) The integral {x(x*) dx.
Here we substitute x? = u so that 2x(dx/du) = 1 and dx/du = 1/2x.
Hence

x(x?) dx = | xP(u) a du = : $(u) du,

2x Z
so that {xd(x*)dx can be evaluated when {¢(u)du is known. The
presence of the “extra x” in [x¢(x?) dx should be noted. It is this term
which enables the integral to be reduced to the simpler form $/¢(u) du.
If the “extra x” were absent, the corresponding result would be
§O(x*) dx = Zfu-*(u) du
and this is not a very useful transformation.
Example 9. Evaluate 6x+/(1 — 2x*) dx.
Writing 1 — 2x* = u, —4x(dx/du) = 1 giving dx/du = —1/4x, so that from
(9.11),

_ 1 3
fexva — 2x*)dx = [evi e x) du = ~3 |vidu

=—-WP?+C
= (1-29 +6,
when we replace u by 1 — 2x*.
For other types of integral, the choice of a successful substitution is a
matter of some judgment. It is only possible here to give a few hints
and examples.
(a) If the integrand contains (a* — x”), it is often useful to use the
substitutions x = asin u or xX = acosu.
(b) When the integrand contains (a? + x?), the substitution
x = a tan u is often effective.
 INTEGRATION 233
(c) Products of the form sin” x cos" x where m and n are positive
integers and one of them at least is odd can be integrated by the follow-
ing devices
@) If 7 is odd, nm — 1 will be even and cos™! x can be expressed
in terms of sin x by means of cos? x = 1 — sin? x; the sub-
stitution sin x = u will then enable the integral to be found:
(ii) If mis odd, m — 1 will be even and sin”! x can be expressed
in terms of cosx by sin?x = 1 —cos?x; the substitution
cos x = u should then be used.
(d) Other substitutions are effective in particular cases. For example,
even positive integral powers of sec x may be integrated by writing
tan x = u and those of cosec x by setting cot x = u. The choice of a
suitable substitution is, however, in many cases a matter of judgment
and experience; hints are given in some of the exercises which follow.

Example 10. Evaluate eee by means of the substitutions (i) x =a sin u,

and (ii) x = acos u.
(i) x = asin u, dx/du = acos u and (9.11) gives
dx 1
lagi =| tenes acosu du = [au =u + C

= sin“ (x/a) + C,
for »/(a@? — a® sin? u) = acos u and u = sin~ (x/a).
Gi) x = acosu, dx/du = —asinu,
dx i 1 . ol a Sk -
lane - Widecueod a) asin udu = —Sdu= —u+C

= — cos (x/a) + C’,

for now +/(a? — a* cos? u) = asin u and u = cos“ (x/a).
The apparent discrepancy between these two results is explained by the relation
sin! x + cos! x = 4a (see Exercises 3(d), 13). Using this relation, the second
result can be written sin~! (x/a) — 47 + C’ and agreement with the first result
is secured by writing C = —3}7 + C’. This is another example of indefinite
integrals evaluated by different methods differing by a constant quantity.

Example 11. Evaluate

dx “s
ee by writing x = 2 tanu,

With x = 2 tan u, dx/du = 2 sec

u and

Bia ek a Ra 2 sec?
u du
4+x%° J4+4+4tan?u
=t/du=tut+cC
= $ tan (x/2) + C,
since sec? u= 1 + tan*
uvand u = tan (x/2).
234 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 12. Find § sin® x cos x dx.
Here the powers of sin x and cos x are both odd, so either of the methods sug-
gested in (c) above can be used. Choosing the first (it is preferable here), we
write sin x = u so that cos x (dx/du) = 1 and dx/du = sec x. Using (9.11) we
therefore have
§ sin’ x cos x dx = Ju’ cos x sec x du = Jubdu
= ju + C= fsin'x+C.

Example 13. Evaluate § sin* x cos* x dx.

Here the sine is raised to an odd power so we set cosx =u. This gives
— sin x(dx/du) = 1 and dx/du = — cosec x. sin* x is written as sin x(1 — cos? x)
and hence
J sin® x cos? x dx = J sin x(1 — cos?x) cos?
x dx
= f sin x(1 — u?)u?(— cosec x) du
=—j[w#@—-—Adu=—-W+4/)+C
=—tcos'x +4¢cosx+C.

Example 14. Integrate sin® x with respect to x.

Here we use the second method given under (c) for sin* x is a particular case of
the product sin” x cos" x with m = 3 (odd) andn = 0 (even). Writing cos x = u,
this gives dx/du = — cosec x (as in Example 13 above) and
J sin®
x dx = J sin x(1 — cos? x) dx
= f sin x(1 — u®)(— cosecx) du
=—f(l —w)du=—u+i+C
=—cosx+4cos?x+C.

Exercises 9 (c)

Integrate the following functions with respect to x

1. xV/(1 — x’). [O.C.] 2. x(1 + x%?/, [0.C.]
3. (Vx)/@ + 2). [LU] 4. {e+ V(1 + x} [0.C.]
5. x?/./(a® + x*) (Hint, put a? + x* = uv). [L.U.]
6. x9/(1 + x*) (Hint, put x4 = tan u).
7. tan x sec* x (Hint, put tan x = u). [0.C.]
8. x2/4/(1 — x®) (Hint, put x* = sin x).
9. x/(x* + 9) (Hint, put x? = 3 tan uv).
10. (x + 1)/V/(@? + 2x — 9) (Hint, put x? + 2x —9 = n),

IT. ‘sin* ¥ eos" x: 12)’ ‘eos* x sin? ¥

13. sin* x cos* x. 14. cos? x,
15. sin> x. 16. sin? x/cos? x. [0.C.]
 INTEGRATION OF PRODUCTS 235
17. sin® 2x. 18. cos x/+/(sin x).
cos x dx nat eens
19. Evaluate (ot = by substituting sin x = u.

20. By writing 3x = sin u, integrate (x — 1)/+/(1 — 9x’) with respect to x.

9.5 The integration of products of sines and cosines
The product of two sines, two cosines or a sine and a cosine can be
integrated by first expressing the product as a sum or difference by
means of the formulae [§ 3.8, equations (3.34), (3.33) and (3.31)]
2 sin A sin B= cos (A — B) — cos(A + B),
2 cos A cos B = cos (A — B) + cos(A + B), (9.12)
2 sin A cos B = sin (A — B) + sin (A + B).
Thus
J sin mx sin nx dx = $f {cos (m — n)x — cos (m + n)x} dx
_ sin (m — n)x _ sin (m+ aaa C
2(m — n) 2(m + n)
J cos mx cos nx dx = $f {cos (m — n)x + cos (m + n)x}dx
_ sin@m —n)x , sin(m+n)x
~ Wm —n) + 2(m + n) shakes
J sin mx cos nx dx = 4f{sin (m — n)x + sin (nm + n)x}dx
cos(m—n)x cos(m-+n)x
a mn ere ae ae
and these results are valid when m # n.
It is not recommended that these last three integrals should be com-
mitted to memory; it is better to remember the method and apply it
to specific examples.
Example 15. Integrate cos 4x cos 2x with respect to x.
J cos 4x cos 2x dx = 4f(cos2x + cos 6x) dx
a (sin 2x cSsin **) 4c
=3 2 6
= }sin2x + frsin6x + C.

The integrals of sin® mx, cos* mx can be obtained from the double-
angle formulae
sin? mx = $(1—cos2mx), cos? mx = 3(1 + cos 2mx),
which can be deduced by writing A = B = mx in the first two of
equations (9.12) and which have also been given in equations (3.20).
236 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Again it is better to use these identities with the particular example under
discussion than to attempt to memorize the general integrals.
Example 16. Evaluate {sin* 2x dx.
§ sin?
2x dx = 4f(1 — cos 4x) dx
=x —tsin4x) +C
=4x—4sin4x+C.

9.6 Integration by parts

A useful method of integration, known as integration by parts,
results from the inverse of formula (7.11) for the derivative of the pro-
duct uv of two functions u and v of x. This is

4 ayaout
ee Oe ae
and, using the fundamental definition of the indefinite integral,

This is easily transposed into

dv du
[ug ae = w — va dx (9.13)

and is a useful formula when the integral on the right can be evaluated.
Some judgment must be used in the choice of u and v when employing
formula (9.13). For example, if one of the functions involved is an
inverse trigonometrical function, this should be taken as wu for then the
term du/dx in the integral on the right often leads to the integral of a
simple algebraical function. This and some other artifices useful in
this method of integration are illustrated in the examples which follow.

Example 17. Evaluate §x tan“ x dx.

Take u = tan x and dvjdx =x so that du/dx = 1/(1 + x*) and v = 3x3,
Formula (9.13) then gives
. 1
fx tan x dx = }x* tan! x ~fax (3) dx.

The integral on the right can be written in the form

1
af(i- rors =
and this is }(x — tan-! x). Hence
fx tan x dx = 4x7 tan x —}(x — tan x) +C
= 3(x? + 1) tan? x—}3x4+C.
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 237
Example 18. Integrate x sin x with respect to x.
If we take “= sin xand dvj/dx = x, we have du/dx = cos x and v = }x%, In
this case the integral on the right of equation (9.13) becomes {4x cos x dx and
this is more complicated than the original integral. If, however, we take
u=x and dv/dx =sinx, we have du/dx =1 and v = — cosx. Equation
(9.13) then gives
x dx = —x cos x — §(1)(— cos
Jx sin x) dx
=—xcosx+sinx+C.

Example 19. Find §x* cos x dx.

Take u = x*, dv/dx = cos x so that du/dx = 2x and v = sin x. Then, by (9.13),
fx? cos x dx = x* sin x— J2x sin x dx
and we have related {x* cos x dx to fx sin x dx. This latter integral can itself
be evaluated by integrating by parts. Working as in Example 18 above we find
fx sin x dx = —x cos
x + J cos
x dx,
and hence
Jx? cos x dx = x* sin x — 2(—x cos x + J cos
x dx)
= x* sin x + 2x cos x — 2f cos x dx.
Two applications of the rule for integration by parts have therefore related
Jx? cos x dx with J cos x dx. As the latter is a known integral, we have finally
Jx? cos x dx = x* sin x + 2x cosx —2sinx + C.
In a similar way {x" cos x dx can be related to [x"-* cos x dx and the latter
integral can be related to [x"~* cos x dx and so on. If n is a positive integer we
shall be left with either [x cos x dx or f cos x dx to evaluate in order to deter-
mine completely the original integral. Both these integrals can in fact be found
and integration performed in this way is known as “integration by successive
reduction”. Such a method is of considerable importance but it is beyond the
scope of this book to pursue it except in very simple special cases.

Example 20. Evaluate § cos*x dx by the method of integration by parts.

Although integration by parts is not the best method of evaluating f cos? x dx,
‘the working shown below illustrates an artifice which is sometimes useful. Take
u = dv/dx = cos x so that du/dx = — sin x and v = sinx. Hence, by (9.13),
J cos?
x dx = cos
x sin x — J sin x(— sinx) dx
= cos
x sin x + f sin® x dx.
Since sin? x = 1 — cos? x, this can be written
J cos?
x dx = cos
x sin x + J(1 — cos?
x) dx
= cos
x sinx + Jdx — J cos’x dx,
giving, when the last term on the right is transposed to the left
2§ cos? x dx = cosxsinx +x+C.
Hence
f cos? x dx =4.cosxsinx +43x+C’,
where C’ = }C is an arbitrary constant.
238 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Exercises 9 (d)
Evaluate the following integrals
1. f cos 3x cos
2x dx. 2. J sin 3x cos x dx.
3. f sin 3x sin 2x dx. 4. fcos 4x sin 2x dx.
5, {x.cos.x dx, 6. fxV/(1 + x) dx.
7. fx?V( + x) dx. 8. f sin x dx.

9. oe dx. 10. fx sin 2x dx.

11. fx? sin
x dx. 12. f(a — x) sin 3x dx.
13. Use the method of integration by parts to find
(i) § sin? x dx, (ii) J sin x cos x dx.
14. By taking u = +/(1 — x’) and v = x, use formula (9.13) to show that
SVQ — x) dx = dxV/(1 — x7) + 4sinI2x+4+C.
15. If U, = Jx" cos x dx and V,, = fx" sin x dx, show that
U, = x" sin x — nV,_, and V, = —x" cos x + nU,_,.
Deduce that
U,, = x" (x sin x + ncos x) — n(n — 1)U,_».

9.7 Area as the limit of a sum

As a preliminary to a second interpretation of the operation of inte-
gration, we give below an example of the calculation of an area by
regarding it as the limiting value of a certain sum.
Fig. 81 shows the graph of y = 1 + x, A and B being two points
on the graph with abscissae 0 and 10 respectively. B’ is the projection
of B on the axis OX and hence OB’ = 10, OA = 1 and BB’ = 11 units.

Y B

Fic. 81
 AREA AS THE LIMIT OF A SUM 239
The figure OB’BA is a trapezium of base 10, mean height 6 and its
area A is therefore 60 units.
The area A might also be calculated as follows. Divide it into n
strips of equal width 10/n by lines parallel to the axis OY and suppose
the rth strip is PNM@Q. Since for the first of such strips PN lies along
OY, for the second strip PN is distant 10/n from OY, for the third
strip PN is at distance 2(10/n) from OY and so on, the distance of PN
from OY for the rth strip will be (r — 1)(10/n). Similarly the distance
of QM from OY for the rth strip will be r(10/n). Thus for the strip
shown in Fig. 81, the abscissa of P is (r — 1)(10/n) and, since P lies on
the graph of y = 1 + x, the ordinate PN will be given by
10r—1)_ | 10 , 10r
BN raphe tee oe lear (9.14)
Similarly the length QM is given by
10
QM =1+4 = (9.15)
By drawing PR and QS parallel to OX, it can be inferred that the
area of the trapezium OB’BA is greater than the sum of the areas of n
rectangles like PNMR and that it is less than the sum of the areas of n
rectangles like SNMQ. Since the length NM of the base of these
rectangles is 10/n,

area rectangle PVMR = =

ei1—-—+—
10a ay
;
10 100
ae
Sire
100r

te swao = 12 (1 420”)moLke— 19oi 4100

area rectangle SVMQ = 3 om

The sum of 7 rectangles of which PNMR is typical is therefore

(= 100 st) (F 100 | (= 100 =)
nn wml we see ne n n 1

(ae
zo Piping Fae n2
100
= (P-)G+14+14...tonterm) + C$ 2434.0,
+n)
10 100 100 (n(n
+ 1) 100 50+ 1)
=(7->n ea
n 2 ep 1 n ee n
240 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The sum of n rectangles of which SNM@Q is typical can be found in the

same way to be 60 + (50/n), and hence
50
60-— <A< 60+=. (9.16)

By dividing OB’ into 10 equal parts, that is by taking n = 10, we

have from (9.16)
3) = A <— 60,
while if we use 100 strips (7 = 100),
59-:5< A < 60°5.
By taking n = 1000 we should find that the area A lies between 59-95
and 60:05 and equation (9.16) shows that the area A lies between
60 — eand 60 + ¢ where € can be made as small as we please by making
n sufficiently large.
It should be noted that as the number n of rectangles such as PYMR
and SNM(Q increases, their width (10/n) decreases and the area A can
be estimated with increasing precision. The area OB'BA is, in fact,
the limiting value to which the sum of the areas of the strips approaches
as their number increases and their width decreases.

9.8 The integral as the limiting value of a sum

The method outlined in § 9.7 could be used to find the area below
curves like y = 3 + x?, y = sin 3x, etc., but the summations involved
would, of course, be more complicated. It is instructive, however, to
apply a similar method to the general curve y = 4(x) and we shall find
that this leads to the idea of regarding an integral as the limiting value
of a certain sum.
To simplify matters, the graph of y = ¢(x) shown in Fig. 82 is that of
a function which is positive and which increases as x increases from
x=atox=b. AA’, BB’ are the ordinates at x = a, x = b and we
consider the area AA’B’B. As in § 9.7, this area is divided into n strips
of which PNMQ is typical and we take ON=x, OM =x + Ox,
PN=y, QM =y + dy. The graph of y = d(x) is assumed to meet
the axis OY at the point H and we use the notation A(x) to denote the
area of the figure HONP bounded by the curve, the coordinate axes
and the line PN. When x increases to x + dx, the area HONP increases
to the area HOMQ and we denote this area by A(x) + 6A(x). Hence
6A(x) = area HOMQ — area HONP = area PNMQ. (9.17)
It can be inferred from Fig. 82 that
area PNMR < area PNMQ < area SNMQ,
 LIMITING VALUE OF A SUM 241
and, since
PN=y, QM=y+d6y, NM=OM—ON=
+ 6x —xx
= 6x,
area PNMR = ydx, area SNMQ = (y + 6y) ox,
giving, when substitution is made from these and (9.17),
y 6x < 6A(x) < (y + Oy) dx. (9.18)
These inequalities have been obtained by consideration of the strip
PNMQ and there will be (7 — 1) other inequalities of this type arising
from similar consideration of the other (n — 1) strips making up the

area AA’B’B. Using the symbol & to denote the summation of the n
results of which (9.18) is typical, we have
Ly 6x < area AA’B’B < X(y + dy) dx, (9.19)
since X6A(x) is the total area AA’B’B.
In Fig. 82, AE is drawn parallel to the axis OX and the rectangular
strip BCDE is constructed so that its width is dx. By sliding the rect-
angle PRQS parallel to OX until QR lies along BE, it can be seen that
the area BCDE is equal to the sum of the areas of n rectangles of which
PRQS is typical. But this sum is the difference between the sum of
the areas of n rectangles of which SNM@Q is typical and the sum of
the areas of n rectangles of which PNMR is typical. Hence
X(y + dy) dx — Ly dx = area BCDE = BE. 6x,
giving
L(dy) 6x = BE. dx. (9.20)
Since 6x = A’B’/n, it can be made to be arbitrarily small by taking n
to be sufficiently large and equation (9.20) shows that X(dy) dx tends to
zero as 6x tends to zero. Thus X(y + dy) dx and Ly dx tend to the same
242 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

limit as 6x tends to zero and, since (9.19) shows that the area 4A’B’B
lies between quantities which tend to the same limit, it follows that
area AA’B’B = lim. (Zy dx). (9.21)
b2—+0
_ The limit on the right of equation (9.21) is denoted by the symbols
[>dx and is called the definite integral of y with respect to x taken over
the range x = a to x =b. The symbol f is a specialised form of the
letter S which was the symbol used for the operation of summation
before the letter 2 was employed. The letters a and b are called re-
spectively the ower and upper limits of integration and they indicate the
range over which the summation is made.
9.9 The relation between the definite and indefinite integral
Except in very simple cases such as that considered in § 9.7, the
method of § 9.8 is not a practical method of determining the area below
a given curve because of the complicated summations involved. We
can, however, relate the definition of the definite integral with that of
the indefinite integral (given in § 9.1 as the inverse of the derivative)
and this leads to a practical method for the calculation of area.
To establish this relation, we return to the inequalities (9.18) which,
after division by dx, can be written
6A
I< <Vt+y

where, for brevity, A has been used in place of A(x). Assuming* that
dy tends to zero as Ox tends to zero, this shows that

Nahe 7 (9.22)

and, since y is the derivative of A, A is the indefinite integral of y.

Now, in § 9.8, A measures the area HONP of Fig. 82, and
area A.A’ B’B = area HOB’B — area HOA'A = A(b) — A(a);
hence
6
iy dx = lim. (Zy 6x) = area AA’B’B
a 6z—0

= A(b) — Aa). (9.23)

* For the functions used in this book dy always tends to zero with 6x. The reader
is, however, warned that there are functions used in more advanced mathematics
where this is not so.
 INTEGRATION 243
b
This equation relates the definite integral [y dx with the indefinite
met A given by (9.22). Writing y = (x), equation (9.23) shows that
(x) dx measures the area enclosed by the curve y = ¢(x), the axis of
a
x and the two ordinates atx = a,x = b.
In § 9.8 it was assumed that the graph of y = (x) was one in which
y was positive and increasing with x. If y decreases as x increases, a
similar argument will show that the inequality signs in (9.18) are
reversed but it is still true that 6A/da will lie between y and y + dy
and equations (9.22), (9.23) remain valid. If y increases while x in-
creases for part of the range in x and then decreases as x increases over
the other part of the range, the integral or area can be found in two
parts and the results summed. If y is negative for certain values of x,
B
say between x = « and x = , the value of [ydx will be negative
(see § 10.2). bs

9.10 The example of § 9.7 solved by integration

The area enclosed by the graph of y = 1 + x, the axis of x and ordi-
nates at x = 0, x = 10 is, by (9.23), A(10) — A(O) where A(x) is the
indefinite integral {(1 + x)dx = x +4x?+C. Hence
A(10) = 10 + #10? + C= 604,
AO) = 0 + 30? + C=C,
and the area AOB’B = 60 + C — C = 60 as found in § 9.7.
This example shows that in evaluating an area or definite integral,
the arbitrary constant of the indefinite integral may be omitted. If the
notation [A(x)]® is used to denote the difference A(b) — A(a), a con-
venient way of setting out the above work is
10
area AOB’B = [ (1 + x) dx

[+H]?
0

= 10 + 4(10)? — 0 — 30)? = 60.

The connection between the limiting value of a sum and integration
has therefore made it possible to avoid the summation processes of
§ 9.7. In the present instance, this is not a matter of much importance
for the summations are simple and the area involved (being that of a
trapezium) can be otherwise found. In more general cases, in which
areas are bounded by curves, the summations are more difficult and the
areas cannot usually be easily found by geometrical methods. In such
244 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

cases, integration provides a useful means of carrying out the cal-

culations.
9.11 Some examples of the evaluation of definite integrals and calculation
of area
Here we give some examples of the method of setting out the work
involved in evaluating a definite integral. Some applications of the
integral calculus to the calculation of areas are also given.
2 1\2
Example 21. Evaluate J, \x —> dx. [L.U.]

= [ie a+
f (x-1) de =['@t—2-x9a

= £(2) — 222) + 4 — 31)? + 20) —2

= —t.
7/4
Example 22. Evaluate ie tan® x dx. {L.U.]

7/4 7/4
. tan? x dx =i (sec?x— 1) dx

bene an n/4
0
te 7 7
= nZ—q7tan0+0

vig
=1-— +
‘1/2
Example 23. Evaluate is cos 4x sin x dx. [L.U.]
7/2 1/2
( cos 4x sin x dx = 4 (sin 5x — sin 3x)dx

=4 [-% cos 5x + 4.cos 3x |"

5 3
=1{—t cos = + 00s > + #008 0 — $ cos 0}

=1¢-D=—*.
Example 24. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 3x* ++ 2x ‘
y 2x + y 1, the axis ofx
and ordinates at x = 1, x = 3.
The required area = [ex + 2x + 1) dx

n [ese rs]
= 3 + GF +3—()*—()*—1
= 36 units.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 245
Example 25. Calculate the area of the segment of the curve y* = 4x cut off by the
line y = x. [L.U.]
Fig.83 shows the graphs of y* = 4x and y = x. The graphs intersect at the
origin O and the point P with coordinates (4, 4). The area of the segment cut
off, shown shaded, is the difference between the areas bounded respectively by
y® = 4x and y = x, the axis of x and ordin at ates
x = 0, x = 4. Hence the
required area
=|’ vax) dx — [oxdx =["evz — x) dx

3 2 a

a ea Raed
Bay eat 30s

Fic. 83

9.12 Definite integrals by change of variable

Two methods are available for evaluating a definite integral when the
integration is performed by change of variable. In the first, the in-
definite integral is found and expressed in terms of the original variable
and then the limits of integration are inserted. In the second (and
usually preferable) method, everything, including the limits, is expressed
in terms of the new variable. Both methods are illustrated in Example
26 below; in the remaining examples, only the second method is used.

Example 26. Evaluate |” sin? X COS.X aX. {L.U.]

Method 1. Put sin x = u, so that cos x (dx/du) = 1 giving dx/du = sec x.

Hence,
J sin? x cos x dx = Ju’ cos x sec x du = Ju’ du,
= 4 = }sin’ x,
giving
[PPsin®x 008x dx = E sin® x= 4 (sin®5 = sin®0)=i,

Method 2. Using the same substitution sin x = u, the indefinite integral

J sin? x cos x dx
246 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
can as before be reduced to Ju®du. At the lower limit of integration x = 0, so
that since sinx= u, the lower limit of the integral in u will be given by
u=sin0 =0. Similarly, since x = 47 at the upper limit of the integral in x,
the upper limit of the integral in u will be given by u = sin$a= 1. Hence

ik
ir sin? x cos x dx ={°udu = [ |)
=e
0 0 0

Example 27. Use the substitution x = sin® u to show that

Ape 1-—x
z )dx= Hr — 2). [L.U]
If x = sin? u, dx/du = 2 sin ucos u. When x = 0, sin? u = 0Oand u =0; when
x =}, sin?u =}, sinu = 1/\/2 and u =}. Hence the limits in theintegral

Pceq) aeft|i) 2a ene

in u are 0 and 7 giving

=(" 2.sin® udu, since +/(1 — sin®4)= cos2,

=(" (1 — cos 2u) du

Example 28. Evaluate ["". tan? x sec® x dx.

—n|/
Putting tan x = u, sec® x(dx/du) = 1 and dx/du = cos? x. When x = —7z/4,
u = tan (—7/4) = —1 and when x = 2/4, u = tan (7/4) = 1. Hence
7/4
[rr gtan?x sec?x dx= |" w sectx cos?x du

=) du = [ee]!
=t+t=4
Exercises 9 (e)
Evaluate the following definite integrals
4 2
li [3 dx. LS Pap 2 { (x?
+ x) dx. [0.C.]
-2
ar/4.
3, | (seckx—1)dx. [O.C] 4. [Xe LU]
—n/4 AL =

[(very)@ murs [585 ous

4 1 2 dx
5, & =} dx. Te { aa,
 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 247
1/3 a /4.
# E cos x cos 3x dx. {[L.U.] 8. [ sin 5x cos 3x dx. [L.U.]
0
a/4 7/4
{ (x—1)sin2xdx. [L.U.] 10. [ sin’xcosxdx. [L.U.]
0
7/4
11. Show that [ (tan® x + tan x) dx = 4. [N.U.]
0
27/2
12. Prove that i (sin x + cos x? dx = 1+ 47. [N.U.]
0

13. By means of the substitution u = sin* x, prove that

iiesin’ 7 x cos? 5 x dx = 01 [O.C,]

14. Evaluate

15. Evaluate, by means of the substitution x = sec? u,

= dx
[ep ae
16. Calculate the area enclosed by the curve y = x*(1 — x), the axis of x
and ordinates atx =0,x = 1. [N.U.]

17. Find the area enclosed by the axis of x and that part of the curve
y = 5x — 6 — x’ for which y is positive. [0.C.]
18. Find the area enclosed between the curve y = »/(x*) and the straight
line y = 2x. [0.C.]
19. Find the area enclosed between the curves y? = 4x and x?= 4y. [O.C.]

20. Show that the area contained by the curve y = a + bx + cx* + dx’,
the axis of x and the ordinates at x = +h is equal to A(y, + y2) where
y, and y, are the values of y when x = +£4/7/3. [L.U.]

9.13 Numerical integration

It often happens in practice that the value of the definite integral
b
d(x) dx is required and that we are unable to find a function whose
a
248 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

derivative is (x). Instances in which the values of ¢(x) are only known
numerically and not by a formula also often occur. In such cases, an
approximate value of the integral can be found by numerical methods
and we describe below some of these methods.
b
Since the definite integral [ (x) dx represents the area enclosed by
a

the graph of y = ¢(x), the x-axis and ordinates at x= a,x =b, a

simple method of evaluating it is to draw a diagram on squared paper
and to estimate the area by counting the squares enclosed. To enable
reasonable accuracy to be obtained, a large scale graph is usually
required.
Example 29. Plot the graph of y = 1/(1 + x) on squared paper. By counting squares,
estimate the area bounded by the curve, the coordinate axes and an ordinate at
1
x = 1. Hencededuce an approximate value for the definite integral i.(1 + x) dx.
The values of y= 1/(1 + x) for x = 0, 0-1, 0-2,. . ., 0-9, 1-0 are

1:0

0-500

and these are plotted in Fig. 84. It should be noted that

100 small squares = 1 large square = 0-1 x 0-1 = 0-01
and hence that 1 small square = 0:0001. In estimating the number of squares in
the area below the curve it is helpful to draw in the dotted stepped line shown
and it is easily found that the area below this occupies 63 large squares. The
number of small squares between the curve and the dotted line is, by actual
counting, found to be approximately 620. Hence the total number of small
squares in the area is (63 x 100) + 620 = 6920. The required area and value
of hi ea definite integral is therefore approximately 6920 x 0-0001, that
is, 0-692.

Another method is to use the trapezoidal rule which is derived by

dividing the area into a number of strips and taking the area of each of
these strips to be approximately that of a trapezium. In Fig. 85, the
ait ceihee: the curve ss= (x) has been divided into six strips
y dividing A’B’ into six equal parts. Ordinates yo, y1, Yos Yar Vas
and y, have been erected at A’, Bond at each point ofA they ; We
consider the first strip AA’P’P (shown enlarged in Fig. 86) and it is
clear that its area is only slightly less than the area of the trapezium
AA'P’P. We can therefore use the area of this trapezium as an approxi-
mation for the area of the strip. The mean height of the trapezium
is (Vo + yy) and, if we use h for the length A’P’ of its base, we there-
fore have area of strip AA’P’P ~ $h(y) + y,). Treating the other five
a 1-0 z-0 £-0 v-0 s-0 9-0 2:0 8-0 6:0 0:1 x
“OI $8
250 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

strips of Fig. 85 in the same way, we shall find that the total area of
AA’ B’B is approximately given by
area AA'B'B = 4h(yy + ys) + Hiya + ya) +.» - + BOs + Yo)
= h{h(yo
+ yo) + Yi + V2 + Vs t+Ya t+Vo
and, since A’B’ = b — a and we have used six strips, h = 3(b — a).

Fic. 85

In the same way, using 7 strips, we shall find that the area 4.A’B’B, or
b
the definite integral [ ¢(x) dx is approximately equal to
a

hE. + Yn) Hr babes - t+Yas t+Vaart

where now h=(b—a)/n. This formula, which is known as the
trapezoidal rule, can be expressed by saying that if the range of inte-
gration from x = a to x = b is divided into n equal parts each of width
P

Fic. 86

= (b — a)/n, called the interval, and ordinates to the graph of y = ¢(x)

are erected at x = a, x = b and at each point of sub-division, then

6) dx~= interval x (half the sum of the first and last ordinates
+ the sum of the remaining ordinates). (9.24)
 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 251

It should be clear from its method of derivation that the approxima-

tion of the trapezoidal rule (9.24) improves as the number of strips
used increases. It should also be apparent that the rule over-estimates
the value of the integral in those parts of the range where the graph of
y = $(x) is of the shape shown in Fig. 85 and that it underestimates it
if y = (x) is of the shape depicted in Fig. 87.
Y

y= (x)

O
Fic. 87

In deriving the trapezoidal rule, we have replaced arcs of the curve

bounding the area by straight lines and the use of this rule is not always
most economical in labour. If great accuracy is required, a large
number of ordinates are necessary and the amount of numerical
work involved may become quite heavy. Another method, known as

Fic. 88

Simpson’s rule, can be set up by replacing arcs of the graph of y = ¢(x)

by arcs of the curve y = Ax? + Bx + C.
In Fig. 88, PQR is an arc of the graph of y = (x) intersecting the
axis of y at Q and PP’, RR’ are ordinates at x = —h and x =h re-
spectively. The lengths PP’, QO, RR’ are taken as yo, y, and yg. Since
the equation y = Ax? + Bx +C contains three constants A, B and Cc
the graph of this function can be made to pass through the three points
P(—hA, yo), QO, yy) and R(h, y2). For this to occur, A, B and C satisfy
the equations
yo= Ae —Bht+C, yWy=C, ya= Ah? + Bh+C,
252 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and it follows that

2(Ah? + C) = Yo + Vos C= yy.

Provided the widths h of the strips PP’OQ, QOR’R are not too large,
the area below the curve y = Ax* + Bx + C will be a good approxi-
mation to the area shown in Fig. 88 and hence

Bet ax
[deoee~ [att
h h

zh Dy,
h
= [34x + 4B? + cx| = Bal + 2Ch
= 4h(2Ah2 + 6C) = th {2(Ah? + C) + 4C}
= gh + yo + 4) (9.25)
when we substitute for 2(Ah? + C) and C.
Formula (9.25) gives an approximate value of the integral when the
range of integration (2h) is divided into two strips each of width A,
when yp, Y2 are the ordinates at the ends and when yj, is the ordinate at
the mid-point of the range. If this formula is applied to the area in
Fig. 85, the addition of three pairs of such strips gives

[ dear hat yn + 45) + Be + ye + 499)

b

+ 3h, + Ye + 4ys)
= $h{yo + Ye + 401 + Ys + Ys) + 202 + Ya)}-
In a similar way, if the range of integration is divided into an even
number 2n of strips each of width h,
b
i f(x) dx = BALYo+ Yon + 401 + Ya + - » + Yona)
t+ Aye Veh - + Yen-a)t (026)
where h = (6 — a)/2n. This formula, known as Simpson’s rule, can be
expressed thus—if the range of integration from x =a to x =b is
divided into an even number 2n of equal parts each of width
h = (6 — a)/2n, called the interval, and ordinates to the graph of y = $(x)
are erected at x = a,x = band at each point of sub-division, then
b
[ (x) dx ~} x interval x (sum offirst and last ordinates
a

+ four times the sum of all the odd ordinates

+ twice the sum of the remaining even ordinates).
Both the trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules (9.24) and (9.26) can be
used to evaluate definite integrals when the integrand ¢(x) is given bya
 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 253
numerical table or by a mathematical formula. In the latter case, a
table given the numerical values of ¢(x) at equal intervals has to be
computed. Two examples are given below. In the first, the integrand
is given numerically; the second, in which the integrand is 1/(1 + x°),
has been chosen so that the approximate results can be compared with
the known exact result.
10
Example 30. Use the trapezoidal and Simpson's rules to evaluate | y dx when y is
Siven in terms of x by the following table ?

First and Odd Remaining

x last ordinates even
ordinates ordinates

0-1111

The interval h is 0-25, the sum of the first and last ordinates is 0-2111 and the
sum of all the remaining ordinates is 0:2107 + 0-1053, that is, 0-3160. Hence
the trapezoidal rule (9.24) gives

fey dx ~ 0°25 x 02111 + 0:3160) = 0-10539,

Simpson’s rule (9.26) yields

fry dx =~} x 0-25(0-2111 + 4 x 02107 + 2 x 0-1053) = 0-10538.

Thus to four places of decimals, the values of the definite integral obtained by
the two rules are each 0-1054.
Example 31. Use the trapezoidal and Simpson's rules with eleven ordinates to find
approximate values of Ih— Compare your results with the exact value of
the integral. Olek
The first step is to tabulate the integrand 1/(1 + x*) for x = 0-0, 0-1, 0-2,...,
0-9, 1:0 and ae results are shown in the second column of the table below. The
254 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
entries in the remainder of this table are similar to those used in Example 30
above and the work proceeds in the same way.

First and Odd Remaining

last ordinates even
ordinates ordinates

1-0000

Since the interval h = 0-1, the trapezoidal rule gives

1
01+ x
By Simpson’s rule,
1 dx
feeae 7 at X 0-1(1-5000 + 4 x 3-9311 + 2 x 3-1687)
= 0°7854.
The exact value of the integral is
een
s dx —
[e—1 x 1
|, == tan™—1 (1)
— tan —1 (0) —= 47 == 0-7854,

so that the result obtained by Simpson’s rule is correct to four places of decimals.
The value given by the trapezoidal rule is an underestimate: to obtain similar
accuracy, more ordinates, and therefore more labour, would be necessary with
this rule.
Exercises 9 (f)
1, Values of y for various values of x are given by
 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION 255
By plotting a graph of y against x and estimating the area beneath it
obtain an approximate value ion the definite integral I; y dx,
Find approximate values of nydx from the data of Erecke 1 above by
using (i) the trapezoidal rule Bud (ii) Simpson’s rule.
240
Use the trapezoidal rule to find the value of the definite dead $(x) dx
given that

0:1

6
Use the trapezoidal rule and an interval of unity to evaluate [ 2? dx.
0
3
Given that the correct value of Ix1 dx to four places of decimals is
1
1-0986, show that the percentage errors in evaluating the integral by
Simpson’s rule with intervals in x of 1, 4and } are respectively approxi-
mately 1-14, 0-13 and 0-01.
Equidistant ordinates of a curve are at x = 1-0000, 0-4444, 0-2500, 0:1600
and 0-1111. Use Simpson’s rule to estimate the area bounded by the
curve, the axis of x and the extreme ordinates which are at x = 0 and
eae,
Corresponding values of x and y are

6
Use Simpson’s rule to evaluate the definite integral I,
y? dx.

Use Simpson s rule and an interval of 0-05 in x to evaluate the definite

integral {asv7 2 Compare your result with the exact value of the
0
integral.
256 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Use Simpson’s rule and an interval of ¢7 to show that

sin x dx = 1-852.
0 x

Exercises 9 (g)
Integrate 4x(x* + 3x + 3) with respect to x.
Evaluate the indefinite integral [{(3x + 2)? + 4 cos x}dx.
Integrate 3x(x? — 4)? with respect to x.
Show that
ee

nn
As SPR es as ‘)+C.
2x°-+-2x+25 7 7

Use the formulae sin 3x= 3 sinx — 4sin? x and cos 3x = 4 cos® x — 3cosx
to show that
f cos?
x dx = sinx — ¢sin?x + C.
Show that 2 sin (x — 47) cos (x + 47) = sin2x — 3/3 and hence
integrate sin (x — 47) cos (x + 47) with respect to x.
Integrate with respect to x
(i) sec? (2x + 1), (ii) sin 2x cos x.
Use the substitution x = +/u to find

: 4s dx
@ fxv( 1 + x?)
« dx, (ii) [i
Ex.

Evaluate

@ |(x + 1)3x2 + 2x+4)%dx, (ii) |Es Net

Gx? + 2x + 4)
10, If ¢ = tan 4x, show that
a ss 2
(i) i ae (ii) 1 — cosx = rer:

Hence find the value of

PAL ae
1 —cosx
a,
Show that [ sin 2x dx = sin a sin 3« and find a similar result for
(04

cos 2x dx.
 EXERCISES 257
2 ar]
12. For what value of a is [ x sin x dx = { (ax?
+ 2x)dx?
0 0
13; Evaluate the definite integrals
1 2
@ { xl =x) dx, ~~ +Gi) i V(1 + 2x*) dx. [L.U.]
0
7/2
14. Show that [ x sin? x dx = 5 (7 + 4). [0.C.]
0
13. By means of the substitution x? = 1/u, show that
e dx
[ cbeieetiabaes,
2/62 —1) 3V 19 — 2, .C.
[0.C.]

16. Evaluate the definite integrals

7/8 [2
{ sec? 2x dx, (ii) [ sin 2x(1 — sin 2x) dx. [L.U.]
0 0
17. Find the values of the constants a, b, c and d such that

Tea
———<—_—<—<———_ = 2
ba hes _e

Use these results and the method of integration by parts to show that
1
{ x8 tan x dx = 4.
0
18. By means of the substitution x = 7 — y show that

[ xf(sin x) dx = 47 ic: x) dx.

0 0
Hence evaluate
" ——__—_.—
xsin® x dx. U.
{ 1 + cos? x INU]

19. Calculate the area between the curve y = 4 + 2x — x? and the line
y=4.
20. Show that the area enclosed by the curve y = (x), the axis of y and
B
abscissae at y = a, y = Bis | x dy. Hence show that the area between
the curve y = 2x*, the y-axis and the lines y= 1, y= 4 is (7+/2)/3
units.
21. The curve the axis of x at points A, B and PN
y = 11x— 24— x* cuts
is the greatest positive ordinate. Show that 2PN . AB equals three times
the area bounded by that portion of the curve which lies in the first
quadrant. [L.U.]
258 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

22. A line of slope m through the origin O meets the graph of y = 2x — x?

at the point P. If the area between the curve and the line OP is half the
whole area between the curve and the axis of x, show that m = 2 — (4).
23. The coordinates (x, y) of points on a curve are given by

Use Simpson’s rule to find the area between the curve and the axis of x.
24. Using an interval of unity in x, estimate to one place of decimals the
6
value of the definite integral { V(4 + x*) dx by (i) the trapezoidal rule,
0
(ii) Simpson’s rule.
25. The function J,(z) is given by the formula

mJ (z) = iNcos (z sin x) dx.

0
Use Simpson’s formula and an interval of $7 to show that J,(1) ~~ 0-765.

Example 7. A body is projected vertically upwards with velocity V and the retardation
due to air resistance is kv where v is the velocity and k is a constant. Find expres-
sions for the velocity and height after time t and the time to the highest point
reached.
Let x be the height after time t. Then v(= dx/dt) and dv/dt are measured
vertically upwards while the downward acceleration is kv + g. Therefore

13. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (3, 2) and
through the point of intersection of the lines 3x — 4y = 6,2x + 3y = 1.

length p,. Pis the point (A, k), PQ is perpendicular to AB and werequire
to find a formula for the distance PQ = p.

3x+y=1, 3y=5x +3,

3x+y=15, 3y=5x— 11. [L.U.]

Example 2. Prove that the three points A(5, 1), B(6, 9), C(— 1, 5) are the vertices of
an isosceles triangle. [O.C.]
 CHAPTER 10

SOME APPLICATIONS OF THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS

10.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a few of the many applications of the integral
calculus. These include the calculation of mean values, volumes,
centres of gravity, moments of inertia and some straightforward
dynamical applications. As in Chapter 8 on the applications of the
differential calculus, the notation adopted is that which occurs naturally
in the problem under discussion. The reader must therefore be pre-
pared to use the results given in Chapter 9 with appropriate changes of
symbols when these are called for.

10.2 Further examples of the calculation of area

b
The formula [$e dx for the area bounded by the curve y = ¢(x),
a
the axis of x and ordinates at x = a, x = b was established in § 9.9,
equation (9.23). If the curve y = (x) lies below the axis of x, y is
negative and the area obtained for the above definite integral will be
negative (see Example 1 below). If therefore the whole area enclosed
by a curve which crosses the axis of x at points between the two extreme
abscissae is required, it is best to appeal to a diagram and to divide the
range of integration into appropriate sub-ranges. Such a procedure is
illustrated in Example 2.
Example 1. Calculate the area between the curve y = 3x(x — 4) and the axis of x.
The area required is shown shaded in the rough sketch of the curve shown in
Fig. 89. Hence the required area

=[ry dx =|" 3x(x — 4) dx

=|" (3x? — 12x) dx

= E — ox | = —32 units,

and the negative sign is explained by the

fact that the curve lies below the axis
of x for the range of values of x under
consideration.
Fic. 89
259
260 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
x, and
Example 2. Find the whole area bounded by the curve y = cos x, the axis of
ordinates atx =0,x =7.
A sketch of the curve is shown in Fig. 90 and it is clear that
tn
area OAB =|" cos
x dx

s tn
= [sin
Ap = i.

TT

area BCD =[" cosx de

= fads i > =-—l1.

Fic. 90

The whole area, shown shaded, is therefore 2 units and the working could have
been set out thus,

hole area=|." ooxax —J conxds— [sinx]°—[in x,

Whole area =|, cosxdx—),

=1—0—(0-—1
=2.
cosxdx = |sinz|, — |sinx in

If the range of integration had not been sub-divided at x = $7, the result would
have been
TT 7
area=| cosx de= |sinx | 11).
0 0
wT

and although this is a correct value of the definite integral i cos x dx, it is not
a correct interpretation in terms of area.

10.3 Mean values

Suppose that y is a function ¢(x) of x whose graph is shown in
Fig. 91 and suppose that the range A’B’ from x = ato x = bis divided
into n equal sub-ranges each of width dx. Let yy, Yo, Vg, - - -» Yn be
 MEAN VALUES 261
the values of y at the middle points of these sub-ranges. The arithmetic
mean of these 7 values of y is
1
Vit de “Vat s . Vp)

and, since n 6x = b — a, this can be written

OQityet Ist. - » + Yn) Ox.

b—a

Fic. 91

If this expression has a limiting value as 6x approaches zero, this

limiting value is
1 b
[>dx (10.1)
b—a

and this is called the “mean value’ of y over the range b — a.

Fig. 92 is a reproduction of Fig. 91 without the details of the sub-
ranges. The rectangle LA’B’M has been constructed on the base A’B’

Fic. 92

so that its area is equal to the area enclosed by the curve y = ¢(x), the
axis of x and ordinates at x = a, x = b. The area of the rectangle is
b
therefore iy dx and, if its height is H, it is also equal to (6 — a)H.
a
262 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Hence
b
(6 — a)H =|yadx

and, comparison with equation (10.1), shows that H is the mean value
of y over the range b — a. Thus the geometrical interpretation of the
mean value of a function y = ¢(x) over the range x =a tox = bis
the height of the rectangle of base b — a whose area is equal to that
included between the graph of y = ¢(x), the axis of x and ordinates
at x ss G,22D.

Example 3. Find the mean value of sin x over the range x = 0 to x = $n.
Here y = sin x, a = 0, b = 3m and formula (10.1) gives for the mean value
J of y,
a ae [rs =2/ |r =? ;
I ae sin x dx = — bone | pe Cosi.

Example 4. A number n is divided into two parts. Show that the mean value of the
product of these parts is tn.
If x is one part into which the number n is divided, the other part is n — x and
the product of the two parts is x(n — x). Since x can range from 0 to n, the
required mean value of the product is

GJ xe — nar = 2[amt2] = dn.

10.4 Volumes of solids of revolution
Another simple application of the integral calculus is the calculation
of the volume of the solid formed by the rotation of the curve y = (x)
about the axis of x.
Fig. 93 shows the graph of y = ¢(x), again for simplicity shown as
positive and increasing with x. As in § 9.8, PNM@Q is one of the n
strips into which the area 4A’B’B is divided and ON = x, PN =y,
 VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION 263
NM = 6x. The volume formed by the rotation about the axis of x
of the strip PNM Q will be greater than the volume formed by the rota-
tion of the rectangle PNMR and less than that formed by the rotation
of the rectangle SVMQ. The body formed by the rotation of the
rectangle PNMR will be a circular cylinder of radius PN = y and length
NM = ox, so that its volume will be my*éx. Similarly the volume
formed by the rotation of the rectangle SVMQ will be m(y + dy)? dx
for the radius of this cylinder is QM = y + dy. Taking the volume
formed by the rotation of the area HONP to be V(x), that formed by
the rotation of the area HOM@Q will be V(x) + 6V(x) so that, by sub-
traction, the volume formed by the rotation of the strip PNM@Q will be
6V(x). Hence
ay 6x < 6V(x) < m(y + dy)? dx.
Denoting by V the volume of the solid formed by rotating the area
AA’B’B we have, since this area is made up of n strips of which PNMQ
is typical,
Lay? dx < V < Lay + dy)? dx.
Using a similar argument to that of § 9.8, these inequalities lead to
V = lim. (2ry? dx)
820
b b
Me[nytdx =a [ypdx (10.2)
and this is the required formula for the volume of a solid of revolution.
In § 9.8 and in the above, we have derived formulae for area and
volume by setting up inequalities for the “elements” of area and volume.
Thus we have shown that the element of volume 6V lies between
ay? 6x and (y + dy)" dx and deduced that the whole volume V is the
limiting value of Xay* dx as dx tends to zero. To save repeating these
arguments when making other applications of the integral calculus,
it is worth noticing that equation (10.2) can be obtained formally by
saying that the element of volume is approximately wy* 6x and that
the whole volume is given from the limiting value of the sum of such
b
elements in the form (my" dx.
a

Example 5. The area enclosed by the curve x = 3(y* — 1) and the lines x =0,
x = 24 is rotated through four right angles about the axis of x. Find the volume
of the solid generated. [L.U.]
Here y? = 1 + }x and the required volume Vis given by
4 24
Vanl yde aol, (1 + 4x)dx
4
ie [x7 |) =o (24“a 7) = 1207 units.
264 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 6. Find the volume of a right circular cone of height h and base radius r.
In Fig. 94, OP is the straight line through the origin O and the point P(A, r).
The slope of OP is r/h and its equation is

A cone of the required dimensions can be formed by rotating this line about the
axis of x and its volume Vis given by

yao|ytac=lo(G)&
mr? (he AE t=!
=T [vara 37 Jo37
as given in § 8.3.

Fic. 94

Exercises 10 (a)

1. Sketch the curve y = x(x — 1)(x — 2) and find the area enclosed by
the curve and the axis of x between x = 0, x = 2.
2. Sketch the curve y = x(3 — x) and find the area contained between the
curve, the axis of x and ordinates atx = 0, x = 5.
3. An ordinate is drawn to the curve y = x(1 — x*) at x = 1 + p where
p> 0. Find p so that the area between the axis of x and the curve for
x between 1 and 1 + p may equal in absolute magnitude the area
between the curve and the axis of x for x between 0 and 1. [L.U.]
4. Find the mean value of the ordinate of the curve y = 4 — x? over the
range —2< x <2.
5. Find the mean values, as x varies from 0 to 7, of
(i) sin? x, (ii) x sin x.

6. The pressure p kilogrammes per square centimetre and the volume v

cubic centimetres of a quantity of gas are related by the law pu'? = 1000.
Find the mean pressure as the volume of gas increases from 3 cm? to
8 cm?,
 CENTRES OF GRAVITY 265
7. The quantities v, x and ft are related by the equations
v=2/(@—x*), x~=asin2t.
Show that the mean value of v, considered as a function of ¢, between
t= 0Oand t = iris (4a)/z.
8. Find the volume generated when the area enclosed by the axis of x and
the curve y = 3x* — x° is rotated about the axis of x. [L.U.]
9. The portion of the curve xy = 8 from x = 2 to x = 4 is rotated about
the axis of x; find the volume generated. [L.U.]

10. The area enclosed by the curve by = b? — x*, the axis of x and the
ordinates x = +a (a < 5) revolves through four right angles about the
axis of x. Show that the volume of the solid formed is

ae (3a4 — 100%? + 1564). [L.U.]

11. The area between the curve y = cos x (0 < x < 4m) and the coordinate
axes is rotated about the axis of x to form a solid of revolution. Find
its volume. [L.U.]

12. Sketch the curve y* = (x — 1)(x? — 1). If the curve is rotated about the
axis of x through an angle 27, show that the volume enclosed by the
surface swept out by the loop of the curve is 47/3. [L.U.]
13. That part of the curve x* + y® = a* for which y is positive is rotated
through two right angles about the axis of x. Show that the solid so
formed is divided by the plane formed by the rotation of the ordinate at
x = $a into two segments whose volumes are in the ratio 27:5. [0.C.]
14. O is the origin and P the point (a, 2a) on the graph of y? = 4ax. The
area bounded by the chord OP and the arc of the curve between O and
P is revolved about the axis of x through four right angles. Find the
volume of the solid so generated. [0.C.]
15. The area bounded by the curvey? = 20x and the lines x = 0 and y= 10
is rotated about the axis of y. Show that the volume of the solid ob-
tained is 507 and find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the
same area about the axis of x. [O.C.]

10.5 Centres of gravity

Consider a system of particles lying in a plane whose weights are
W1, Wa)» - +» W, and whose positions P;, P:,.. ., P, have coordinates
(x1, Vi)» (Xa) Ya)» + + +» (%n» Yn) With respect to axes OX, OY (Fig. 95).
If the plane OXY is horizontal, the weights of the particles will all act
in a direction perpendicular to the plane and* will have a resultant
* The concepts of the resultant of a system of forces and its moment are developed
in Chapter 14.
266 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Wi+wWe+...+w, If this resultant acts at the point (%, 9), the

moment of the resultant about the axis OY is equal to the sum of the
moments of the separate weights about this axis and we shall have
(Wy We be. eb Wa)X = WyXy + Worg +. « » + WyXq (10.3)
In the same way, by taking moments about OX,
(Wy Wet... Ewa) = Wii + Woyo tt. - - + Wan (10.4)
We have assumed in the above that the weights of the particles form
a system of parallel forces. Strictly speaking, these forces act through
the centre of the earth’s gravitational field but, as the bodies dealt with
in practice are usually small compared with the earth, this is a reason-
able assumption and one which also allows us to take w,, We, . . +» Wa
¥
P
© (x2,V2)

Soy)

O
Fic. 95

as being proportional to the masses m,, m,, . . ., m, of the various

particles. In the case therefore of particles distributed over an area
small enough for these approximations to be made, we can write
equations (10.3) and (10.4) in the form
Mz=N, Mj=N,, (10.5)
where M = im, N, = Xmx, N, = XMy and the sign X denotes sum-
mation over all the particles of the system. M is the total mass, N,
and N, are sometimes called the first moments with respect to x and y
respectively, and the point (X, p) is called the centre of mass or the
centre of gravity.
To obtain an extension from a system of particles to a continuous
body, it is natural to replace the particles by “elements” of the body
and to use limiting sums (that is, integrals) in place of summations.
Before doing this, one general observation should be made. Ifauniform
body has a centre of symmetry G such that for every particle A of the
body there is a corresponding particle A’ of equal mass and if G is the
mid-point of AA’, then the resultant of the weights of A and A’ may be
taken to act at G. Every other such pair of points can be dealt with
 CENTRES OF GRAVITY 267
similarly and G is therefore also the centre of gravity of the body.
Thus the centre of gravity of a uniform thin rod is at its mid-point,
that of a uniform parallelogram is at the intersection of its diagonals,
that of a uniform circle or sphere is at the geometrical centre, and so on.
Consider first a thin rod of length / and variable density situated
along the axis of x with one end of the rod at the origin. Let the density
of the rod at a point of abscissa x be p. If 6M be the mass of an element
of the rod for points whose abscissae lie between x and x + 6x, 6M
lies between p dx and (p + dp) dx. The total mass M can be considered
as the limiting value as dx tends to zero of the sum of the approximate
l
elementary masses p 6x, that is M =| pdx. In the same way the first
0
1
moment ON, of the element is approximately xp 6x so that NV, = [xp dx
0
and the abscissa ¥ of the centre of gravity of the rod is given by (10.5) as
1
[xa
0
i e
(10.6)
[pax
0
Example 7. The density of a rod AB varies as the distance from the end A. Find the
position of the centre of gravity of the rod if its total length is 2 metres.
If we take the rod to be along the axis of x with the end 4 at the origin, the
density p at a point with abscissa x is kx, where k is a constant. The element of
mass is approximately kx dx and the total mass M is given by
2 2
ou={- kx dx = k[ax ‘ i)

The first moment of the element is approximately x . kxdx and hence

Jase
Ne=), kx’dx
=k |$x° ae =«[], <5
The abscissa £ of the centre of gravity is given by

eof
F=T=NG
= (F)/(2) =3
akj=>3

so that the centre of gravity is at 1-333 metres from the end A.

Now consider the centre of gravity of a lamina of uniform density

bounded by the curve y = ¢(x), the axis of x and ordinates at x = a,
x =b. If p is the density, the mass M of the lamina is given by
b
M=p X area= efy dx. The element PNMQ of Fig. 96 has approxi-
a

mate area y 6x and mass py 6x. Its first moment with respect to x is
268 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
b
x . py 6x and the total first moment N, is given by |xpy dx. Since pis
a
b
constant this can be written P| xy dx and formula (10.5) gives for the
abscissa X of the centre of gravity
b b
z=[ xy dx + |ya. (10.7)
a a

Since the centre of gravity of the element PNM@Q is approximately at a

height 4y above OX, its first moment with respect to y is £y . py 6x and
we find that the ordinate y of the centre of gravity is given by
b b
j= afyr dx + [y dx. (10.8)
The point (x, J), found by assuming uniform density of material over
an area, is usually called the centroid of the area; when the density is
uniform the centroid and the centre of gravity coincide.
Example 8. The perpendicular to the axis OX from a point P(2,6) on the curve
y = 6 meets OX at Q. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the lamina
bounded by the arc OP and the lines OQ, OP. [O.C.]
 EXAMPLES OF CENTRES OF GRAVITY 269
From Fig. 97, it is clear that the limits a and b of the integrals in (10.7), (10.8)
are respectively 0 and 2. Since y = 32°,

PRrecmafferacn
afi] a
Rownafteeni[ne
lr 2
4p yee = aefate = ae ge"|? a,
and (10.7), (10.8) give for the coordinates (%, 9) of the centroid,
F="%+3=% po P73 =¥,

10.6 Some further examples of centres of gravity

Here we determine the position of the centre of gravity of a triangular
lamina, a sector of a circle, a circular arc, a solid hemisphere and a solid
cone. These results and also some of those given in Exercises 10(5)
will be used in Chapter 15. In all cases, the density of the body con-
sidered is assumed to be uniform and is taken as p.

(i) Triangular lamina

Suppose the base AB of the triangle OAB is of length a and its height
OH ish. Take the vertex O as the origin and lines through O parallel

Fic. 98

and perpendicular to AB as the axes of x and y (Fig. 98). PQ is a thin

strip parallel to OX; it is at height y above O, of width dy and meets
OY at K. It is clear from similar triangles that PO/AB = OK/OH and
this leads to PO = ay/h. The mass of the strip PQ is therefore approxi-
mately pay dy/h and its moment about OX is pay? dy/h. The total
moment about OX is

le —% [be], = te
270 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and as the area of the triangle is $ah and its mass $pah, the height 9 of
its centre of gravity is given by
gpah J = $pah*,
leading to f = §h.
Since the centre of gravity of the strip PQ is at its mid-point R, it
follows that the centre of gravity G of the whole triangle will lie on the
line joining the mid-points of all such strips, that is, on the median OD.
If M is a point on OY such that OM = 3 OH, we have, by similar
triangles,

so that the centre of gravity of the triangle is a point G in the median

OD such that OG = 30D.
(ii) Sector of a circle
Let the sector with centre the origin O have radius r and subtend
an angle 2a at O, the axis of x bisecting the sector (Fig. 99). By sym-
metry, the centroid lies on OX. Consider an element bounded by radii

y,

Fic. 99

inclined at angles 6 and 6 + 66 to the axis of x. The area of this element

is }r* 00 and its mass is $pr? 60. The element is approximately triangular
in shape and its centroid is on the median at distance 3r from O and
at distance 2r cos 0 from the axis OY. The moment of the element is
therefore approximately 4pr* 60 x 2rcos 0, that is dor® cos 6 60, and
the total moment for the whole sector is

{ pr°cos 6 dd = tp | cos 6 d6 = tor sinaf = for? sin a.

—4 = Kal |
 EXAMPLES OF CENTRES OF GRAVITY 271
Since the total mass of the sector is pr2«, the abscissa ¥ of the centroid
is given by pr’ax = Zor sin a, leading to
2r sin a
x=
30

When « = 37, the sector becomes a semi-circle and the centroid then
lies on the central radius at distance 4r/3 from the centre.
(iii) Circular arc
Fig. 100 shows the arc of a circle of radius r, centre the origin O and
subtending an angle 2« at the centre. If the axis OX bisects the arc,
it is clear from symmetry that the centroid lies on OX and we require
therefore only its abscissa X. If OA, OB are radii inclined at angles
6 and 6 + 66 to OX, the length of the element of arc AB is r 66, its

Fic. 100

mass is prd0 and the element is at distance rcos 6 from OY. The
moment of the element is therefore pr? cos 6 60 and the moment for the
whole arc is
fod a a

: pr2cos 6 dé = pa | cos 6 dO = pr* sin| = 2pr? sin a.

=@ —o —a

Since the mass of the arc is 2pra, ¥ is given by 2praX = 2pr? sin «, that
is
_ sina
rns tok
(iv) Solid hemisphere
Consider a hemisphere of radius r with its centre at the origin O and
with the axis OX as its axis of symmetry (Fig. 101). Consider an ele-
ment in the form of a circular disc of radius y and thickness dx at dis-
tance x from the axis OY. The volume of the element is approximately
272 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

ay? 6x and its mass is zpy? 6x. The moment of this mass about the axis
OY is mpxy* 6x and, since x* + y? = r*, the whole moment is

{| apie ae {et Sa a
ee Ea » pe]‘sbrprt.

Fic. 101

The mass of the hemisphere is $zpr? and hence the centre of gravity lies
on the line OX at a distance X from O given by gzpr°x = 47pr%, that is,
X = $r.
(v) Solid cone
Fig. 102 shows a right circular cone of semi-vertical angle « with its
vertex at the origin O and axis along the axis of x. Consider an element

nl
} ya
Fic. 102

again in the form of a circular disc of radius y and thickness 6x at

distance x from OY. As in (iv) above the mass of such a disc is mpy? dx
 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 273
and its moment about OY is mpxy® dx. If h is the height of the cone,
the whole moment is (since now y = x tan «),
h h h
[ mpxy?dx = no x tan? « dx = mp tan? « Ea = frpht tan? «.
0 0
The volume of the cone is }7h* tan® « and its mass is 4nph? tan? «, so
that the centroid lies on the axis OX at a distance ¥ from O given by
(gaph® tan? «)X = Lrph* tan? «, that is
= 3h.
10.7 Moments of inertia
If m,, mp, . . ., m,, are the masses of a system of particles situated at
points P;, P,, . . ., P, whose perpendicular distances from a given
straight line are r,, r2,. . ., 7, the sum of the products of each mass and
the square of its distance from the line is called the moment of inertia
of the system with respect to the given line. This moment, sometimes
also called the second moment, is conveniently denoted by J so that
T=myr? + mre +...+m,r,2. (10.9)
If we imagine the total mass M =m, +m,+...+m, to be con-
centrated at a point at distance k from the given line such that this
single mass has the same moment of inertia about the given line as the
system of particles then
MR =l= mre t+ met... +m,r,2. (10.10)
The distance k, calculated from this equation, is known as the radius of
gyration of the system about the given line.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is required in
Dynamics to express the kinetic energy of the body (see § 21.9) and it
is useful to set up two general theorems before discussing the moments
of inertia of specific bodies. These are as follows.
(i) The parallel axes theorem. If the moment of inertia of a system of
particles of total mass M about an axis through the centre of mass is
Mk?, the moment of inertia of the system about a parallel axis distant a
from the first is M(k* + a’).
Suppose the particles are of masses m,, ma, . . ., m, and that they
are at distances r,, rg, . - -, 7, from the axis through the centre of mass
and at distances R,, Ro, . . -, R, from the second (parallel) axis. Let
the two axes meet a plane perpendicular to them in G and O respectively.
If this plane passes through the point P, occupied by the first particle
(Fig. 103), we shall have, since OG = a,
R22 =r? + a? — 2ar, cos 0,
24 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and similar relations between R and r hold for all n particles of the
system. The moment of inertia J of the system about the axis through
O is given by J = UmR® = Xm(r? + a* — 2ar cos 8) where % denotes
summation over all the particles of the system and this can be written
I= <mr + aim — 2a=zmr cos 6.
Now =m = M, =mr? = Mk? (the moment of inertia about the axis
through G) and Xmr cos 6 = 0 for this latter sum when divided by M

ae Fic. 103

gives the distance in the direction GO of the centre of mass from the
point G. Hence J = Mk? + Ma? and the theorem is proved.
(ii) If the moments of inertia of a system of particles lying in a plane
about two perpendicular axes in the plane meeting in a point O are A
and B respectively, the moment of inertia of the system about an axis
through O perpendicular to the plane is A + B.

Fic. 104

In Fig. 104, OX, OY are the given perpendicular axes in the plane
and OZ is the axis perpendicular to the plane. P,, P.,.. ., P,, are the
points (%1, y1), (Xa, Yo), - » +» Xp» Yn) Occupied by particles of masses
Mm, M2,.. .,M,. Then, since the moments of inertia about OY, OX
are respectively A and B, A=m,x,+mx2+...+m,x,2,
B=my?+ my2+...+m,y,2, and, by addition,
A+B= m,(x? WG yy) + m,(x_" + Vo") a eis Bon © MA (Xq" a2 ies
 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 275
If OP, = ry, OP, = rp,. . ., OP, = Fp, it is clear from the diagram that
r? aa ye + yi, 4 a= x," He yo’, Di | r* = : + ye, hence

At B=mr?t+ myre+...+m,yr,2,
and this is the moment of inertia of the system about the axis OZ.

10.8 Some examples of the calculation of moments of inertia

As in the calculation of the position of centres of gravity, an extension
from a system of particles to a continuous body can be obtained by
replacing the particles by elements of the body and using integrals in
place of summations. We give below the calculations for the moments
of inertia about specific axes of a thin rod, a circular disc and a sphere,
the bodies being of uniform density p in all cases.
(i) Thin rod
Suppose (Fig. 105) AB is a thin rod of length 2/ lying along the axis
OX with its mid-point at the origin O. The mass of an element PQ of
Y

3x

rn Ol x PQ Bo

Fic. 105

length 6x at distance x from O is p 6x and its moment of inertia about

the axis of y is pdx x x*. Hence the moment of inertia J, of the whole
rod about a line through its centre and perpendicular to its length is
given by
1 l
IP -| px*dx =p Ea = 201°.
aT =

Since the total mass M of the rod is 2p/, this can be written in the form

showing that the radius of gyration k is given by k* = 37°.

If the moment of inertia 1, about an axis perpendicular to the length
of the rod and passing through the end A is required, the parallel axes
theorem gives
I, = Ih + MI? = $M.
276 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(ii) Circular disc

The moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis through its
centre O perpendicular to the plane of the disc can be found by con-
sidering the ring element bounded by circles of radii r and r + or
(Fig. 106). The mass of the element is approximately 27pr dr and its

Fic. 106

moment of inertia about the axis is 27pr 6r x r®. Hence, if ais the radius
of the disc the total moment of inertia Jp is
a a

h= { 2mpr? dr = 2mp Ea = 47pa'.

0 0
Since the total mass M of the disc is zpa?, this can be written 4Ma?.
If the moment of inertia of the disc about a diameter is A, then by
symmetry the moment of inertia about a perpendicular diameter is
also A. Therefore, by the second of the general theorems of § 10.7,
the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
disc is 2A and we have 2A = 4Ma? giving A = 4{Ma*.
(ili) Sphere
Let the sphere be of radius r with its centre at the origin O. Consider
an element in the form of a circular disc of radius y, thickness 6x at
distance x from the axis OY (Fig. 107). The mass of this element is

(aes
TY
Fic. 107
 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 277
approximately py” dx and, by (ii) above, its moment of inertia about
the axis OX is }(mpy? dx) x y®. The moment of inertia about OX of
the whole sphere is therefore, since x? + y? = r?,

[droytar = top" (2— 29x

= Yop [te— gre + et] = vero =f

Since the mass M of the sphere is $zpr°, this can be written as Mr’.
Example 9. A uniform lamina is bounded by the curve y = 8x*, the axis of x and an
ordinate at x = 1. Find its radius of gyration about a line perpendicular to its
Plane through the origin of coordinates.
Fig. 108 shows the lamina and an elementary strip of height y and width dx.
If p is the surface-density of the lamina, the mass of the strip is approximately

Fic. 108

py 6x and its moment of inertia about the axis of y is py 6x x x". Hence the
moment of inertia J, of the whole lamina about the axis of y is given by, since
y = 8x,
1 1 1
72 =|;px*ydx = 8p
| x dx = 8p [ax]; = $p.

The moment of inertia of the strip about the axis of x is, using the result for a
thin rod in (i) above, py 6x x $y”, and the moment of inertia /, of the lamina
about the axis of x is
1 512 [1 512 1 256
i = | toy®axSee p[,x%de oe! [ox | =T5 P

By the general theorem (fi) the moment of inertia about an axis through O
perpendicular to the plane of the lamina is
256 4 92
L+h= 73 ‘desig WD
278 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
As the mass M of the lamina is given by
af 1 1
m=|, pydx = 8p],rdx= 8o|ax], 2p,

the moment of inertia can be written as “s°M and the required radius of gyration
is therefore »/(46/5) = 3-033.

Exercises 10 (b)
1. OA is a non-uniform rod, of length /, the density of which at distance x
from O is a + 25x, where a and b are constants. Prove that the mass of
the rod is (a + b/) and that the distance of its centre of gravity from
Ois
Ia + 4bl) [0.C.]
6(a + bl)
2. Find the y coordinate of the centroid of the area in the first quadrant
enclosed by the curve y® = 4ax, the axis of x and the line x = A. [O.C.]

3. Find the abscissa x of the centre of mass of a lamina of uniform density

bounded by the curve y = 1 + 10x — 2x?, the axis of x and ordinates
for which x = 1 and x = 5. Verify that
X= (yy + 12y_ + Sys) + 42 + ys),
where y;, y2, and ys are ordinates of the curve at x = 1, 3 and 5. [O.C.]

4. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the area enclosed between the
curve y = +/(x*) and the straight line y = 2x. [O.C.]

5. Asolid of uniform density is formed by rotating the portion of the curve

y = x* — 3x which is cut off by the axis of x about that axis. Find the
position of the centre of gravity.
6. O is the origin, A is (a, 0), B is (a, a) and OABC is a uniform square
lamina (a > 0). Prove that the x coordinate of the centre of gravity of
the lamina bounded by AB, BC and the arc AC of the circle with centre
O and radius a is (§a)/(4 — 77). [0.C.]
7. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the uniform lamina bounded by
the curve y = 2 sin$x and the axis of xbetween x = 0 and x = 27.
8. Show that the centre of gravity of a uniform thin hemispherical shell of
radius r is at distance $r from the plane of its rim.
9. Find the moment of inertia about one of its sides of a square lamina of
uniform density p and side of length a.
10. The perpendicular to the axis of x from the point P(2, 6) on the curve
y = $8 meets the axis at Q. Find the radius of gyration about PQ of
the uniform lamina bounded by the arc OP and the lines OQ, QP. [O.C.]
 APPLICATIONS FROM DYNAMICS 279
11. The area enclosed by the curve y? = 4ax, the axis of x and the line
x = his rotated through four right angles about the axis of x to form a
solid. Find the radius of gyration about the x-axis of this solid. [0.C.]

12. Show that the moment of inertia about its axis of a uniform solid circular
cone of mass M and base radius r is 33;Mr?.
13. Find by integration the radius of gyration of a uniform semi-circular
disc of radius a about its bounding diameter. Deduce its radius of
gyration about a parallel axis through the centroid G of the disc,
assuming that G is distant 4a/37 from the bounding diameter. [0.C.]
14. The smaller of the two areas bounded by the curve y* = 4x, the line
y = 2 and the line x = 4 rotates through four right angles about the
axis of x. Prove that the volume of the solid so formed is 187 and that
its radius of gyration about the axis of x is 21/2. [O.C.]

15. A uniform thin hemispherical shell has mass M and radius r. Show that
its moment of inertia about the radius perpendicular to its base is
$Mr’?. [0.C.]
10.9 Some applications from dynamics
If v is the velocity of a body which has travelled a distance x in
time t, we have seen in § 8.4 that v = dx/dt and hence, using equations
(9.1) and (9.3) with the appropriate changes in notation,
x= fodt. (10.11)
Again, if a is the acceleration of the body at time t, a = dv/dt and it
follows that
v = fa dt. (10.12)
Example 10. A body moves along a straight line so that, t seconds after passing a fixed
point A in the line, its velocity is (31? + 2t + 4) m/s. If it arrives at a point B in
the line 4 seconds after passing A, calculate the distance AB. Show that the body
is midway between A and B when its acceleration is 20 m/s*. [O.C,]
Here v = 377 + 2t + 4 and the distance x travelled in time ¢ is given by
x= fodt=fGf+2t+4)dt=F4+°4+44+C.
At time ¢ = 0, the body is at A and x = 0. Substituting these values of x and ¢
in the above formula we find that the arbitrary constant C is zero and hence
x= + 2 + 41. (10.13)
The distance AB is the value of x for which t = 4, that is

AB = (4)° + (4)? + 4(4) = 96 m.

The acceleration a is given by
dt d
Ss Hoon Ste
tet a0! 2 + 2t+4) == 6+ 2,
280 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and when this is 20 m/s?, we have 6¢ + 2 = 20 leading to t = 3. The distance

travelled when t = 3 is given by equation (10.13) as
x = (3)? + (3)? + 43) = 48 m,
showing that the body is then midway between A and B.
Example 11. A particle, moving in a straight line, has an acceleration of (2t — 9) m/s*
at time t seconds. If its velocity when t = 0 is 18 m|s, show that the particle is
stationary when t = 3 and find the other value of t for which it is stationary.
[N.U.]
The acceleration a = 2t — 9 and hence, by (10.12) the velocity v is given by
v = fadt = f(2t—9)dt=
fF —9t+C.
The value of the arbitrary constant C is found from the fact that v = 18 when
t = 0, so that 18 = (0)? — 9(0) + C, giving C = 18. Hence v = f* — 9t + 18
and the particle is stationary when
t?—9r+
18 =0.
This quadratic can be written (t — 3)(t — 6) = 0, so that the particle is at rest
when ¢ = 3 and again when ¢ = 6.

10.10 Motion with constant acceleration

An important particular case of formulae (10.11), (10.12) occurs

when the acceleration a is constant. In this case, (10.12) gives
v = fadt =af dt=at+C.
If u is the initial velocity of the body, then v = u when t = 0 and sub-
stitution gives u = C. Hence we have
v=u+at. (10.14)
The distance x travelled in time ¢ is given by (10.11) as x = fu dt and,
substituting for v from (10.14),
x = fut at) dt =ut+4at+Cc’.
If the body is initially at the origin, x = 0 when t = 0 giving C’ = 0
and
x = ut + far. (10.15)
Equations (10.14) and (10.15) respectively give the velocity v and
distance travelled at time ¢ for a body starting from the origin with
velocity uw and moving with constant acceleration a. It is sometimes
useful to combine these equations to give alternative formulae as
follows. Firstly, (10.15) can be written
x = gut + fut + tat? = d{u + (u + at)}t,
and substitution for u + at from (10.14) leads to
x = 4(u t+ v)t. (10.16)
 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 281
Secondly, equations (10.14) and (10.15) can be written at = v — u and
2ax = 2a(ut + 4at®) = 2u(at) + (at)*.
Substituting for at from the first of these in the second,

2ax = 2uvv — u) + (v— uP =(—uvtu)=—v2.

Hence
v? = u2 + Jax. (10.17)
Finally, equation (10.14) gives uw = v — at and substitution in (10.15)
yields x = (v — at)t + 4at? leading to
x = vt — fat’. (10.18)
The application of these important formulae to practical problems
is given in Chapter 16. Here we give a single example which illustrates
also a point arising in the calculation of mean values.
Example 12. A body has an initial velocity of 80 m/s and is subjected to a retardation
of 32 m/s*. Find the mean value of the velocity of the body during its forward
motion.
Here u = 80, a = —32 and equation (10.14) gives the velocity v at time ¢ in
the form v = 80 — 32t. Forward motion ceases when v = 0, that is when
t = 80/32 = 5/2 seconds and hence the mean velocity with respect to the time t is
5/2 2 5/2 2
cect imc I (80 — 322) dt ar [soe - 161’ mz (200 — 100) = 40 m/s.
6/2) — 0
In the above we have worked in terms of the time t. Alternatively we could have
worked in terms of the distance x moved by the body. In this case equation
(10.17) is used to give v? = 80* — 64x and forward motion ceases when
x = 80/64 = 100 m. The mean velocity with respect to the distance x is there-
fore
1 ie 8 ips
700 =o Jo |¥(6400 — 64x) dx= 755 Jy v(100 — x) dx
8 100
= 700 [-ac100 - xr

8 2
= 700° 3° 1000 = 53:33 m/s.

The different results obtained in this example for the mean velocity show that,
when a quantity can be expressed in terms of more than one variable, it is
important to state which is the variable whose range has been sub-divided in
calculating the mean.

Exercises 10 (c)

1. A particle starts from rest with acceleration (30 — 6f) m/s? at time ¢
seconds. When and where will it come to rest again? [0.C.]
282 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The velocity v m/s of a particle which travels from rest to rest in a

straight line is given at time ¢ seconds by v = 6 — 3¢°. Find the total
distance travelled. [N.U.]

A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration at time t is

(2 — 3) m/s*. Find the distance x m of the particle from the origin
at time f, subject to the conditions that x = 3 when ¢ = 0 and that the
velocity is zero when t = 1. At what other instant does the velocity
vanish ?
The velocity v m/s of a particle, moving in a straight line, at time ¢
seconds is given by the equation v = pf* + gt where p and q are con-
stants. If v = 24 when t = 1 and v = 15 when ¢ = 3, find the values
of p and q. Calculate also the distance travelled by the particle in the
sixth second. [N.U.]

A body, starting from the origin, moves along a straight line so that its
velocity at time ¢ is 6 sin 2t. Find a formula giving the distance travelled
in time ¢.

A particle moves in a straight line and its acceleration at time t seconds

is (A + 3f) m/s? where A is a constant. When t = 0 its distance from
the origin is 5 m and when f = 1 it is 13 m from the origin and moving
with a velocity of 10 m/s. Find the value of A.

A particle moves in a straight line, starting with a velocity of 4 m/s. At

time t seconds, its acceleration is 2(3¢ — 4) m/s?. Find (i) how far the
particle moves before first coming to instantaneous rest, (ii) the total
time that elapses before the particle returns to the starting point. [N.U.]
The acceleration of a body at time t seconds moving in a straight line is
8/t? m/s* and its velocity after 1 second is 6 m/s. Find (i) the distance
travelled in the time interval ¢ = 1 to t = 2, (ii) the further time required
to travel an equal distance. :
The retardation at time ¢ of a body starting from the origin with velocity
a is asint where a is a constant. Show that the displacement x at
time ¢ is given by x = asin ¢ and find, in the time interval 0 < t < 4z,
the mean velocity (i) with respect to time, (ii) with respect to displace-
ment.

10. What constant acceleration or retardation is required

(i) to move a particle 50 m from rest in 5 seconds,
(ii) to stop a particle moving with velocity 45 m/s in 15 m?
11. Two racing cars A and B pass the same point at the same instant. A is
moving at a steady speed of 120 m/s; B then has a speed of 110 m/s but
maintains a uniform acceleration of % m/s®. Write down the further
distance each travels in t seconds; hence find after what time B will
overtake A and what B’s speed will then be.
 EXERCISES 283
£2: A train takes ¢t and 31/2 seconds to travel successive distances of x m.
Assuming that the train moves with uniform retardation, show that this
retardation is (4x/15r*) m/s?.
i3: A body starts with velocity u m/s and moves with a constant acceleration
of 32 m/s”. It travels 720 m in the first t seconds and 2240 m in the first
2t seconds of its motion. Find u and ¢.
14. Two particles moving in a straight line have, at a given time ¢ = 0,
velocities u, and ua. The motion of the first particle is uniformly re-
tarded while that of the second is uniform. Prove that by the time the
first particle comes to rest, the distances travelled are in the ratio
Uy : QU.
15. If x1, ¥, and x, are the distances described by a body moving with uni-
form acceleration in a straight line in the pth, gth and rth seconds, prove
that x,(q — r) + x,(r — p) + x,(p — gq) = 0.

Exercises 10 (d)

Find the whole area enclosed by the curve y = x* — 5x? + 6x and the
axis of x.
The curve whose equation is y = x(x — a)(x — b) whereO << a<b
cuts the axis of x at O (the origin), A and Bin that order.
Calculate the
area contained between the curve and the portion OA of the axis. If
the two areas enclosed between the curve and the axis are equal in
magnitude, find the ratio of a to b. [N.U.]
Show that the mean ordinate of that part of the curve y = 3x — x?
which lies in the first quadrant is two-thirds of the maximum ordinate.
Sketch the curve x? = 4a(a — y), where a is positive. If the area
bounded by the axis of x and that portion of the curve which lies above
it is rotated about the axis of x, show that the volume of the solid formed
is (327ra°/15). [N.U.]
Calculate the volume of the solid formed when the area bounded by the
curve y = x? + 3, the axis of y and the line y = 4 rotates about the
axis of y. [N.U.]
The area enclosed by the coordinate axes and the curve y = cos? x
between x = 0 and x = $7 is rotated about the axis of x through four
right angles. Find the volume of the solid formed. [L.U.]
Sketch the curve y* = x*(x + 1)(2 — x). Find the ratio of the volume
obtained by revolving the larger loop of the curve about the axis of x to
that obtained by revolving the smaller loop about the same axis, both
rotations being through two right angles. [L.U.]
The part of the curve y = +/(20x — x”) between x = O and x = 10isa
quadrant of a circle. The arc of the curve from the origin to a point P
284 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

whose abscissa is a is revolved about the axis of x. If the volume of the

bowl thus obtained is one-half that of the bowl obtained by revolving
the whole quadrant, show that 30a” — a® = 1000.

Sketch the curve whose equation is y = (x + 1)(5 — x) and find the

coordinates of the points A and B where the line y = 2x + 5 cuts the
curve. Find the area bounded by the chord AB, the axis of x and the
intermediate arcs of the curve. Find also the volume produced when this
area is rotated about the axis of x through four right angles. [0.C.]

10. A barrel of circular cross-section is 1-2m long. Both end sections

are of diameter 0-6365 m, the central section is of diameter 0-764m
and sections at 0-3 m from either end are of diameter 0-716m. Use
Simpson’s rule to calculate the volume of the barrel.

11. AB is a non-uniform straight rod of length /, the density of which at a

distance x from A is a + bx? where a and b are constants. Prove that
the mass of the rod is 4/(3a + 5/*). Find also the distance of the centre
of mass of the rod from A. [O.C.]

Px Find the volume cut off from the solid obtained by rotating the curve
y® = 4ax about the axis of x by a plane at distance 5a from the origin.
If the solid is of uniform density, find also the position of the centre of
gravity of this part of the solid. [O.C.]

13. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the area lying between the
curves y? = 2x —4andy’= x. [L.U)

14. A uniform lamina is bounded by that part of the curve 9x? + 16y? = 144
which lies in the first quadrant. Show that the centroid is the point
(16/377, 4/7).

15. The surface density of a circular lamina of radius r varies as the distance
from the centre. If the total mass of the lamina is M, show that its
moment of inertia about an axis through the centre and perpendicular
to its plane is $Mr’.
16. A lamina of mass M is bounded by the curve y = sin x and the axis of
x between x = 0 and x = 7. Show that the moments of inertia with
Tespect to the axes of x and y are respectively $M and 4(7? — 4)M.
17. Show that the radius of gyration of a uniform triangular lamina of
base a and height h about its base is h/+/6.
18. A uniform lamina is bounded by the chord AB of a circle of radius a
and the arc ACB subtends an angle of 90° at the centre of the circle.
Prove that the radius of gyration of the lamina about the diameter
parallel to AB is 4aJ(ze [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 285
13: Show that the radius of gyration k of a uniform circular arc of radius r
and angle 2a about an axis through its centre of gravity perpendicular to
its plane is given by
=p (1zs ae
a2

Show also that the radius of gyration k’ about a parallel axis through the
middle point of the arc is given by

(k’)? = ?2?r2 (:= aa

a

20. The velocity of a body at time ¢ seconds is 6t — #2. Show that the dis-
tance travelled in the first 3 seconds is equal to that travelled in the
next 3 seconds.
2; The velocity v m/s of a body moving in a straight line and starting from a
fixed point O is given by v = 10 + 25t — 4t? where ¢ seconds is the
time from O. Calculate (to the nearest metre) the distance travelled
during the time for which the velocity is increasing.
A particle starting from rest and moving with constant acceleration in a
straight line travels 6 metres in the first second of its motion. In the
last second of its motion it travels $ths of the total distance travelled.
Find the total time of the motion and the total distance travelled.

23. A body moving in a straight line with constant acceleration passes in

succession three points P, Q, R. The distances PQ, QR are respectively
b, c and the times from P to Q and from @ to R are each t. Show that
the acceleration is (c — b)/t?.
The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line decreases uni-
formly from 64/15 to 16/15 cm/s? in half a minute. If it starts from rest,
find its greatest velocity in this half minute and the distance travelled.
Find also the velocity of the particle at the instant when the acceleration
vanishes.
p23 A train starts from rest with acceleration 1-1 m/s? and this acceleration
decreases uniformly to zero in 2 minutes. After this time the train is
brought to rest with a uniform retardation of 3 m/s?. Find the total
distance travelled during the journey.
 CHAPTER 11

THE LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS;

EXPANSIONS

11.1 Introduction
In reading § 9.2, the student should have noticed that the result
" nt
[> dx = a +.C

was invalid when nm = —1 and that there was no discussion of {x71 dx.
We start the present chapter by considering this integral and show how
it leads to two functions which are of great importance in mathematics
and its applications. Once this integral has been established, it is
possible to integrate many more functions, and gaps left in Chapter 9
can be filled in.
The latter part of the chapter deals with the expansion of functions in
series by means of the Taylor—Maclaurin theorem.

11.2 The integral {x dx

Fig. 109 shows the graph of y = 1/x for positive values of x and AA’,
BB’ are ordinates at x = 1, x =u. Using the results of § 9.9,
u

area AA’B’B = |x1 dx

1
and, as the ordinate BB’ moves to the right, it is clear that the area

y,
 THB INTEGRAL fx dx 287
u
AA’ B’B (and therefore the value of the integral[x7 dx) is an increasing
1
function of u. Denoting this by /(u), we therefore have
77

J(u) = area AA’B’B ={ xidx; (11.1)

1
and it should be noticed that when u = 1, the ordinate BB’ coincides
with AA’ so that the area 4.A’B’B is then zero, and hence
S() = 0. (11.2)
Values of f(u) for values of u other than unity can be found by evalu-
u

ating the integral} x ~1dx by the trapezoidal or Simpson’s rules and

the reader who has worked Exercises 9(f), 6 will in fact have done this
for the case u = 3. Results of such numerical integrations give
f2) = 0-693, (3) = 1-099,
(4) = 1-386,
and, if these results are plotted, the graph shown in Fig. 110 is obtained.
f(u)

Fic. 110

Fig. 110 shows values of f(u) only for values of u greater than unity.
Values of f(u) in the range 0 < u < 1 can be deduced from those already
found as follows. As 0 <u <1, then 1/u> 1 and

tf(<)= Iica dx.

Now change the variable in this integral from x to t where x = 1/t by

the method of § 9.12. The limits of integration correspond to values of
t of 1 and u and, since dx/dt = —1/t?, we have

u). (11.3)
f (7)=|" (-2)LA, Soy is dt=—fl
288 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Formula (11.3) enables the graph of f(u) to be extended to values of u

less than unity. For example, if u = 2 the formula gives
FQ) = —f(2) = —0-693
and ft4), fd), . . . can be found in the same way. Fig. 111 shows the
f(u)

Fie. 111
u

shape of the graph giving values of /(u) =| x1 dx for all positive

1
values of u.
11.3 Some further properties of the function f(u)
From (11.1), it follows that
d
me {f(u)} = ut (11.4)

and, if c is a constant, this formula and the rule for differentiating a

function of a function gives

< (Read) = (eu)? x @ =

Hence, by subtraction,
d d
aq how} — Ff} = 0
showing that
Jicu) — f(u) = constant.
The value of the constant can be found by writing u = 1,f(1) = 0 and
we find
ficu) — flu) = fc).
 THB LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION ; 289
This can be written
J(cu) = f(c) + fu) (11.5)
and, if we replace u by 1/u,
S{elu) = fle) + flu) = fc) — fu), (11.6)
when use is made of equation (11.3).
One further property of f(u) is required and this is obtained by writing
u = c" in (11.1) so that

Kc) = Igs dx.

Changing the variable in the integral by the substitution x = 1", the

limits of integration become 1, c and, since dx/dt = nt",

fie*) =| ee ae at nf t dt = nf(c). (11.7)

1 1

11.4 The logarithmic function

The properties f(cu) = f(c) + fu), fle/u) = (fe) — flu), fc”) = nfic)
and /f(1) = 0 suggest that there is a connection between the function
fu) and the logarithmic function for which log, (cu) = log, c + log, u,
log, (c/u) = log, c — log, u, log, (c") =nlog,c, log,1=0. This
connection can be established as follows.
The graph of Fig. 111 shows that /(w) = 1 when u is about 2:7 and
the precise value of u for which this is so will be denoted by e (it can be
shown in fact that e = 2:718. . . and this is done in § 11.10). Hence
Je) = 1 and, writing c = e, n = x in (11.7),

Sle*) = xfle) = x.
Setting e? = y, this gives f(y) = x and a combination of these two
results shows that
y=er=el™, (11.8)
Thus f(y) is the power to which the number e must be raised to make it
equal to y and hence, by the definition of a logarithm, the function fis
the logarithm to base e, that is
SO”) = log,y. (11.9)
The logarithm to base e¢is called a natural or Napierian logarithm and
a more modern notation for log, y is In y, the “n” signifying the word
“natural”.
290 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Changing the variable from y to x in (11.9) and from u to x in (11.4),

we have
d 1
(x) a log, x; dx {fi} = x

so that
1
£ {log, x} = 3 (11.10)

The inverse relation is

fxtdx = log,.x+C (11.11)
and these two results are of fundamental importance.
It should be noticed that, because of the identity between the function
fand the logarithm, Fig. 111 gives a graph of the logarithmic function.
Also, by writing a = 10,b = e = 2:718. . . in Example 6 of Chapter 1,
1
log, n = fog 2718... x logig ” = 2302... logo n. (11.12)

Example 1. If y = log, sin x, find dy/dx.

Writing u = sin x, y = log, u it follows by (11.10) that dy/du = 1/u. The rule
for differentiating a function of a function then gives

dy _ dy | du
dx du dx
1 ’ Sx
Se ity, Saxe

cos
=> = cotx.
sin

11.5 The exponential function

If x = log, y, the graph of Fig. 111 [with u = y and f(u) = x] shows
that x is given uniquely for positive values of y. We may also regard y
as a function of x and, remembering that x is the power to which the
base e must be raised to give y, we have
y= e", (11.13)
or, in a notation which is more convenient when x is replaced by a
complicated expression,
y = exp (x). (11.14)
y is called the exponential function of x and this function is of great
importance in mathematics and in its applications. The graph of the
exponential function can be obtained from that of Fig. 111 by inter-
changing the axes and this is shown in Fig. 112.
 THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION 291
To find the derivative of e*, we have from the equation x = log, y
and (11.10)

But, from (7.18),

so that

é (oe) 6. (11.15)

Fic. 112

This shows that the slope of the curve y = e® at a point whose abscissa
is x is equal to the ordinate at this point. The formula for the derivative
of a function of a function gives, if a is a constant,
d
Ae (27) =' ae**, (11.16)

and the inverse relation is

fe dx = :ew + C, (11.17)
292 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 2. If y = tan(e* — 1), show that y? =e *(dy/dx) — 1. [L.U.]

Writing e* — 1 = uso that y = tan u and du/dx = e*, we have

Fn ek beh
AAR ae sec?u Xx e
=e (1 +tan?u) =e(1+y).
Hence :
1+y= ras

and the required result follows immediately by transposing the first term on the
left.

Example 3. Find Sx e** dx.

Putting u = x, dv/dx = e** so that du/dx = 1 and v = } e*, the formula for
integrating by parts gives
fx dx = x(h e%*) — [IG &)}dex
= tx e* —4
J e**dx
= }xe*—fe+4C.
Example 4. Show that e 108.2 = x and that e—8108,2 = 1/x5.
Ify= e 10g,, then log,y= log,x . log, e= log,x, since log,e = 1.
Hence y = x.
If z= e—8 log, then
log, z = —3 log, x . log, e = —3 log, x = log, (1/x*),
so that z = 1/2*.

Exercises 11 (a)

1. Differentiate with respect to x

(i) xdog,x — 1), _— (ii) log, (1/x), _ iii) log, sec x.
2. Differentiate with respect to x
sin x + cos =} [0.C]
(i) oP° (ii) log, (
sin x — cos x
3. Show that the maximum value of the function x* log, (1/x) occurs when
x = 1/Ve.
4. Find the derivative with respect to x of log, {x//(1 — x”)} and show
that if y = log, {1 + /(1 — x”)} then

a 2txer=0. (L.U.]
5. If y = cos (log, x), show that
d yao,
J+xPr
 AN INTEGRAL DEPENDING ON fx—!
dx 293
6. If y= x” e*, show that
dy _ ny
dx ay= [L.U.]

7. Differentiate with respect to x

(i) e~** log, 3x, (ii) e* log, secx, (iii) x2e* tan x. [0.C.]
8. If y = (4 + Bx) e~* where A and B are constants, prove that
dty d
qa t2ety=0. [L.U.]
9. Prove that

2 Ge sinx — e* cos x) = 10 e* sin x.

Hence find the area bounded by the curve y = e*” sin x, and the segment
of the axis of x between x = 0 and x = 7. [L.U.]
10. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function (1 + 2x”) e-**.
[0.C.]
11. If y = e~“cos x, determine the three values of x between 0 and 37 for
which dy/dx = 0. Show that the corresponding values of y form a
geometrical progression with common ratio —e~*. [N.U.]
12. Given that y = e* sin bx where a and b are real constants, prove that

BID, nay
dt a
is a constant multiple of y. Deduce that all positive stationary values
of y are maximum values. (N.U.]
13. Evaluate the following definite integrals
2

@ i‘ede,
0
(ii) I\(@-edx,
0
(ili) [(x— ede. [LU,]
0

14. Find
(i) Se*® dx, — (ii) Jx* e** dx. [L.U.]
1
15. Show that i)xe dx = 4. [0.C.]
0

11.6 An integral depending on {x~ dx

It has been shown in equation (11.11) that [x1 dx = log, x + C and
this result enables some methods of integration which were omitted
from Chapter 9 to be discussed. It should first be noted that when x is
294 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
replaced by the linear expression (ax + 5), the above result together
with that of equation (9.7) 3

dx
lam
ats *log,(ax+b)+C (11.18)

and that, in the particular case in which a = 1, this reduces to

dx
ls = log, (x +5) + C. (11.19)

Equation (11.19) is a particular case of the integral

l=
f'®) dx,
I)
in which the numerator of the integrand is the derivative with respect
to x of the denominator and this integral can be evaluated as follows.
Writing f(x) = u, so that f’(x) . (dx/du) = 1 giving dx/du = 1/f'(x),
the rule (9.11) for integration by change of variable yields
if) RO oRag62 re | _( dad
chan RCM Choa Ae
=log,.u+C
= log, f(x) + C. (11.20)

Hence the integral of a fraction in which the numerator is the differential

coefficient of the denominator is log, (denominator).

Examplxample
e 5.
5. Eval Neil
valuate [7 n

d
Since oF (1 + e”) = 2x e*”, we have

1 xe 1 1 2xe
Meee ne 34 9 1+e
lg
2

— ——_—__—dx
2 0 1+ e«

=} [tog,(1+ |)

= 4
log,
(1+ e) — } log,21 = } log, i ssl
 RATIONAL ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS 295
Example 6. Integrate tan x with respect to x.

= — log,cosx
+ C.

11.7 The integration of rational algebraic fractions

The integration of rational algebraic fractions (those in which the
numerator and denominator contain only positive integral powers of
the variable and constant coefficients) can often be made to depend on
the integral given in (11.18). We give below some examples and it
should be noted that where the degree of the numerator is equal to or
greater than that of the denominator, the numerator must first be
divided by the denominator until the remainder is of lower degree than
the denominator.
(i) Denominator of the first degree
When the denominator is of the first degree, the remainder after the
division has been performed will be independent of the variable and the
integral will be given as a sum of terms involving powers of the variable
together with a logarithmic term.
: 3x dx
Example 7. Find i“S [L.U.]
Here the numerator is of the same degree as the denominator and, dividing 3x
by x + 2 we find
3x a 6
pie oy em x+2
the quotient being 3 and the remainder —6. Hence
3x dx
| cane [ 34x- (S
= 3x — 6 log, (+ +2)+C.

dx
Example 8. Find fpa
Here the numerator is of higher degree than the denominator and the division
process gives
296 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Hence yw:
x8 dx Ix
en [ce -- 2a t+fe
= — hx — 4x? — 2x — 4 log, (4 — 2x) + C.
(ii) Denominator of the second degree
When the denominator is of the second degree and when it splits up
into a pair of linear factors, the integrand can be resolved into partial
fractions by the method of § 2.12. Each partial fraction will produce a
logarithmic term when the integration is performed.

Example 9. Find J— [0.C]

We first factorise the denominator into (2x — 1) and (2x + 1) and write
2 A B
FE pes Wrage F fay agp eA
where A and B are two constants to be found. The usual method for resolution
into partial fractions then gives as the identity from which A and B are to be
determined
A(2x + 1) + Bx — 1) =2.
By letting x= +4 in turn we find A= —B = 1, so that
2 dri) re ide dx
4a —1 Sexton re
= $ log, (2x — 1) —4log,2x+1)+C
2x —1
= } log, (S-F7) +C.

Example 10. Find “a de. [0.c]

qicrethe numerator is of higher degree than the denominator and division shows
at
Paes +a a
7
ea “Too
The last term on the right is resolved into partial fractions by writing
ert 2 wah B
aah x oa +a
so that the identity for the determination of A and B is
A(x + a) + Bx — a) =.
By letting
x = +a in turn we find A = —B = }a*, Hence
e—ax+a
ie 2 dx sere dx
x? — a [rar tic(—— io]
= x7 + $a" log, (x — a) — fa* log, (x +a) +C
JS x-—a
= 3{x*+ atlog,(igre ail +C.
 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATION BY PARTS 297
(iii) Denominator of higher degree
When the denominator is of higher degree than the second, resolution
into partial fractions is still often useful. A few instances will be found
in the examples and exercises which follow.
2dx
Example 11. Find [aa [0.c,]
Here we write, since (x* + 1) isa quadratic factor of the denominator,
tA Beto
x@@+i) xt a4
and A, B, C are found from the identity
AG? + 1) + (Bx + C)x =2.
Equating the coefficients of x?, x and the terms not involving x gives respectively
A =2 and hence
A+B=0,C=0,
2dx 2 dx —2x dx
Jaeea-S>+ +
(x7 + 1)+ C,
= 2 log,x — log,
the second integral on the right being found by the method of § 11.6.
11.8 Further examples of integration by parts
The method of integration by parts (§ 9.6) is often effective when the
integrand contains the function log, x. If this function is taken as u in
the formula
dv du
[ uGae = wo — |oar, (11.21)

then du/dx in the integral on the right is 1/x and the integral can often
be found easily. As a simple example the integral f log, x dx can be
found by taking u = log, x, dv/dx = 1 so that du/dx = 1/x and v = x.
Formula (11.21) then gives
1
tog, a ae= x tog, x — [> (:)dx
= xlog,x — fdx = xlog,x-—x+C.
Another example which depends on the work of this chapter is
given below.
Example 12. Find ftan~ x dx.
Writing u = tan™ x, dv/dx = 1 we have du/dx = 1/(1 + x*) and» = x. Hence
(11.21) gives
x dx
fant x dx=x tan? x — Jerez

=xtantx—} (rs dx
= xtan? x — 4 log,(1 + x7) +C,
the second integral on the right being found by the method of § 11.6.
298 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Exercises 11 (b)

Find the following indefinite integrals

x? dx (x + 2) dx
1. HN [0.C.] 2. Rg rye: [0.C.]

affect) ee core
eee ee ee

1—x (x? + 3) dx
5. IG fh ;)dx. [O.C.] 6. eae 4

dx x dx
eee [O.C.] 8. |G@—iItx—2D [O.C.]

5x dx (x + 6) dx
Gress bal [Oe Co
x? dx (4x + 3) dx
11. |~ rt [O.C.] 12. aeons

1B dx ; 14 _
5)dx
(Ox +
3 (x — 1)? + 1) : (x —
3)? + 4)
Evaluate the following definite integrals
15 ° Idx.
Gx + 16 ee ee
Fare kb | “Jo @+DE+2)

Pte ig acc Tn peer eres

"Jp 4%— 328 er eee
Use the method of integration by parts to find the following integrals
19. fx log, x dx. 20. fx log, (x + 4) dx.
21. =fa4 log, Sx ax [O.C.] 22. fx sec? x dx.
23. Show that
x — sinx
lS j & = 3% tan x + 3 log, cos x — } sec x + Ci v(0:cy

24. Show that cosec x = ($ sec? $x)/(tan x) and hence find f cosec x dx.
By replacing x by x + 47, deduce that
J sec
x dx = log, tan (J7 + 4x) + C.
25. Use the substitution »/x = u to find jl + Vx) dx. Deduce that

{4 eae a ey dx = 2/5 —3+4log,3). [LU]

 TAYLOR-—MACLAURIN THEOREM 299
11.9 Successive approximations and the Taylor—Maclaurin theorem
Consider first the function 1/(1 + x) when -—1 <x <1. By actual
division we find
1 x x
—— = | — —__ =] — — = |— yee
1+~x 1+x raaE psme es 1+~x
and so on. Hence 1, 1 — x, 1 —x-+x%,.. . are successive approxi-
mations to the function 1/(1 + x), for the respective errors are

ee ee ee
1+x 1+x 1+x hae
and, since —1 < x < 1, these errors become progressively smaller. It
should be noticed that for x = 0, the successive approximations are all
equal, from 1 — x onwards they all have the same first derivative,
from 1 — x + x? onwards they all have the same second derivative
and so on.
This suggests the following method of approximating to a function.
Let
SA + x) ay + Gx + ayx? + gx? +... +,x", (11.22)
and choose dp, 4), a2, a3, . . ., a, So that f(x + h) and its first n de-
rivatives have the same values when x = 0 as the polynomial on the
right and its n derivatives. By this procedure it might well be expected
that the polynomial will be a successively better approximation to the
function as the number of its terms increases.
The first, second and third derivatives of the polynomial on the right
of (11.22) are respectively
a, + 2a,x + 3a3x7?° +... + na,x"4,
2ag + 3.2a3x +... +n(n — la,x™,
(3.2a,+4.3.2ax+...+n(n— ln —2)a,x™,
and so on for the higher derivatives. The values of the polynomial and
its first n derivatives are, when x = 0, therefore dp, a,, 2!a,, 3!a3,.. .,
(n)!a,. Equating these to the values of f(x + h) and its first n derivatives
when x = 0, we have

O = fih), 4, = f'(A), 2!a, = f(A), 31a, = f(A), « « 01a, =f),

and we may expect to be able to write

fe +h) =fO +S O+ES OFT 1 x " ie

+... + KS. ae n

Provided f(x) satisfies certain conditions, it can in fact be proved

(but we shall not attempt to do so here) that the non-terminating series
300 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
fh) + xf'(h) + GP/2/ f(A) +. . . converges and that the limit of its
sum is f(x + A). In such cases,

fet +O +50 or SOR) +. a:ee

=f)=f) t+xof'O+=fM+...4—
2 x”

and the series on the right of (11.23) is called Taylor’s series for f(x + A).
In the special case of h = 0, (11.23) reduces to

fe) =f) + >f'O + F/O +--+

Sade

fO) +... (11.24)

(n)!
and the series in (11.24) is known as Maclaurin’s series for f(x).
Example 13. If x is the radian measure of an angle which is so small that x* and higher
powers of x can be neglected, show that
sin (47 + x) =$4+4V3x—-—}%. [O.C.]

Here h=4n and f(x) =sinx, f(h) =sintn =}. Hence f’(x) =cosx,
f’(®) = —sinx so that f’(A) = cos 4a = +/3/2 and f’(h) = — sin¢a = —}.
Substituting in (11.23) and neglecting the terms in x* and higher powers im-
mediately gives the required result.

11.10 Series for e* and log, (1 + x)

As examples of Maclaurin’s expansion (11.24), we give below the
series for e* and log, (1 + x).
If f(x) = e*, all the derivatives are e” and we have
JH =fM=/')...=f/ap=.. =e,
and
JO=fO=f"O=...=fMO)=...=%=1.
Hence, from (11.24),
eo x"
e wd = ] taxetest t
ard eee egypt on ee @ (11.25)
°

and it can be shown, but this is not attempted here, that (11.25) is valid
for all values of x. The expression on the right of (11.25) is known as
the exponential series and has many applications. Here we shall only
use it to calculate the value of e a little more accurately than the value
taken from the graph of Fig. 111 and given in § 11.4. Thus, with x = 1,
1 1 | 1
e=1+1+ aratatstat:-:-
= 1-000 + 1-000 + 0-5000 + 0-1667 + 0-0417 +
0:0083 + 0-0014 + 0:0002 +... =2-718...
 SERIES FOR e* AND LOG, (1 + x) 301
Iff(x)= ws (1 + x), f(0) = log, 1 = 0 and

FO aetna) = ae» IO)

uf — 1 ‘5 mt es Z

P=
~
aye
—6

Hence
fO=1, fO=-1, /'O=2!, /fv0)=—-3!, ...
and (11.24) gives
shes ee
log, (1 + x) =x 5 =i: Bore, tee (11.26)

This is the Jogarithmic series and, for reasons which we cannot go into
here, it is valid only for the restricted range -—1<x <1. Hence
(11.26) can only be used for calculating natural logarithms for small
values of x and, even for values of x approaching unity, many terms
of the series have to be used to obtain reasonable accuracy. However,
by algebraical manipulation, the series can be recast into a form which
permits the calculation of the logarithms of larger numbers and a
typical example is given below.
Example 14. If x > 1, show that
x41) 1 1 1
3 log, ( iy 38 eet

and use this result to calculate log, 2 to three places of decimals.

Since
sates (Ft) a1 ( ee ( ae)
log, (Zi' log, Vase Lx log, {1 + Es log, \1 ms

and since x > 1, x can be replaced by 1/x and —1/x in turn in (11.26) to give

25g
log,(2*4) =2-sat+s3-ate
SA gegh esis
saesa) ea (= 5) aaa) i453(S3) 4
oe! ht gee | {\4 1 1

1 1 1
=2(i+s5+a5+. . ali

and the required result follows after division by 2. Putting x = 3 we have

4 1 1 1
we (5) =2(3+5x9+5eRt--)
= 2(0:3333 + 0-:0124 + 0:0008 +. . .)
and this leads immediately to log, 2 = 0-693. . .
302 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
11.11 Newton’s method of approximation to the root of an equation
An interesting and useful application of Taylor’s series is Newton’s
method of approximating to the root of an equation.
Suppose that x = « is an approximation to a root of the equation
J(x) = 0 and that the actual value of this root is « + ¢ where e is small.
Then f(« + ¢) = 0 and, writing h = «, x = « in (11.23),

fO+ FOC @+... +2 f@+...=©.

Neglecting powers of the small quantity e above the first,
f(a) + f'(«) = 0,
so that e = —f(«)/f’(«) and a better approximation than x = « to the
root is
a — flaky (11.27)
f'(@)
Example 15. Find, correct to three decimal places, the root of the equation
— 8x = 60 which is nearly equal to 3.
Here f(x) = x* — 8x — 60, f’(x) = 4x° — 8, so that
f@G) = )* — 83) — 60 = —3, f’(3) = 4(3)* — 8 = 100.
Hence a better approximation than x = 3 is
a
pa oe
dhe 7 el ee
100 = 3-03.

A better approximation than x = 3-03 can be obtained by reworking the above

with 3-03 in place of 3. Thus
£(3-03) = (3-03)* — 8(3-03) — 60 = 0-049,
f'G-03) = 4(3-03)® — 8 = 103-273,
and the next approximation is
[BB 0-049
x = 3:03 — = 3-02951
fGe)__ 103-273
= 3-030 (to three places).

Exercises 11 (c)
1. If x is sufficiently small for x* and higher order terms to be neglected,
show that tan(x + 6) = tan6 + x sec?@ + x? sec? 6 tan 0.
2. Assuming the expansions are convergent, show that
, oe ae ry. bak
BD Xe 3} gay Ss diana iy boli Bee

3. Prove that the first three terms in the expansion of log, (1 + e*) ina
series of ascending powers of x are log, 2 + 4x + $x? and that there
is no term in x’, [O.C.]
 EXERCISES 303
Show that the expansion of sec x in a series of ascending powers of x
as far as the term in x4 is 1 + 4x2 + s&x4. [0.C.]
If y = e°°8*, prove that

a4 © sinx + ycosx =0

and that, if x is so small that x° and higher powers can be neglected, then
y= el — 4x2 + 4x4, [0.C.]
If x° and higher terms are neglected, show that
log. {x + V(1 + x} = x — $x*. [0.C.]
If -1<x<landy=x+}°+ }°+}+. . ., give an expres-
sion not involving a series for y in terms of x. Hence find an expansion
for x in powers of y as far as the term in y4. [N.U.]

Given that y = (2 + x)?e~, find the expansion of y in ascending powers

of x as far as the term in x*. Find also the expansion of log, y in as-
cending powers of x as far as the term in x* and state the coefficient of
5 km [N.U.]

Prove that

roe 1 1 1
loge( x peril ot sat re + 5@x+
0 t° }
stating the range of values of x for which the series is valid. [0.C,]
10. Expand E = log, {(2 — x)/(1 — x)} in ascending powers of x up to x3,
Evaluate E when x = $ and hence find log, 3 to three places of decimals,
given that log, 2 = 0-6931. [0.C.]

11. If « is so small that its cube and higher powers may be neglected, find
the values of the constants A, B and C so that
exp (x + a) = A exp (x) + Bexp (x + $a) + Cexp(x+ $a).
12. If p, g are the roots of the quadratic equation x? — ax + b = 0, show
that for suitable values of x,
log, (1 + ax + bx) =(p+ 9x —HP?+ 7) + i P+P)xr—. .
13. Given that a root of the equation (x? + 9)°/? + 8x? + x = 258 is close to
4, find the value of this root correct to three significant figures. [O.C.]

14. A root of the equation sin 4x + cos x — 4$¢ = 0 is approximately 47.

Find the value of this root correct to three decimal places. [O.C.]

15. Use Newton’s method of approximating to the root of an equation to

find the positive square root of 26 to three decimal places.
304 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 11 (d)

Find the derivative with respect to x of

3+ 4cosx
ies eee 0.C.
log. (;+ 3cos ;) : !

If y = e& tan x, show that

ay ~ Al + tanx) ay
Fa 7 + (+ 2 tan xy = 0. 0.C
[0.C.]

If A, B, k and p are constants and

£ (Ae sinpx + Be™ cos px) = e™ sinpx

for all values of x, find A and B in terms of k and p. Hence evaluate

a4

With the same axes and scales for both graphs, draw the graphs of
y = e* and y = 15/(«+ 1) from x = 0 tox = 3.
A point P(x, y), where 1 < y < 15, is taken on the curve y= e*. A
rectangle is formed by the lines x = 0, y = 15 and the perpendiculars
from P to these lines. Show that the area of the rectangle is a maximum
when (x + l)e* = 15 and obtain the approximate solution of this
equation from your graphs. [LU]

If y = e* cos 3x, show that

eyes Sp

If y = Ae~™ cos (x + «) where A and « are constants, prove that

sate dy re it's
(i) he + a +2y =0, (ii) A + 4y =0. [O.C.]

Show that
2

og tatana [72-3 (FR

where C is an arbitrary constant. By expanding the integrands as far as

the terms in x°, find the first six terms of the series for log, (1 + x + x?)
for small values of x. [N.U.]
Find

ofe5
‘ x dx
@= (Fhe,
2x +3
awae (perp
x8 dx
 EXERCISES 305
Find
6x dx - (5x + 8) dx < (3 + 2x) dx
@ fees “ ices She h gers
[0.C.]
10. Evaluate
ET ee my dl eee ie
@) [ x2 + 4x. (ii) [ x(1 + x)

11. Integrate with respect to x

(i) x? tan“ x, (ii) (log, x)/(x + 1)%.
12. Find by integrating by parts the area bounded by the curve
y = (log, x)/V/x,
the x-axis between x = 1 and x = e and the line x = e. [N.U.]

13. Show that

2 dx
fechas = log, (1 + 1/e). [N.U.]

14. Prove that the area enclosed by the curve y = tan x, the x-axis and
x = 47 is log, 2. If the point (x, j) is the centroid of this area, prove
that 7 = (34/3 — 7)/(6 log, 2) and calculate x by means of Simpson’s
rule with ordinates at intervals of 7g7, given that tan yga7 = 2 — /3.
[0.C.]
15. Prove that if C = fe** cos bx dx and S = fe® sin bx dx then
aC — bS = e* cos bx, aS + bC = e™ sin bx.
ar]2
Evaluate [ e*” sin 3x dx. [0.C.]
0
16. A particle is projected with a speed of 3 cm/s along the axis of x towards
the origin O from an initial position at a distance of 1 cm from O on the
positive side of O. After time ¢ seconds its displacement x cm from O is
given by x = Ae~* + Be~* where A and B are constants. Find the
numerical values of A, B and the time at which the particle reaches O.
Show that the particle travels beyond O and that the time taken to
travel from O to the furthest position reached beyond O is log, 2
seconds. [N.U.]

17. Sketch the curve y%(x + a) + x(x — a) =0, where a is a positive

constant. Show that the volume enclosed by rotating about the axis of
x the part of the curve which lies between x = 0 and x = ais
ma*(1:5 — 2 log, 2).
306 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

18. If y = exp (sin? x) prove that

d ; d*y
= ysin 2x, Fai = WAI + 4 cos 2x— cos 4x)

and obtain the expansion of y as far as the term in x4. [0.C.]

19. Find the expansion of (sin x)/+/(1 — x?) in ascending powers of x as
far as, and including, the term in x*. [O.C.]
20. If y = (1 + x) log, (1 + x) prove that

reDe aeashes
BT d+xiiP) +275Ae OS
a+ oe
x

Show also that, if x®° and higher terms are neglected, then
y=x-FP +P eO-Hx [0.C.]
21. If y = (1 + x)? log, (1 + x), evaluate dy/dx and d*y/dx*. Prove that,
if n > 2, then
wy 2.(n — 3)!
dx" (1+ x)"
and deduce that the expansion of y as far as the term in x‘ is
Y=REEM + EO — ge xt. [0.C.]
pass In the equation x*+4 = e?, A is a small quantity whose third and higher
powers may be neglected. Prove that

(i) x/e = exp c ed

(ii) x = e(1 — 4A + $22).

23. Prove that log,e— logye + logge — logge +. ..=1 where e is
the base of natural logarithms. [N.U.]
Find, correct to three decimal places, the root of the cubic equation
x* + 2 = 9-7x which is close to 3.
25; Given that logy)x= 0-4343 log,x and that a root of the equation
x + logio x = 5 lies between 4 and 5, find this root to three significant
figures,
 CHAPTER 12

ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

12.1 Introduction
Problems in science and engineering can often be expressed in
mathematical form but it is usually necessary to make simplifications
and approximations before this is possible. The choice of these simpli-
fications and approximations is a matter of some skill since they must
not be so drastic that the mathematical problem does not properly
represent the actual problem and, at the same time, they must be chosen
so that the resulting equations are reasonably simple.
The translation of an actual physical problem into mathematical
form usually starts from well-established physical laws which can be
expressed as mathematical equations, and principles which permit the
choice of physically acceptable solutions to such equations. Typical
examples are that (for a certain range of speeds) the drag of the air on
an aeroplane is proportional to the square of its speed and the principle
that energy cannot be created or destroyed. The resulting mathematical
formulation is often given as an equation involving differential co-
efficients and in this chapter we give an introduction to the study of the
simplest types.
12.2 Some definitions
Equations such as
d d* d* d? dy
2 =y, <a + 4y =0, i+ 255435 +2y=cosx,

all of which involve differential coefficients, are known as differential

equations. The order of such an equation is defined as the order of the
highest differential coefficient appearing in it and the order of the above
three equations are therefore respectively first, second and third.
Here we shall only be concerned with certain very special forms of
first and second order equations. Typical examples are
dy
Fn ES dy
ed da ¥x (12.1)

d*y (12.2)
=>
De + 4y == 10, 12:2

and the solution in each case consists of a relation between the two
variables x and y, free from differential coefficients.
307
308 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12.3 First order equations with variables separable

The first order differential equation to be considered in this chapter
is one which can be written in the form

dy _ J@), (12.3)
dx g(y)
where f(x) and g(y) are functions respectively of x and y. That the
equations in (12.1) are of this type can be seen by writing them respec-
tively in the forms
d
goZ--=
Be
wee ae ,a
Gymrt ete
so that, in these three examples, f(x) and g(y) are given by
(i) f(x) = cosx, g(y)=1, = ii) f() = 1, g—) = I),
Gii) f(x) = 1/2 + x), 8) = 1/%.
To solve equation (12.3), we first multiply by g(y) to give

8(Y) dy
F = SO).
Integration with respect to x of each side of the equation then leads to
d
|20) pdx = {fe) dx + C (12.4)
where C is an arbitrary constant. In obtaining equation (12.4) the
reader should note that it is unnecessary to add arbitrary constants
C, and C, to each indefinite integral. If we did include two such con-
stants, equation (12.4) would be
d
[eo osdx + C, =| 09 dx + Cy
and this could be written in the form

foo dZa=[mata-c
=| fo)dx + C,

where C = C, — C, is simply another arbitrary constant. The left-

hand side of (12.4) can be simplified to fg(y) iio that ;
Sg) dy = [f(%) dx + C. (12.5)
 FIRST ORDER EQUATIONS 309
When f(x) and g(y) are given functions and when the integrations have
been carried out, equation (12.5) gives a relation between the two vari-
ables x and y free from differential coefficients and is the required
solution of the differential equation (12.3).
In the solution of the differential equation (12.3), some of the steps
described above can be omitted in practice. If we treat dy and dx as
separate quantities, the differential equation

dy _ f)
dx g(y)
can, by cross-multiplication, be written

8(y) dy = f(x) dx
and everything involving y is on one side of the equation and everything
involving x is on the other. In this form, the variables x and y are said
to be separated. Integration of both sides and the addition of an arbi-
trary constant then leads to the solution ;
Ja) dy = [fx) dx + C
as given in (12.5).
Example 1. Solve the differential equation dy/dx = cos x.
Here cross-multiplication gives
dy = cos x dx
and the variables are now separated. Integrating
fdy = § cos x dx,
giving, for the required solution
y=sinx+C.

Example 2. Solve the differential equation

seox2= y(l — 9%). [0.C.]

Cross-multiplication and integration gives

J sat p5 ~leos ae

so that
sin y =sinx +C
is the required solution.

In some cases a neater solution to a differential equation is given by

taking the arbitrary constant in logarithmic form. The following are
typical examples.
310 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 3. Solve the differential equation dy/dx = y.
Here separation of the variables by cross-multiplication and integration gives

J aJe
d.
-
and this leads to the solution log, y = x + C. If we write C = log, A, where
A is therefore another arbitrary constant, the solution is log, y = x + log, A.
This can be written
log, y— log, A= x
so that

and hence

The neatest form of the solution is then y = Ae*.

Example 4. Show that the solution of the differential equation

ay yy +1) =0
ines

can be written in the form y = Ax(y + 1) where A is a constant.

The given equation can be written
d =yy+0
x2
and separation of the variables by cross-multiplication gives

Integrating

fot D {2 + log,A

where log,A is an arbitrary constant. Resolving 1/{y(y + 1)} into partial

fractions,

I~ Fea) o=JS + 84
giving
log, y— log,
(y + 1) = log,x + log,A.
This can be written
SM
log, (4) een= log, (Ax)

so that y/(y + 1) = Ax and hence y = Ax(y + 1).

So far all the solutions obtained have contained an arbitrary constant;
such solutions are known as general solutions. “Particular” solutions
 FIRST ORDER EQUATIONS 311
are often required which, as well as satisfying the differential equation,
fulfil given relations between the variables. Two examples are given
below.
Example 5. Find a solution of the differential equation
dy
(1 t+xi) FZ + xe% =0

which satisfies the condition y = 1 when x = 0. [O.C.

Writing the equation in the form
d
(i+ 2 = —xe4,

separation of the variables and integration gives

x dx
Jfae -{ 1+x
This leads to
ev = —h log, (1+ x7) +C
as the general solution. Since y = 1 when x = 0,
e = —} log, (1) + C,
giving C = e and the required solution can be written
$ log,(1 + x*) =e— e.

Example 6. Jf x(1 — y)(dy/dx) +2y =0 and y=2 when x =e, show that
soye© = 2.
The differential equation can be written
d
x(l—y) f= -2y

(2) 9-4
so that, by cross-multiplication
ee

fi-a)e= af
Writing the left-hand side as {(1/y) — 1} dy and integrating

we have
log.
y —y = —2log,x
+C
as the general solution. Putting y = 2, x = eand remembering that log, e = 1,
log,2 —-2=—-2+C
so that C = log, 2 and
log,
y — y = —2 log, x + log, 2.
Hence,
log, y + 2 log, x — log,2 = y
312 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

micas
or

and }x*y = e¥, from which the required result follows on cross-multiplication.
Exercises 12 (a)
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations
dy
5 _ ph tay
IU + 9.

ay 5 sin
az + Sinx = 0. = 4. Yiet=
ae = 0.

d d
secx > + secy = 0. 6. o = 4xy.

x2 yay. 8. & _sinxtany = 0. [0.C.]

yd +292 — 2x01- y= 0. 10. Za xty=

x4
[N.U.]
d
11. Qy + 1) S — 3x%y = 0. 12. ® — x cosecty = 3 cosec*y.
(N.U.]
Find the solutions of the following differential equations subject to the
conditions stated

13. as y = 3 when x = 2.

d :
14. ee =(1 — ys y =0Owhenx =0. [N.U.]

15. Oe
ae Ymits1s y tr= 2 when x = 0.

16. ideaday I=1;

Pia y== /2
V2 when
wh x =]
= 1.

ae
17. 2y a, ~ Sin 2x = 0; y = 0 when x = 0.

dx
18. a =1; y=Owhenx=0.

19, (GP2 — 1) dy
a. + 2y = 05 y = 3 when x = 2, [N.U.]

20. dy = xy’;:
ee y= 1 whenx =0. [0.C.]
 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS 313
12.4 Homogeneous equations
The first order differential equation

2 eH (2) (12.6)
in which the right-hand side is a function of the ratio y/x, is said to be
homogeneous. The equation can be reduced to an equation in which
the variables can be separated by means of the substitution y = vx.
Thus, if y = vx, it follows that

and equation (12.6) becomes

dv
x +v= fv). (12.7)

This can be written

x i = f(v) — 2,

and separation of the variables by cross-multiplication gives

no,
fe) -v x
The general solution of the transformed equation (12.7) then follows
by integration and the solution of the original equation (12.6) is then
given by substituting y/x for v.
d
Example 7. Solve the equation x 2 —y=x. [0.C.]}
Here x(dy/dx) = x + y and this can be written
dy ue y
alt?
so that the equation is of the form (12.6) and is homogeneous. Writing y = vx,
so that
dy dv
tem de
the equation becomes ,
v
oi? i ads 1+.

This reduces to
dv
314 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and, separating the variables, we have

gh ef
x,

feo
Hence

giving
v = log, x + log, A,
where log, A has been taken as the arbitrary constant. Substituting » = y/x,
the solution of the original equation is

z= log,x + log,A,

and this can be written y = x log, Ax.

Example 8. Find the solution of the equation (x + y) e + y =x which satisfies the

condition y = 1 when x = 3.
Here
ay Sy Lay).
dx x+y ~ 1+ (y/x)
showing that the equation is homogeneous. The substitution y = vx transforms
the equation into
dv 1l—v
BaeSF acs
so that
dv i1-—v 1 — 2v — v?
7 dheTpokecbre gat 1+v
Separation of the variables and integration gives
(=
(i+ v)dv ai)dx
1 —2v —v?

and, since l +v = 5 — 2v — v*), this yields

—}log,(1 — 2v — v*) = log,x + log,

A,
where the arbitrary constant has again been taken as log, A. This can be written
log,x+ log,A + log, (1 — 2v — v*) =
so that
AxV/(1 — 20 — v*) = 1.
Substituting v = y/x, the general solution of the original equation is
A(x? — 2xy — y') = 1
and, since y= 1 when x = 3, we have
AVQ9—6—1)=1
giving A = 1/+/2. Hence the required solution is x* — 2xy — y* = 2,
 A SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 315
12.5 An important second order differential equation
The second order differential equation
@2
SS ny = ¢,

in which n and ¢ are constants, has many applications to physical

problems and a particular example is given in § 21.2. The general
solution of this equation can be found as follows.
First consider the equation
dq?
“4 + ny =0. (12.8)
Writing v = dy/dx, we have

and equation (12.8) becomes

dv
v—+ny=0.
dy
Separation of the variables and integration gives
fo dv = —n*{y dy,
so that
$v? = —4$n*y* + C.
Taking the arbitrary constant C as 4na®, this gives v? = n*(a? — y*)
where a is another arbitrary constant. Since v = dy/dx, we have

o = nya — y)
so that, separation of the variables in this equation and integration
leads to

dy
\Fcoss ee ha
Hence

sin-1 (2)=nx+C’

and, if we take the arbitrary constant C’ in the form ne, it follows that
y = asin n(x + &).
316 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Next consider the equation

a + n*y =c (12.9)
dx*
in which n and c are constants. Writing y = (c/n”) + z and noticing
that

Dw dx
dx
Ee Maadx al ee
dx
we have
d%z
eae 27
dx? seed
of which the solution is, as above,
z= asin n(x + 6).

Hence the solution of (12.9) is

= 5 + asin n(x + 6). (12.10)

When the arbitrary constant a is zero, this solution reduces to y = c/n?
and this is called a particular integral of the differential equation (12.9).
Example 9. Solve the equation
d*y
a + 4y = 10

given that y = dy/dx = 0 when x = 0. [0.C.]

Here n = 2, c = 10 and the general solution of the differential equation is given
by (12.10) as
10
y= a + asin 2(x + 8).

It follows that
d
4 = 2a cos 2(x + 8)

and since y = dy/dx = 0 when x = 0, the arbitrary constants a, ¢ are given by

the equations
10 :
O= 7 + asin 2e, 0 = 2a cos 2e.

A solution of these equations is 2s = $7, a = # so that the required solution of

the differential equation is
y =4 + isin (2x + ix) = 11 — cos 2x).
 EXERCISES 317
Exercises 12 (b)
Find the general solutions of the following homogeneous equations
apy d
mtigcs 2. xy =y+xe/* [0.C.]
d
axt = xy? = 0.

Find the solutions of the following homogeneous equations subject to the

conditions stated

dry P= xt ys y= whens = 2.

dry 2— xt = 3y?; y= Owhen

x = 1.

Show that the general solution of the equation

Ah
ee) aayee
can be written in the form tan~ (y/x) = log, {C\/(x? + y*)} where C
is an arbitrary constant.
If y = 4 when x = 1 and if y satisfies the equation

x 2 +xy—-y=0,

find the value of y when x = 2.

By means of the substitution y = vx reduce the differential equation

xy ays vorty®

to an equation in v and x. Find the solution, given that y = 1 when

= 1. [0.C.]
Solve the following second order differential equations subject to the
conditions stated
2
Sty= 0; y = 1 when x = 0, y = 0 when
x = }7.

d*y 4ym1j y= Vanda

pat dy 4 when x oo= 0. [0.C.]

it. oy + y= 4; y =0and 2 = 2 when x =0. [0.C.]

12. or 4y = 10; y = 1 when x = O and when x = }1. [O.C.]
dx?
318 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12.6 Some applications to practical problems

The first part of this chapter has been concerned with the solution
of certain special types of first and second order differential equations.
There are, of course, many other types of such equations but these are
outside the scope of the present book. However, many practical prob-
lems give rise to the differential equations which we have considered
and we give below some typical examples and exercises.
Example 10. A particle is projected with velocity u at time t =0 and moves in a
straight line. At time t its velocity is v and the distance travelled is x. The accelera-
tion of the particle is —kv" where k is a positive constant and n is a constant less
than unity. Show that the particle will come to rest when
yi ye
a Se N.U.
‘Gna *Phew ae ae Oe
By equation (8.2), the acceleration of the particle at time ¢ is dv/dt so that
dv
ae —kv,

This is a first order differential equation in which separation of the variables

and integration gives
Jo-* dv = —k{ dt
leading to
—n

ry
= ret te.
The arbitrary constant C can be found from the fact that v = u when t = 0, so
that
ui +
l—-nz ~*~
Hence
1I—n __ z1l—n

1l—n
and, since the particle comes to rest when v = 0, the time required is given by
t= u'"/(1 — nk. The acceleration can also be expressed, see equation (8.4),
as v dv/dx giving
v
v= = —kv",
dx
Separation of the variables and integration now gives
fol dv = —kSdx
and
pon
= —kx+C’,
2-—n
Since v = u when x = 0,
 APPLICATIONS TO PRACTICAL PROBLEMS 319
and
ye" — yn
kx = —~————__
2—n.

Writing v = 0, the distance travelled when the particle comes to rest is given by
x=u-"/(2 — nk.

Example 11. The rate of decay of a certain radioactive substance is kx, where x is the
fraction of substance remaining at time t and k isa constant. Show that the half-
life of the substance is (1/k) log, 2.
The rate of increase of x with respect to t is dx/dt so that its rate of decay is
—dx/dt. Hence
a
eg ie, kx

and separation of the variables in this differential equation and integration gives

~ {2% =xfae

This gives
—log,x =kt+C
and the arbitrary constant C can be found from the fact that x = 1 when
t=0. This gives C = 0 and hence log, x = —kt. The half-life is the time at
which x = 4 and hence
log, 4) = —kt
leading to t = (1/k) log, 2.

Example 12. A curve passes through the point (3,1) and its gradient at the point
(x, y) is given by 2{1 + (y/x)}. Find the equation of the curve.

a (i+2)
Since the gradient of the curve at the point (x, y) is dy/dx, we have

This is a homogeneous equation and the substitution y = vx transforms it into

op ae aye + v).
dx
A little simplification, separation of the variables and integration gives
i dee ia
240 J x’
leading to
log, (2 + v) = log,x + log, A.
Hence 2 + v = Ax and, since v = y/x, this becomes
2x + y = Ax’,
Since the curve passes through the point (3, 1), the arbitrary constant A is
iven b
i ms 2(3) + 1 = A(3)*,
so that A = $. Hence the required equation of the curve is y = ¢x* — 2x.
320 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 13. A particle starting from rest at the origin O moves along the positive
x-axis and its acceleration when at distance x m from O is (1 — x) m|s*. Find
the distance travelled and the velocity acquired in }1 seconds.
Since the acceleration of the particle at time ¢ is d*x/dt?, we have
d*x
tT andl
so that
d*x
7
By § 12.5, the general solution of this second order differential equation is
x =1+asin(t+6)
where a and «¢ are arbitrary constants. The velocity v at time f is given by

p= & = acos(t + 6)

and since both v and x are zero when ¢ = 0,

0 =acosé, 0=1+asine.
These simultaneous equations are satisfied by a = 1, « = #7 and we have
x =1+sin(t + #7) =1-—cost,
v = cos(t + $7) =sint.
When
t = 37, x = 1 — cos4a = 1 mand v = sinjm = 1 ms.

Exercises 12 (c)
1. A condenser of capacity C farads is at voltage vy and is discharged
through a resistance of R ohms. It is known that the voltage v at time
t seconds is given by the differential equation RC(dv/dt) = —v. Finda
formula giving v in terms of t.
2. A circuit consisting of a resistance R ohms and an inductance L henries
is connected to a battery of contant voltage E. The current, i amperes, at
time ¢ after the circuit has been closed is known to be given by the
differential equation L(di/dt) + Ri = E. Show that
Ri = E{1 — exp (—Rt/L)}.

3. A body moves in a straight line with retardation kv, where v is the

velocity and k is a constant. If the body starts moving with velocity
10 m/s and after 1 second its velocity is 5 m/s, what is its velocity after
4 seconds?

4. The gradient of a curve at the point (x, y) is 3x2 — 20x + 25. If the
curve passes through the point (5, 0), find its equation and calculate
the area enclosed by the curve and the axis of x. [L.U.]
5. The height of a tank is 4 m and it is completely full of water. At a given
instant a tap is turned on allowing the water to flow out through an
 EXERCISES 321
orifice in the base of the tank. If y metres is the depth of water in
the tank +f seconds after the tap has been turned on and if
75 dy/dt = —+/y, find the time (in minutes) required to empty the tank.
A particle is projected with velocity u and moves in a straight line with
retardation kv where v is the velocity of the particle at time ¢ and k is
a constant. If s is the distance travelled in time t, show that

poh
DvD u
peed ode u

In a chemical reaction, the amount x of one substance at time f is related

to the velocity dx/dt of the reaction by the differential equation
dx
HB — x6 — »),
k being a constant. If x = 0 when t = 0, express ¢ in terms of x.
Determine also the value of k if it is known that x = 2:8 when t = 3.
The atmospheric pressure p at height h satisfies the relation dh/dp = —v
where v is the volume per unit mass of the atmosphere. Show that, in
an isothermal layer in which pv = RT (R and T being constants),
P = Po exp (—A/RT) where py is the atmospheric pressure when h = 0.
In a chemical solution, a substance A is converted into another substance
Bata rate which is proportional to the amount unconverted at any time.
If 10 out of 100 grammes of A are converted in the first 30 minutes, find
the amount converted in the first hour.
10. The population of a certain country was 9 million at the beginning of the
19th century and 100 years later it was 36 million. Assuming that the
increase of population per year is proportional to the population, find
the population in the year 1970.
11. A curve passes through the point (0, 1) and its slope at the point (x, y)
is 2xy/(x* — y"). Find the equation of the curve.
12. The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is 4(1 — x) m/s?
when it is at distance x m from the origin O. If the particle starts at
a distance of 1 m from O and is at a distance of 2 m after 47 seconds,
find its initial velocity.
Exercises 12 (d)
If dy/dx = 2y*/x*, express y explicitly in terms of x.
Show that the general solution of the differential equation
a
x Dx + y ay
im
can be written in the form y = Ax(1 — y) where A is an arbitrary
constant.
322 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Find the general solution of the differential equation

dy tan® x tan? y.
rie

Find the general solutions of the equations

: dy
x) ee aera Ee “. a dy
(i) e-* ef x i (ii) 1) ie
ze 29
eo”,

Find the solution of the equation

cos* 2 x=dy +y=1.

dx
which satisfies the condition that y = 0 when x = 0.
If
dy + sin (x — y) = sin(x + y)
sin y=
dx
and y = 1 when x = 4r, show that y = 2sinx — 1.

Given that y = 2 when x = 1 and (dy/dx) + y*® = x*y*, express 1/y in

terms of x.

Show that the general solution of the differential equation

dy dy
i Twig wardatige
— reas ge See

can be written in the form y = 1 + Cx(1 + x)“ where Cis an arbitrary

constant.

Find the value of the constant a given that

ota
pnt ee

and that y = 0 when x = 2 and when x = 6. {L.U.]

10. Use the substitution z= x + y to find the general solution of the
differential equation
Bes .
Pe (x + y)*.

11. If y = } when x = 1 and if

d 2 1
a y=
—=—_
= —»
xy ee ae x

find the value of y when x = 2.

 EXERCISES 323
12. Use the substitution z = xy to transform the equation
dy
x=—+y+t+cotxy
=0
dx
into one in which the variables can be separated. Hence show that the
general solution of the equation is cos xy = Ae® where A is an arbitrary
constant.
13. Solve the homogeneous equation

x + y) dy+ y= xy

given that y = 1 when x = 1.

14. Solve the equation

subject to the condition that y = 0 when x = 1.

ID. Show that the general solution of the homogeneous differential equation
d
(xy + 2x4)S = xy + 27
can be written in the form (y — x)* = Cx*y® where C is an arbitrary
constant.
16. Show that the general solution y = asin n(x + €) to the second order
differential equation (d*y/dx*) + n’y = 0 can be written in the form
y = Asinnx + Bcosnx where the arbitrary constants a, ¢, A and B
are related by the equations a? = A? + B’, tan ne = B/A.
17. Solve the equation
qd?
<i + by =0
subject to the conditions y = 2 and dy/dx = 1 when x = 0.
18. During a fermentation process, the rate of decomposition of a substance
at any instant is related to the amounts y of substance and x of active
ferment by the law dy/dt = —ixy. The value of x at time fis 4/(1 + 1)?
and when ¢ = 0, y = 10. Express dy/dt in terms of y and ¢ and hence
determine y as a function of ft. [N.U.]

liek At time 1, the rate of flow of water into a spherical container of radius r
is 5rt. Find the total time required to fill the container.

20. In the adiabatic expansion of a gas, the volume v and pressure p are
related by the differential equation
Ly Rehl, ~=0
is ip
324 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

where c, and c, are respectively the specific heats of the gas at constant
pressure and constant volume. Assuming that these specific heats are
constant show that pv’ = constant, where y = Cp/Cy.
pat By Newton’s law of cooling, the surface temperature T at time t of a
sphere in isothermal surroundings at temperature Ty is given by the
equation
dT
= ~KI— To)
where k is a constant. Show that T= T, + (T,; — T,)e~* where T, is
the initial temperature of the sphere.

pap, The retardation of a particle moving in a straight line with velocity

v cm/s is av cm/s”, where a is a constant. The particle is projected with
velocity 386 cm/s and half a second later its velocity is 142 cm/s. Find
the value of a.
23. A car is travelling along a straight road. When it is passing a certain
position O the engine is switched off. At time ft seconds after the car has
passed O the speed v m/s is given by the formula v-+ = A + Bt, where
A and B are constants. Show that the retardation is proportional to
the square of the speed. If when t = 0, the retardation is 1 m/s? and
v = 30, find A and B. If x mis the distance moved from O in t seconds,
express (i) x in terms of f, (ii) v in terms of x. [N.U.]
24. The acceleration of a motor car at a speed of v m/s is 1 — (v/30)? m/s?
If the car starts from rest, state the greatest speed of which it is capable.
Find the distance in which half this speed is acquired from rest and the
time taken to reach this distance. [N.U.]
2. Show that the substitution y = e~“z transforms the equation
d*y dy oe MAS
ha + 25. + Sy = 0into = + 42 = 0.

Hence solve the original equation subject to the conditions y = 2 and

dy/dx = 0 when x = 0.

If the system reduces to a couple the sums of the components of the forces
parallel to AB and to BC will be zero (Fig. 140). The components of P and Q,
in these directions are P/1/2 — Q/+/2 and P/+/2 + Q/+/2 respectively, so that

19, The tangents at P(ct, c/t) and Q(cT, c/T) to the hyperbola xy = c?
meet at R. Show that the line joining the origin to R passes through the
mid-point of PQ. [0.C.]

A uniform rod AB, mass 10 kg, is smoothly hinged at A and rests in

a vertical plane with the end B against a smooth vertical wall. If the
rod makes an angle of 40° with the wall, find the pressure on the wall
and the magnitude and direction of the reaction at A. [0.C.]
 CHAPTER 13

ELEMENTARY COORDINATE GEOMETRY OF THE CIRCLE,

PARABOLA, ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA

13.1 Introduction
It was shown in Chapter 5 that an equation of the first degree in
x and y represented a straight line and we used algebraical methods to
solve certain problems involving such lines. Here we consider similar
methods applied to curves represented by equations in x and y of the
second degree. Such curves are the circle, parabola, ellipse and hyper-
bola and it can be shown, but we shall not attempt to do so here, that
all these curves can be formed by the intersection of a right circular
cone with a plane. For this reason, the curves discussed in this chapter
are called conic sections.
13.2 The equation of a circle
Suppose that the radius of the circle is R and that the coordinates of
its centre C are (a, B). The circle is the locus of a point which moves
so that its distance from the point («, 8) is always equal to R. Hence
if P is any point (x, y) on the circle
(x — a)? + (y — f= RB, (13.1)
for the left-hand side of this equation is the square of the distance
between the two points (x, y) and («, 8). Equation (13.1) therefore
represents a circle of radius R and centre at the point («, 8). Writing
a = 6 = 0, the equation of a circle of radius R and centre the origin is
x2 + y2 = R* (13,2)
The general equation of the second degree in x and y is
ax® + 2hxy + by? + 2gx + 2fy+c=0, (13.3)
where a, b, c, f, g, h are constants. It should be clear, from the way in
which equation (13.1) was formed, that if equation (13.3) is to represent
a circle then the coefficients of x* and y® must be equal and there can be
no term in the product xy, that is, a = b and h=0. There is no loss of
generality in taking a = 1 and the general equation of a circle can be
written
x? + y? + 2ex + 2fy+c=0. (13.4)
The radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle given by the
general equation (13.4) can be found as follows. Writing (13.4) in the
form
Crees hee EL &
325
326 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and comparing it with equation (13.1), which represents a circle of radius
R and centre at the point (a, 8), we see that the radius of the circle
given by (13.4) is »/(g? +f? — c) and its centre is the point (—g, —/f).
Example 1. Write down the equation of the circle whose centre is at the point (—2, —3)
and whose radius is 4 units.
The square of the distance of a point (x, y) on the circle from its centre (—2, —3)
is (x + 2)? + (y + 3)? and, since this is equal to the square of the radius,
(+27? +94+ 3% = 4.
This reduces to x? + y? + 4x + 6y — 3 = QO and is the required equation.

Example 2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
x+y? — 4x —12y+4=0.
The given equation can be written in the form
(x —2? +(y — 6? = —-44+4+4
36 = @,
showing that the point (x, y) is always at a distance of 6 units from the point
(2, 6). Alternatively, in the given equation g = —2,f = —6andc = 4. Hence
radius = ~/(g* + f? —c) = V/(4 + 36 — 4) = 6,
centre, (—g, —f), i.e. (2, 6).

In Fig. 113, A and B are the points (x, y,), (Xe, y2) at the extremities
of a diameter of a circle and P is any point (x, y) on the circle. Since
nf

fe)
Fic. 113

AB is a diameter, the lines AP and PB are perpendicular. The slopes of

AP and PB are respectively

die tee Oa
xX — Xy X — Xo

and the product of these slopes will be —1. Hence

(24) | ety
X— Xy)\x — xq)
 TANGENT TO A CIRCLE 327
or
(% — xy) —%2) + YY — WO — ye) = (13.5)
Since this relation is satisfied by the coordinates (x, of any point P
on the circle, it is the equation of the circle whose diameter is the join
of the points (x, y,) and (Xp, ys).
Example 3. The line joining the points (—1, 7) and (23, 17) is taken as the diameter
of a circle, Find the equation of this circle, the length of its radius and the co-
ordinates of its centre. [O.C.]
By (13.5), the required equation is
@& + 1I)@ — 23) + —- DY - 17) =0
and this reduces to x* + y® — 22x — 24y + 96 =0. This equation can be
written
(x — 11)? + (y —12)? = —96 + 121 + 144 = 169 = 133,
showing that the radius is 13 and the centre is the point (11, 12).

13.3 The tangent to a circle at a given point

Suppose we require the equation of the tangent at the point (x, y,)
to the circle
x2 + y? + 2gx + Ay t+c=0. (13.6)
Differentiating this equation with respect to x
d
+2yey
2x 2
dx 429+
4S =0,
so that the gradient of the circle at the point (,, y,) is given by
aD. aeits.
dx. 6 Yack
wtf
The tangent is the line passing through the point (x, y,) with slope

yonaa(bi)ans
equal to this gradient; its equation is therefore

and this can be written

xy + yt ee—mMtfy-wWH=atye (137)
Since the point (x,, y,) lies on the circle,
xy + yr + 2px, + 2fy, +e = 9,
and we can replace x,2 + y,? by —(2gx, + 2fy, + c). Hence equation
(13.7) can be written
xxy tyr t gxtu)t+fy ty) +¢= 0. (13.8)
328 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Equation (13.8) is the required equation of the tangent at the point

(x, y,). It is worth noting that the equation of the tangent can be ob-
tained from the equation (13.6) of the circle by replacing x* with xx,
y? with yy,, 2x with (x + x,) and 2y with (y + y,). This is a particular
case of a general rule which enables the equation of the tangent to be
written down at sight for any of the curves treated in this chapter.
Example 4. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle
x? + y? + 10x — 12y + 11 =0 at the point (2, 7).
The required equation is
De Ty -F Se oy Oy ot Ae
and this reduces to 7x + y = 21.

Example 5. Prove that the equation of the circle passing through the origin O and the
points A(a, 0) and B(O, b) is x* + y® — ax — by =0. Find the equations of the
tangents at B and P(a, b). Prove that, ifthese tangents meet at Q, then PQ = ra/b
where r is the radius of the circle. [O.C.]
Let the equation of the circle through O, A and B be
x2 + y? + 2gx + 2fy +c =0.
Then this equation is satisfied by x = 0, y= 0, by x = a, y= Oand
by x = 0,
y = 5. Hence
c=0, @+2ga+c=0, B+2fh+c=0
and we have 2g = —a, 2f = —b,c = 0. The equation of the circle is therefore
x* + y* — ax — by = 0 and, since this can be written in the form
(x — ga? + (y — bP = 2 + 5),
the radius r is given by r? = }(a* + 5"). The equations of the tangents at
B(0, 5) and at P(a, b) are respectively
x(0) + y(b) — a(x + 0) — $0(y + 5) = 0
and
x(a) + y(b) — fa(x + a) —$b(y +b) =0,
and these reduce to by — ax = 6’, by + ax = a* + b*. The coordinates of Q
are given by the values of x and y simultaneously satisfying these equations and
these are x = 3a, y = 4(a*/b) + b. Hence

PO =(a—
40 +(6-3-0)
m2 += TS
and PQ = ra/b.

Example 6. Prove that the line Ix + my + n = Oisa tangent to the cirlcex*+ y? = a?

if (2 + m’) = rn’. Ua
The abscissae of the two points of intersection of the line and circle are given
by substituting y = —(/x + n)/m in the equation of the circle. This gives
 TANGENT TO A CIRCLB 329
or
(PF + m*)x* + 2inx + rn? — am = 0.
The line will intersect the circle in two coincident points (and therefore be a
tangent) if this quadratic in x has equal roots. The condition for this is
(2In)? = 4(2 + m*)(n? — am?)
and this reduces to a3(/* + m*) = ni}.

Exercises 13 (a)
Find the coordinates of the centre and radius of the circle
x? + y? — 10x + 12y = 0. [0.C.]
The coordinates of the points 4 and B are (—2, 2) and (3, 1) respectively.
Show that the equation of the circle which has AB as diameter is
x4 y—x-—3y—4=0. IN.U.]
A point P moves in such a way that the ratio of its distance from the
point A(a, 0) to its distance from the point B(—a, 0) is always 1: 3.
Show that the locus of P is a circle and find its centre and radius. [L.U.]
A circle is drawn with the points whose coordinates are (0, 1) and (p, g)
as ends of a diameter. The circle cuts the axis of x in two points whose
coordinates are («,0) and (8,0). Find the values of « + B and af.
[N.U.]
Find the coordinates of the centres P, O of two circles, each of radius 10,
which pass through the points 4(—5, 5) and B(Q9, 3). Find the equations
of the two circles and prove that only one cuts the x-axis and that both
cut the y-axis. [O.C.]
A is the point (1, 3) and P is a point which moves so that the mid-point
of AP always lies on the circle x? + y® = 25. Find the equation of the
locus of P and identify the locus. [k.U.}
Find the equation of the circle whose centre lies on the line y = 3x — 7
and which passes through the points (1, 1) and (2, —1). [L.U.]
Find the equation of the tangent at the point (3, 2) to the circle
(x — 1)?+ (y + 2)? = 20 and write down the equation of the tangent
at the origin to the circle x + y? + 2x + 4y = 0.
Show that the equation of the tangent PT at the point P(t, 2) on the
circle x2 + y? + 8x + 10y—8=0 is 3x +4y—3=0. Find the
equations of the chords, each of length 41/10, which are parallel to
Pas [0.C.]
10. If A is the point (—2, 0) and B is the point (2, 0), write down the equa-
tion of the circle on AB as diameter. Find the equations of the tangents
to this circle which are parallel to the line 3x + 4y = 0 and determine
their points of contact. [L.U.]
330 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

ih. The line 4y = 3x is parallel to the diameter PQ of the circle

x? + y? + 6x — 8y = 0.
Find the equations of the tangents to the circle at P and Q. [L.U.]

12. The circles x? + y? = a*, (x — 5)? + (y — 12) = 64 touch externally

at a point between the origin O and the centre C of the second circle.
Find the value of a and the coordinates of the point of contact. [O.C.]

13. Find the equation of the circle which touches the x-axis at the point
(2, 0) and passes through the point (—1, 9). [L.U.]

14. Prove that the equation of the circle which passes through the three
points (2, 0), (5,0) and (1, 2) is x* + y? — 7x —4y + 10=0. Find
the equations of the two tangents to this circle which pass through the
origin. [0.C.]
Lass Find the equation of the circle which has its centre at the point (3, 4) and
passes through the point (0, 5). Find also the equation of the tangent to
this circle at the point (0, 5). If this tangent cuts the axis of x at T, find
the equation of the other tangent passing through T. [0.C.]

16. Find the equations of two circles which touch the x-axis at the origin
and also touch the line 12x + Sy = 60. [L.U.]
Wik The perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points A(1, 2) and
B(3, 3) meets the x-axis in L and the y-axis in M. The origin is O. Find
the equation of the circle through L, M and O. [L.U.]

18. A circle is drawn on the line joining the two points (3, 2) and (—1, 4) as
diameter. Find the equation of this circle and the length of the chord it
intercepts on the y-axis. Find also the equations of the two tangents to
this circle which are parallel to the x-axis. [O.C.]

19, A circle with centre (3, 2) touches the line 4x — 3y + 4 = 0. Find the
equation of the circle and show that it touches the x-axis. [N.U.]

A variable circle passes through the point A(x,, y,) and touches the
x-axis. Show that the locus of the other end of the diameter through A
is given by (x — x)? = 4p. [L.U.]

13.4 The equation of a parabola

When a point P moves so that its distance from a fixed point S is
equal to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line AB, the
locus of P is called a parabola, the point S and the line AB being known
respectively as the focus and the directrix of the parabola.
The equation of a parabola takes its simplest form when the focus S
is taken as the point (a, 0) and the directrix AB as the line x = —a
 THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA 331

(Fig. 114). Let AB meet the x-axis at C so that C is the point (—a, 0)
and, if P is the point (x, y), the perpendicular distance PM of P from
AB is clearly the sum of the abscissa of P and the distance CO so that
PM =x +a. Since P and S are respectively the points (x, y) and
(a, 0), PS? = (x — a)? + y* and since PM = PS, we have
(x-—a?i+y=(x+ a).
This reduces to

y? = 4ax (13.9)
and is the equation of the parabola with focus the point (a, 0) and
directrix the line x + a= 0.
To trace the curve we first observe that, since equation (13.9) con-
tains only an even power of y, there is symmetry about the x-axis.

Fic. 114

Also, y is imaginary when x is negative and there is thus no part of

the curve to the left of the origin O. This point is called the vertex
of the parabola. When x = 0, y? = 0 and the y-axis therefore meets
the curve in two coincident points at the origin, that is, the y-axis is
the tangent to the parabola at its vertex. Finally, as x increases so does
y® and the general shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 114.
The double ordinate LSL’ drawn through the focus S is known as the
latus-rectum of the parabola. Since LS is the value of y when x = a,
equation (13.9) shows that LS = 2a and hence the length of the latus-
rectum = LSL’ = 2LS = 4a.
332 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 7, Find the ordinates of the points in which the straight line x + 2y =c
meets the parabola y* = 10x and find the value of c when this line is a tangent to
the parabola. [0.C.]
Since we require the values of y at the points of intersection of the line and the
parabola, we substitute x = c — 2y in the equation y* = 10x. This gives
y’ = 10(c — 2y), or, arranged as a quadratic in y,
y? + 20y — 10c = 0.
The required ordinates are the roots of this equation and these are
—10 + v/{10(10 + c)}.

The line is a tangent to the parabola when these two roots are equal and this
occurs when c = —10.

13.5 The parametric equations of a parabola

It is often convenient to be able to write down the coordinates of a
point which always lies on the parabola y? = 4ax. Such a point is one
with coordinates (at?, 2at) for if
x=at*, y= 2at, (13.10)
then y? = (2at)? = 4a?t2 = 4a(at?) = 4ax for all values of ¢. The
equations (13.10) are called the parametric equations of the parabola.
They express the coordinates of a point on the curve in terms of a
parameter t and, for brevity, the point with coordinates (at?, 2at) is
often referred to as the point “?’’.
The equation of the tangent to the parabola at the point “t’’ can be
found as follows. The gradient of the curve at the point is given by

dx (dxjdt) 2at ff atl)

when use is made of equations (13.10). The tangent is the line passing
through the point (at?, 2at) with slope 1/t and its equation is

y — at = =(% — at)

and this reduces to

x —ty+at?=0. (13.12)
If (x, ¥1) is a point on the parabola y? = 4ax, we have x, = at?,
yi = 2at and the equation (13.12) of the tangent can be written
x — (y,/2a)y + x, = 0, that is,
VV, = 2a(x + x). Gigey
It should be noted that this equation can be written down by observing
the general rule given in § 13.3 that the equation of the tangent at the
 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A PARABOLA 333
point (x,, y,) is obtained from the equation y® = 4ax of the curve by
replacing y* by yy, and 2x by (x + x).
The normal to a curve at a point P is the straight line which passes
through P and is perpendicular to the tangent at P. Since the slope of
the tangent at the point (a7®, 2at) to the parabola y® = 4ax is, by (13.11),
equal to 1/t, that of the normal is —t and the equation of the normal at
the point “?’’ is therefore
y — 2at = —t(x — aft’),
or,
y+ tx = 2at + af? (13.14)
Many problems involving the parabola are best solved by using the
parametric equations and the above equations for the tangent and nor-
mal are useful in such work. The reader should remember them or,
preferably, be able to derive them quickly.
Example 8. Show that the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a
parabola lies on its directrix.
By (13.12), the equations of the tangents at the points “‘r,” and ‘‘t,” to the
parabola y? = 4ax are
x—tytat?=0 and x—fty+
at, =0.
Eliminating y from these equations by multiplying respectively by tr, and t, and
subtracting, we have
(ta = t,)x + at,"t, —— at,*t, = 0

giving x =at,t,. Since the tangents are perpendicular to each other, the
product of their slopes 1/t, and 1/t, is —1 so that t,t, = —1. Hence the abscissa
of their point of intersection is given by x = —a and this shows that the point
lies on the directrix of the parabola.

Example 9. If the tangent at P to a parabola meets the axis of the parabola at Q and
if S is the focus, show that the triangle PQS is isosceles.
In Fig. 115, P is the point “‘r” on the parabola y* = 4ax whose focus is S. PT

Y T

Fic. 115
334 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

is the tangent at P meeting the axis of the parabola at Q. Since the coordinates
of P and S are respectively (at?, 2at) and (a, 0),
PS? = (at® — a)* + (2at — 0)
= a*(t* — 27+ 1 + 41’)
= a(t + 1),
so that PS = a(t? + 1). The equation of the tangent PT is x — ty + at? =0
and this meets the axis y = 0 where x + af? = 0, so that QO = ar’. Since
OS =a, QS = QO + OS = at®+a= a(t? +1). Hence QS = PS and the
triangle PQS is isosceles.
Example 9 above enables an important property of the parabola to be
established. Since the triangle PQS is isosceles, angle POS = angle
SPQ and if (Fig. 115) PM is a line through P parallel to the axis of the
parabola, angle TPM = angle PQS = angle SPQ. Hence the lines
PS and PM are equally inclined to the tangent PT and also equally
inclined to the normal PN. Thus, if a ray of light starting from the focus
S of a parabolic mirror strikes the mirror at P, the reflected ray, which
makes an equal angle with the normal, will be parallel to the axis of the
mirror. Since P is any point on the mirror, all incident rays from a
source at the focus will be reflected as rays which are all parallel to the
mirror’s axis. Motor-car headlamps, searchlights and some electric
fires are constructed so as to make use of this property.
Exercises 13 (b)

1. Find the equations of the tangents to the parabola y” = 144x at the

points (144, 144), (9, —36) and show that they are perpendicular. Find
also the coordinates of their point of intersection. IOC]
2. Ifthe tangent at the point P to the parabola y? = 4ax meets the parabola
y’ = 4a(x + 5) at points Q and R, prove that P is the middle point of
OR. [0.C.]
3. Find the coordinates of the points in which the line y = 8x — a meets
the parabola y* = 4ax. Find the equations to the tangents to the para-
bola at these points and the coordinates of their point of intersection.
[L.U.]
4. Determine the values of the parameter ¢ at the points P and Q in which
the line x — y + a = ak* cuts the parabola x = at*, y = 2at. Show
that as k varies the locus of the mid-point of PQ is the line y = 2a. [L.U.]
5. If the tangent and normal at P(at’, 2at) on the parabola y? = 4ax meet
the axis of the parabola at T and G respectively and if S is the focus
(a, 0), prove that ST = SG. {L.U.]
6. If the normal at a point P(ar’, 2at) on the parabola y? = 4ax meets the
x-axis at G and O is the origin, show that OG = a(2 + 7) and
PG = 2av/(1 + #*). Deduce that, for all positions of P on the curve,
PG?/OG is neither less than 2a nor greater than 4a. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 335
Find the value of A for which the straight line y = mx + A touches the
parabola y? = 4ax. A tangent to this parabola cuts the x-axis at a
distance a from the origin. Find the coordinates of the possible points
of contact and of the points in which the possible tangents cut the
y-axis. [L.U.]
Prove that the equation of the chord joining the points P(ar’, 2at) and
Q(aT*, 2aT) on the parabola y* = 4ax is 2x — (t+ T)y + 2atT = 0
and that, if the chord passes through the focus of the parabola, then
PQ=a(t+r). [O.C.]
The tangents to the parabola y* = 4ax from the point (h, k) meet the
tangent at the vertex O of the parabola at B and C. Prove that the pro-
duct of OB and OC is independent of k. [O.C.]

10. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola y* = 4x at the point
P(1, 2). This normal meets the parabola again at Q. Find the angle
between PQ and the tangent at Q. {L.U.]

11. The tangent at the point P(at?, 2at) on the parabola y* = 4ax cuts the
y-axis at T. If S is the point (a, 0) prove that ST and PT are at right
angles. Show also that the locus of the centre of the circle through P,
T and S is the curve 2ax = a® + y*. [L.U.]
im From the point P(ar*, 2at) on the parabola y? = 4ax a chord is drawn
through the focus (a, 0) to meet the parabola again at Q. Show that
the coordinates of Q are (a/t®, —2a/t) and that the tangents at P and Q
intersect on the directrix x = —a. {L.U.]

JS: P is the point (ar’, 2at) on the parabola y* = 4ax. From a fixed point
Q(h, k) a line is drawn perpendicular to the tangent at P to meet, at R,
the parallel through P to the x-axis. Find the equation of the locus
of R. {L.U.]
14. The tangents to the parabola y? = 4ax at the points P(at,’, 2at,),
Q(at,*, 2at,) meet the y-axis in the points H and K respectively. Find
_ the equation of the circle on HK as diameter and prove that this circle
passes through the focus (a, 0) if the chord PQ also passes through the
focus. [L.U.]

15. PQ is a variable chord of the parabola y* = 4ax passing through the

point K(2a, 0). Show that
1 1
PK? ba OK? constant,

and that the point of intersection of the tangents at P and Q is at a

constant distance from the directrix. [Ue

16. P is any point on the parabola y* = 4ax and N is the foot of the per-
pendicular drawn from the origin to the tangent at P. Show that, as
P varies, the locus of N is the curve x(x? + y”) + ay? = 0. [L.U.]
336 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

17. C is the mid-point of a variable chord PQ of the parabola y* = 4ax.

The tangents to the parabola at P and Q meet at R. Prove (i) that RC
is parallel to the axis of the parabola and (ii) that, if PQ subtends a right
angle at the vertex, then the locus of C is 2ax = y + 8a. [O.C.]

18. Prove that the normals to the parabola y* = 4ax at its points of inter-
section with the straight line 2x — 3y + 4a = 0 meet on the parabola.
[0.C.]
19. Two parabolae with their vertices at the origin of coordinates and their
axes along y = 0 have latus-recta of lengths 4a and 4b. A line perpen-
dicular to the axes of the parabolae meets the curves in points A and B.
Prove that the tangents to the curves at A and B meet on the line y = 0.
20. The parameters of three points A, B and C on the parabola y* = 4ax
are t,, tj and tz. The tangents at A and B meet the tangent at C at Q
and P respectively; the tangents at A and B meet at R. Prove that, if
P is the mid-point of QC, then 2t, = t, + fg. Prove also that RP is
parallel to AC. [O.C.]

13.6 The equation of an ellipse

When a point P moves so that its distance from a fixed point S (the
focus) is always in a constant ratio ¢ (less than unity) to its perpen-
dicular distance from a fixed straight line AB (the directrix), the locus
of P is called an ellipse of eccentricity «.
The equation of an ellipse takes its simplest form when the focus S
is taken as the point (—ae, 0) and the directrix AB as the line x = —a/e.

A Y A'

Fic. 116

In Fig. 116, P is the point (x, y) and PM is perpendicular to AB, so that

PS = «PM.
Cis the point (—a/e, 0) and PM is the sum of the abscissa of P and the
 EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE 337
length CO so that PM = x + (a/e). Since P and S are respectively
the points (x, y) and (—ae, 0), we have
PS? = (x + ae)? + y?
and the relation PS = ePM gives
a
(e+ act + y= (x +2) ,
é
that is,
(1 — e?)x? + y? = a®(1 — ©).
This can be written in the form
x
2 a BT 1 (13.15)

where
b? = a*%(1 — e*) (13.16)
and (13.15) is the equation of the ellipse with eccentricity «, focus the
point (—ae, 0) and directrix the line x = —a/e.
In tracing the curve given by (13.15), it is clear that the curve is
symmetrical about both the axes of coordinates for only even powers of
x and y occur in the equation. From this symmetry we can deduce the
existence of a second focus S’ at the point (ae, 0) and a second directrix
A’B’ along the line x = a/e. The curve meets the coordinate axes at
four points H’, H, K and K’ whose coordinates are easily found to be
(+a, 0), (0, +5). By writing equation (13.15) in the form
y?/b? = 1 — (x*/a°),
it is clear that y* is negative, and therefore there are no real points
on the curve, when x > a or when x < —a. Similarly there are no real
points when y > b or when y < —b. The curve is therefore a closed
one and its general shape is shown in Fig. 116.
The points H and H’ are called the vertices of the ellipse and the
lines HH’ and KK’ are called its axes; since e < 1, equation (13.16)
shows that b < a and the axes HH’, KK’ are referred to respectively as
the major and minor axes. Their lengths are 2a, 2b. The origin O is
called the centre of the ellipse and a chord passing through the centre is
called a diameter.
Example 10. Find the eccentricity and the distance between the foci of the ellipse

The given equation can be written in the form (x*/4) + (y*/3) = 1 so that,
comparing this with the standard equation (x*/a*) + (y*/b?) = 1, the semi
338 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
major and minor axes a, b are given by a = 2, b = 1/3. The eccentricity ¢ is
given by the equation b? = a*(1 — e”) and hence
3=41 —é)
giving 4e7 = 1 and e = 3. The distance between the foci
== 208 = 25 Lie 12s
Example 11. Show that the sum of the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is
equal to the length of the major axis and deduce a simple mechanical method for
constructing the curve.
Using Fig. 116 and the definition of the ellipse, if x is the abscissa of P,

ps = pM =e (24x) =atex.
Similarly, if PM’ is drawn perpendicular to the second directrix A’B’,

PS’
= €PM’ =e (¢~x) =a— ex.

The sum of the focal distances PS, PS’ is therefore 2a, the length of the major
axis. By fixing pins at S, S’ and keeping stretched by a pencil point an endless
piece of string passing round the two pins, the pencil will describe an ellipse
with S and S’ as foci.

13.7 The parametric equations of an ellipse

As with the parabola, it is very often useful to be able to express the
coordinates of a point on an ellipse in terms of a parameter. It is easy
to verify that the equation (13.15) of an ellipse is satisfied by taking
x=acos¢, y=bsingd (13.17)
and these can be taken as the parametric equations of an ellipse. The
parameter ¢ is called the eccentric angle of the point (a cos ¢, b sin ¢).
The gradient of the ellipse at the point whose eccentric angle is ¢ is
given by

dx (dx/dp) —asing
when use is made of the parametric equations (13.17). The tangent at
the point, being a line through (acos¢, bsin¢) with slope
—(b/a) cot ¢, is therefore the line

y—bsing=— ?cot bx — acos¢)

and this reduces to

x 5 Pa
= 08 + ping ==. 1) (13.18)
 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF AN ELLIPSE 339
If (x, yy is the point “¢” on the ellipse we have x,/a = cos ¢,
yl = sin ¢ and the equation (13.18) of the tangent can be written in
e form

sack oe = 1, (13.19)
xX.

Again it should be noted that the equation of the tangent at the point
(%1, yy) can be obtained from the equation (x*/a®) + (y?/b?) = 1 of the
ellipse by replacing x* and y* by xx, and yy, respectively.
The normal to the ellipse at the point with eccentric angle ¢ is the
line through the point (a cos ¢, b sin ¢) perpendicular to the tangent.
The slope of the normal is therefore (a/b) tan ¢ and the equation of the
normal is

yr b sing =“ tand (x — acos $)

which reduces to
ax sec 6— by cosec d = a® — B?. (13.20)
Example 12. Show that tangents to the ellipse (x*/a*) + (y?/b*) = 1 at points whose
eccentric angles differ by 90° meet on the ellipse (x*/a*) + (y?/b?) = 2.
The tangents at points with eccentric angles ¢ and (90° + ¢) are from equation
(13.18) the lines (x/a) cos ¢ + (y/b) sin ¢ = 1 and
(x/a) cos (90° + ¢) + (y/b) sin (90° + ¢) = 1.
These can be written

od
sé heptane
+4 sing = 1,

et
—7sing nAcos¢ == 1,
+7

_and the locus of the point of intersection (x, y) is obtained by eliminating ¢

between these equations. This can be done by squaring and adding and the
result is

Example 13. O is the centre of the ellipse (x?/a®) + (y?/b?) = 1 and QP is the ordinate
at P; the normal at P cuts the x-axis at N. Show that NO = (6/a) cos ¢. If
the normal at P bisects the angle OPQ prove that the eccentricity € satisfies the
equation &°(1 + sin® ¢) = 1. [O.C.]
In Fig. 117, P is the point (a cos 4, b sin ¢), PT is the tangent and OQ = acos 4,
The normal PN at P is the line ax sec ¢— by cosec ¢= a? — b* and this meets
the x-axis where ax sec ¢ = a® — b*. Hence
a2 b2
ON = cos
340 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and
NQ = 0Q —ON
Ie
=acos¢ — cos $ = = cos ¢.

Now OP? = a’cos?¢ + b* sin?¢ = a* cos?¢ + a%(1 — e) sin?¢

= a1 — e* sin? ¢), PO? = b* sin? ¢ = a%(1 — «*) sin? ¢, and if the normal
PN bisects the angle OPQ we have OP/PQ = ON/NQ. Squaring and sub-
stituting for OP*, PQ*, ON? and N:(an
ai — e sin? ¢) (a? — b*)* cos? ¢ aie
a(1 — &) sin? ¢ bicos?d =. a1 — &)?
and this reduces to «*(1 + sin? ¢) = 1.

sd

Mae
Oe Kay
Fic. 117

13.8 The equation of a hyperbola

When a point P moves so that its distance from a fixed point S (the
focus) is always in a constant ratio e (greater than unity) to its per-
pendicular distance from a fixed straight line AB (the directrix), the
locus of P is called a hyperbola of eccentricity e.
As with the ellipse, the equation of a hyperbola is here derived when
the focus S is taken as the point (—ae, 0) and the directrix AB as the
line x = —a/e. In Fig. 118, P is the point (x, y) and PM is perpen-
dicular to AB, so that PS = ePM. C is the point (—a/e, 0) and PM
is the sum of the abscissa of P and the length CO so that
PM =x + (a/e). Since P and S are respectively the points (x, y) and
(—ae, 0), we have PS? = (x + ae)? + y? and the relation PS = ePM
gives

(x + ae)? + y? = &? (x+¢);

that is
(e? — 1)x? — y? = a%(e? — 1),
 EQUATION OF A HYPBRBOLA 341
This can be written in the form

= = y ns (13.21)

where
b? = ae? — 1) (13.22)
and (13.21) is the equation of the hyperbola with eccentricity e, focus
the point (—ae, 0) and directrix the line x = —a/e.
Since equation (13.21) contains only even powers of x and y, the
hyperbola is a curve which is symmetrical about the axes of coordinates.
Because of this symmetry, there is a second focus S’ at the point
(ae, 0) and a second directrix A’B’ along the line x = a/e. The curve

Fic. 118

cuts the x-axis at two points H, H’ with coordinates (+a, 0) but it

does not meet the y-axis in real points. By writing equation (13.21)
in the form y?/b? = (x?/a”) — 1, it is clear that y’ is negative, and that
therefore there is no part of the curve, for values of x which lie between
-+ta. On the other hand, if the equation is written in the form
x2/a2 = 1 + (y?/b?) it can be seen that points exist on the curve for all
values of y, and that x? increases as y? increases. The curve consists of
two portions, one of which extends indefinitely in the direction for
which x is positive and the other indefinitely in the direction of negative
x as shown in the diagram.
The points H and H’ are called the vertices of the hyperbola and the
line HH’ is called the transverse axis. The origin O is the centre of the
hyperbola and chords through O are called diameters. The line y = mx
342 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

meets the hyperbola (13.21) at points with abscissae given by

(x2/a2) — (m?x?/b?) = 1 and, if this equation is written in the form

it can be seen that lines through the origin with slopes given by
m? = b?/q meet the hyperbola in two coincident points at an infinite
distance from the centre O. The two lines with such slopes, that is, the
lines y = +bx/a are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola and are
shown by dotted lines in Fig. 118.

Example 14. Find the eccentricity, the coordinates of the foci and the equations of the
asymptotes of the hyperbola 4x* — 9y* = 36.
with given equation can be written (x*/9) — (y?/4) = 1 so that, comparing this
The the equation (x?/a”) — (y?/b?) = 1, we have a = 3, b = 2. The eccentricity
e is given by the equation b? = a%(e* — 1) and hence 4 = 9(e? — 1) leading to
Se? = 13 and ¢ = 44/13. The coordinates of the foci are (+ae, 0), that is,
(++/13, 0) and the asymptotes (y = +5x/a) are the lines 3y = +2x.

13.9 The parametric equations of a hyperbola

The equation (x?/a”) — (y?/b?) = 1 of a hyperbola is satisfied by the
coordinates (x, y) of a point when
x=asec6, y=bdtand, (13.23)
and these equations may be used as the parametric equations of the
hyperbola. The gradient of the curve at the point ‘‘6” is given by
dy _(dy/d0)__—s
—_— SS SS ee
bsec®? 6 ~=—__ib sec 8
dx (dx/d0) asecOtanO atand
and the equation of the tangent at the point “6” is therefore
b sec 0
y —dtan A = = ng asec6)

or,

%7 ee 6 wesr tan@ == 1. (13.24)

If (x;, y;) is the point of contact of the tangent, equation (13.24) can be
written (xx,/a*) — (yy,/b?) = 1 and this is yet another example of
replacing x, y? by xx, yy, to obtain the tangent. The normal at this
point is the line with equation
atan 0
— btan§ = — ——_ (x — asec 6)
y . b sec 6
 RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 343
and this reduces to
ax sin 6 + by = (a? + 5?) tan 0. (13.25)

Example 15. A and B are respectively the points (a sec 8, b tan 8), (a sec 4, b tan ¢)
on the hyperbola (x*/a*) — (y?/b?) = 1 and 6 + ¢ = 42. Show that the normals
to the hyperbola at A and B intersect at a point P whose y-coordinate is inde-
pendent of 6 and ¢. [N.U.]
The normals at A and B are respectively the lines
ax sin 6 + by = (a + b*) tan @ (13.26)
and
ax sin ¢ + by = (a + b*) tan¢.
Since ¢ = $7 — 6, the second of these can be written
ax cos 6 + by = (a? + b*) cot 0 (13.27)
and the y-coordinate of the point of intersection of the normals is given by
eliminating x from equations (13.26), (13.27). This can be done by multiplying
the equations by cos 9, sin @ respectively and subtracting to give
by(cos 6 — sin 0) = (a + b?)(sin 6 — cos 6),
so that y = —(a* + b*)/b and this is independent of 6 and ¢.

13.10 The rectangular hyperbola

The asymptotes y = +bx/a of the hyperbola (x?/a*) — (y*/b?) = 1
are at right angles to each other when 5 = a. In this case the equation
of the curve can be written x? — y? = a® and the hyperbola is said to
be rectangular. The equation of a rectangular hyperbola takes a
particularly simple form when its asymptotes are taken as the co-
ordinate axes and can be derived from the equation x? — y* = a* by
rotating the axes through 45°. The resulting equation is
xy = c3, (13.28)
where c? = 4a?, and a useful parametric form of this equation is
x=ch y=clt. (13.29)
The gradient of this rectangular hyperbola at the point “‘r” is given by
dy _(dy/dt)' —c/#®
— SS — —- ES Te i"
1
dx (dx/dt) c te
and the tangent to the curve at this point is the line
c 1
J agi nats ct),

that is,
x + fy = 2ct. (13.30)
344 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The normal at the point “” is the line through the point (ct, c/t) with
slope ¢? and its equation is
y— f= P(xet)
or,
tx —y=c(t—r"). (13.31)

Example 16. A variable chord of the hyperbola xy = c* passes through the fixed
point (a, B). Prove that the locus of the mid-point of the chord is given by the
equation 2xy = Bx + ay. [0.C.]
The equation of the chord joining the two points (ct, c/t) and (cT, c/T) on the
hyperbola is
Ligeti we y — (c/t)
cT—ct (c/T) — (c/t)
which reduces to x + (Ty = c(t + T). If this line passes through the point
(a, B) we have
a + tTB = c(t + T). (13.32)
The mid-point (x, y) of the chord is given by

x = tc(t+ 7), y=ie( +4):

so that t + T = 2x/c and tT = x/y. Substitution in (13.32) then gives
a + B(x/y) = c2x/c),
that is, 2xy = Bx + ay as the locus of the point (x, y).

Exercises 13 (c)
1. Find the equation of an ellipse whose centre is the origin and whose
axes lie along the coordinate axes given that the semi-major axis of the
ellipse is 10 and that the length of the minor axis is equal to the distance
between the foci.
2. Show that the intercepts made on the coordinate axes by the tangent at
the point (16/5, 9/5), to the ellipse 9x? + 16y? = 144 are equal. [0.C.]
3. Show that the line y = mx + c is a tangent to the ellipse
(x?/a*) + (y?/b®) = 1 if c? = am? + b?.
Prove also that, if a tangent to the ellipse from the point (—a1/2, 0) is
perpendicular to a tangent to the ellipse from the point (0, 13/5), then
the eccentricity of the ellipse is +/(7/12). [O.C.]
4. Show that the line x + my +n=0 is a tangent to the ellipse
(x?/a®) + (y?/b%) = 1 if a?/* + bm? = n® and find the coordinates
of the points of contact when this condition is satisfied. Find the
points on the ellipse 4x* + 9y? = 1 at which the tangents are parallel
to the line 8x = 9y. {L.U.]
 EXERCISES 345
Pand Q are two points on the ellipse (x?/a®) + (y?/b*) = 1 with eccentric
angles ¢and 47 + ¢. Prove that the equation of the chord PQ is
b(sin d — cos ¢)x — a(sin d + cos d)y + ab = 0.
Prove also that, if the eccentricity of the ellipse is 44/2, then the product
of the lengths of the perpendiculars from the foci to that chord for which
$ = Ois ta’.
[0.C.]
The tangent at P(acos ¢, bsin g) on the ellipse (x?/a?) + (y?/b?) = 1
cuts the x-axis at T and the normal at P cuts the x-axis at N. If e is the
eccentricity of the ellipse, prove that
(i) OT. ON = ae,
(i) PT/PN = tan ¢/V/(1 — &2). [0.C.]
P is the point (acos ¢, bsin¢) on the ellipse (x?/a”) + (j2/b?) = 1.
The normal at P to the ellipse meets the x-axis at N. Show that the
locus of the middle point of PN is an ellipse whose semi-axes are of
lengths (2a? — b*)/2a and 6/2.
The circles with the two parallel chords x = x,, x = x, of the ellipse
(x?/a”) + ()7/b?) = 1 as diameters pass through the focus (ae, 0);
prove that x, + x, = 2ae/(2 — e*). If one chord is x = 0 and the other
is PQ, prove that the tangent to the ellipse at P or Q makes an intercept
of length $(3+/2a) on the y-axis. [O.C.]

P is the point on the ellipse (x*/a*) + (y*/b?) = 1 with coordinates

(acos ¢, bsin¢) and Q is the point (acos¢, asin ¢) on the circle
x? + y* = a*. If S is a focus of the ellipse, show that the length of the
perpendicular from S on to the tangent at Q to the circle is equal to
PS. [L.U.]
10. The equation of a chord of the ellipse x? + 4y = 260 is x + 6y = 50.
Find the coordinates of its middle point. [O.C.]

11. The centre of a hyperbola is at the origin and its transverse axis lies
_ along the x-axis. Find the equation of the hyperbola if the distance
between its foci is equal to 4a, where 2a is the length of the transverse
axis.
12. A point P moves so that its distance from the point (5, 0) is 5/4 times its
distance from the straight line x = 3%. Show that the locus of P is the
curve (x?/16) — (y?/9) = 1. Find the coordinates of the four points on
the locus at each of which the join of the points (5,0) and (—5, 0)
subtends a right angle. [0.C.]

‘ss: The point P(a sec 9, b tan 6) on the hyperbola (x?/a’) — (y*/b?) = 1 is
joined to the vertices A(a, 0) and B(—a, 0). The lines AP, BP meet the
asymptote ay = bx at Q, R respectively. Prove that the x-coordinate
of Q is (acos $0)/(cos 40 — sin $0) and that the length of QR is in-
dependent of the value of 6. [N.U.]
346 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

14. The ordinate at P(a sec 6, b tan @) on the hyperbola

(x*/a®) — (y°/6%) = 1
meets the asymptote ay = bx at Q. The tangent to the hyperbola at P
meets the asymptote at R and the normal at P meets the x-axis at G.
Prove that the angle RQG is a right angle. [N.U.]
13. Find the equation of the normal at the point (3, 4) to the rectangular
hyperbola xy = 12. Find also the coordinates of the point at which the
normal meets the curve again.
16. Prove that the normal at the point P(ct, c/t) to the hyperbola xy = 2
meets the curve again at Q(—c/t®, —ct*). If R is the opposite end of the
diameter of the hyperbola through P, prove that PR is perpendicular to
RQ. [N.U.]
47. The chord PQ of the hyperbola xy = c? meets the x-axis at N and M is
the mid-point of PQ. If O is the origin of coordinates, prove that
OM = MN. [O.C.]
18. Q is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin on to the tangent at
any point P to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c*. Find the equation
of the locus of Q.
ke The tangents at (Pct, c/t) and Q(cT, c/T) to the hyperbola xy = c?
meet at R. Show that the line joining the origin to R passes through the
mid-point of PQ. [O.C.]
20. The normal at P to the rectangluar hyperbola xy = c” meets the curve
again at Q. If O is the origin, show that c?. PQ = OP®. [O.C.]

Exercises 13 (d)
Prove that the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the
point (—a, 0) is n times its distance from the point (a, 0) is
(n? — 1)(x? + y? + a?) — 2(n? ++ 1)ax = 0.
Show that this locus is a circle and find its centre and radius. Show also
that the tangent to this circle at a point of intersection with the circle
x* + y® = a® passes through the origin. [0.C.]
A point P moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances from the
two lines ax + by — 1 = Oand ax — by + 1 = Ois equal to the square
of its distance from the x-axis. Prove that P lies on the locus
2a*x* + (b? — a®)y? — 4by +2 = 0.
Show that, when 3a? = b?, this locus is one of two different but equal
circles and find the centre and radius of each. {OIC
A circle C, of radius r, passes through the points A(a, 0), A,(—a, 0) and
B(O, b) where a and b are positive and not equal; acircle C,, of radius
rj, passes through A, B and B,(0, —b). Prove that the centre of C is the
 EXERCISES 347
point [0, (6? — a*)/2b) and that r,/r = b/a. Find the point of inter-
section of the tangents to the circle C at A and A,. [O.C.]
If A and B are the points (—2, 1) and (4, 4), find the value of k if the
x-axis is a tangent to the circle on AB as diameter. Find also the
coordinates of the centre and the length of the radius of the circle.
The point A(—2, 11) lies within the circlex*+ y? — 4x + 2y — 165 =0
and is the mid-point of the chord BC of the circle. Find the equation of
BC. Hence, or otherwise, determine the coordinates of Band C. [L.U.]

If k is real, find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
x? + y? + 2kx — 4by = —k*. Prove that the circle touches the x-axis
and find the equation of another straight line through the origin which
touches the circle. Show that there are two values of k for which the
circle passes through the point (—1, 2), and that, if r,, ro(r; > re) are
the radii of these circles, then r,/r. = 9 + 4/5. [O.C.]
The circles x? + y? = a®(a > 0) and x? + y? — 10x + 9 = 0 intersect
in two distinct points: prove, using a diagram, that 1 << a< 9. Prove
that, if the length of the common chord is 24/5, then a = 3 or 1/73.
Prove also that, when a = 3, the circles cut at right angles. [O.C.]

A circle, with its centre in the first quadrant, touches the y-axis and also
touches externally the circle x* + y* — 4x =5; prove that the co-
ordinates («, £) of its centre satisfy the equation 6? = 10x + 5. If the
circle also touches the x-axis, prove that the abscissa of the point of
contact with that axis is 5 + 1/30. [O.C.]

If the normal at the point P(at*, 2at) to the parabola y* = 4ax meets the
axis of the parabola at Q, show that the locus of the middle point of PQ,
as t varies, is the parabola y? = a(x — a). [L.U.]
10. O is the origin, P the point (a, 2a) and PQ the chord of the parabola
y® = 4ax which is the normal at P. PR is drawn parallel to OQ to meet
the axis of the parabola at R. Find the coordinates of R. [L.U.]
11. The normal at a point-P on the parabola y* = 4ax meets the curve
again at Q and the tangents to the parabola at P and Q meet at R.
Prove that, if P is a variable point on the parabola, the locus of R is the
curve
yx + 2a) + 4a? = 0. [0.C.]
£2. The middle point of a variable chord of the parabola y’ = 4ax lies on
the line y= mx +c. Find the equation of the locus of the point of
intersection of the tangents to the parabola at the ends of this chord.
[L.U.]
13. The tangent at the point P(at?, 2at) on the parabola y* = 4ax meets the
x-axis in T. The normal at P meets the x-axis in G. Show that (i) the
middle point of GT is the focus, (ii) the tangent at the vertex bisects PT.
Find the locus of the centroid of the triangle GPT as ¢ varies. [L.U.]
348 ADVANCED LBVEL MATHEMATICS

14. The tangents to the parabola y* = 4ax at the points P and Q intersect at
T. If S is the focus, prove that
(i) ST?=SP.SQ and (ii) TP*/TQ? = SP/PQ. [L.U.]

15. A line from the point (2, 0) perpendicular to the tangent at the point
(22, 4t) on the parabola y? = 8x meets that tangent at the point (A, k).
Express / and k in terms of t and deduce the equation of the locus of the
foot of the perpendicular from the point (2,0) on to any tangent to
this parabola. LeAGe,

16. The tangent at the point P(a cos ¢, b sin ¢) to an ellipse centre O and
semi-axes a, b meets the major axis at JT. N is the foot of the perpen-
dicular from P on the major axis. Show that ON. OT = a’. [O.C.]

17. Sand S’ are the foci of an ellipse of semi-axes a and b. The normal at a
point P on the ellipse meets the minor axis at G. Show that the square
of the distance of G from either focus is

exw SP. S'P. [0.C]

ee A|

18. If the normal at P on an ellipse cuts the major and minor axes at G and
H, show that as P moves on the ellipse, the mid-point of GH describes
another ellipse of the same eccentricity. [N.U.]

19, The foci of an ellipse are S’(ae, 0) and S(—ae, 0). Tand K are the feet of
the perpendiculars from S’ and S respectively on any tangent to the
ellipse. Prove that S’T. SK = b? where b? = a*(1 — ¢?). [0.C.]

20. Show that, for any value of m, the lines y = mx + +/(a*m? + b?) are
tangents to the ellipse (x?/a*) + (y*/b?) = 1. A tangent, whose gradient
m is positive, meets the positive x-axis at A and the negative y-axis at B.
Prove that the area of the triangle OAB is (a*m? + b?)/(2m) where O is
the centre of the ellipse. Prove also that when the area of the triangle
OABis a minimum, the coordinates of the point of contact of the tangent
are (fav/2, —$b+/2). [0.C.]
al, Find the conditions that the line /x + my + = 0 should be (i) a
tangent and (ii) a normal to the hyperbola (x?/a”) — (y?/b?) = 1.
2m Show that the line y = mx + cis a tangent to the rectangular hyperbola
x? — y? = a* if c? = a*(m? — 1) and that the coordinates of the point of
contact T are (—ma?/c, —a?/c). If the line meets the asymptotes at P
and Q show that T is the mid-point of PQ. (N.U.]
23. PN is the perpendicular to an asymptote from a point on a rectangular
hyperbola. Prove that the locus of the mid-point of PN is a rectangular
hyperbola with the same axes. [O.C.]
 EXERCISES 349

24. The perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at a point P on the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c® meets the curve at Q and R. The chords
PQ and PR meet the x-axis at U and V. Prove that the mid-point of UV
is the foot of the perpendicular from P on to the x-axis. [0.C.]

20. PP’ is a diameter of the rectangular hyperbola xy = c®. The tangent

at P meets lines through P’ parallel to the asymptotes in Q and Q’.
Prove that P is the mid-point of QQ’ and that the equation of the locus
of Q is xy + 3c? = 0.
 CHAPTER 14

THE EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

[The student is assumed to have read the part of Chapter 6 dealing with
vectors before starting this chapter.]

14.1 Applied mathematics

The term applied mathematics is used to describe any subject in which
the methods of pure mathematics are applied to physical problems.
Statics and Dynamics, which are treated in this book, are subjects of
this kind; in Statics we discuss bodies which are at rest, in Dynamics
bodies which are in motion.
Physical situations cannot always be described in exact mathematical
terms and in both Statics and Dynamics certain simplifying assumptions
are made so that problems may be treated mathematically. Thus
bodies are assumed to be made up of a large number of particles of
negligible dimensions such that the position of a particle may be con-
sidered as that of a mathematical point. Bodies are described as rigid
to indicate that the relative positions of the constituent particles are
unalterable. Consequently, two bodies can be assumed to have contact
at a mathematical point. Similarly, a string may be taken as inexten-
sible and weightless, a surface may be taken as perfectly smooth and
pulleys and wheels as frictionless. These assumptions are not exactly
true in the physical world as we know it, but the exact definitions
make Statics and Dynamics precise mathematical subjects and they are
close enough to the truth to allow quite accurate calculations to be
made using simple mathematical techniques.
14.2 Force
Force is defined as that which moves or tends to move a body. The
effect of force can be seen but the force itself is invisible. It may how-
ever be felt, and one of the earliest human experiences is that of the
force of gravity.
Force is, in fact, measured in terms of the force of gravity and in
the metric system the standard force is that with which the earth attracts
a standard bar of platinum whose mass is called one kilogramme.
This standard force is called one kilogramme weight and written as
1 kg wt or, sometimes, 1 kgf, the f standing for force. The British unit
is one pound weight written as 1 1b wt or 1 Ibf.
Other forces are measured by comparison with the standard force,
possibly by suspension from a spring balance in which the extension
350
 FORCES ACTING ON A PARTICLE 351
of the spring is known to be proportional to the force. Thus we can
measure forces of 1 gramme weight, 1 ton weight, etc.
These are all gravitational forces whose magnitude is the earth’s
attraction of a particular mass. Since the acceleration due to gravity is
not the same in different latitudes, the force 1 kg wt which gives this
acceleration to a mass of one kilogramme is not the same in different
localities and we shall find it necessary in Dynamics to have an absolute
measure of force. This is called the newton (abbreviation N) and is
the force which gives to a mass of 1 kilogramme an acceleration of
1 metre per second per second.
1 kg wt = 9-81 N, approximately.
We shall take all forces as being in newtons, unless otherwise stated.
The mass of a body will be taken as m or M kilogrammes and its
weight as Wnewtons (W = Mg).
The forces studied in Statics may be tensions, such as the force in a
string by which a weight is suspended, or thrusts, as exerted by a prop
supporting a weight. They may be attractions exerted without visible
contact, such as the force of gravity, and include reactions which are
the equal and opposite forces between two bodies in contact.
If a light string supports a weight W, the tension in the string T
balances the weight and T= W. This is the force exerted by the string
on the weight at the point of contact. If the upper end of the string is
attached to a peg, and the weight of the string is negligible in comparison
with W, the peg supports the weight W and this force is transmitted to
the peg by the string. Thus the tension Tis the same all along the string.
Similarly, if a weight is supported by a prop of negligible weight, the
weight is transmitted through the prop to the ground and the thrust is
the same at any point of the prop.
14.3 Forces acting on a particle
‘We have seen (§ 6.9) that since displacements, velocities and acceler-
ations are vector quantities and, since by virtue of Newton’s second
law the force on a particle has the same direction as its acceleration,
the force acting on a particle is also a vector quantity. Thus two or
more forces acting on a particle are equivalent to a single force acting
on the particle which is the vector sum of the two forces. Also, a single
force acting on a particle can be replaced by component forces in two
directions which have the same effect as the single force. Forces which
act on the same particle are said to act at a point.
Thus, from § 6.9, forces P and Q acting on a particle in directions
which include an angle 6 have resultant R in a direction making an
angle a with the force P, where
R= V{P? + Q? + 2PQ cos 6} (14.1)
352 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and

sittne) ea gmets (14.2)

Also (from § 6.9) a force P acting on a particle in a direction which
makes an angle 6 with a given direction OX is equivalent to a force
P cos 6 parallel to OX and a force P sin 9 perpendicular to OX.
A particle is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest (relative to its
surroundings) under the action of two or more forces. Thus the con-
dition for its equilibrium is that the resultant of the forces acting on it
shall be zero. This is so if the vectors representing the forces form a
closed polygon, and this is equivalent to saying the sums of the com-
ponents of the vectors in two directions are zero.
Example 1. The resultant of two forces P and Q acting on a particle is equal to P in
magnitude; that offorces 2P and Q acting in the same directions as before is also
equal to P. Find the magnitude of Q and prove that the direction of Q makes an
angle of 150° with P. [O.C.]
Let 0 be the angle between the directions of Pand Q. We have for the magnitude
of the resultant in each case, from (14.1),
P? = P? + QO? + 2PQ cos 6
P? = 4P? + QO? + 4PQ cos 0.
Hence, eliminating cos 0, we find
P? = —2P? + Q?, Q = PV3.
Also
Q v3
cos 9 Ses
= oP Se 7» 80 that 6 — 150°.°

Example 2. The ends of a string of length 2a are attached to points A and B at distance
a apart at the same level. A small smooth ring of weight W slides on the string
and is in equilibrium when held by a horizontal force P directly below B. Prove
that P = 34W and find the tension in the string.

Fic. 119

Let T be the tension in the string so that there will be two forces T acting on the
ring at C along the lines CB and CA (Fig. 119). If BC = x, CA = 2a — x and
(2a — x)* = a® + x’, so that x = 3a/4 and 2a — x = 5a/4. Hence if the angle
 EXERCISES 353
ACB = 6, sin8= 4/5, cos 6 = 3/5. Equating to zero the sums of the hori-
zontal and vertical components of the forces acting on the ring at C we have
P—Tsin@=0
T+Tcsd@—W=0.
Hence
T=Wi(1+cos6)=§W, P=4tT=}4W.
Exercises 14 (a)
Forces of 12 N and 9 N act on a particle in directions which include
an angle of 60°. Find the magnitude of the resultant and its inclination
to the direction of the 12 N force.
Forces of 5 N and 7N acting on a particle have a resultant of 10 N.
Find the angles made by the 5 N force and by the resultant with the
7N force.
A particle of mass 10 kg is suspended by two strings inclined to the
vertical at angles of 30° and 45° respectively. Find the tensions in the
strings.
Equal masses of 10 kg are attached to the ends of a light inextensible
string which passes over three smooth pegs in a wall. The pegs are the
vertices of an equilateral triangle whose base is horizontal. Find the
thrust on each peg.
Forces of 8 and 5 newton act on a particle in directions N.E. and
N.30°W. respectively. Find the components of their resultant in direc-
tions N. and E.
A particle of mass 10 kg rests in equilibrium on a smooth plane inclined
at 30° to the horizontal, being held by a light string inclined at 15° to
the line of greatest slope. Find the tension in the string and the reaction
of the plane.
R is the resultant of forces P and Q acting on a particle, their lines of
action being inclined at 30°; if Q acts in the opposite direction the
resultant is R,. Prove that, if the lines of action of R and R, are at right
angles, then Q = P. Find also the ratio R: Ry. [O.C.]
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. Forces of 10, 12, 8, 9, P, Q newton
act on a particle in directions parallel to the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF,
FA and the particle is in equilibrium. Find the values of P and Q.
ABC is a triangle in which AB = 7, BC = 3, CA = 5. Find (a) graphi-
cally (6) analytically the resultant of the following forces acting at a
point: 3 N in the direction BC, 9N in the direction AC, 9N in the
direction BA.
10. Three equal strings are knotted to form an equilateral triangle ABC and
a weight W is suspended from C. If the system is supported with AB
horizontal by strings attached to A and B, each making an acute angle
a with the horizontal, prove that the tension in AB is
W sin (60° — «)/(/3 sin «). [L.U.]
354 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
11. The resultant of two intersecting forces P and 2P is P,/3. Find the
angle between the forces and the angle made by the resultant with the
force of magnitude P. [L.U.]
12. The ends of a light inextensible string of length / are fastened to points
A and B at the same level distance a apart. A smooth ring of weight W
slides on the string and a horizontal force X is applied to the ring so that
it rests in equilibrium below B. Prove that X = aW// and the tension in
the string is W(a? + 17)/2/?. [L.U.]
13. Four horizontal wires are attached to a telephone post and exert the
following tensions, in newtons, on it: 20N., 30E., 40S.W., 50S.E.
Calculate the resulting pull on the post and find its direction. [0.C.]
14. A pulley carries a mass of 30 kg and can slide freely up and down a
smooth vertical groove. It is held up by a string passing round the
pulley so that the two parts of the string make angles of 30° and 60°
with the horizontal. Show that the tension in the string is slightly under
22¢ N. [O.C.]
15. A body of mass 20 kg is suspended from a fixed point by a string and
is in equilibrium with the string inclined at 20° to the vertical under
the action of a force making an angle of 60° with the downward vertical.
Find the magnitude of the force and the tension in the string. Assuming
the force remains constant in magnitude but varies in direction, find the
greatest possible inclination of the string to the vertical. [O.C.]

14.4 Forces acting on a rigid body

Plane motion of a body is motion in which each particle of the body
moves in a plane. In this case the position of every particle of the body
can be found if the position of some plane section of the body which
moves in its own plane is known. Thus the plane motion of a rigid
body is often described as that of a lamina moving in its plane with all
the forces that act on the body, including its weight, acting on the
lamina in its plane. Hence, in discussing the motion or equilibrium of a
body we need to be able to find the resultant of coplanar forces acting
on the body.
A force acting on a rigid body will act on some particular particle of
the body. The principle of transmissibility offorces acting on a rigid
body states that the effect of a force depends, not on the point at which
it is applied, but on the position of the line along which it acts. Thus
if a force P is applied to a rigid body at a point A in a direction AB
(Fig. 120), the effect of the force on the motion or the equilibrium of
the body would be the same if the force were applied at B or at any
point of the line AB. This principle follows from consideration of the
manner by which force is transmitted from particle to particle within
the body. It is easily verified by experiment and is formally proved in
Dynamics when the equations of motion of a rigid body are obtained.
 FORCES ACTING ON A RIGID BODY 355
Because of its transmissibility, force is sometimes described as a line
localised vector quantity.
The principle of transmissibility enables us to find the resultant of
several coplanar forces acting on a rigid body. Let two of the forces

Fic. 120

be P and Q acting on particles at A and B in directions A’A and B’B

:
respectively (Fig. 121). Let the lines A’A and B’B meet at D. Then the
forces P and Q may be taken as acting on a particle at D and their
resultant X acting at D along the direction DE is obtained as the vector

A
See. B

Fic. 121

sum of the vectors representing P and Q. Now let a third force R act
at a point C in the direction C’C, and let the lines DE and C’C meet
at F (Fig. 122). We may take the forces R and X as acting on a particle
at F, that is, since X is the resultant of P and Q, we may take the forces

Fic. 122

P, Q and Ras acting on a particle at F and obtain by vector summation

their resultant Y acting along a line FK. Similarly the resultant of any
number of forces acting on a rigid body can be obtained and the
resultant will be represented by the vector sum of the vectors repre-
senting the forces irrespective of where the forces are applied. This
356 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

vector sum gives the magnitude and direction of the resultant. The
position of its line of action may be obtained by the process described
above, but we shall see that it is more easily obtained by summing the
turning effects of the forces.
Example 3. PQRS is a lamina in the form of a trapezium with PQ parallel to SR.
Prove that the lamina is in equilibrium under the action of forces completely
represented by PS, SQ, QR and RP. {L.U.]
PS, SQ, QR, RP are vectors representing the four forces in magnitude and
direction (Fig. 123) and PS + SQ = PQ, QR + RP = QP = —PQ, so that
P Q

Fic. 123

the vector sum of the forces is zero. Also, the resultant of the forces, represented
by PS and SQ may be taken as acting on a particle at S and its line of action
parallel to PQ must be along SR. Similarly the resultant of the forces repre-
sented by QR and RP must have line of action along RS. Hence, the two
resultants being equal and opposite and with the same line of action must
balance and the lamina is in equilibrium.

14.5 Resultant of parallel forces

The argument in the previous paragraph would appear to break down
when the resultant of forces whose lines of action are parallel has to be
found, but this is not so. Let P and Q be two parallel forces acting on
a rigid body at A and B in the directions A’A and B’B respectively
(Fig. 124). Suppose there were in addition two equal forces R acting
at A and B in directions BA and AB respectively. By the principle of
transmissibility of force these forces R would not affect the motion or
equilibrium of the body, and so we may take them as being applied.
By drawing the triangle AGC we find by vector addition the resultant
of P and R acting at A as a force X acting along AC; similarly the
triangle of forces BHD gives the resultant of Q and R as a force Y
acting along BD. Let the lines AC and BD meet at E. Then the forces
X and Y may be taken as acting at E and, replacing X and Y by their
constituent forces, we have forces R, P, R, Q acting at E, the two forces
R being in opposite directions and the forces P and Q in the same direc-
tion. The forces R balance each other and the resultant is a single
force P + Q acting at Fin a direction parallel to that of P and Q.
Let this resultant meet the line AB in F. The triangles with parallel
sides AGC and EFA are similar, therefore P/EF = R/AF. Similarly,
 RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCES 357
the triangles BHD and EFB are similar so that Q/EF = R/BF. From
these equations P/Q = BF/AF, that is P/BF = Q/AF, so that the re-
sultant divides the line AB in the inverse ratio of the forces.

Fic. 124

The same procedure applies when the parallel forces P and Q act in
opposite senses. Such forces are called unlike parallel forces as opposed
to like parallel forces when their sense is the same. Introducing equal
and opposite forces R acting at A and B along AB (Fig. 125) we have as
before triangles AGC and BHD giving by vector addition forces X¥ and

Fic. 125

Y acting along AC and BD respectively. Where their lines of action

meet at E, we replace X and Y by their constituent forces, the forces
R cancel and we are left with the resultant P — Q acting at FEin a
direction parallel to that of P.
If the resultant meets the line AB in F, the triangles AGC and EFA
are similar, as are the triangles BHD and EFB. Therefore we have as
358 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

before P/EF = R/AF and Q/EF = R/BF, so that again P/BF = Q/AF
and the resultant still divides AB in the inverse ratio of the forces but
in this case the point of division is external to the line AB.
The above method of finding a resultant of unlike parallel forces
breaks down when P = Q, for then the lines AC and BD will be parallel;
such a pair of equal unlike parallel forces is called a couple and we shall
discuss the properties of such forces in § 14.8.

Example 4. ABCD is a lamina in the form of a trapezium with AB parallel to DC.

Forces P and Q are represented in magnitude, direction and line of action by AB
and DC respectively. Show that the resultant is P + Q parallel to AB and that
its line of action divides AD in the ratio QO to P.

Complete the parallelogram ADCF (Fig. 126) and draw BE parallel to AD.
Let AD represent a force R on the same scale and assume that equal and
opposite forces R act at A and D respectively. Then AE represents the resultant

of forces P and R acting at A and DF the resultant of forces Q and R acting at D.

If these lines meet at G the resultant of the forces acting at G will be the resultant
of forces P, OQ, Rand —R, that is P + Q parallel to AB. Let its line of action
meet AD in H. The triangles AHG and ADE are similar so that

AH
HG
_AD_R
DEP
Similarly the triangles DHG and DAF are similar so that
DH
HG
_DA_R
BAF
From these equations we find Q x DH = P x AH, so that H divides AD in
the ratio Q to P.

14.6 Moment of a force

The moment of a force P about a point O is defined as P x p, where
p (Fig. 127) is the perpendicular (and shortest) distance from O to the
line of action of the force. The moment is taken as positive if, as in the
diagram, the force is tending to make the particle on which it acts move
in an anti-clockwise direction about O. Thus the moment of the force
Q about O is —qQ. Strictly the moment is about an axis through O
perpendicular to the plane in which the point and the force both lie
 MOMENT OF A FORCE 359
and is a measure of the turning effect of the force on a body about this
axis. The units of a moment are units of force and distance and we
may speak of a moment of 10 mN.
p

9
Q
Fi. 127
If a uniform rod is pivoted at its centre O so that it is free to turn in a
vertical plane about the pivot, it will balance in a horizontal position
if it is placed there (Fig. 128). If equal weights are attached to the rod
at equal distances from O the balance will be unbroken. Unequal
weights W and W’ may also be suspended from the two sides without
unbalancing the rod provided that they are correctly placed. It will be
found that if the weights W and W’ are suspended at distances p and p’
respectively from O the rod will balance if, and only if, Wp = W’p’,
that is if the moments of the weights about O are equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign. We shall, in fact, prove later that for the rod to
oO Pp

Ww W'
Fic. 128

be in equilibrium the sum of the moments of the forces acting on it

about the pivot must be zero.
We shall now prove the important theorem on moments, that the sum
of the moments of several forces about a point is equal to the moment
of their resultant about the same point.
Let P and Q be forces acting along OA and OC where the angle
AQ’ = 6 and let R be their resultant acting along OB where the angle
AOB = « (Fig. 129). Then, from the theory of vectors, R is the sum of
components P + Qcos @ along OA and Q sin @ in the perpendicular
direction OY, so that
Roos« = P + Qcos8,
Rsin« = Qsin6.
360 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Hence, if B be any other angle,

Rsin (6 — «)=sinB. Rcosa —cosB. Rsina
= sin B(P + Q cos 9) — cos B(Q sin 9)
= Psin B — Qsin (6 — 8). (14.3)
Now let D be any point such that the angle AOD = 8, and let. DL,
DM, DN be the perpendiculars from D to the lines OA, OB, OC
respectively. Then DL=ODsinB, DM =ODsin(6 — a),

Fic. 129

DN = ODsin (6 — 8). The sum of the moments of the forces P and

Q about D is
Px DL—Qx DN
= OD{P sin B — Q sin (6 — f)}.
The moment of R about D is
Rx DM =OD x Rsin
(8 — a)
= OD{P sin 8B— Q sin (6 — f)}, from (14.3).
Thus the moment of R about D is the sum of the moments of P and
Q about D.
Since the resultant of several forces may be obtained by adding one
force at a time, the moment of the final resultant about any point will
be equal to the sum of the moments of the several forces about the
point.
Example 5. A straight line XY in the plane of a triangle ABC cuts BC at D. Show
how to replace a force S acting along XY by forces acting along BC and AD.
Deduce that S may be represented by three forces P, Q, R, acting along the sides
BC, CA, AB respectively. Ifp is the perpendicular from A to XY, show that P is
of magnitude p . BC . S/(2A), where A is the area of the triangle. {L.U.]
Let DF (Fig. 130) be a vector representing S. Draw FG parallel to CB to meet
AD in G and draw FE parallel to GD. Draw BH parallel to AC to meet AD in
H. Then DF = DG + DE and the forces represented by these vectors act along
 MOMENT OF A FORCE 361
AD and BC respectively. Let DG = AAH and DE = uBC, where 4 and pare
scalars. Then the force represented by DG has magnitude 14H and may be
taken to act at A, so that it is equivalent to forces represented by AAB and ABH
(since AB + BH = AH), the force represented by ABH acting along AC. We
‘have, therefore, replaced the force S by forces P, Q, R along BC, CA, AB
Tespectively, where P = “BC, OQ = ABH, R = AAB.
The sum of the moments of P, O and R about A will be equal to the moment of
their resultant S about A. Q and R have no moments about A and the moment

Fic. 130

of P about A is Ph, where h is the length of the perpendicular from A on BC.

The moment of S about A is S.. p, therefore
P.h=S.p,
P.h.BC=S.p.BC,
and since h. BC = 2A,
P =p.BC.S/(2A).
Exercises 14 (b)

i A light triangular lamina ABC is freely suspended by the vertex C and

particles of weights P and @Q are attached at A and B respectively. The
lamina hangs in equilibrium with the internal bisector of the angle ACB
vertical. Find the ratio of P: Q in terms of the sides of the triangle.
[L.U.]
ABCDEF is a lamina in the shape of a regular hexagon of side a. Forces
4P, 5P, 2P, 3P, 6P, 3P act along the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FA
respectively. Show that the resultant of these forces is a force 2P and
find its moment about A.
A non-uniform rod AB of length 20 cm rests horizontally on two supports
at C and D, where AC = BD = 4cm. The greatest mass that can be
hung from A without disturbing equilibrium is 8 kg, and the greatest
mass that can be hung from B is 10 kg. Find the mass of the rod and
the distance of its centre of gravity from A. [L.U.]
362 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A rod AB, 10cm in length, is supported horizontally by vertical forces

at C and D, where AC = 1cm, DB = 3cm. A mass of 9 gm placedat
A will just disturb equilibrium as will a mass of 15 gm placed at B.
Find the mass of the rod and the distance of its centre of mass ere
A, [L.U.
A uniform plank 9 m long of mass 80 kg is supported horizontally by
vertical strings attached at 1m and 8m from one end. What mass
should be placed on one end so that (i) the tension in one string just
vanishes, (ii) the tension in one string is double the tension in the
other? [L.U.]

2:8 metres of a plank 8 m long and weighing 100 kg project over the
side of a quay. What weight must be placed on the end of the plank so
that a man of mass 75 kg may be able to walk to the other end without
the plank tipping over? [0.C.]
A force of 30g N acts at a point whose coordinates in metres are (3, 1)
in a direction inclined at 30° to the x-axis and a force of 6g N acts at
the point (5, —1) in a direction inclined at 60° to the x-axis. Find the
sum of their moments about the origin.
A heavy non-uniform beam AB, of length /, rests across a fixed peg P
and carries equal masses M, hung from the ends. In equilibrium with
AB horizontal AP is x,. For another pair of masses M, the correspond-
ing distance AP is x,. Prove that the mass M of the beam is given by
(x, — x,)M = (M, — M,)l — 2M,x, + 2Mox2, [L.u.]
ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB = BC = a, CD = DA, A and C
are right angles and the angle B is 60°. Equal forces »/3P act along AD
and DC, equal forces P act along CB and BA. Find the magnitude of
their resultant and show that its moment about a point on BA produced
distant a from 4 is zero.
10. A uniform metal plate of mass 36 kg is in the form of an equilateral
triangle. It is supported with its plane horizontal by three vertical
strings each attached to the mid-point of a side. A mass P kg is placed
at a corner of the plate. Find the value of P if (i) the tension in one string
vanishes, (ii) the tensions in the strings are in the ratio 1:2:2. [L.U.]
11. A square lamina ABCD with AB = 8 cm rests on a smooth table.
Forces of 3, 2, 5, 4N act along AB, BC, DC, DA respectively. The
lamina is held by a smooth pin through a point in the line joining the
mid-points of AB and DC and does not move. Find the distance of
the pin from AB.
12. A rectangular plate 4m x 3 m lies on a horizontal surface. The centre
of gravity is 1 m from a 4 m edge and 1:5 m from a 3 m edge. The mass
of the plate is 120 kg. Determine the vertical force which, applied to
each of the four corners in turn would just raise them off the ground.
 LINE OF ACTION OF THE RESULTANT 363
14.7 Line of action of the resultant
The theorem on moments proved in § 14.6 enables us to find the line
of action of the resultant of several forces acting on a rigid body. Let
A bea point on the line of action of the resultant R; then the moment of
R about A will be zero, therefore the sum of the moments of the forces
about A will be zero. The moment of R about any other point B will
equal the sum of the moments of the forces about B. Thus having found
the magnitude and direction of the resultant by simple vector addition
of the forces, the distance of its line of action from some point is found
by equating its moment about the point to the sum of the moments of
the forces about that point.
This method can be described in terms of Cartesian coordinates. Let
forces whose components parallel to axes OX and OY are X, and Yj,

(x,,y,)

O
Fic. 131

X,and Y,,. . . act at points (x, y1), (Xe, Yo), - -, and let their resultant
have components X and Y and act at the point (x, y) (Fig. 131). Here
(x, y) may be any point on the line of action of the resultant. Then by
vector addition we have
X=X%y+X%+.., Y=Y,+Y¥n+...

The moment of the first force about the origin is the sum of the moments
of its components, that is x, ¥, — y,X;, and a similar expression gives
the moment of each of the other forces and of the resultant. Therefore
xY — yX = (41% — wiXy) + (2Va — yoXe) +. + +
Substituting for X¥ and Y we have an equation satisfied by the coordi-
nates of any point (x, y) where the resultant may be taken to act, namely
x(Y, + Yo+. . ) — WX + Xe +. ° )

= (41%, — WX) + OaYe — yoX2) +.

This is the equation of the line of action of the resultant.
We have seen (§ 14.5) that like parallel forces P and Q havea parallel
resultant P + Q whose line of action divides any intercept of a line
364 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

between the lines of action of the forces in the inverse ratio of the
forces. Let A and B (Fig. 32) be points on the lines of action of P and
Q respectively and let the resultant P + Q pass through a point Fon
AB. Then

Joe ss
BF AF
so that P xXAF = Q x BF. Thenif 0 is the inclination of AB to the
direction of P
Px AFsin6 = Q x BFsin 6. (14.4)
But P xX AF sin 6 is the moment (clockwise in Fig. 132) of P about any
point on the line of action of the resultant and Q x BF sin @ is the
(anticlockwise) moment of Q about the same point. Therefore the sum
of the moments of P and Q about any point on the resultant is zero.

Fic. 132

Further, if E be any other point on AB outside AB, the sum of moments

of P and Q about E
= Px AEsin@+ QO x BEsin 6
= P xX (FE — AF)sin6 + Q x (FE+ BF)sin6
= (P + Q) x FEsin 8, by virtue of (14.4).
Thus the sum of the moments of P and Q about Fis equal to the moment
of the resultant P + QO about E.
Similarly, if E’ is a point between A and B, the sum of moments
about E
= —P x AE'sin6 + QO x BE’ sin6
= —P x (AF — FE’)sin 6+ Q x (BF+ FE’)sin0
= (P + Q) x FE’ sin 6, by virtue of (14.4),
and this is the moment of the resultant about E’.
 LINE OF ACTION OF THE RESULTANT 365
In the same way if P and Q are unlike parallel forces the resultant is
now P — Q through F (Fig. 133) and P x AF= Q x BF. Then if
E be any point on AB the sum of moments about E
=P x AEsin6 — Q x BEsin#@
= P x (FE + AF)sin 6 — Q x (FE + BF)sin0
= (P — Q) x FEsin 0,
which is the moment of the resultant about E.

Fic. 133

Example 6. OABC is a square of side a; OA is taken as the positive x-axis and OC

as the positive y-axis. Forces 2P, 3P, 4P, 5P and 3P+/2 act along OA, AB, BC,
CO and AC respectively. Prove that the resultant is P-/(26) and find the equation
of its line of action. [0.C.]
x4
4P Y
Cc B

SP 3P (x,y)

0 2P A !
Fic. 134
The force along AC (Fig. 134) has components —3P parallel to OX and 3P
parallel to OY, so that if X and Y be the components of the resultant
X = 2P —4P —3P = —5P,
Y=3P—5P+3P=P,
and
V(X® + Y*) = Pr/(26).
If (x, y) be a point on the line of action of the resultant its moment about O is
xY — yX = Px + 5Py. The sum of the moments of the several forces about O

3Pa + 4Pa + 3x/2P x 3 = 10Pa.

366 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Then
Px + 5Py = 10Pa,
and the equation of the line of action of the resultant is
x + Sy = 10a.
Example 7. Forces of magnitude P, 2P, 3P, 4P act respectively along the sides of a
square AB, BC, CD, DA and further forces 8+/2P act along the diagonals BD
and AC. Determine the magnitude of the resultant, the inclination of its line of
action to AC and the perpendicular distance of this line of action from A. [L.U.]
D 3P Cc

E
2p

A P B
Fie. 135

The sum of the two forces 8+/2P along the diagonals is a force of 16P parallel
to AD (Fig. 135). Hence, the sum of all the forces is P— 3P = —2P parallelto
AB and 2P + 16P — 4P = 14P parallel to AD. The resultant is
V{(2P)* + (14P)?} = 10V/2P
and its direction is parallel to AE, where the angle DAE = tan 2/14. Then
1 4
tan CAE = tan (45° + tan? 4) = As — and the resultant is inclined at
an angle tan~ 4/3 to AC. If the line of action of the resultant is distant p from
A its moment about A is p X 10\/2P. The sum of moments of the given forces
about A is
AB
aP AB TIP X AB BY2P Xs SAB eT:

Therefore
2
p= aye AB = 0-919AB.
Example 8. A system of coplanar forces has moments about the points O(0, 0),
A(4, 0) and B(O, 3) in the plane of the forces equal to +16, +4 and — 8 respec-
tively, the anticlockwise direction being taken as positive. Find the equation
of the line of action of the resultant R of the system and determine the value
of R. [L.U.]
Let the resultant R have components X and Yparallel to the axis and let (x, y)
be any point on its line of action (Fig. 136). The moments of the components
taken as acting at (x, y) about O, A and B equated to the given values give
xY¥ — yX = 16,
(«—-4)Y—yX =4,
xY—(y —3)X = -8.
 LINE OF ACTION OF THE RESULTANT 367
Subtracting the second equation from the first and the third equation from the
first we find
Y=3, X=-8 R=V(9+ 6) = (73).
Substituting for X and FY in the first equation we find
3x + 8y = 16,
and this is the equation of the line of action of R.

Fic. 136

Example 9. A uniform beam AB 10 m long and of mass 10 kg rests in a horizontal

position on supports at 1m and 7m from A. A mass of 2 kg is placed on the
beam at B and a mass of 7 kg is moved along the beam from A towards B. Find
the reactions at the supports when the 7 kg mass is 3 m from A and its distance
from A when the equilibrium is broken.

Let R and S be the reactions of the supports on the beam and let the 7 kg
mass be x metres from A (Fig. 137). Since the beam is in equilibrium
R+S =7g + 10g + 2g = 19g.
The sum of moments of the forces about any point must be zero, therefore
taking moments about the left-hand support,
6S =7(x —lg +10 x 4¢+2 x 99
S = 85g + 7xg/6,
and hence
R= 10-5g — 7xg/6.
When
x = 3, this gives R = 7g, S=12¢ N.
Equilibrium will be broken when R = 0, and for this
0 = 10°5 — 7x/6,
ivin
Biving sti
so that the 7 kg mass will be 9 m from A.
368 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 14 (c)
In a rectangular plate ABCD, AB = 5 cm, BC = 10 cm; along the sides
AB, BC, CD, DA there act forces of 10, 20, 20, 40 N respectively.
Show that their resultant is parallel to one of the diagonals and find the
resultant in magnitude and position. [L.U.]

OABC is a square of side a. Forces of 2, 4, 6, 8 units act along OA, AB,

BC, CO respectively and a force P acts along AC. Show that, whatever
the value of P the five forces cannot maintain equilibrium or reduce to a
couple. If P= 10\/2 and OA and OC are taken as the x-axis and y-axis
respectively, find the magnitude of the resultant and the equation of
its line of action. [L.U.]

The diagonals of a square ABCD of side 2a meet in E. Forces 1, 2, 3,

4, 5N act along AB, BC, CD, DA, AC respectively. Find (i) a force
X parallel to BA which when added to the system would give a resultant
perpendicular to that of the original system, (ii) the force Y along DB
which together with X and the original system would give zero resultant.
If the system is in equilibrium with both forces X and Y added, show
that the distance of the line of action of X from E is 5(4 + 5+/2)a/17.
[L.U.]
Forces 2P, 5P, 3P and 4P act along the sides AB, BC, CD and DA of a
rectangular lamina in which AB = 4a and BC = 3a, and a force SP
acts along AC. Prove that the forces are equivalent to a force 5P whose
line of action cuts AB produced at 13a/4 from B. [O.C.]

Forces 13P, 2P, 3P, 8P act along the sides AB, BC, CD, AD respectively
of a square. Find the magnitude and direction of their resultant and
prove that its line of action passes through the mid-point of AB. [L.U.]
Find the resultant of the following forces along the sides of a square:
17N along DA, 7N along CB, 19N along CD, 5N along BA, and
prove that its line of action bisects two sides of the square. [L.U.]

Forces of 4N, 3N, 1 N and 2N act along the sides AB, CB, CD,
AD respectively of a rectangle. AB = 7a, BC = Sa. If this system of
forces is equivalent to a force P acting at A and a force Q acting along
DB, find the magnitudes of P and Q and the direction of P. Find also
where the line of action of the resultant of the system meets AB. [L.U.]

ABC is a triangular lamina with AB = 7a, BC = 3a, CA = 5a; forces

3P, P and 3P act along AB, CB and CA respectively. Find the magnitude
of their resultant, the angle which its line of action makes with AB and
the point O in which its line of action meets AB. [O.C.]

Forces 4P, P and 2P act along the sides BC, CA and BA respectively of
an equilateral triangle of side a. Prove that the system is equivalent to a
force 34/3P in the direction DE, where D is a point in BC at distance 4a
from B and E is the point in CA at distance 4a from C. [O.C.]
 COUPLES 369
10. ABC is an equilateral triangle; forces 4, 2 and 2 N act along AB, AC
and BC respectively. Prove that, if Eis the point where the perpendicular
to BC at B meets CA produced and if F bisects AB, the resultant is
2/7 N acting along EF. [0.C.]
11. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side a and AD is a median. Forces
of 4, 3, 3 and 2 N act along BC, CA, AB and AD respectively. Find
the resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction and the distance
from D of the point where its line of action intersects BC produced.
[L.U.]
12. Forces 1, 2, 3, 2, 5N act along the sides AB, CA, FC, FD, ED re-
spectively of a regular hexagon ABCDEF and forces P, Q and R act
along BC, FA and FE respectively. If the system is in equilibrium find
the values of P, O and R.

13. A rectangular lamina ABCD lying on a smooth table is acted upon by

forces P along AB, 4 along CB, 3 along CD and 4 along AD. Equilibrium
is maintained by a fifth force applied at the middle point of BC. If
AB = 2a and BC = 3a, find the magnitude of P. [L.U.]
14. An equilateral triangle of side 1 m lies in the plane ofa system of forces.
These forces have a total anti-clockwise moment of 9mN about A,
—3mN about Band 3mN about C. Find the magnitude of the re-
sultant of the system and its moment about the middle point of AC.
[L.U.]
15. Forces F, 2F, 3F, 4F act along the sides BA, BC, CD, DA of a quad-
rilateral. AB and BC are two sides of a square ABCE and D is the
mid-point of CE. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
and the distances from B at which its line of action meets AB and
BC. [L.U.]
14.8 Couples
A couple is defined as a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces
acting on a body. Examples of couples are the two forces required to
turn a tap and the force exerted at the end of a spanner to turn a nut
together with the equal and opposite force exerted by the nut on the
spanner. A couple will cause rotation but it will not move things about.
If the resultant is defined in magnitude and direction as the vector
sum of forces, the resultant of a couple is evidently zero. Its moment
is not, however, zero and we shall show that its moment about any
point in the plane of the forces is the same.
Defining the arm of a couple as the perpendicular distance between
the lines of action of the constituent forces we shall prove the following
general theorems on couples:
(i) The moment of a couple acting on a rigid body about any point in the
plane of the forces is the product of its arm and one of the forces.
370 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Let AB be any line perpendicular to the forces meeting their lines of

action in A and B, so that AB is the arm of the couple (Fig. 138). Let
C bea point on AB produced outside AB; then the sum of the moments
of the forces about C is
Px BC—P x AC=P xX AB.

Fic. 138

If C’ is another point on AB between A and B the sum of moments

about C’ is
P x BC’ +P x AC’=Px AB.
Thus the sum of moments about any point is P x AB.
(ii) Two couples acting on a rigid body in the same plane are equivalent
to a single couple whose moment is the sum of their moments.
Let the forces of the two couples be P and Q respectively and let the
lines of action of one pair of forces P and Q meet at A and those of the
other pair meet at B. Then if the resultant of P and Q is R we have two
unlike parallel forces R acting at A and B forming a resultant couple.
The moment of the force R at A about B is equal to the sum of moments
of the forces P and Q at A about B, and these moments are those of the
resultant couple and of the original couples.
(iii) The resultant of a single force P and a couple acting in the same plane
on a rigid body is a single force P whose line of action is displaced
from that of the original force but is parallel to it.
The effect of a couple of moment M on the body is that of two unlike
parallel forces P with distance M/P between their lines of action. If the
single force P acts at a point A, one of the forces of the couple may be
assumed to act at A in a direction exactly opposite to P while the other
acts in the same sense as P at a distance M/P from A. The two forces
at A cancel and we are left with the force P whose line of action is
distant M/P from A and parallel to that of P.
(iv) If three forces acting on a rigid body can be represented in magnitude,
direction and line of action by the sides of a triangle taken in order,
 COUPLES 371
they are equivalent to a couple whose moment is represented by
twice the area of the triangle.
Since the forces are represented by the sides of a triangle taken in
order their vector sum must be zero and therefore they reduce to a
couple. The moment of the couple about any vertex of the triangle is
the moment of the force represented by the opposite side and this
force is multiplied by the perpendicular to the opposite side. This is
the moment of the couple and it is represented by the product of the
perpendicular and the opposite side which is twice the area of the
triangle.

Example 10. A uniform beam AB 20 m long and of mass 200 kg rests in a horizontal
Position on supports at A and B. An anti-clockwise couple of moment 250g m N
is applied at A and a clockwise couple of 750gm N at B. Find the reactions
at the supports.
R $

250g 10 10 750g

200g
Fic. 139

If R and S be the reactions at the supports (Fig. 139), R + S = 200g. The

couples are applied at the ends of the beam but their total anti-clockwise
moment about any point is —500gm N. Hence, equating to zero the sum of
moments about A, we have
20 x S — 10 x 200g — 500g = 0,
and hence S = 125g, R = 75g N.
Example 11. Forces of magnitude 1, 2, 3 and 6 N act along the sides AB, BC, CD
and DA of a square of side 2m. Two other forces P and Q act along the diagonals
AC and BD respectively. Determine the values of P and Q in order that the
system may reduce to a couple and calculate the moment of the couple. [L.U.]
D 3 c
372 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If the system reduces to a couple the sums of the components of the forces
parallel to AB and to BC will be zero (Fig. 140). The components of P and Q,
in these directions are P/+/2 — Q/+/2 and P/1/2 + Q/+/2 respectively, so that
Pi/V/2 — OV2+1—3=0
P/V¥2+ OV2+2—6=0,
and hence P = 31/2, 0 = V3 N. '
The moment of the couple will be the same about any point. The sum of
moments about 4 is
2x24+3x24+Q0x V2=12mN.
and this is the required moment of the couple.

Exercises 14 (d)

ABCD is a square of side 1 m. Forces of 5, 3, 4 and 6 N act along the

sides AB, BC, CD and DA respectively and forces of /2.N and
2/2N act along the diagonals AC and BD respectively. Show that
the system of forces is equivalent to a couple and find its moment.
The centre of gravity of a gate of weight WN is 1 m from the vertical
line containing the two hinges which are 66:7 cm apart. Show that the
horizontal components of the action of the hinges on the gate form a
couple and find their magnitude.
A horizontal beam has one end built into a wall. The masonry pressures
on the beam are equivalent to a force of 150 N vertically downwards at
30 cm from where the beam enters the wall at A and a force of 225N
vertically upwards at 12cm from A. Find the upward force acting
at A and the moment of the couple which together with this force is
equivalent to the given system.
The coupling at the front of a railway wagon in 6 cm higher than that
at the rear and the horizontal coupling pull is 2500 N. Find the moment
of the couple so formed. If the axles are 96 cm apart and the centre of
gravity is mid-way between the axles, find the difference between the
loads on the front and rear axles caused by the couple.
Forces of 1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4 units act respectively along the sides AB, CB.
CD, ED, EF, AF of a regular hexagon of side a. Prove that the six
forces are equivalent to a couple and find its moment. [LAF

ABCD is a square of side 2m. Forces of 4, 3, 2, 1 N act along AB,

CB, CD, DA respectively. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
force through A and the moment of the couple which are together
equivalent to the given system of forces. Also calculate the distance
from A at which the line of action of the single force equivalent to the
system intersects AB. {L.U.]
One end of a uniform bar of weight W and length 2a is attached to
the end of a light inextensible string which hangs freely from a ceiling
 CENTRB OF PARALLEL FORCES 378
A couple of moment G acts on the bar in a vertical plane containing
the string. Show that equilibrium is possible only if G < Wa and find
the positions of the rod and string and the tension in the string when this
condition is satisfied. [L.U.]
Forces of 3, 13 and SN act along OX, OA and OB respectively, where
OA and OB are on the same side of the straight line X’OX and rotation
from OX to OA and OA to OB is anti-clockwise, tan-! AOX = 5/12,
tan BOX’ = 4/3. A force P forms with the given forces a couple
of clockwise moment 90cmN. Find the magnitude of P and the
distance from O of the point where its line of action intersects OX. [L.U.]
ABCD is a rectangle in which AB = 12 cm, AD = 5cm. Forces of 7N
and 13 N act along AB and BD respectively. Find the magnitude and
direction of the force through C and the moment of the couple which
together with the given forces will form a system in equilibrium.
[L.U.]
10. Forces of magnitude 1, 2, 3, P, Q, R units act respectively along the
sides AB, CB, CD, ED, EF, AF of a regular hexagon of side a. If the
six forces are equivalent to a couple of moment a¥/3, find the values of
P, Q and R.

11. Forces of magnitude 2, 3, 5, P, 4 and Q units act along the sides of a

regular hexagon taken in order. Determine the values of P and Q in
order that the forces may reduce to a couple. If the side of the hexagon
is 1 unit, calculate the moment of the couple. [L.U.]

12. Forces of 1, 2, 3, 5, 4, 2 units act along the sides AB, BC, CD, DE,
EF, FA of a regular hexagon of side a. Reduce the system to a force
at the centre O of the hexagon and a couple.

14.9 Centre of parallel forces

Let a number of like parallel forces P,, Pp, Ps, . . ., act on particles
of a rigid body at points A,, A», Az, . . ., (Fig. 141). Then, whatever
may be the common direction of the forces, the resultant P, + P, of
P, and P, may be taken to act on a particle at C in A,A, such that

Fic. 141
374 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

P,.A,C = P,. AC. Similarly the resultant of this force and P3,
which is P, + P, + P,, may be taken to act on a particle at D where
(P, + P,). CD = P,.DA3. Proceeding in this way we can find the
resultant of any number of parallel forces and a point where this
resultant may be taken to act. This point is called the centre ofparallel
forces and it should be noticed that its position does not depend on the
common direction of the forces and that the particles on which they
act need not be in the same plane.
The weights of the constituent particles of a body form just such a
system of parallel forces and their centre is called the centre of gravity
or centre of mass of the body. The position of the centre of gravity is
therefore independent of the direction in which the weights act and,
however the body may be turned, its total weight may be taken as
acting vertically downwards through the centre of gravity. Strictly,
there is a slight difference between the centre of mass and the centre of
gravity; the centre of mass is calculated on the assumption that the
gravity forces on the particles of a body are parallel, whereas these
forces converge to a point which is the centre of the earth and the true
centre of gravity would be the point where these converging forces
should be taken to act.
The centroid of a lamina is its centre of gravity if the surface has uni-
form mass, and the position of the centroid is calculated by assuming
the mass of each small element of its area to be proportional to that area.
In considering the equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of
various forces the weight of the body acting vertically downwards
through its centre of gravity must be taken into account. The centroids
and centres of gravity of various surfaces and bodies have been found
by the methods of the Calculus in § 10.6, and those of composite bodies
will be discussed in the next chapter. Here we note that if a body of
uniform material has a centre of symmetry G such that to any particle
A of the body there corresponds another particle A’ in the line AG on
the opposite side of G and at the same distance from G, then the resul-
tant of the weights of the particles will pass through G. This will be
true for every such pair of particles and hence G must be the centre of
gravity of the body. Thus the centre of gravity of a uniform thin rod
will be at its mid-point, that of a rectangle or parallelogram at the
intersection of its diagonals, that of a circle, ellipse or sphere at its
centre and so on.
Example 12. Masses of weights 2W, W and W are attached to the vertices A, B and
and C respectively of a light equilateral triangle and the triangle is suspended
from a string attached to B. Find the inclination of BC to the vertical.
The centre of the parallel forces W at B and C is at D the mid-point of BC
(Fig. 142) and the centre of the three parallel forces is therefore at X the mid-
point of the median AD. Thus the total weight may be taken to act at X and
 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY 375
as this is supported by the tension of the string, the line BX must be verti-
cal. Now if AB=a, AD = V/3a/2, XD = +/3a/4, BD = a/2 and, since
ADB = 90°, tan XBD = +/3/2; hence BC is inclined at an angle tan— (+/3/2)
to the vertical.

2w
Fic. 142

14.10 Conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body

We have seen that a number of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body
is equivalent to a single force with a definite line of action or, in certain
cases, to a couple. The single force is the vector sum of the several
forces and its component in any direction is the sum of the components
of the several forces in that direction. Thus the single force will be
zero if the sums of the components of the forces acting on the body in
two directions are zero. If the resultant is equivalent to a couple the
moment of the couple will be equal to the sum of the moments of
the forces about any point and the couple will be zero if this sum of
moments is zero. The body will be in equilibrium if the single force
and the couple are both zero. Hence, necessary and sufficient conditions
for the equilibrium of the body are:
(i) the sums of the components of the coplanar forces acting on the
body in two directions must be zero,
(ii) the sum of the moments of the coplanar forces acting on the body
about some point in the plane must be zero.
The solution of problems in Statics is largely a matter of applying
these conditions for equilibrium to the forces acting on a body. It will
be seen that there are in fact three equations to be obtained, two by
equating to zero the sum of components of the forces in two (usually
perpendicular) directions and one by equating to zero the sum of
moments of the forces about some point. Thus three numerical values
376 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

can be found by applying these conditions and these may relate to

magnitudes of forces or their directions or their lines of action.
The conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body are given in slightly
different form in the following theorem.
If a system of coplanar forces acts on a rigid body and the sum of their
moments about each of three points in their plane which do not lie in a
straight line is zero, then the body is in equilibrium.
The fact that the sum of moments about one point is zero shows that
the resultant of the forces is not a couple; when the sum of the moments
about two points is zero the single force resultant must be zero or its
line of action must pass through each point. If then the third sum of
moments is zero the resultant cannot also pass through this point and
must be zero.
Application of this condition gives three moment equations from
which three numerical values can be deduced. They will not, however,
give any additional information to that obtained by equating the re-
solved parts of the forces to zero, but the equations are sometimes
simpler to write down.
Example 13. A uniform rod AB of length 3m and mass 8 kg is hinged freely to a
fixed pivot at A and is maintained in a horizontal position by a light inextensible
string connecting B to a fixed point 5 m vertically above A. Find the tension in
the string and the reaction at A. If the breaking tension of the string is 12g N,
find the maximum distance from the hinge at which a mass of 7 kg may be placed
on the rod with safety. [L.U.]
Cc

a) i\.

897%
Fic. 143
The string makes an angle « with the horizontal where tana = 5/3, and
sin % = 5/V(34), cos « = 3/+/(34) (Fig. 143). The sum of the moments of the
tension and the weight about A must be zero, and in taking the moment of T
it is simpler first to replace T by its components Tcos« and T'sin « since
T cos « has no moment about A. Then
Tsina xX 3 =8 xX 3/2g,
AE. gry OD
sin a 5 gN.
 TRIANGLE OF FORCES 377
Equating to zero the resolved parts of the forces acting on AB we have, if the
reaction R at A makes an angle @ with the horizontal,
Rcos 6 = Tcos « = 12/5g,
Rsin 6 = 8g — Tsina = 4g,
so that
R= (4 + 2-4) = 4-66¢ N,
6 = tan“ (20/12) = 59° 2’.
If the 7 kg mass is placed x from A and the tension T is now 12g N the equation
of moments about A gives
12g sin a xX 3 = 8¢ x 3/2 + Tex,
so that
180
eS VG4) — 12 = 188,
and
x = 2:69 m.

14.11 Triangle of forces. Lami’s theorem

If three coplanar forces act on a body in equilibrium they must either
be concurrent or parallel.
If the forces are not parallel let the lines of action of two of them meet
in a point A. Then these forces can have no moment about A and
hence, since the sum of the moments of the three forces about A is zero,
the moment of the third force about A is zero. Therefore the line of
action of the third force must pass through A. In solving problems of
equilibrium under the action of three forces we may use the fact that
the forces are concurrent instead of equating to zero the sum of moments
about a point. Thus the concurrence of the forces and two equations of
resolution of forces establish three conditions of equilibrium.
A

B P C
Fic. 144

If a body is in equilibrium when acted upon by three coplanar forces,

these forces can be represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order.
This theorem merely states that the vector sum of the forces must be
zero and the vector polygon of the forces, now a triangle, must be a
closed figure. Thus we have a triangle each of whose sides represents
one of the forces in magnitude and direction and sense if the sides are
taken in order (Fig. 144). The converse is also true if the three forces
378 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

are concurrent, since if their vector sum is zero their resultant will be
zero. This is a useful theorem in solving statical problems since any
triangle which can be found with its sides parallel to the forces taken in
order may be called a triangle of forces and the forces are then known to
be proportional to the sides of the triangle.
Example 14. A uniform ladder of length | and weight W rests with its top against a
smooth vertical wall and its base against a stop on horizontal ground at distance
b from the wall. Find the forces acting on the ladder at the wall and on the ground.

Let the force at the top be S; since the wall is smooth the direction of S will be
perpendicular to the wall (Fig. 145). The weight W acts vertically downwards
through the centre G of the ladder. Let the force exerted by the ground and
the stop be R in a direction inclined at « to the horizontal. The lines of action
of W and S meet at C, therefore the line of action of the third force R must
also pass through C. If D is the point on the ground vertically below G the
triangle CDB has its sides parallel to the forces W, S and R respectively and
may therefore be taken as a triangle of forces giving

Ney CD = AE = \/( — b*), DB = $6, and hence BC = +/(/? — 35?/4), so

that

BC W /(4P — 36%)
CD. 8 whVER,
DB W b
= CD 2 VE
tan'y'S
CD eae th
DB b
 LAMI’S THEOREM 379
Example 15. A uniform rod AB of length 2a and weight W is pivoted to a fixed point
at A. It is held inclined to the horizontal by a light inextensible string of length
2a joining B to a point C which is 2a vertically above A. Find the tension in the
string and the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the pivot on the
rod. [L.U.]

Fic. 146

The rod (Fig. 146) is in equilibrium under the action of its weight acting at its
mid-point D, the tension T acting at B along the line of the string and the
force R exerted by the pivot at A. The lines of action of W and T meet at E
therefore that of R must pass through E. The triangle ECA has sides parallel
to the directions of the forces T, W and R, the forces acting in the senses EC,
CA, AE respectively, and is therefore a triangle of forces. Hence

=——
— —.

Now DE is parallel to the base AC of the equilateral triangle ABC of sides 2a,
so that EC = AD = aand, since the angle AECis a right angle, AE = +/3a.
Therefore

and T = 4W, R = »/3W/2 in a direction inclined at 60° to the horizontal.

Lami’s theorem is another form of the theorem of the triangle of

forces, namely, if a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of three
forces each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the
directions of the other two.
Let ABC be the triangle of forces (Fig. 147) with forces P, Q, R
represented by the sides BC, CA, AB respectively. Then
380 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The sine rule gives BC/sin A = CA/sin B = AB/sin C, so that

P PS .
Se

sinA sinB sinC

The angles between the positive directions of the forces are 180° — A,
180° — B, 180° — C, respectively so that, since the sine of an angle is
equal to the sine of its supplement,
P |— EE
Q — ee
R a

sin (180° — A) sin(180°— B) sin (180° — C)

and each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the
other two.
Both the triangle of forces and Lami’s theorem use two of the three
conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body given in § 14.10, namely,

Fic. 147

the two conditions implied in the statement that the vector sum of the
forces must be zero. The third condition for equilibrium used with
either theorem will usually be that of the concurrence of the three forces.
Both theorems apply to the equilibrium of a particle and in this case the
concurrence of the forces is evident.
Example 16. A light inextensible string is attached at one end to a fixed point A and
carries at the other end a particle P of weight 20 N. A small smooth pulley B
is fixed at the same horizontal level at A and AB = AP. A second light inelastic
string is attached to P, passes over the pulley and carries a weight 7 N at its
other end. Prove that AP is inclined at an angle cos (7/25) to the horizontal and
find the tension in the string AP. [L.U.]
Let the angle PAB = 6 (Fig. 148) so that, since AP = AB,
APB = ABP = 90° — 36.
PC being vertical, BPC = 180° —}40, APC =90° +6. Let T, be the
tension in the string AP. The tension 7, in the string PB must be the same along
its length so that Tz = 7N. Applying Lami’s theorem to the three forces Ti,
 LAMI’S THEOREM 381
T, and 20 N acting on P we have
20 7 Tt,
sin (90° — 36) sin(90° + 6) __ sin (180° — 46)
that is

Since 20 cos 6 = 7 cos 30,

40 cos? 40 — 7 cos 46 — 20 = 0,
(5 cos46 — 4)(8 cos 36 + 5) = 0,

bed cos $0 = 4/5 and hence cos 6 = 2 cos?30 — 1 = 7/25.

0
7Tsin}0 7 x 3/5

A B

Fic. 148

Exercises 14 (e)

i A uniform beam AB of length 4 m and mass 10 kg is freely hinged to a

fixed pivot at A and supported in a horizontal position by a light string
of length 5 m attached to the beam at B and to a point 3 m above A.
Find the tension in the string and the magnitude and direction of the
reaction at the pivot.
A uniform beam AB of length 6 m and mass 20 kg is freely hinged to a
fixed pivot at 4 and supported in a horizontal position by a light string
attached to the beam at B and making an angle of 60° with BA. Find
the tension in the string and the reaction at the pivot.
A uniform beam of length / and weight W is free to turn in a vertical
plane about a hinge at A and is supported in a horizontal position by a
light string attached to the beam at //3 from A and toa point C at height
382 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

b vertically above A. Find the tension in the string and the force at
the hinge.
A uniform rod AB, mass 10 kg, is smoothly hinged at A and rests in
a vertical plane with the end B against a smooth verticle wall. If the
rod makes an angle of 40° with the wall, find the pressure on the wall
and the magnitude and direction of the reaction at A. [0.C.]
AB is a uniform bar of weight W, movable about a smooth horizontal
axis fixed at A; to Bis attached a light cord which passes over a pulley
C fixed vertically above A and supports a weight P at its freeend. Show
by applying the triangle of forces that in the position of equilibrium
W.CB = 2P. AC. [L.U.]
A uniform rod of mass 10 kg rests with one end against a smooth
vertical wall and the other end against a stop on smooth horizontal
ground the rod being inclined at 60° to the vertical. Find the reaction
at the wall and at the ground.
A uniform rod of mass 20 kg rests with one end against a smooth
vertical wall and the other end on a smooth plane inclined at 30° to the
horizontal. Find the inclination of the rod to the vertical and the
reactions at its ends. [O.C.]

A uniform lamina of weight W in the form of an isosceles triangle ABC

right-angled at B is freely hinged to a fixed point at A and rests with AC
vertical and C above A, equilibrium being maintained by a horizontal
string attached to C. Find the tension in the string and the magnitude
and direction of the reaction at A. [O.C.]

A uniform beam AB, 6 m long, has mass 40 kg. The end A, about which
the beam can turn freely, is attached to a vertical wall and the beam is
kept in a horizontal position by a rope attached to a point of the beam
1} m from A and to a point on the wall vertically above A. If the tension
in the rope is not to exceed 120g N show that the height above A of
the point of attachment of the rope to the wall must not be less than
1% m. [L.U.]

10. A ladder 10 m long and 35 kg in mass rests with the end A against a
smooth vertical wall and the other end B on smooth ground 6 m from
the wall; it is maintained in this position by a horizontal cord attached
at B. Find the tension in the cord if the centre of gravity of the ladder is
4m from B. Find also the magnitude and direction of the force which,
applied at A, will keep the ladder in position without the cord. [L.U.]
11. A heavy bar AB whose centre of gravity is at G such that AG: GB
= a:b, is supported by a string attached at A. The end B is pulled
away from the vertical by a horizontal force until the inclination of the
string to the horizontal is ¢. Prove that the inclination 6 of the bar to
the horizontal is given by (a + b) tan 6 = a tan ¢. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 383
£2: A uniform rod AB of length / rests in equilibrium with the upper end
B in contact with a smooth vertical wall and the end A in contact with a
smooth concave spherical surface of radius a(2/ > a > J) whose centre
is at O on the wall vertically above B. If AB and OA are inclined to the
horizontal at angles 6 and ¢ respectively, prove that tan¢d = 2 tan 0,
sin = V/{(a? — P)/3P}. [L.U.]

Exercises 14 (f)
A point P is taken on the circle through the vertices of a rectangle
ABCD. Show that the resultant of the forces represented by PA, PB,
PC, PD is constant in magnitude and passes through the centre for all
positions of P on the circle. Find the resultant of the forces represented
by PA, PB, CP, DP. [L.U.]
Two forces are completely represented by the sides AB, AC of a triangle.
Show that their resultant is completely represented by 24D, where D
is the mid-point of BC. A point O within a given triangle POR is such
that forces completely represented by OP, OQ, OR are in equilibrium.
Prove that O is the centroid of the triangle. [L.U.]
A particle of weight W is tied by two taut light inelastic strings to two
fixed points. The tension in the first string is }W and the second is
inclined at 60° to the horizontal. Find the angle between the strings and
the tension in the second string. [L.U.]
Forces 4P, P and 2P act along the sides BC, CA and BA of an equilateral
triangle of side a. Prove that, if the system is equivalent to a certain
force R along BA and a force S along AC together with a couple G in
the sense ABC, then
R= 6P, S = 3P and G = 21/3aP. [0.C.]
ABCD is a rectangle in which AB = 4a, BC = 3a, Forces P, 4P, 2P,
3P act along AB, CB, CD, DA respectively. Prove that the system
reduces to a single force Q acting through the point X in AC at 2a from
A and find the magnitude of Q. If the line of action of Q passes through
Y in AB, find the distance AY. [0.C.]
ABCDFF is a regular hexagon and O is the intersection of the diagonals.
Forces of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5N act along AB, BC, CD, DE, EF. Find the
magnitudes and senses of the forces acting along the sides of the
triagine OAF which are equivalent to the given forces. [O.C.]

Forces 3P, 8P, 2P, 4P act along the sides AB, BC, DC, AD respectively
of a square lamina of side 2a. Find the magnitude of the resultant and
the point E where its line of action meets AB. The lamina is laid on a
smooth horizontal table and can turn freely about a point X on BD.
Prove that, if it is in equilibrium, the distance of X from B is 124/2a/17.
Forces whose components are (P, 2P), (—P, P) and (4P, 0) act respec-
tively at points whose coordinates are (a, 0), (a, —a) and (0, a). Reduce
384 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

the system to a force at the origin and a couple, and deduce that the
resultant is a force acting in the line 4y — 3x = 2a. [N.U.]

ABC is a triangular lamina; AB = 3a, BC = Sa, CA = 4a. D is the

foot of the perpendicular from A on BC and H is the mid-point of AD.
Forces 2P, 6P, 9P act along AB, CB, AC respectively and a force P acts
through H parallel to BC. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant R and the point X in AC through which it acts. Find the
moment of the couple which must be added so that the new resultant
acts through C. [O.C.]

10. OAB is an equilateral triangle of side a; C is the mid-point of OA.

Forces 4P, P and P act along OB, BA, AO respectively. If OA and OY
(parallel to CB) are taken as x and y axes, prove that the resultant
R of the forces is 3P and its line of action is 3y = »/3(3x + a). Prove
also that R is equivalent to a like parallel force R through the centroid
of the triangle together with a couple of moment aP1/3. [0.C.]
11. ABC is a triangle right-angled at A, AB = 4cm and AC = 3 cm. The
moments of a force in the plane of the triangle about A, B and C are
respectively 8, —8 and 14cm N. Calculate the magnitude of the force
and the distance from A of the point where its line of action intersects
AB. [L.U.]
12. A beam AB of length 7 m has its centre of gravity 4m from A. A
light string of length 21 m is attached to the ends of the beam which hangs
in equilibrium with the string over a smooth peg. Show that the in-
clination of the beam to the vertical is given by 6sin?6=5. [L.U.]
13. A uniform heavy rod of length 2a rests with its lower end in contact
with the inside of a smooth hemispherical cup of radius a whose axis is
vertical, the upper end of the rod projecting beyond the rim of the cup.
Show that the inclination 6 of the rod to the horizontal is given by
2 cos 20 = cos 0. [L.U.]
14. A uniform sphere of radius a is to be kept at rest on a smooth plane
inclined to the horizontal at an angle « by means of a string attached
to a point on the surface of the sphere, and the tension of the string is
not to exceed the weight of the sphere. Prove that the length of the
string must not be less than a(sec a — 1). [0.C.]
15. A light inextensible string of length / has one end attached to the end A
of a uniform heavy rod AB of length 2a. The other end of the string is
attached to a smooth light ring C which slides on the rod. The rod is
suspended with the string over a smooth peg P. Show that, in equili-
brium, the portion PC of the string is at right angles to AB, and the
length x of the portion PA is given by U(x? + a?) = 2x3, [L.U.]
16. A heavy rod AB is hinged to a wall at A and kept horizontal by a light
stay CD joining a point C of the rod to a point D on the wall below A.
AC = 4m the angle ACD = 60°, the mass of the rod is 20 kg and its
 EXERCISES 385
centre of gravity is 8m from A. Find the thrust in the stay and the
reaction at the hinge. [O.C.]
i, A uniform rod rests with its ends on two smooth planes inclined at
angles « and £ respectively to the horizontal. Show that, if 0 is the
inclination of the rod to the horizontal 2 tan 6 = cot x — cot 8. [L.U.]
18. The ends of a string of length / are attached to fixed points A and B at
the same level a apart. A smooth ring of weight W slides on the string
and is in equilibrium under a horizontal force P with W vertically below
B. Prove that P = aW/I and find the tension in the string. If now the
force on the ring is Q acting in the same direction as P and the part of
the string attached to B makes an angle of 45° with AB produced, prove
that Q = W(1 + V/2a/l). [0.C.]
19. A non-uniform rigid beam AB, of length 3a and weight nW, rests on
supports P and Q at the same level, where AP = PO = OB= a.
When a load W is hung from A the beam is on the point of tilting about
P. Find the distance of the centre of gravity of the beam from A. When
an additional load W, is hung from B the forces exerted on the supports
are equal. Find W, in terms of n and W. If a couple of moment L
acting in the vertical plane through AB is now applied to the loaded
beam the reaction at P is increased in the ratio 3:2. Show that
L=}(n+ 1)Wa. [N.U.]
20. A uniform smooth sphere of weight W and radius a rests on a smooth
plane inclined at an angle B to the horizontal. The sphere is held in
equilibrium by a light string of length 8a/5 joining a point on its surface
to a point on the plane. Find, in terms of W and , the tension in the
string and the force exerted by the plane on the sphere. [N.U.]
 CHAPTER 15

SOLUTIONS OF SOME PROBLEMS IN STATICS

15.1 Types of problem

In the previous chapters the methods of balancing forces acting on a
rigid body were used to establish conditions for equilibrium, and these
conditions were applied to simple problems in which not more than
three forces acted on the body. In this chapter these same conditions
for equilibrium are applied to more complex problems where more
than three forces are involved. This sometimes necessitates finding the
position of the centre of gravity of bodies which are not symmetrically
shaped. The problem of friction between surfaces is dealt with by
making certain assumptions as to the nature of this force so that
frictional forces can be balanced against the other forces acting on the
body. It can then be seen in which cases the frictional forces are in-
sufficient to maintain equilibrium.
Finally, we shall see that when two or more bodies are in contact
their equilibrium can be considered as that of a single unit, treating
mutual reactions or tensions between the bodies as internal forces of the
system. It will be seen, however, that if it is required to find these
mutual reactions or tensions the equilibrium of at least one of the bodies
must in addition be considered separately.

15.2 Equilibrium under the action of four or more forces

When a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of four or more
forces we can no longer obtain a complete solution by using the
triangle of forces or Lami’s theorem. We can, however, use the three
conditions of equilibrium given in § 14.10 to obtain three equations
whose solution will yield three values of unkown quantities, be they
forces, directions or lines of action of forces. No further resolution of
forces or taking moments will yield additional information.
In problems dealing with the equilibrium of a body it is important
that a clear figure be drawn and all the forces acting on the body
marked on the figure. Where any body is in contact with another, an
unknown reaction must be assumed to act on it which, if the bodies are
smooth, will be perpendicular to the common tangent plane. If a body
is supported by a string, a tension must be assumed to act in the string
and this tension will be unchanged when the string passes over a smooth
peg or pulley. If a body is hinged to another body and there is no
friction at the hinge the forces there acting on either body may be taken
as a single force acting through the centre of the hinge; the direction of
386
 EQUILIBRIUM 387
this force may be unknown and it is often convenient to represent it by
two unknown component forces acting in directions at right angles.
When all the forces have been marked, the three equations giving the
conditions of equilibrium should be written down and numbered. If
there is more than one body involved the three equations for each body
should be set down. When this has been done the statical problem has
been solved, although some algebraical manipulation may be required
to complete the solution. Geometrical relations between the angles and
lengths in the figure may need to be considered so as to simplify the
statical equations.
Example 1. A uniform rod AB of length x m and mass 3 kg per m is hinged at A
and is held at 45° to the upward vertical by a horizontal force P acting at B in
the vertical plane containing AB. A mass of 24 kg is hung from a point of the
rod 9m from A. Find the value of x for which P is a minimum and find com-
pletely the reaction at A for this value of x. [L.U.]}

The arrangement is shown in Fig. 149 where the reaction at A is shown as

having components X and Y; a little consideration will show that the unknown
force P acts in the sense shown in the figure. We thus have three unknown
quantities X, Y and P which we can find from the conditions of equilibrium in
terms of x. ;
The downward gravity forces are 3x acting at the mid-point of AB and 24
acting at 9 m from A. Equating to zero the sum of the vertical components of
force we have
Y — 3gx — 2g = 0. (15.1)
Equating to zero the sum of the horizontal components of force,
X—P=0. (15.2)
Equating to zero the sum of moments of the forces about A we have, since
AF = x cos 45°, AD = 4x cos 45° and AE = 9 cos 45°,
P x AF = 3gx x AD + 2g x AE,
thatis
Px = 3gx (2) +9 x 24g (15.3)
388 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and hence 3 aie

Lf
P= 76% + =

Since dP/dx = 3g/2 — 216g/x* and d*P/dx* = 432g/x°, we see that P has a
minimum value when x = 12 and this value P = 36g N.
For these values of x and P we find from equations (15.1) and (15.2)

and the reaction at A is

R= V(X? + Y*) = 12\/(34)g N at tan“ (5/3) to the horizontal.

Example 2. The figure (Fig. 150) shows a smooth circular wire, centre O and radius r,
fixed in a vertical plane; B and C are two small smooth rings, each of weight W,
threaded on the wire and through them passes a light endless inextensible string,
of total length 9r/4, which passes through and supports at A a smooth ring of
weight W,. In the position of equilibrium the angle AOB = 30°. Prove that
2W = (3/3 —1)W,. Prove also that the reaction of the wire on the ring at
B is 3W,. [0.C.]

Fic. 150

Consider in the first place the geometry of the string. Since the angle BOC
is 60°, BC = OB = OC = r. Hence AB + AC = 5r/4 and AB = AC = 57/8.
D being the mid-point of BC, BD = $r so that sin DAB = sin @ = 4/5. Also,
since angle AOB = 30°, angle OBA = 6 — 30°. Next consider the forces
acting on the ring at A. If T be the tension throughout the string, the forces are
T, T and W, acting as shown and, equating to zero the vertical components of
these forces, we have
2T cos 6 — W, = 0,
giving, since cos 8 = 3/5,
5
T=¢W,. (15.4)
No further information can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium
of the ring at A.
Next consider the forces acting on the ring at B. These are the reaction R of
the wire (perpendicular to the wire since it is smooth), the weight W and the
two tensions in the string at B. Since the force R acts along OB in a direction
inclined at 30° to the vertical we have by equating to zero the sums of the
horizontal and vertical components of the forces
T + Tsin @ — Rsin 30° = 0, (15.5)
Tcos 6 + W — Roos 30° = 0, (15.6)
 ELASTIC STRINGS 389
Eliminating R between these equations we have
T{(1 + sin 4) cos 30° — cos 6 sin 30°} = W sin 30°,
and hence
T9V/3 — 3) = 5W.
Substituting for T from (15.4) gives the required relation between W and W,.
The value of R may be obtained from equations (15.5) and (15.6). It can also
be obtained by stating that the vertical components of the two reactions support
the total weight, that is
2R cos 30° = W, + 2W = 3+/3W,
whence
R=3W,.
15.3 Elastic strings
An elastic string is one in which the strain, that is the ratio of its
extension to its natural unstretched length, is proportional to the
tension in the string. Thus if / is the natural length, x the extension and
T the tension, we have
x
T=i>p

where A is a constant for the particular string. This is known as Hooke’s

Law and is approximately true both for tension and compression of all
materials within certain limits. The constant A depends on the material
and is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the string for strings
of the same material; A is called the modulus of elasticity and its units
will clearly be the same as those of the tension T. A tension A would,
therefore, give unit strain thus doubling the length of the string if
Hooke’s Law were true for a tension of this magnitude.
Example 3. A thin uniform rod of weight W and length 6 units is freely hinged about
a fixed point at A. The end B is attached by alight elastic string of natural length
5 units to a fixed point C at the same horizontal level as A and 8 units from it.
The system hangs in equilibrium. If the angle CAB = 60°, find (a) the tension in
the string, (b) the modulus of elasticity of the string. [L.U.]
390 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
The three forces acting on the rod are its weight W, the tension in the string T
and the reaction R at A (Fig. 151). Let the angle ABC = 9. By the cosine rule
BC? = 8? + 6?—2.8.6.cos 60° = 52, BC = 24/(13). By the sine rule
sin@ _ sin 60° hy pa eas
g ~2vaay | V3)
Equating to zero the sum of moments about A, we have
6 x Tsin# =3 x Wsin 30°,
giving
W/13
— B73 = 0-26W.

Since BC = 7-212, its extension is 2-212 and Hooke’s Law gives

2-212
0:26W =A x oi a

A =0:59W.

Exercises 15 (a)
1, A uniform beam AB 6 m long is free to turn in a vertical plane about a
hinge at A. The beam weighs 200 kg and carries a load of 300 kg at B.
It is supported with AB horizontal by a rope attached to a point of the
beam 4 m from A and to a point 3 m vertically above A. Find the tension
in the rope and the reaction at the hinge.
2. A gangway 20 m long which may be considered as a uniform beam of
mass 400 kg has one end resting on horizontal ground and the other end
on the deck of a ship 3m above. There is no friction, but the shore
end is prevented from moving by a stop. Find the force exerted by the
stop and the reaction at each end.
3. An anchor cable from a point 4 on the bows of a ship is inclined at 30°
to the horizontal and a current exerts a horizontal force on the ship
which acts along a line 30m below A. The weight of the ship W acts
120 m aft of A and the vertical force of buoyancy 105 m aft of A. Find
the cable pull, the current force and the buoyancy.
4. A uniform bar AB, of mass 40 kg and length 8 m, is hinged at A toa
point in a vertical wall and maintained in a horizontal position by a
chain joining B to a point in the wall 5 m above A. If the bar carries a
load of 20 kg at 6m from 4, calculate the tension in the chain and the
magnitude and direction of the action at A. [L.U.]
5. A lamina ABCDEF is in the form of a regular hexagon and can turn
freely in its plane about an axis through A. It is in equilibrium under the
reaction at the axis and forces 6 N along BC, 10 N along FC and PN
along CD. Find the value of P and the magnitude and direction of
the force exerted on the lamina by the axis. [L.U.]
6. A uniform smooth ladder rests with its extremities against a vertical
wall and a horizontal plane and is held by a rope attached to a rung of
 CENTRES OF GRAVITY 391
the ladder one quarter of the way up and to a point of the base of the
wall below the ladder. Show that if the base and top of the ladder are
distant a and b respectively from the base of the wall the ratio between
the reactions P and Q at the ends of the ladder is given by Q/P = 3a/5b.
[L.U.]
The ends of a uniform rod 8 cm long and weighing 10g slide in smooth
grooves AO and BO in two planes inclined respectively at 30° and 45°
to the horizontal, AO and BO being lines of greatest slope of the
planes. Find the weight which should be attached to the rod at 2cm
from the end sliding in AO so that the rod may rest in equilibrium in a
horizontal position. [O.C.]
A uniform spar AB weighs 200 kg. The end B is pivoted at a point on
the ground and the spar is held inclined at 10° to the vertical by a guy
rope attached at A and inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A mass of
400 kg is suspended from A. Find the tension in the guy rope and the
reaction at the hinge.
A non-uniform rod AB of weight W is supported horizontally by two
strings CA and BD attached to its ends. C and D are attached to two
points at the same level; CA is inextensible, BD is elastic and the
directions of the strings are perpendicular. The inclination of BD to
the horizontal is « and its natural length is equal to AC. Find the
ratio in which the centre of gravity divides AB and the modulus of the
elastic string. [L.U.]
10. A uniform rod AB of length 2a and weight W is freely hinged to a fixed
point at A and the end B is joined to a point C, 2a above 4A, by a light
elastic string of modulus W and natural length a. Find the inclination
of AB to the vertical in the equilibrium position.
iL A uniform rod OA of weight 6 kg and length 2 m can turn freely about
a fixed hinge at O. The rod rests horizontally with A attached to one
end of an elastic string of natural length +/2 m, the other end being
attached to a fixed point C, 2 m vertically above O. Find the modulus
of elasticity of the string. If a heavy particle is attached to the mid-point
of the rod equilibrium is possible when the angle AOC = 120°. Find
the weight of the particle. [L.U.]
12. One end of a light elastic string of unstretched length 15 cm is attached
to a fixed point. To the other end is attached a mass of 8 kg which
when hanging freely extends the string to 18 cm. The weight is then held
aside from the vertical by a horizontal force of 6g N. Find, in the new
equilibrium position, the angle which the string makes with the vertical
and the horizontal and vertical distances through which the weight has
moved. [L.U.]

15.4 Centres of gravity

Centroids and centres of gravity of bodies of various shapes have
been obtained in § 10.6. In this section we use the principles of statics
392 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

to find the centres of gravity of composite bodies and of bodies from

which a portion has been removed. If two portions of a body have
centres of gravity G, and G, respectively, the resultant of the two
weights acting at these points will act at a point in the line joining G,
and G, and this point will be the centre of gravity of the whole body.
Let the weights be W, and W, and let the coordinates of G, and G, with
respect to axes OX, OY be (x, y:) and (x2, ya) respectively (Fig. 152).
Y

W, We

fe) 4
Fic. 152

Since the position of the centre of gravity is unchanged by altering the

direction in which the weights act we may take them as acting perpen-
dicularly to the plane XOY. Then if (x, y) be the coordinates of the
centre of gravity of the whole body, we have by taking moments about
@Y and then about OX
(W, + W.)x = Wyxy + Wore, (15.7)
(W, + Wa)y = Way + Ways. (15.8)
From these equations the values of x and y can be found.
If a portion has been removed from a body, let G, and G, be the
centres of gravity of the whole body and of the removed portion and
":

G,

O
In X
Fic. 153
W, and W, the weights of the whole and of the removed portion
respectively (Fig. 153). Then the weight of the body W, — W, is the
resultant ef unlike parallel forces W, and W, acting at G,(x,, y,) and
 CENTRES OF GRAVITY 393
G,(%2, Y2) and the coordinates (x, y) of the centre of gravity are given
by the moment equations
(W, — W,)x = Wx, — Were, (15.9)
(W, — Wa)y = Wiy, — Wayo. (15.10)
Example 4. A uniform hemisphere of radius a has its plane face joined to the base of a
uniform right circular cone of base radius a and height h. Find the distance of
the centre of gravity of the body from the vertex of the cone.
If p be the density of the material the weights of the two parts are
W, = tpna*h and W, = 2pna*,

mac|e
Soy Fic. 154

The centre of gravity of the cone is distant #h from the vertex O (Fig. 154) and
the centre of gravity of the hemisphere is distant $a from the centre of the base A,
and therefore h + ga from O. Hence, if x be the distance of the centre of gravity
of the whole from O,
(tenath + ¥pna*)x = tpnath x th + ¥pna°(h + fa),
and, dividing by $p7a*,
(h + 2a)x = 3h? + 2a(h + ga)
and
_ 3h? + 8ah + 3a*
* 4h + 2a)
Example 5. ABCD is a uniform rectangular board with AB = 6cm, BC = 4cm.
From the board a quadrant of a circle whose centre is C and radius 2 cm is removed.
Find the distance of the centre ofgravity of the remainder from AD and AB.
The areas of the rectangle and the quadrant are respectively 24 cm? and 7 cm?
and if p be the density, their weights are 24p and zp. The centre of gravity ofa
D C

A 6 B
Fic. 155
394 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
quadrant of radius r is distant 4r/(37) from each of its bounding radii and hence,
taking AB and AD as the axes of x and y respectively (Fig. 155), the coordinates
of the centre of gravity of the quadrant will be (6 — 8/37, 4 — 8/37). The
centre of gravity of the rectangle is the point (3, 2) and if (x, y) be the coordinates
of the centre of gravity of the remainder
(24p — mp)x = 2Ap x 3 — mp X (6 — 8/37),
(24p — mp)y = 24p X 2 — mp X (4 — 8/37),
leading to x = 2°68 cm, y = 1°83 cm.
If a body is in equilibrium suspended by a string or hinged at a pivot
the force in the string or at the pivot must be equal and opposite to the
weight of the body acting at its centre of gravity. Hence the centre of
gravity must be vertically below the point of attachment of the string
or the pivot and the position of the body is determined by this fact.
Example 6. One end of a uniform cylinder of radius a and height 2h/3 is welded
symmetrically to the base of a uniform cone of base radius a and height h made of
the same material. The body is suspended from a point on the base of the cone
and is in equilibrium with a slant side of the cone horizontal. Prove that the semi-
vertical angle « of the cone is given by tana = +/5/6. [0.C.]
B

Me ctet:

Fic. 156

We first find the position of the centre of gravity G of the composite body (Fig.
156). If x be its distance from the vertex O we have
W, = tpza*h, W, = Zpna*h = 2W,

and

that is,
- 3x = $h + 3h = Hh,
giving
x = 41h/36.
Thus if A is the centre of the base of the cone AG = 5h/36. If the body is sus-
pended from B, BG must be vertical and since BO is horizontal the angle OBG
is a right angle. Therefore
tan GBA = tan (90° — ABO) = cot ABO.
But tan GBA = 5h/(36a) and cot ABO = a/h = tan «.
Hence
Sh]/(36a) = alh, a*/h® = 5/36 and tan a = +/5/6.
 TOPPLING PROBLEMS 395
15.5 Toppling problems
A body at rest on a surface will topple about an edge in contact with
the surface if the sum of the moments of the forces acting on it about
the edge is not zero. At the instant of toppling as part of the body
begins to lift clear of the surface the reaction between the body and the
surface will, in general, act at the edge and make no contribution to the
sum of moments about the edge. Therefore, in the absence of other
external forces, a body will topple about an edge if the force of gravity
acting through the centre of gravity has a moment about the edge in the
sense that will make the body topple. This is equivalent to saying that
if the vertical through the centre of gravity passes outside an edge the
body will topple.
Example 7. A crane may be taken as a thin rod of length | and weight W with one end
fixed at the centre of a uniform circular disc of radius r and weight W’, the centre
of gravity of the rod being distant a from the fixed end. The rod is inclined at an
angle 6 to the vertical and a weight w is suspended from its upper end. Show that
the crane will topple when 0 exceeds a certain value if
(wl + Wa) >(w+ Wet Wr.

|
|
|
|
|
|

W 4
A
w'

Fic. 157
Ifthe crane topples it will turn about a tangent to the disc at a point A (Fig. 157).
When it is on the point of toppling B will be lifting clear of the ground and
the reaction of the ground will pass through A. Equating to zero the sum of
moments of the gravity forces about A we find
w(Isin @— r) — W(r — asin6)— W’r = 0,
giving
pep eee
se
at We.
wl + Wa
If 0 is increased beyond this value the crane will topple. We thus have a critical
value of 6 at which toppling will begin, provided that the numerator of the
fraction is less than the denominator (since sin 6 < 1), that is
(wl+ Wa)>wte W+ Wr.
396 ADVANCED LEBVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 15 (b)

The radii of a frustum of a uniform right circular cone are a and 2a and
its height is h. Find the distance of its centre of gravity from the larger
face.
ABCD is a square board of side 2a. A triangular portion is removed
by making a straight cut from A to the mid-point of BC. Find the dis-
tances of the centre of gravity of the remainder from the edges AD and
CD.
A piece of solid metal shafting is 10 m long and tapers uniformly from
a diameter of 3 m at one end to one of 1 m at the other end. Find the
distance of the centre of gravity from the thicker end. [L.U.]
A uniform solid consists of a right-circular cone of slant height 10 cm
and base radius 6 cm mounted on the plane face of a hemisphere, also
of radius 6cm. Determine the distance of the centre of gravity from
the centre of the hemisphere.
A circular plate, centre O and radius a, is pierced with four circular
holes, each of radius c. The centres of these holes are at A, B, Cand D,
where ABC is an equilateral triangle in a circle of centre O and radius
b (> 2c), and D is the other end of the diameter of this circle through A.
Find the distance of the centre of gravity of the plate from A. [0.C.]
From a cone of height 2h, a cone of height 4 having the same circular
base is removed; find the distance of the centre of gravity of the
remainder from the vertex of the original cone. [L.U.]
A uniform wire ABCD is bent at right angles at B and C in such a way
that BA and CD are in the same sense, and the lengths of AB, BC, CD
are 6, 4, 2 cm respectively. Find the distances of the centre of gravity
from AB and BC. Show that the wire can be suspended with each part
equally inclined to the vertical by a string attached to a point P, and
give the length of BP. [0.C.]
Show that the centre of gravity of a quadrilateral ABCD is the same as
that of three particles of masses proportional respectively to 40, OC,
2AC placed at A, C and the mid-point of BD, where O is the intersection
of AC and BD. {L.U.]
A rigid framework ABCDE of four equal rods, forming part of a
regular hexagon, is suspended from A. Show that the angle made by
AB with the vertical is tan—! (4,/3/7). [O.C.]
10. ABCD is a rectangular plate. AD = 8cm, BC = 12cm and Eis the
mid-point of BC. If the triangular portion ABE is removed and the
remainder is suspended from A, find the inclination of the side 4D
to the vertical. [L.U.]
11. A uniform wire of length 44cm is bent into the form of a closed
plane pentagon ABCDE having AB = BC = AE= ED = 10cm,
 LAWS OF FRICTION 397
BE = 16cm, and the angles at C and D equal. If the wire is supported
by a vertical string from a point P of AB, find the distance AP if AB is
horizontal in the equilibrium position. [L.U.]
12. Two uniform rods AB and BC, each of length / and weight W, are
smoothly jointed at B and the ends 4 and C are joined by a light
inextensible string, also of length /. If the system is suspended in equi-
librium from A, show that AB is inclined at an angle tan (1/3/5) to the
vertical. Find the tension in the string. [L.U.]
13. A uniform square lamina ABCD of weight 4 W is suspended freely from
a fixed point A. If the lamina rests in equilibrium with weights W, 2W,
3W attached to B, C, D respectively, find the inclination of AC to the
vertical. [L.U.]
14. A frustum is cut from a cone of height h by a plane parallel to the base
and distant $h from the base. If the frustum can just rest with a
generator on a horizontal plane determine the ratio of the diameter
of the base of the cone to the height h. [L.U.]
15. A tin made of uniform sheet metal and open at one end is a circular
cylinder 30 cm high and 60 cm diameter. Show that the centre of gravity
is 10 cm from the base. The tin is pivoted about a diameter of the cross-
section 12:5 cm above the base and liquid is steadily poured into the tin.
If the metal weighs 4-58 g/cm® and a cubic cm of the liquid weighs 1 g,
show that the tin will be on the point of toppling over when the surface
of the liquid is 2-5 cm from the top of the tin. [L.U.]
16. An isoceles triangle is cut off a corner of a square lamina. Show that
the remainder can stand on a shortened edge if the part cut off is 0°5
of an edge, but not if the part cut off is 0-6 of an edge. [O.C.]
17. A table consists of a 1 cm board, 24 cm square having at its corners
legs of the same material 54 cm long and of 4 cm square cross-section.
Find the height of the centre of gravity and the greatest angle through
which the table can be tilted on two legs without being overturned. [O.C.]
18. A cubical block of edge a rests on a horizontal plane and is gradually
undermined by cutting away slices by planes parallel to a horizontal
edge, inclined at 45° to the horizontal. Find the centre of mass of the
remainder when a length x has been removed from each of four edges,
and show that the block will fall when 9x = Sa, approximately. [L.U.]

15.6 Laws of friction

Smooth surfaces are defined as being such that there is no resistance
to sliding over each other. Thus, if two such surfaces are in contact, the
action between the surfaces is always perpendicular to their common
tangent plane. A smooth surface is a mathematical concept since in
fact there is always some friction between bodies in contact tending to
prevent or diminish relative motion. The mathematical treatment of
friction is based on certain assumptions which are embodied in the
398 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

so-called laws offriction which are found to be in close agreement with

experience. These laws are set out below.
Law 1. When two bodies are in contact the direction of the force of
friction on either of them at the point of contact is opposite to
the direction in which this point tends to move relative to the
other body.
Law 2. If the bodies are in equilibrium the force of friction is just
sufficient to prevent motion and may be determined by apply-
ing the conditions for equilibrium to all the forces acting on
each body.
Law 3. Limiting friction is the frictional force which is being exerted
when equilibrium is on the point of being broken.
Law 4. The ratio of limiting friction to the normal reaction depends
on the nature of the surfaces in contact. This ratio is called the
coefficient of friction and is denoted by the Greek letter
(mu). Thus, if R be the normal reaction, the limiting friction
is UR.
Law 5. The amount of limiting friction is independent of the area of
contact between the surfaces.
Law 6. When motion takes place the direction of friction is opposite
to that of relative motion and independent of velocity.
The angle of friction is defined as 4 (lambda), where w = tan A.
Thus if R be the normal reaction and the friction is limiting and equal
to wR in a direction perpendicular to R, the resultant force at the point
of contact is R1/(1 + wu?) in a direction inclined to the normal reaction
at an angle whose tangent is mw. Therefore, the resultant is
Rv/(1 + tan? A) = R sec A, inclined at an angle 4 to the normal.
The above laws of friction are confirmed by modern theory which
suggests that friction is in fact due to the non-rigidity of bodies. When
one body rests on another there is always an area of contact rather than
a point of contact, and this area may be much smaller than the apparent
area of contact. The area of contact will be due to the deformation of
the bodies by the normal pressure between them and will be propor-
tional to this pressure. Friction is believed to be caused, at least in the
case of some materials, by heat fusion of the materials of the bodies
over the area of contact and friction is the resistance of this fusion to
breaking before the bodies can move. This makes limiting friction
proportional to the true area of contact and therefore proportional to
the normal force between the surfaces.
15.7 Equilibrium on an inclined plane
If a body of weight W is placed on a rough plane inclined at an angle
a to the horizontal it will slide down a line of greatest slope unless it is
 EQUILIBRIUM ON AN INCLINED PLANE 399
prevented by friction, which must therefore act upwards along this
line. Let R be the normal reaction and F the force of friction (Fig. 158).
The body is in equilibrium under the action of the forces W, R and F,
so that, since the weight acts in a direction making an angle 90°—« with
the line of greatest slope,
R= Weos«
F= Wsinag,
and F/R = tan a.
If, however, the body is on the point of moving the friction will be
limiting and F = wR = R tan A, so that tan « = w = tan A, that is,

Fic. 158

A =«. Therefore the plane of greatest slope on which a body can rest
is one inclined at an angle equal to the angle of friction. Also, for a
body to rest on a plane of inclination «, the coefficient of friction must
be at least tan «. It is assumed here that there is no question of the
equilibrium being broken by rolling or toppling.
Example 8. A small body of weight W is placed on a rough plane inclined at an angle
« to the horizontal and the angle offriction is A(< «). Find the least force that
must be applied (i) to prevent it sliding down the plane, (ii) to start it moving up
the plane.
A
R /
/y R tan X

Fie. 159

Let the applied force be P in a vertical plane containing the line of greatest slope
and inclined at 0 to this line (Fig. 159). In the first case we assume friction to be
limiting and to act up the plane; let the normal reaction be R and the friction
400 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

R tan A. Equating to zero the resolved parts of the forces normal to and along
the plane, we have
R—Psin§ — Wcosa
= 0,
RtanA + Pcos# — Wsin« =0.
Eliminating R between these equations we find
P(cos6 + sin 6 tanA) = W(sin « — cos « tan A),
and hence
sin (a — 4)
P=W
cos (6 — A)
The force P will be a minimum if cos (@ — A) = 1, that
is if 9= A, and in this
case P = Wsin (a — A). = ;
If P is just sufficient to start the body moving up the plane the friction will
then be acting down the plane and the calculations can be repeated with A
replaced by —A, giving
R—Psin#d — Wcosa
=0

—Rtandj+ Pcos#? — Wsin« =0

and hence
sin (« + A)
fie Fm eS iy
In this case P will have its least value when 6 + A = 72, giving
P= —Wsin(« + A),

that is P has magnitude W sin (« + A) and acts along OA inclined at an angle

A to the upward direction of the line of greatest slope.

15.8 Problems involving friction

Problems involving friction are solved by applying the conditions for
equilibrium to the forces acting on a body, including frictional forces.
Care must be taken not to write down the frictional force as wR, where
R is the normal reaction, unless the friction is limiting. In general the
frictional force should be taken as an unknown quantity F whose
direction is usually known and the ratio F/R calculated. Then the
inequality F/R < yu will be necessary for equilibrium.
Example 9. A uniform ladder of weight W rests inclined at 45° to the horizontal on
rough horizontal ground and against a smooth vertical wall. Show that for
equilibrium the coefficient offriction between ladder and ground must not be less
than 3. If, however, a man of weight W stands on the bottom, show that the
coefficient of friction must not be less than 3. If this man can ascend to the top
without it slipping find the least value of the coefficient offriction. [L.U.]
Let 2a be the length of the ladder, R the normal reaction at the ground and S
that at the wall (Fig. 160). Ifthe ladder is on the point of slipping the frictional
force at B will be 4R towards the wall. Equating to zero the horizontal and
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING FRICTION 401
NsAshton eon agat aly ladder and the sum of their moments about

S— uR=0,
W—R=0,
W .acos 45° = 0,
45° — S.2acos
so that W = 2S = R, andhence uw= .
If now an additional weight W is applied at B, these equations become
S—uR=0,
2W—R=0,
W .acos
45° — S.2acos
45° =0

A S

BRB
Fic. 160
so that W = 2S = 4R, giving wR = }R and hence pw = }.
If the man has ascended the ladder, his weight W will be applied at 4 and the
equations will become
S— pR=0,
2W—R=0,
W .2acos
45° + W.acos
45° — S.2acos
45° = 0,
so that W = 2S = 3R, giving wR = }R and hence p = §.

Example 10. A small ring A, weight W, is threaded on a fixed rough horizontal wire
(coefficient of friction mu). A light inextensible string of length 2 is attached to
the ring and to the wire at B; a particle of weight 4W is attached to the mid-point
C of the string. Prove that if the system is in equilibirum with AB = 2x, then
x < 3yul//(4 + 9p). Uf the ring is about to slide when an additional weight 2W
is hung from C and when angle BAC = 60°, find the value of wu. [0.C.]
Let T be the tension in the string, the same in both parts by symmetry, R the
reaction, F the friction at A and @ the angle BAC (Fig. 161). We know that
cos 6 = x// and hence sin 0 = +/(/? — x*)//. For the equilibrium of the weight
at C we have
2T sin 0 = 4W,
and hence
T = 2Wi/V(F — x*).
For the equilibrium of the ring at A,
F = Tcos0 = 2Wx/V/(? — x),
R=W+Tsin6 = 3W,
402 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

and hence
EA
Ri 3 (P — x4)
The greatest possible value of the ratio F/R is “, and hence we have
2x
3 V(2 = x?) < B,

4x? < 9u(P — x4),

x4 + 9u?) < 9p7P,
and hence
3pul
*S 7G +9)

Fic. 161

With the additional weight 2W at C and @ = 60°, we have

2T sin 60° = 6W,
T =2/3W.
Then F = T cos 60° = 1/3W, R= W + Tsin 60° = 4W, F/R = /3/4. Since
the ring is about to slide, this ratio must be equal to u, and hence pw = +/3/4.

Example 11. A uniform right circular cone of weight W, height h and base radius a is
Placed with its base on a rough plank, the coefficient offriction between the bodies
being . One end of the plank is gradually raised until equilibrium is broken;
find the condition that it should be broken by sliding.
Let « be the inclination of the plank to the horizontal, R the normal reaction
and R the friction in the limiting case (Fig. 162).
If the cone is about to slide for this value of « we have
R= Weos«
BPR= Wsinag
and hence
w = tan «,
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING FRICTION 403
The cone will, however, topple about the point A if the line of action of its
weight passes outside A, and in the critical case this means that the line of action
of the weight must be inclined at an angle « to the axis of the cone. Therefore,
since the centre of gravity is at 4/4 from the base, the cone will topple when
4a
tana = hie Therefore the cone will slide rather than topple if u < 4a/h.

Fic. 162

Exercises 15 (c)

A block of wood, mass 4kg, rests on a horizontal plank 6 m long.

It is found that when one end of the plank is raised 2 m the block will
just slide; fine the coefficient of friction. If the vertical height of the
end is increased to 3 m find the least force perpendicular to the plank
which will maintain equilibrium. [0.C.]
Find the least force that will move a mass of 80 kg up a rough plane
inclined at 30° to the horizontal when the coefficient of friction is
O75. [L.U.]
One end of a uniform ladder rests against a rough vertical wall and
the other end rests on rough horizontal ground, the coefficient of
friction at each contact being tan A. Show that the inclination of the
ladder to the vertical when it is on the point of slipping is 2A. [L.U.]
AB and CD are two opposite edges of a face of a uniform solid cube.
The cube is in equilibrium with AB on rough horizontal ground and C'D
against a smooth vertical wall. Prove that if w is the coefficient of
friction at the ground and 0 is the inclination of the face to the hori-
zontal, tan 6 cannot be outside the range 1/(2u + 1) to 1. [L.U.]
Two straight wires OA, OB are fixed at right angles in a vertical plane
each inclined at 45° to the horizontal, O being the lowest point. Small
light rings attached to the ends of a uniform rod can slide one on each
wire. The angle of friction for each ring and wire is A, and A < 22}°.
If the rod rests in limiting equilibrium inclined at an angle « to the
horizontal, prove that A = 4a. [L.U.]
A particle of weight W rests on a rough plane, coefficient of friction 4,
inclined at « to the horizontal. A horizontal force P parallel to the plane
404 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

is applied to the particle which is then in limiting equilibrium. Show that

P? = Wu? cos? « — sin?«). If the particle is then on the point of
moving in a direction making 45° with the line of greatest slope, show
that uw = 1/2 tan «. [LeU]

Two small rings each of mass m are threaded on a fixed rough hori-
zontal wire and joined by a light string of length 2a and a particle of
mass 6m/5 is attached to the mid-point of the string. Show that, if the
coefficient of friction between each ring and the wire is 4, the depth
of the particle below the wire when the equilibrium is limiting nee

A uniform solid cube of weight W stands on a rough horizontal plane

and ABCD is its upper face. A gradually increasing force P in the
direction AB is applied to the mid-point of BC. Prove that equilibrium
will be broken by sliding or toppling according as the coefficient of
friction is less than or greater than 4. If «4> 4, find the magnitude of
P when the cube begins to topple. [L.U.]
A rough plane is inclined at « to the horizontal. A weight W just moves
up a line of greatest slope when acted on by a force equal to W in this
direction. Prove that the angle of friction is 7/4 — «/2. [L.U.]
10. Two equal heavy rings can slide on a fixed rough horizontal rod and
are connected by a light inextensible string with a weight equal to that
of a ring attached to its mid-point. Ifin limiting equilibrium each portion
of the string is inclined at 30° to the vertical, find the coefficient of fric-
tion between a ring and the rod. [L.U.]
11. A uniform ladder rests inclined at 60° to the horizontal against a smooth
vertical wall and on rough horizontal ground (u being 4). The ladder is
8 m long and has mass 50 kg. A man of mass 100 kg begins to climb.
How far can he ascend before the ladder slips? What coefficient of fric-
tion is required for him to be able to ascend to the top? [L.U.]
12. A body of mass 1 kg can just be kept from sliding down a rough plane
of inclination sin“! § either by a force Pg N acting upwards along a
line of greatest slope or by a horizontal force of 1g N in the vertical
plane containing the line of greatest slope. Show that the ratio of the
normal reactions in the two cases is 3:7. Find the coefficient of friction
and the value of P. {L.U.]
13, The ends of a light string are attached to a horizontal beam at points
C and D, 5a apart. The string passes through a small light ring which
is attached to the end A of a uniform rod of length 2b and weight W;
the other end, B, rests in contact with a rough horizontal table, the
string and the rod being in a vertical plane. When AC = 3a and
AD = 4a the system is in equilibrium and the friction at B is limiting.
Prove that, if BA makes an acute angle 6 with horizontal, tan 0 =
(7 — 1)/(24), where (> 1/7) is the coefficient of friction at the table.
[0.C.]
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING TWO BODIES 405
14. A uniform rod AB of length 2a rests on a fixed smooth peg P with the
end 4 in contact with a rough vertical wall, 4B making an acute angle
6 with the upward vertical. If x is the distance of P from the wall and u
the coefficient of friction at the wall, prove that, when the rod is about
to slip downwards, (x — a) tan? 6 — wa tan 6 + x = 0. Deduce that,
if x = 3a/2, this position of limiting equilibrium is not possible unless
p> V3. [0.C.]
15. Small rings A and B of weights W and w (< W) respectively are threaded
on a rough circular wire, of centre O, fixed in a vertical plane, and the
rings are joined by a light inextensible string. If, with the string taut,
A is on the point of sliding downwards along the wire when OA and OB
each make an angle 6(< 90°) with the upward vertical, prove that
(W — w)/(W+ w) = sin 2A/sin 20, where A is the angle of friction
between each ring and the wire. [O.C.]

16. A particle P, of weight w, is attached to the rim of a uniform circular

disc, centre O and weight W; the disc, of radius a, rests in a vertical
plane on a rough horizontal floor and against an equally rough vertical
wall and is about to slip when P is above the level of O and distant $a
from the wall. If A is the angle of friction concerned, prove that
cos 2A — sin 2A = W/(W+ w). Find the value of Aif w= W(4/2 — 1).
[0.C.]

15.9 Problems involving two bodies

When two rigid bodies are in equilibrium together the conditions for
equilibrium may be applied to the two bodies considering them as a
single unit. In this case the mutual reactions of the bodies at a point of
contact or the tension in a string joining the bodies will be treated as an
internal force of the system and will not appear in the equations expres-
sing the conditions of equilibrium. To find these internal forces it is
necessary to treat one of the bodies as a separate unit in equilibrium
under the action of external forces and the internal forces between the
bodies. When the conditions for equilibrium of the whole system and
of one of the bodies have been written down, no further information
will be obtained from the equilibrium of the second body.
Example 12. A step ladder of weight 2W consists of two equal parts freely jointed
at the top and held together by a light string joining the mid-points of the parts.
When the string is taut the angle between the two parts is 2x, where tan « = 6/13.
With the ladder resting on smooth horizontal ground and the string taut, a man of
weight 5W climbs two-thirds of the way up one side. Find the reactions at the
ground, the tension in the string and the reaction
at the hinges. [L.U.]
Considering the ladder as a single rigid body, let the reactions at the ground
be R and S and let each part be of length 2a (Fig. 163). The body is in equili-
brium under the action of the forces R, S, W, 5W, W, so that
R+S=T7W,
406 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and, equating to zero the sum of moments about C,
R X 4asina — W x 3asina
—5W x gasna—Wxasina«
=0
so that
R = 72W, and hence S = $W.
A

a
fr ?2)

B Cc
Fic. 163
To find the internal forces between the parts we now consider the equilibrium
of the part AC. Let T be the tension in the string and let X and Y be the com-
ponents of the force exerted on AC by AB at A (Fig. 164). Equating to zero the
sum of the moments of the forces about A we have
S X 2asina — W x asin« —T X acosa =0
and hence
T = (2S — W) tana = 78W x v&
=2W.

Fic. 164

Equating to zero the horizontal and vertical components of force we have

X—T=0,
S—-W—-Y=0,
and hence
X =2W, Y=3W.
Example 13. Two uniform beams AB and AC, equal in length and of weights 3W and
W respectively, are smoothly jointed at A; the system rests in a vertical plane
with the ends B and C on a rough horizontal plane, the coefficient of friction
being uw. If R and S are the reactions at B and C respectively and the angle BAC
is 20, prove that R= 3W, S = $W and tan 9 < iu, stating at which point the
friction first becomes limiting as 6 is increased. Prove also that when tan 0 = $4
the reaction of one beam on the other is inclined at tan-! (314) to the vertical.
[0.C,]
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING TWO BODIES 407
Let F and F, be the frictional forces at B and C and let AB = 2a (Fig. 165).
First we consider the system as a single body in equilibrium under the action of
the forces R, S, 3W, W, F, F,. Equating to zero the sum of horizontal and
ver-
tical components of force and the sum of moments about C, we have
F—F,=0,
R+S=4W,
R X 4asin
6 = 3W x 3asin6 + W x asin®@
and hence
Reis iy, S=3W.

Fic. 165

Now consider the equilibrium of AC (Fig. 166) under the action of the forces
F,32W, W and components of reaction X and Y at A.
Equating to zero the sum of moments about A we have

aa x 2asin 6 — W x asin0 — F x 2acos 0 =0,

and hence
F= Wtan6,
and
F/S = # tan 0.
The end C will therefore slip unless $ tan 0 < uw. At B we have F/R = $ tan 6,
so that B will slip only when tan 6 = gy and the friction will first become
limiting at C. Equating to zero the sums of the horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of force on AC we have, when tan 6 = ay,
X =F = W
tan 0,
Y=iW—W=4W,
X/Y= 2 tan 6 = 3u,
so that the reaction at A is inclined at tan~! (34) to the vertical.

Exercises 15 (d)

1. A ladder consists of two uniform legs of equal length and weights

W and 2W, smoothly hinged at the top with the lower end of the
heavier leg attached by a cord to the middle point of the lighter leg.
The ladder rests on a smooth horizontal floor with the cord taut and
408 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

each leg making an angle of 60° with the floor. Find the tension in the
cord. [e.U-]

OA and OB are uniform rods of the same length but of weights 2W and
W respectively. They are freely hinged at O and stand in a vertical
lane with A and B on a horizontal plane, the coefficients of friction
at A and B being } and # respectively. Find the smallest angles the rods
can make with the horizontal and, if equilibrium is broken, which end
slips. [L.U.]

Two equal uniform bars AB and AC, each of weight W are freely hinged
together at 4. They rest in a vertical plane with B and C on a hori-
zontal table held by a light rod joining B to the mid-point of AC, the
angle BAC being 120°. Show that the reactions at B and C are equal
and the tension in the light rod 4W+/7. [L.U.]

Two uniform rods AB and BC are smoothly jointed at B. Each rod is

of length 2/, AB is of weight W and BC of weight 2W. Small light rings
are attached to the ends A and C and threaded on a fixed rough hori-
zontal wire, the coefficient of friction being w. If the system can rest in
equilibrium with B below the wire and each rod inclined at « to the
vertical, prove that w > % tan a. [L.U.]
Two equal uniform rods AB and AC, each of length / and weight W,
are freely hinged at A. The end C is freely hinged to a point on a rough
plane inclined at « to the horizontal; the end B rests on a line of
greatest slope through C below C. If angle ACB = 6 when B is about
to slip and y is the coefficient of friction, prove that
pe tan « tan? 6 + 2 tan 0 (uw — tana) —1=0. [0.C.]
Two uniform beams AB and BC, each of length 2a and weight W, are
smoothly hinged at B and a light inextensible string joins A and C.
The system is at rest in a vertical plane with A and C in contact with
smooth planes each inclined at « to the horizontal. If the angle
ABC = 26, find the tension in the string and prove that
(i) tan 0 > 2 tana,
(ii) the reaction at the hinge is of magnitude 4W tan 0. [0.C.]
The axis of a fixed right circular cylinder, whose surface is smooth,
is horizontal and a section has radius a. A smoothly jointed framework
of three rods AB, BC, CD, each of length a and weight W, is placed
symmetrically over the cylinder with BC horizontal. Prove that the
reaction of the cylinder on BC is 57W/25, and find the reaction of the
hinge at B on AB. [0.C.]
AC and BC are uniform rods each of length 2a and weights W, and
W, (<W,) respectively, freely jointed at C. A and B are attached to
smooth hinges at the same level and C lies below AB with the angle
 EXERCISES 409
BAC = 9. If Xand Yare the horizontal and vertical components of the
reaction of BC on AC at C, prove that X= }(W,+ W,) cot 0,
Y = }(W, — W,). Find also the condition that the reactions at A and
B should be at right angles, [O.C.]

A hollow circular cylinder of internal radius 8 cm, open at both ends,

rests with its axis vertical on a rough horizontal plane. Two equal
smooth spheres, each of radius 5cm and weight W, are placed inside
the cylinder; show that the two spheres exert a couple on the cylinder
and find the moment of this couple. eS

10. AB and BC are two uniform similar rods, each of weight W, freely
hinged at B and carrying small light rings enabling the ends A and C to
move without friction on a fixed horizontal wire. The rods include a
right angle with B below the wire, and are prevented from closing by a
light stay joining the mid-points of the rods. Find the stress in this
stay and the reactions at A, B and C. [O.C.]

11. Two uniform rods AB, BC, of equal lengths but of different weights,
are freely jointed at B and jointed at A and C to fixed points in the same
horizontal line such that ABC is a right angle. Show that the tangent
of the angle which the direction of the reaction at B makes with BA is
the ratio of the weight of AB to that of BC. [L.U.]

12. Each half of a step ladder is 2m long and the parts are connected by
a cord 70 cm long attached to points 40 cm from their extremities. The
the tension in the cord when a man weighing 75 kg is standing on the
half with steps weighs 8 kg and the other half weighs 2 kg. Find
ladder 50 cm from the top, it being assumed that the reactions at the
ground are vertical. [L.U.]

1S. Two equal uniform rods AB, BC are freely jointed at B and rest in
equilibrium in a vertical plane with A and C on a rough horizontal
plane. If yu is the coefficient of friction show that the greatest angle
each rod can make with the vertical is tan~1(2y). [L.U.]

14. ‘Two uniform ladders AB, BC of equal lengths and weights W,

W'(W > W’) are hinged at B and stand on rough ground when con-
taining an angle 20. Show that the total reaction at A makes a smaller
angle with the vertical than at C. Assuming the coefficients of friction
at A and C are each y, show that, as 6 is increased, slipping will occur at
C, and that u = {((W+ W’) tan a/(W + 3W’)}, where « is the value of
6 for which slipping occurs. [0.C.]
15. A rigid framework consists of four light rods AB, BC, CD, DA smoothly
jointed together and maintained in the form of a trapezium with AB
parallel to CD by a fifth light rod BD. Equal and opposite forces of
magnitude P, each acting inwards, are applied at A and C parallel to
AC. If 2AB = 2BC = 2AD = CD, find the stresses in the five ae
[L.U.
410 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 15 (e)
1. A uniform beam AB, of length 2/ and weight W, rests tangentially
against the rim of a smooth fixed vertical disc of radius a whose plane
is the vertical plane through the beam. The lower end A rests on a
smooth horizontal plane passing through the lowest point O of the disc.
If the end A is acted on by a force T towards O and the beam is inclined
to the horizontal at 60°, prove that T= WI/4a. (Lis)
Five equal weights are attached to a light string which hangs from two
points P and Q in the same horizontal. In equilibrium the horizontal
projections of the six intervals of the string are all equal to a and the
depth below PQ of the lowest weight is 3a. Show that the inclinations
to the horizontal of the parts of the string are tan (1/3), 7/4 and
tan“ (5/3). [0.C.]
A uniform bar AB, 3 m long and of mass 4kg, has a cord 5 m long
attached to its ends. The cord passes through a smooth ring O fixed
to a smooth vertical wall, and the rod is placed in a vertical plane
perpendicular to the wall with A against the wall vertically below O.
Prove that the rod will lie in equilibrium if OA is 2 mand show that the
tension in the string is 3g N. [O.C.]
A smooth semicircular wire is fixed in a vertical plane with its diameter
horizontal and OA is a smooth vertical wire through the centre O. A
small ring P, of weight W is threaded on the semicircular wire and a
small ring Q, of weight w on OA, the rings being joined by a string of
length / (<a). The system is in equilibrium with OP and QP making
angles 6 and ¢ (>6) with OA. Prove that (W+ w) tan 0 = w tan ¢.
Find also the tension in the string if W = 3w and / = 4a. [O.C.]
A uniform rod AB of length 2a and weight W is hinged at A and sup-
ported horizontally by a string from B to a point C vertically above A;
a weight w is hung from B. Prove that, if the reaction of the hinge at A
is at right angles to BC, then AC = 2a,/(1 + 2w/W). [O.C.]
A uniform solid cube of side 2a and weight 2W has a particle of weight
W attached at B, where ABCD is a central cross-section of the cube.
The cube is suspended from a fixed point P of a smooth vertical wall by
a light inelastic string PA, of length 2a, attached at A. If the cube is
hanging in equilibrium with the edge through D in contact with the wall,
determine the inclination of the string to the vertical. [L.U.]
AB is the straight edge of a semicircular lamina of radius a. A semi-
circle of radius r is drawn on the lamina, its centre being on AB at a
distance r from A and the area inside this semicircle is cut away. Show
that for all values of r (<a) the centroid of the remainder lies on a
fixed line through A. Find the position which the centroid of the
remainder approaches as r tends to a. [L.U.]
A uniform wire of length 12 cm forms the perimeter of a triangle ABC
in which BC = 4cm, CA = 5cm, AB = 3 cm. Find the perpendicular
 EXERCISES 411
distance of the centre of gravity of the wire from BC and AB. When
freely suspended from a point D in AC there is equilibrium with AC
horizontal; prove that CD: DA = 13:12. [L.U.]

A solid frustum of a right circular cone has base radii 2r and r and
height 2r. Show that the centre of mass is 11r/14 from the larger face.
A coaxial cylindrical hole of radius r is bored through the frustum.
Find the distance of the centre of mass of the remainder from the base.
[L.U.]
10. The density at any point of a thin straight rod of length 2a varies
directly as its distance from one end. Find the position of the centre
of gravity. The rod is bent at its middle point so that the two halves
are at right angles and suspended by a wire attached to its middle point.
Find the angles which the parts make with the vertical. [L.U.]

11. A uniform lamina ABCD, in the shape of a rhombus of side a with angle
BCD = 60°, consists of two parts hinged along DE, where E is the foot
of the perpendicular from D to AB. The portion EBCD is fixed in a
horizontal plane and the portion AED is free to rotate about DE. Find
the distance of the centroid of EBCD from DE. As the triangle AED
rotates show that the centre of mass of the whole lamina can never be
nearer than a/4 to ED and find the greatest distance from DE. Find
also the greatest possible height of the centre of mass above EBCD.
[L.U.]
iz ABC is a uniform triangular board of weight W in which BC = a,
CA = b, AB =c and the angle ABC is obtuse. The board is placed
with its plane vertical and the side BC on a horizontal plane, and a
weight w is suspended from A. If the system is in equilibrium, prove
that 3(W + w)a? > (W + 3w) (b? — c?). [0.C.]
13. A thin uniform wire is bent in the form of a closed pentagon ABCDE in
which
AB = BC = AE = ED = 5cm,
BE = 8 cm, CD = 2 cmand the
angles C and D are equal. Find the distance from A to the centre of
mass of the wire. When suspended freely from a point F in AB the
wire is in equilibrium with AB horizontal; find the distance AF, [L.U.]

14. Prove that, if from a uniform solid hemisphere of radius a a concentric

hemispherical portion of radius ka (k < 1) is removed, the centre of
gravity of the remainder is at distance 3ak?/8(1 + k + k?) from that of
the original hemisphere. [L.U.]
15. A rough uniform semicircular lamina of mass 4 g is placed’in a vertical
plane with its curved rim in contact with a horizontal table sufficiently
rough to prevent slipping. A particle of mass 1 g is placed on the bound-
ing diameter of the lamina. Find the minimum coefficient of friction
between the lamina and the particle necessary to ensure that they
remain in equilibrium no matter where the particle is placed on the
diameter. [L.U.]
412 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

16. P and Q are two fixed equally rough pegs distance a apart, PQ making
an angle « with the upward vertical; AB is a uniform rod of length 2/
and weight W placed over P and under Q, the end B being uppermost.
The rod is about to slip when QB = x. If R and S are the reactions at
P and Q respectively, prove that R cos A+a)= S'cos (A re a), and
x = 1—4a— }acot A cot a, A being the angle of limiting friction at
each peg. [O.C.]

17. A uniform beam AB of length 2a and weight W is placed in contact at

C with a fixed rough cylinder in a plane at right angles to the axis of
the cylinder which is horizontal. When the inclination of AB to the
horizontal is 9 and the mid-point of AB is at distance x from C, a
horizontal force P at B just prevents the beam from slipping downwards.
If 4 (= tan A) is the coefficient of friction, prove that P = Wtan (6 — 4);
fw<tan 6; x =asin @ sin (6 — A) sec A. [O.C.]
18. A heavy uniform cube rests in limiting equilibrium with one edge in
contact with a horizontal floor and another in contact with a vertical
wall; the face containing these edges makes an angle 6(<45°) with the
floor. If the coefficients of friction at the floor and wall are w and yp’
respectively, show that tan 0 = (1 — wy’)/(1 + wy’ + 2y). [N.U.]
19. Two equal uniform rods AB, BC, each of length 2a and weight W, are
freely jointed at B and rest, in a vertical plane, across two smooth
horizontal pegs at the same level a apart. Show that in the position of
equilibrium the inclination 0 of each rod to the vertical is given by
2 sin’ 6 = 1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction at
B. [L.U.]
20. AOB and COD are two uniform rods, each of weight W, freely hinged
at O. AO = CO = aand BO = DO = 3a. Therods are in equilibrium
in a vertical plane, the ends B and D resting on a smooth horizontal
plane joined by a light string of length 3a. Show that the tension in the
string is 2+/3W/9, and find the reaction at the hinge. {L.U.]
21; Two uniform rods AB and BC of the same thickness and material and of
length 3m and 2m respectively, are freely hinged at B and rest in a
vertical plane with A and C on a rough horizontal plane. If the greatest
value of the angle ABC consistent with equilibrium is 90°, find the coeffi-
cient of friction between the rods and the ground and determine how
equilibrium will be broken if the inclination is increased. [O.C.]
22. Two rings of equal weight connected by a light inextensible string can
slide on each of two fixed rough rods in the same vertical plane inclined
at equal angles of 45° in opposite directions to the horizontal. Prove
that the extreme angle which the string can make with the horizontal
is twice the angle of friction. [L.U.]
yxn Two equal uniform rods AB, BC, smoothly joined at B, are in equilibrium
with C resting on a rough horizontal plane and 4 freely pivoted at a
point above the plane. Prove that, if « and f are the inclinations of CB
 EXERCISES 413
and BA to the horizontal, the coefficient of friction must exceed
2/(tan B + 3 tan «). [O.C.]
Two equal particles each of weight W, are placed on a rough horizontal
table and connected by a taut inextensible string. Prove that the least
horizontal force that can be applied to one of them in a direction
inclined at 6 to the string so as to cause them both to be on the point
of motion is 24W cos 0, where wu is the coefficient of friction. [0.C.]
Fa A uniform beam rests over two pegs and is inclined at 6 to the horizontal.
The angle of friction is 2, at the lower peg and A, at the upper, where
A, > 6> 4A,. Show that the beam will just slip when the ratio of the
distances from its centre of mass to the lower and upper pegs is
sin (A, — 6) cos /,/sin (@ — A) cos Ag.
 CHAPTER 16

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

16.1 Velocity and acceleration

We have seen in Chapter 8 that the motion of a particle in a straight
line is governed by its velocity and acceleration and that these two
quantities are defined at any instant by the limiting processes of the
calculus. Thus if a particle is moving in a straight line and at time f is
at a distance x from a fixed point of the line, its velocity v is defined as
dx
Sag erm (16.1)

Similarly, its acceleration a is defined as

dv d*x dv
ie” State neil? <% (16.2)

These are theoretical expressions for the velocity and acceleration and
when the actual value of one of these quantities is known it can be
equated to a theoretical value and the differential relation can be
integrated to give the displacement at any instant.
The methods employed are considered in more detail in this chapter
with particular emphasis on the case where the acceleration has a
constant value. We shall see that graphical methods can often be
useful in analysing the motion whether the acceleration be constant or
not.
In dealing with motion in a straight line we need make no distinction
between the motion of a particle and that of a rigid body all of whose
particles have the same velocity in parallel directions. Thus in describ-
ing the motion of the rigid body we describe the motion of some one
particle of the body, usually the centre of gravity.

16.2 Units of velocity and acceleration

Units of velocity are units of distance divided by units of time and
velocity is usually calculated in metres or centimetres per second or
feet per second, or kilometres or miles per hour. The abbreviations m/s,
cm/s, ft/s, km/h, mile/h or mph are used. A velocity in miles per hour
is expressed in feet per second by multiplying by the factor 5280/3600
= 22/15. Thus
22
v mile/h = is” ft/s = 0-447 v m/s.
414
 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCBLERATION 415
Distances at sea are usually given in terms of sea-miles and 1 sea-mile =
1-853 km = 1-152 miles approximately. A speed of one sea-mile per hour
is called a knot, so that 1 knot = 1-853 km/h = 1-152 mile/h approxi-
mately.
A unit of acceleration is a change of velocity in unit time. Thus if
velocity is in metres or centimetres per second the unit of accelera-
tion is one metre or centimetre per second in one second. This is
written as metres or centimetres per second per second or in short
m/s? or cm/s. If the velocity is in feet per second the acceleration
will be in feet per second per second, written as ft/s®. Similarly we may
speak of an acceleration in mph per hour or mph per second.
If a body is falling freely near the surface of the earth it has an
acceleration due to gravity directed towards the centre of the earth. This
acceleration is denoted by g and its value is approximately 9-81 m/s?
or 32 ft/s*. The value of g varies from about 9-780 m/s? at the equator
to about 9-832 m/s? at the poles; in the latitude of England
g = 9-815 m/s* approximately. In many problems sufficient accuracy
is obtained by taking g = 9-81 m/s? or 32 ft/s?.
The values given for g are those of a particle falling in a vacuum. A
body falling in the atmosphere has its acceleration reduced by the
resistance of the air.
16.3 Motion with constant acceleration
In Chapter 10, the standard formulae which apply when the accelera-
tion is constant were derived. Writing x as the displacement at time
t, v as the velocity at time ¢, u as the initial velocity (when t = 0) anda
as the constant acceleration we have
=u + at, (16.3)
x=t¢(ut+v)t, (16.4)
v? = u? + 2ax, (16.5)
x = ut + 4ar*, (16.6)
x = vt — fat*. (16.7)

These equations apply to any period of time during which the accelera-
tion remains constant, and for a definite period of time ?, v is the final
velocity and x the final displacement. It will be noticed that each of the
above equations involves four of the five quantities u, v, x, t, a, so that
if any three of these quantities are known the fourth and fifth can be
found by applying the appropriate equations.
Thus the solution of problems involving constant acceleration depends
on choosing the appropriate equations to determine the unknown
416 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

quantities at each stage of the motion. It is useful to draw up a table

showing which of the quantities are known and which are to be deter-
mined. In a particular case the data might be shown as follows
u = 8 m/s
v= 7
a = 3 m/s?
xia?
t = 4 sec.
In this case v and x are to be found and appropriate equations are
v=u-+at, x = ut + hat’, giving v = 20 m/s, x = 56m.
Example 1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 29:43 m/s. Neglect-
ing air resistance find its height when it is moving at half this rate and the time
between the instants when it is at this height.
If the distance is measured upwards from the ground, the acceleration due to
gravity, which we shall take as 981 cm/s*, is downwards and therefore nega-
tive. Tabulating the data, we have
u = 2943 cm/s
v = 1471-5 cm/s
a = —981 cm/s?
in
t="
To find x we use the formula v? = 1? + 2ax, and we have
27 x 981
x= ratrign ane 3311 cm.

To find ¢ we use the formula x = ut + $ar*, giving

47 — 24t + 27 = 0,
so that t= %or#. There are thus two values of t for which the height is
33-11 m and their difference is 3 seconds.

Example 2. A motor-car X uniformly accelerated at 2 m|s* passes a point P on a

straight road at 6 m/s; 2 seconds later a motor-car Y uniformly accelerated at
1-5 m/s? and moving in the same direction as X passes P at 15 m/s. Prove that Y
overtakes X at a point Q on the road 6 seconds after X passes P, and that X
overtakes Y at a point R 12 seconds later still. Prove also that QR = 360 m,
and that the maximum distance separating X and Y between Q and Ris9 m. [O.C.]
Tabulating the data for the two cars and measuring the time from the instant
when X passes P, we have
X’s motion Y’s motion
= 6m/s u = 15 m/s
a=2 m/s* a = 1:5 m/s?
t = T seconds t = T — 2 seconds
x = x,m. x = X,m.
 GRAPHICAL METHODS 417
Applying the formula x = ut + }4ar* to each motion we have
x, = 6T + T?,
Xe eedacr — 2) + (r= 2),
Hence we find
— X, = (7? — 24T + 108)
X,
= KT — 0(T — 18).
Thus this distance is zero, first when T = 6 and again when T = 18,
Also
*%, =T(T + 6)
and hence x, = 72 when T = 6 and x, = 432 when T = 18, so that OR = 432
— 72 = 360m. Between Q and R, x, — x, =}(18 —T)\(T— 6). This is a
maximum when T = 12 and its greatest value is then 9 m.

Example 3. A train covers the distance between two stations A and B, which is 13-5
kilometres, in 24 minutes. It accelerates uniformly from rest at A, then travels at
constant speed V for 12 minutes, finally retarding uniformly to stop at B. Deter-
mine the value of V. If the retardation is twice the acceleration in magnitude,
obtain their values. [L.U.]
The data is tabulated as follows
Acceleration Steady speed Deceleration
u=0 u=V u=V
v = Vkm/h op) v=0
a—a, 20 a=-—d,
t=4,h t=0-2h t=f,h
x = x, km. x = 13-5 — x, — x, km. x = x, km.
Applying the formula x = 3(u + v)t to each of the three periods, we have
sepeene eee 13-5—x,—x,=4V, x,=43Vty.
Hence, since t; + tg = 4, x; + x2 = 7oV, and
13-5 —isV =}YV,
giving
V = 45 km/h.
Now, if a, = 2a,, applying the formula v = u + at to the first and third periods
we have
V = ayty, V = 2ayte,

so that t, = 2f, and, since t, + t, = 12 minutes, t, = 8 minutes, tf, = 4 minutes,

Hence,
@,=2:6cm/s*, a, = 5:2 cm/s*.

16.4 Graphical methods for constant acceleration

When the acceleration has the constant value a the velocity at any
instant is given by v = u + at. Therefore the graph of velocity plotted
against time is a straight line 4B (Fig. 167). If this straight line is
418 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

drawn, the velocity at any instant can be read from the graph. The
acceleration is the slope of the straight line and if the acceleration is
negative the angle made by the straight line with the T-axis will be
obtuse.
The distance moved in time ¢ is given by the formula s = 3(u + v)t
and from the graph it can be seen that this is the area of the trapezium
bounded by the ordinates which are the velocities u and v and included

V«

Fic. 167

between the straight line AB and the T-axis. Thus for any value of tfthe
distance moved is the area under the velocity-time graph up to this
value of t. Many problems in which the acceleration is constant for
various periods of time are simplified if a velocity-time graph is roughly
sketched.

Example 4. A train runs 20 minutes from rest at one station to rest at another station
13 kilometres distant. For the first $ of a kilometre it has constant acceleration
a, and for the next kilometre it has constant acceleration $a, then attaining its
maximum speed. For the last two kilometres it has constant retardation. Sketch
the velocity-time diagram and show that the accelerations a,, $a, are maintained
for equal times. Find the maximum speed in kilometres per hour. [L.U.]

The motion is divided into four intervals; let their durations be #,, fo, ts, t,
hours respectively and let V, km/h be the speed at time t,; and V km/h the
maximum speed. The velocity-time graph is shown in Fig. 168. The lengths of

O tte ts ta
Fic. 168
 GRAPHICAL METHODS 419
the four sections are 0-4, 1, 9-6, 2 kilometres and the total time is hour. The
tabulated data for the four intervals is as follows
First Second Third Fourth
u=0 u=V, u=V u=V
v=), v=V v=V v=0
f=f t=t, f=t, t=%
x=#% <a x = 9-6 x =2
a=. a = }3a,. a=0. a= —4,.
Applying the formulae v = u + at and x = ut + 4ar* to each of the first two
intervals we have
Vy= ah, V—V, = hayte,
& = tat’, 1 = Vit, + days,”
The last two equations give, when V, is replaced by a,ty,
= fayty? = aytyt, + ta,ts*,
and hence
to2 + 44,1, — St? = 0.
This gives t, = rt, and hence $V, = V — Vj, so that Vy = $V.
Applying the formula x = 3(u + v)t to each interval we have
$ = $V,

1=¢/1,,
9-6 = Vt,
2=+)5,;
and hence V(t, + te + ts + 44) = 12+1:2 +96 +4 = 16, and, since the
total time is }hour, V = 48 km/h.

Exercises 16 (a)
A balloon leaves the ground with a vertical acceleration of 1-33 m/s?.
How far has it risen and what is its velocity 30 seconds later? If at this
instant some ballast is dropped, how long will this take to reach the
ground ?
Acar is timed to take 15 seconds over 220 m and 10 seconds over the
next 220 m. Assuming constant acceleration, what is the speed of the
car at the end of the observed motion? [O.C.]

A body moving in a straight line traverses distances AB, BC, CD of

153 m, 215 mand 217 m respectively in successive intervals of 3, 5 and
7 seconds. Show that these facts indicate a uniform retardation, and
find the time and distance traversed when the body comes to rest. [O.C.]

The distance between two stations is 4-5 kilometres. A train starts from
rest at the first station and moves with uniform acceleration for 1 kilo-
metre. The speed is then constant for 3 minutes, after which the train
is uniformly retarded for 1 minute so that it comes to rest at the
420 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

second station. Sketch the velocity-time graph and find the average
speed for the journey. Draw also the space-time graph. [L.U.]
A train completes a journey of 5 kilometres between two stations A and
B in 10 minutes. It starts from rest at A and travels with uniform
acceleration a until it reaches 40 km/h. This speed is maintained after
which the brakes are applied to give it a uniform retardation 3a and
bring it to rest at B. Determine the value of a and the time spent in
retardation. [L.U.]
A and B are points in a vertical line, B being at height h above A.
From A a particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity u and,
at the same instant, another particle is projected vertically upwards
from B with velocity v. Prove that, if the particles collide at a point C
above B, 2v(u — v) > gh and that AC = uh/(u — v) — dgh?/(u < die

A platform is descending with a constant velocity of 4 m/s. A ball is

dropped from rest on to the platform from a point 6 m above it. Find
the time that elapses before the ball hits the platform. [E.U.]
A train accelerates uniformly from rest at one station, attains a uniform
speed and then decelerates uniformly to rest at the next station. The
magnitude of the deceleration is twice that of the acceleration. If the
train covers 4 of the distance at uniform speed show that it will take % of
the time between stations for this part of the journey. If the distance
between stations is 1 kilometre and the time 2 minutes, show that the
train will reach a speed of 50 km/h. [L.U.]
A point moving in a straight line is retarding uniformly and travels
distances a and b in successive time-intervals t and t’. Prove that the
retardation is 2(a/t — b/t’)/(t + t’). If the above distances are respec-
tively 56 cm and 69 cm in time intervals of 2 seconds and 3 seconds, find
the initial speed and the total distance described before coming to rest.
([L.U.]
10. A train travels from rest to rest between stations 1 kilometre apart. Nor-
mally the train accelerates to its maximum speed of 40 km/h, continues
at this speed and then retards to rest at the second station 100 seconds
after starting. Its retardation has twice the value of its acceleration and
both are constant. On one occasion after attaining maximum speed the
train stopped to comply with signals and on restarting was able to
reach only 30 km/h before the brakes were applied for the station.
Find how far the train was from the second station when it came to
rest for the signal and how long it took after restarting to reach the
station. {L.U.]
11, A train leaves a station at 9.45 a.m. and accelerates uniformly from rest
to a maximum speed of 60 km/h, after which constant speed is main-
tained. At 10.05 a.m. another train leaves the same station and acceler-
ates uniformly from rest to 70 km/h. The accelerations of the trains
are 4 km/h per minute and 5 km/h per minute respectively and they
 DIFFERENTIATION OF A GRAPH 421
travel on parallel tracks towards the same destination. Calculate the
time when the second train overtakes the first and the distance from the
starting point at this time. [L.U.]
12. The driver of a train, travelling at 45 km/h on a straight level track,
Sees a signal against him at a distance of 250 m and, putting on the
brakes, comes to rest at the signal. He stops for 1 minute and then
resumes the journey, attaining the original speed of 45 km/h in a
distance of 375m. Assuming that acceleration and retardation are
uniform, find how much time has been lost owing to the stoppage.
13. A motor-car A travelling along a straight road with uniform velocity u
passes at X a car B travelling with uniform acceleration a in the same
direction, the velocity of B at X being u,(<u); B overtakes A at Y,
thereafter travelling with uniform velocity. Find (i) the maximum dis-
tance between the cars between X and Y, and (ii) the uniform accelera-
tion given to A at Yif A overtakes B at Z, where YZ = XY. [O.C.]
14. A particle P is thrown vertically upwards from O with velocity V; prove
that, neglecting air-resistance, the maximum height H reached above O
is given by V? = 2¢H and that P returns to O after a time 2V/g. When
P reaches a point A, h above O, on its upward flight a second particle is
projected upwards from O with velocity V and later collides with P at
A. Prove that 9h = 8H. [O.C.]
15. A body moving in a straight line travels 24 m in the 4th second of its
motion, 32 m in the 6th second and 52 min the 11th second. Prove that
these statements are consistent with the fact that the body is uniformly
accelerated. When the body has travelled 600 m it is uniformly re-
tarded and comes to rest after travelling a further 1050 m. Find the
uniform retardation.
16.5 Differentiation of a graph
The formulae used for constant acceleration cannot be used when the
acceleration varies continuously during the motion. This is the case,
for example, where air resistance to motion causes a retardation which
varies with the speed of a body or where a body is attracted towards
some point by a force which varies with the distance from the point.
In such cases the four variables, distance, time, velocity and accelera-
tion will be related in some way and it is sometimes possible to make
observations of two of the variables during the motion and to show their
relation graphically. Thus we may have a set of values of distance and
time and be able to construct a distance-time graph. Then if x be the
distance and ¢ the time the velocity v at any instant is (dx/dt), and this
is the slope of the tangent to the distance-time curve (Fig. 169). Thus
if the tangent to the curve is drawn for a particular value of t, by measur-
ing its slope the velocity for this value of t is found. A series of tangents
can be drawn to the curve and a set of corresponding values of velocity
and time calculated from which a velocity-time graph can be drawn.
422 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

In the same way, by drawing tangents to the velocity-time curve a set

of values of (dv/dt), which is the acceleration, can be found.
The process of drawing tangents to a curve and measuring their slopes
is called differentiation of a graph. For accurate results the graph should
be on a large scale and should be a smooth flowing curve.. Modern
X

|
|
0 t T
Fic. 169

high speed photography makes this possible with photographs of the

displacement of a body taken at intervals of a hundredth of a second or
less.
Example 5. A body starting from rest is timed over successive distances of 10 cm with
the following results

distance (cm)

time (sec)

Plot a space-time graph and find the velocity when the body has moved 20 cm.
Show that the acceleration is approximately constant for the first part of the
motion and subsequently becomes zero.
The space time graph is shown in Fig. 170.
 INTEGRATION OF A GRAPH 423
The tangent is drawn at the point where x = 20, t = 3-5. This is the line AB
which intersects the t-axis at A and the line x = 40 at B; C is the foot of the
perpendicular from B to the t-axis. Then the slope of AB is the tangent of the
angle BAC, that is BC/AC. From the scales BC = 37-5 cm, AC = 3:35 sec,
so that the velocity is 37-5/3-35 = 11-2 cm/s.
By drawing tangents at other points we obtain the following results

time (sec)

velocity (cm/s)

Thus for about the first 3} seconds the velocity increases in proportion to the
time showing that the acceleration is constant. After this time the velocity has
a constant value and the acceleration is therefore zero.

16.6 Integration of a graph

If observed values are obtained of velocity and time during motion a
velocity-time graph can be drawn. Since the velocity is dx/dt, where x
is the displacement and f the time, we have
dx
= v,
dt
and on integration between the values t = 4, andt =f,
ty

x =| v at.
4

Now we know that the value of this integral is the area enclosed by the
curve, the f-axis and the ordinates at t = 4, and t = f,, the shaded area
in Fig. 171. Therefore, by calculating the area under the velocity-time
V

) t y
Fic. 171

curve for different values of t we can find the corresponding values of

the displacement x. It will be seen that if the units of velocity along
the v-axis are cm/s and the units along the t-axis seconds, the unit of
area will be centimetres. ;
The process of finding areas enclosed beneath a curve is called
integration of a graph. If the graph is drawn on squared paper the area
424 ADVANCED LEVBL MATHEMATICS

can be found roughly by counting squares, treating squares partially

enclosed as halves. If the graph is on a large scale a planimeter may be
used. This is an instrument which records the area enclosed by a curve
when a pointer is made to follow its boundary closely.
Simpson’s rule (see § 9.13) is often used for the calculation of areas.
Thus if v,, v,, v, are the velocities shown by the velocity-time graph
corresponding to the values t,, fy, ts of the time and tg—f, = t,—-t, = 7,
the area between ¢, and f, is approximately

= 5(1 + 4v, + vs), (16.8)

and this is the increase of the distance x between the times t = 4, and
Fewty,,
Example 6. Values of the speed v km/h and the time t seconds for a train are given
in the following table

43-7

150

Find the distance travelled in the 300 seconds.

The velocity-time graph is shown in Fig. 172. Using Simpson’s rule with
interval + = 50 seconds to find the area under the graph between t = 0 and
t = 300 we have

x= > +4 xX 24-6 + 36-3) + ~ (36-3 + 4 x 43-7 + 48-3)

+ = (48:3 +4 x 51:3 + 53-5)

= 11,685.
Vv

60

30

(@) 100 200 300 a

Fic. 172

This is the area in units which are — x seconds and must be divided
by 3600 to give the distance in kilometres. Thus
11,685
= = 3-25 kilometres.
3,600
 ACCELERATION 425
16.7 Types of graph
The following types of graph may be encountered
(a) Time graphs
(i) distance-time | — differentiation gives a velocity-time graph;
(ii) velocity-time — differentiation gives an acceleration-time
graph;
integration gives a distance-time graph;
(iii) acceleration-time — integration gives a velocity-time graph.
(b) Distance graphs
If a set of values of velocity and distance is given we may plot a graph
: dtd ; d
of $v? against x, or of ; against x. Remembering that a = ae($v) and
1 t :
- = —-, we find for the following graphs
pd
(i) $v? against x — differentiation gives an acceleration-
distance graph; :
(ii) 5 against x — integration gives a time-distance curve;
(iii) acceleration-distance — integration gives values of $v? and hence
of v.
(c) Acceleration-velocity graph
In this case 1/a may be plotted against v and since

[ee =| 5a =|a,
a dv
integration of the graph leads to a velocity-time graph.
Thus if any two of the four variables distance, time, velocity, accelera-
tion can be connected by a graph, values of the other two variables can
be deduced by differentiation or integration.
16.8 Explicit expressions for the acceleration
There are important types of motion in which the acceleration is not
constant but is known as a function of the time, the distance or the
velocity. Thus, for example, in simple harmonic motion, to be con-
sidered in § 21-2, such as occurs when a body is suspended by an elastic
string, the acceleration is proportional to the distance from a fixed
point. In the motion of a body through the air there is a retardation
proportional to the velocity or to some power of the velocity. In such
cases a complete knowledge of the motion is obtained when a relation
426 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
giving the displacement in terms of the time has been found. This is
done by equating a theoretical expression for the acceleration, namely
dv d*x dv i ‘ P .
WT deo ® to the given function which expresses the acceleration,
thus obtaining a differential relation which may be integrated to give
expressions for the velocity and distance.
In general, two integrations are required and at each integration an
arbitrary constant must be added. The values of these constants can
be found if the initial conditions are known, that is the values of the
displacement and velocity at the start of the motion. Some examples
of this procedure have been given as illustrations of the methods of the
Calculus in § 12.6, and a few further examples are given here.
d.
It should be noticed that the velocity given by the expression mee
dt
along a line OX in the direction in which x is increasing and the expres-
sions
TC 7, Ga and tpt
v = nS
give the
fh acceleration
leration in
inthisthis directi
direction.

Example 7. A body is protected vertically upwards with velocity V and the retardation
due to air resistance is kv where v is the velocity and k is a constant. Find expres-
sions for the velocity and height after time t and the time to the highest point
reached.
Let x be the height after time t. Then v(= dx/dt) and dv/dt are measured
vertically upwards while the downward acceleration is kv + g. Therefore
dv
aes —(kv + g)

and
at 1
dv ——soikv +e
Integrating with respect to v we have
1
(= — ; nko + g) + c(a constant).

This equation holds when t = 0 and v = FV, therefore

1
c=;In(kV
+8)
and
1 kV+
r=zm(2 +2).
so that
el re
ku+g
giving
p= 24 (v+§) a,
 ACCELERATION 427
Writing v = dx/dt and integrating with respect to t,
1
x=— £13 (v+§) e-** + d (a constant),

: 1
and, since x = 0 when t = 0,d= "a(v+4), and it follows that

x= = -§147(v48)(1-e+)
picks ie oo 1—e*'}.

The time to the highest point is that which makes the velocity zero, and this
gives

leading to

Example 8. A particle is projected vertically from the earth's surface with velocity V.
The acceleration due to gravity when distant x from the earth’s centre is gR*/x*,
where R is the earth’s radius. Neglecting air resistance, find the height to which
the particle rises.
The expression vdv/dx is the acceleration in the direction of x increasing, that
is away from the earth, whereas the acceleration gR?/x* is towards the earth.
We have therefore

Integrating this equation with respect to x,

40? = =grt + c (a constant).

Now the initial conditions are that on the earth’s surface when x = R, v = V
therefore
4V2=gR+e,
and, substituting this value of c, we have

= BE 5 (ys— 29p
At the highest point reached v = 0 and at this point
eie2s® on
* = 2gR
— V®
and the height above the earth’s surface is x — R, that is V*R/(2gR — V*).
We notice that when x is very large so that 2g¢R?/x is negligible there is a residual
velocity v provided that V? — 2gR is positive. The velocity given by V? = 2gR
is called the escape velocity and is the least velocity required for a satellite to go
into orbit. Taking R = 6400km and g = 981 cm/s* this gives V= 11:2
kilometres per second approximately.
428 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 16 (b)

1. Simultaneous values of speed and time for a train are given below
Draw the speed-time curve, and find the acceleration at the end of the
second minute, and the distance in kilometres passed over in attaining
a speed of 50 km/h.

Time (seconds)

Speed (km/h)

[O.C.]
A body starting from rest moves in a straight line and the following
observations are taken

Time (seconds) 0:2 0-4 0-6 0-8 1:2 1-4 1-6

Distance (centimetres) 0°55 e2-1 4:8 8-5 18-5 | 23-7

Determine from the graph the velocity of the body in cm/s at the middle
of each interval of time and show that for the first second the accelera-
tion is approximately constant. [0.C.]
A motor-car is found to increase its speed from 8 to 80 kilometres per
hour in 40 seconds. Find the acceleration (supposed uniform) in
centimetre-second units. Plot a space-time graph and from it determine
the time taken to travel the last 300 metres of the movement observed.
[0.C.]
A train starting from rest is timed over successive intervals of 125m
with the following result

Distance (m)

Time (sec)

Plot a space-time graph and a velocity-time graph. What is the average

value of the acceleration and at what point was the velocity 30 km/h?
The velocity-time diagram of a particle consists of two straight lines
AB, BC, where the coordinates of A, B, C are (0, 10), (10, 10), (20, 25),
the first coordinate in each case being the time in seconds and the second
the velocity in m/s. Describe the motion of the particle and find the total
distance covered. [O.C.]
A train approaching a station does two successive quarters of a mile in
16 seconds and 20 seconds respectively. Assuming the retardation to be
uniform, draw a velocity-time graph for the 36 seconds. Prove that the
train runs 1761 ft 10 in further before stopping if the same retardation
is maintained. [O.C.]
 EXERCISES 429
The velocity v km/h of a car ¢ seconds after starting is given by the
following table

Draw the velocity-time graph and determine from it the distance covered
in 30 seconds and the value of the acceleration when ¢ = 10.
A train is uniformly retarded from 30 km/h to 10 km/h. It travels a
certain distance at the latter speed and is then uniformly accelerated
until the speed is again 30 km/h, the magnitude of the acceleration
being half that of the retardation. The interval from the beginning of
retardation until the speed is again 30 km/h is 7} minutes and the total
distance covered is 2km. Sketch a velocity-time graph and find the
distance travelled at 10 km/h. [L.U.]

The velocity of a particle at points measured along a straight line from

a fixed point are as follows

Show that the graph of 1/v against x is approximately a straight line and
find the time taken for the 50 m.
10. The acceleration of a car starting from rest increases uniformly with the
distance from an initial value of 0-5 m/s? to a value of 2-0 m/s? at the
end of 150m. Draw a graph of acceleration against distance and find
the final velocity of the car.
11. A particle moves horizontally with retardation kv, where v is the velocity
_and k is constant. If x is the distance moved at time ¢ and V is the
initial velocity, prove that v = Ve, kx = V(1 — e~**).

12. A particle moves horizontally with retardation kv*, where v is the velocity
and k is constant. If x is the distance moved at time ¢ and V
is the initial
velocity, prove that v = V/(1 + kVt) = Ve™.

13. A particle is let fall from a height A above the earth. Taking the accelera-
tion due to gravity as gR?/x*, where R is the earth’s radius and x the
distance from the centre of the earth, and neglecting air resistance,
show that its velocity at the earth’s surface will be /{2ghR/(R + h)}.

14. The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is x + 1/x*

towards a fixed point O of the line when ~ is its distance from O. If it
starts from rest when x = 1, find its velocity when x = 4.
430 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If the retardation of a train is a + bv’, where v is its velocity and a and

b are constants, show that it will come to rest from velocity V in a
distance /, given by a + bV* = ae",
Exercises 16 (c)
The driver of a train travelling at 60 km/h sees on the same track 200 m
in front of him a slow train travelling in the same direction at 20 km/h.
What is the least retardation that must be applied to the faster train so
as to avoid a collision?
Stations A and B are 500 m apart. A train starting from A is uniformly
accelerated for 15 seconds to a speed of 30 km/h which is maintained
until the train is 100 m from B, when it slows up uniformly and stops at
B. Find the values of the accelerations and the time taken.
A particle is projected vertically upwards, and at the same instant
another is let fall to meet it. Show that, if the particles have equal
velocities when they impinge, one of them has travelled three times as
far as the other. [O.C.]
A car starting from rest at A travels to B with uniform acceleration
0-5 m/s?; from B to C its speed is constant; at C the brakes are applied,
the subsequent retardation being uniform and equal to 0-4 m/s?. If the
total distance travelled is 368-75 m and the total time is 85 seconds,
find the time from B to C.
Two trains, each of length 75 m, moving in opposite directions along
parallel lines, meet when their speeds are 45 km/h and 30 km/h. If
their accelerations are 0-33 m/s? and 0-67 m/s? respectively, find the
time they take to pass each other. LeU
A particle moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration describes
17 m in the third second of its motion and 29 m in the sixth second.
Find the initial speed and the distance described in the tenth second.
[L.U.]
A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s,
and two seconds later another particle is projected vertically upwards
from the same point with a velocity of 25 m/s. Find the height above
the point of projection at which they meet and the time that has then
elapsed. [L.U.]
Prove that if a particle starts from rest and moves with constant accelera-
tion, the difference between the distance traversed in successive seconds
is constant. If it moves 52 m in the seventh second, find the distance
traversed in the tenth second. {L.U.]
A cyclist A riding at 10 km/h is overtaken and passed by B riding at
12 km/h. If A immediately increases his speed with uniform accelera-
tion, show that he will catch B when his speed is 14 km/h. If when he
has increased his speed to 13 km/h he continues to ride at this speed
and catches B after he has gone 41-67 m, find his acceleration. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 431
10. A cage goes down a mine-shaft 750m deep in 45 seconds. For the
first quarter of the distance only the speed is being uniformly accelerated
and during the last quarter uniformly retarded, the acceleration and
retardation being equal. Find the uniform speed of the cage over the
centre portion. [O.C.]
i. A particle moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration a passes a
certain point with velocity u. Three seconds later another particle
passes the same point with velocity 4u and acceleration $a. The first
particle is overtaken by the second when their velocities are respectively
27 and 31 m/s. Find the values of u and a and the distance travelled
from the point. [L.U.]
12. The maximum possible acceleration of a body is 2 m/s? and its maximum
possible retardation is 8 m/s?. Find the least time in which it can travel
1 kilometre from rest to rest. [L.U.]
13. A block falls from a mast-head and is observed to take 2 seconds in
falling from the deck to the bottom of the hold, a distance of 8 m.
Calculate the height of the mast-head above the deck. [L.U.]
14, A man sees a bus 100 m away starting from rest with constant accelera-
tion. He then runs after it with constant speed and just catches it in
one minute. Determine the speed of the man and the acceleration of the
bus. If the man’s speed is 3 m/s find the nearest he can get to the bus.
[L.U].
15. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity u and after
t seconds another particle is projected vertically upwards from the
same point with the same velocity. Prove that they will meet at height
(4u2 — g*t”)/8¢. [L.U.]
16. The acceleration of a train starting from rest increases uniformly from
0-2 m/s? to 0-7 m/s? in the first 5 seconds, it then increases uniformly to
0-9 m/s? in the next 5 seconds and remains constant at this value for
10 seconds; it then decreases uniformly to zero in 5 seconds. Draw an
acceleration-time graph and find the velocity at the end of 25 seconds.
Draw a velocity-time graph and find the distance gone in the 25 seconds.
Be A train starts from rest with acceleration 0-2 m/s? which is maintained
for 3 minutes. Steam is then gradually shut off reducing the accelera-
tion at a uniform rate until the train is running at full speed 5 minutes
after starting. The brakes are then applied and produce a retardation
which increases uniformly until the train is brought to rest in 2-5 minutes
more. Draw the acceleration-time graph and record (i) the value of full
speed, (ii) the value of the retardation at the instant of stopping. Sketch
the velocity-time graph.
18. A train starts from a station with acceleration 0-2 m/s? which decreases
uniformly with the time for 4 minutes at the end of which time the train
is running at full speed. The train is then subject to a constant retarda-
tion which brings it to rest at the next station in 1} minutes. Draw the
432 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

acceleration-time graph, finding the values of full speed and the retar-
dation. Find the speed at the end of each successive minute. [L.U.]

19, The velocity-distance graph of a particle is a straight line joining the

points x = 0,v= 10 tox = 100, v= 20, where x is in metres and v in
m/s. Find the time taken to travel 100 m and the acceleration at x = 0
and x = 100.
20. A particle moves in a straight line in such a way that at the end of ¢
seconds its distance x from a fixed point of the line is given by
x = 7t + 2cos 3t. Find its acceleration at any instant. Prove that the
velocity v never changes in direction but that its acceleration vanishes
whenever v = 13 or 1.
21, A particle moves in a straight line with acceleration 47? m/s?, where t is
in seconds, away from a point O of the line. Initially the particle is
passing through O with velocity 2 m/s. Find the velocity and distance
moved after 3 seconds. [O.C.]
es A particle is projected with a horizontal velocity of 80 m/s in a medium
which causes a retardation v/100 m/s* when the velocity is v m/s. Find
the distance gone in 100 seconds and the velocity after 100 seconds.
23. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 100 m/s and
the retardation due to air resistance is v/100 m/s? when the velocity is
v m/s. Find the height to which it rises, given that In 1-102 = 0-097.
If the retardation caused by the resistances to the motion of a train is
(900 + 7v*)/7000 m/s? when the speed is v m/s find the distance travelled
with steam cut off when slowing from 72 km/h to 36 km/h.
A train running at 45 km/h is brought to rest by a retardation
(7/20 + t/100) m/s? where t is the time in seconds. Show that it is
brought to rest in 26 seconds in a distance of 0-18 km.
 CHAPTER 17

MOTION IN A PLANE

17.1 Relative motion and parabolic motion

When the pilot of an aeroplane wishes to fly from a point A to a point
B it is not sufficient for him merely to find the bearing of B from A and
to head the aeroplane in this direction. He must also know the strength
of the prevailing wind and make such allowance for his movement due
to the wind that his course relative to the ground will be along the line
AB. Similarly, if a ship A at sea wishes to come up with a ship B which
is in motion the navigator will not steer directly towards B but will
ensure that his course relative to B will bring A directly to B. The
methods by which these practical problems are dealt with are treated
in this chapter under the heading of relative motion.
A second form of motion in a plane is that of a body thrown through
the air and moving along a curved path. If it is moving slowly so that
the resistance of the air is negligible, its path is a parabola. We shall
see that in this case every detail of the motion can be found from simple
equations based on the fact that the motion can be separated into up
and down motion under the influence of gravity and unimpeded
horizontal motion. While not directly applicable to bodies moving at
high speeds, certain parts of the theory are of use in determining the
trajectories of missiles.
17.2 Frames of reference
We are satisfied that we know the position of a point on the earth’s
surface if we know its latitude and longitude. Here we are using the
earth as a frame of reference and describing the position of the point
relative to this. The velocity of a particle at the point, being the rate of
change of its position, is given relative to the same frame of reference.
The earth is not the only possible frame of reference. Astronomers
prefer to use the sun and the directions from the sun to certain fixed
stars and describe motion by reference to this frame. Thus any velocity
that we can observe is velocity relative to some frame of reference
which we regard as fixed. It is often convenient to take a moving ship
or vehicle as a frame of reference and to describe motion with reference
to the ship or vehicle. The velocity found is called relative velocity
with respect to the ship or vehicle.
17.3 Resultant velocity
When a body is moving through the air or through water, the velocity
that a person moving with the body can most easily observe is its
433
434 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

velocity relative to the air or water. Thus, for example, the air speed
indicator on an aeroplane indicates a velocity relative to the air. If the
air is also moving, the velocity of the aeroplane relative to the ground
is the combination of the air speed and the velocity of the air, that is the
vector sum of the air speed and the velocity of the air.
If the air speed is u in a direction OA (Fig. 173) and the velocity of the
air is v in a direction OB, the combined velocity is represented in magni-
tude and direction by the diagonal OC of the parallelogram OACB.
C

e)
Los) uU A
Fic. 173

Denoting the angle AOB by 4, the resultant velocity w is given by

(see § 6.4),
w? = u? + v* + 2uv cos 8, (17.1)
in a direction making an angle ¢ with OA, where
v sin 6
tand = —_—__- :
ne u + vcos 6 ai)

Fic. 174

The resultant velocity can also be found by drawing the vectors and
measuring the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
If an aeroplane is to move along a certain course it must be headed in
such a direction that the vector sum of its air speed and the air’s velocity
is along this course. Let AX (Fig. 174) be the desired course; draw
AB to represent the air’s velocity v. With centre B and radius BC
 RESULTANT VELOCITY 435
representing the air speed u describe an arc to cut AX in C. Then AC
represents the resultant velocity along the course and BC the direction
in which the aeroplane must be headed.
Example 1. The wind is blowing from due West at 40 km/h. An aeroplane whose air
speed is 200 km|h flies from its base X to a point Y 40 km East and 80 km
North of X and then returns to its base. Find the direction in which it must be
headed for each journey and the total time offlight.

Y PY vteG

x A xX
Fic. 175

Draw XY in the appropriate direction (Fig. 175). Taking 1 cm to represent

20 km/h draw XA of length 2cm to represent the wind’s velocity. With
centre A and radius 10 cm (the air speed) draw an arc to cut YY in B. Then
AB is the direction in which the aeroplane must be headed and by measurement
this is found to be North 164° East. Also XB = 10-75 cm and this represents
the true speed of 215 km/h.
A similar construction for the return journey shows that the true speed is 179
km/h and the direction South 362° West. The distance XY is 89:44 kilometres
and the time for the double journey is
89-44 89-44
OU Wccuy av
The result may also be found by calculation. Since tan BYA = 2, BXA is
63° 26’, and applying the sine rule to the triangle BX.A we have
sit tdi = A
sin 63° 26 sin ABX sin BAX’
giving XAB = 106° 16’ and XB = 214-8. Thus the direction is North 16° 16’
East and the true speed 214-8 km/h. For the return journey, since CYD is
180° — 63° 26’, we have
ee
sin 63°26 sinCDY sin DCY
giving DCY = 53° 8’ and YD = 179 so that the direction is South 36° 52’ West
and the true speed 179 km/h. The time is
89:44 89-44
48 + 179 = 0-917 h = 55 minutes.
436 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

17.4 Relative velocity

If two bodies A and B are moving along a straight line with velocities
u and v respectively in the same direction, where u > v, the distance
between the bodies is increasing at the rate u — v, and this is the relative
velocity of A with respect to B. If B is moving in the opposite direction
to A with velocity v the distance between them is increasing at the rate
u + v and this is the relative velocity of A with respect to B. In both
cases the relative velocity of A with respect to B is found by adding to
A’s velocity B’s velocity reversed.
Suppose now that 4 and B are ships moving on the surface of the
sea with velocities u and v respectively in any two directions. Suppose
further that a current sets in of such magnitude and direction that it
brings B to rest. This current would have velocity v in the opposite
direction to B’s motion and A’s new velocity would be the resultant
of its velocity u and the velocity of the current, that is the resultant of

Fic. 176

A’s velocity and B’s velocity reversed (Fig. 176). This is represented in
vector form by the diagonal AD of the parallelogram ACDE, and this
would be the velocity of A as seen from B whether the current operated
or not.
Thus the relative velocity of A with respect to B is the vector sum of
A’s velocity and B’s velocity reversed.
To find this relative velocity it is not necessary to know the positions
of the two bodies but only the magnitudes and directions of their
velocities.
It is evident that the relative velocity of B with respect to A is equal
and opposite to the relative velocity of A with respect to B. Also, if the
relative velocity is known and the velocity of one of the bodies is
known the velocity of the other is easily found.
Example 2. A cruiser is proceeding due East at 20 knots, and a destroyer whose speed
is 30 knots is 10 sea-miles due South of it. In what direction must the destroyer
travel in order to meet the cruiser, and when will the meeting occur? [O.C.]
The destroyer must travel in such a direction that its velocity relative to the
cruiser is directly towards the cruiser, that is due North. Let 0 be the bearing
 RELATIVE VELOCITY 437
of the direction of travel (Fig. 177). The relative velocity will be the sum of the
cruiser’s velocity reversed, that is 20 knots due West, and the destroyer’s
velocity. This relative velocity will be due North if
30 sin 6 = 20,
sin 6 = 3,
and hence
6 = 41° 49’,
The relative velocity is of magnitude 30 cos 6 and this is, since cos 0 = 4/5/3,
10/5 = 22-36 knots. The time to the meeting is 10/(10+/5) = 4/5 = 0-447h
or 26°8 minutes.

P 20
30

€ Ya

20 x
Fic. 177

Example 3. A ship is steaming at 15 kmlh in the direction N20°E and the wind
appears to blow from the direction N 35°W. The ship alters course and steams at
the same speed in the direction N 20°W and the wind then appears to blow from
the direction N 50°W. Find graphically the magnitude and direction of the true
wind velocity. {L.U.]

Fic. 178

Draw (Fig. 178) the vectors OA and OB from O each of length 15 units in the
directions of the ship’s motion in the two cases. From A draw AC in the direc-
tion N 35°W, that is inclined at 55° to OA. From B draw BD in the direction
438 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

N 50°W, that is inclined at 30° to OB. Let AC and BD meet at E; then OE

represents the velocity of the wind in magnitude and direction. By measurement
OE = 20:9 units and the angle EOF = 19°, therefore the wind’s true velocity
is 20-9 km/h from the direction N 71°W. It is clear that in each case the sum
of the vectors representing the wind’s velocity and the ship’s velocity reversed
gives a relative wind in the appropriate direction.

17.5 Relative path

If the positions of two bodies A and B at some instant are P and Q
respectively and the relative velocity of A with respect to B is known,
the relative path of A with respect to Bis the straight line drawn through
P in the direction of the relative velocity (Fig. 179). This is the path

vi
7 P(A)

.“
Q (B)
Fic. 179
that A would actually follow if a current set in which brought B to
rest. The nearest approach of A to B is then the length of the per-
pendicular distance QN from Q to the relative path. It is assumed, of
course, that the relative velocity is constant in magnitude and direction,
otherwise the relative path would not be a straight line.
Example 4. A ship A is 5 sea-miles due North of a ship B. A is steaming due West at
15 knots and B is steaming due North-West at 10 knots. Find the distance and
time of their nearest approach to each other.
N

Fic. 180

Plot the positions A and B 5 sea-miles apart (Fig. 180). At B draw BC of length
15 units due East, representing A’s velocity reversed; draw BE of length 10
units due North-West representing B’s velocity. Complete the parallelogram
 RELATIVE PATH 439
BCDE. Then BD represents the relative velocity of B with respect to A and
BD is the relative path. By measurement BD = 10-6 units and the relative
velocity is 10-6 knots. If AN is the perpendicular from A to BD, AN = 3-73
sea-miles and BN = 3-33 sea-miles. Thus the nearest approach is 3-73 sea-miles
and the time to this point is 3-33/10-6 = 0-314 h = 18-8 min.
By calculation, if v is the relative velocity and 6 its bearing,
v = {157 + 10? + 2.15. 10 cos 135°} = 10-62 knots,

= 15 — see
ee 10 cos
ee =) Boa ee
0 = tan ( losmas> |) 48 16,
AN = 5 sin 48° 16’ = 3-732 sea-miles,
BN = 5 cos 48° 16’ = 3-328 sea-miles,
and the result follows as before.

Example 5. A ship leaves a certain point and steams North-East at 15 knots; 5 hours
later another ship leaves the same port and steams due West at 20 knots. Their
wireless instruments can maintain communication up to 225 nautical miles. Find
to the nearest nautical mile their distances from port when communication ceases.
[L.U.]

Fic. 181

The initial position shown in Fig. 181 has the second ship B in port and the
first ship A 75 sea-miles to the North-East. The relative velocity of A with
respect to B is v in a direction 0 North of East, where
v? = 20? + 152 ++ 2.20.15 cos 45°, v = 32:38 knots,
15 sin 45° Bo
tan
0=
24 15cosas” | 19
Then, if C is a point on the relative path 225 sea-miles from B,
225 75 AC

whence
sin ACB = $ sin 154° 7’ = 01455,
ACB = 8°22’, ABC =17°31', AC = 155-2.
The time is therefore 155-2/32:38 = 4-80 hours and the distances from port are
75 + 15 X 4:80 = 147 sea-miles and 4-80 x 20 = 96 sea-miles.
 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 17 (a)

A car is travelling due East at 30 km/h and the driver notices that the
wind appears to come from a direction 030° (N 30°E). When he drives
due West at the same speed the wind appears to blow from 300
(N 60°W). Find, graphically, or otherwise, the true speed and direction
of the wind. Find also its apparent direction when he drives due South
at 45 km/h. [L.U.]
To an observer in a train travelling due East at 80 km/h an aeroplane
appears to be travelling due North at 150 km/h. Find the true course
and speed of the aeroplane. ioc}
Falling rain is carried by a horizontal wind. When a man cycles facing
the wind at 4 m/s on a horizontal road the apparent direction of the rain
is at 45° to the horizontal. When he cycles with his back to the wind at
5 m/s the angle increases to 64°. Calculate the velocity of the se
[L.U.
Two smooth rods AB, AC of unequal length, are fixed as chords of a
vertical circle so that A is at the highest point of the circle and the angle
BAC is 90°. Two small smooth rings are released simultaneously from
A and slide one on each rod. Prove that the rings reach B and C at the
same instant and find the velocity of one ring relative to the other after
time f. ‘LERa
A ship 4 is travelling at 23 knots to the North-West and a ship B is
travelling at 7 knots to the North-East. At noon 4 is 17 sea-miles due
East of B Calculate to the nearest half-minute the times at which the
distance between the ships is 10 sea-miles, and verify your answer by a
scale drawing. [L.U]
At noon a ship 4 is sailing due East at 10 knots and a ship B, 10 sea-
miles due South of A, is sailing in a direction cos“! $ East of North at
20 knots. Find the shortest distance between A and B and the time
when they are nearest together. [L.U.]
Two straight roads intersect at O. At a certain instant a motorist on the
first road is 10 kilometres due North of O and travelling towards O at
40 km/h, while a cyclist on the second road is leaving O and travelling
at 10 km/h in the direction N 60°E. Assuming their speeds to remain
constant find their shortest distance apart and the time that elapses
before this is attained. [L.U.]
To a motorist driving due North at 30 km/h it appears that the wind
comes from the North-East. When he increases his velocity to 40 km/h
it appears to come from N 30°E. Find the magnitude and direction of
the wind velocity. [L.U.]
A motor car is travelling E along a straight road and a second car is
travelling NE with the same speed along another straight road; both
cars are approaching the junction of the roads. If v is the speed of
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 441
either car, find the velocity of the first relative to the second. If the first
car is 300m short of the junction when the second is 400 m short,
find to the nearest ten metres how nearly the cars will approach each other.
[L.U.]
10. A submarine sailing on a course 045° (N 45°E) at 10 knots sights a
merchant ship 3 nautical miles due East and sailing on a course 300°
(N 60°W) at 8 knots. If both ships maintain their courses and speeds
find, by scale drawing or otherwise, how long it is before they are
first at a distance of one nautical mile apart. Find the bearing of the
merchant ship from the submarine at this moment. [L.U.]
11. Two cars A and B are travelling along straight roads which cross at
right angles at O, their constant velocities being 40 km/h westwards and
30 km/h northwards respectively. At the instant when B is passing
O, A is 142m from O and moving towards it. Find the velocity of B
relative to A, the least distance between the cars and their distances from
O when nearest to one other. [N.U.]
12. When a motor launch moves northwards at 20 knots a pennant on its
masthead points due East. On the return journey when the speed is
20 knots southwards the pennant points N 10°12’ E. Find the speed
and direction of the wind assuming them to be unchanged throughout.
[N.U.]
13. A ship which has a speed 10 knots in still water steams from a point A,
which is 5 sea-miles due South of a lighthouse L, to a point B, which is
5 sea-miles due East of L, through a current flowing at 3 knots in the
direction 15° North of East. If the course set to take the ship along the
line AB is ¢ North of East, prove that sin (6 — 45°) = 3/20. Find to the
nearest minute the times for the run A to B and for the return run from
Bto A. [O.C.]
14. A wind is blowing towards the direction N 9 E. An aeroplane, on a
course N « W, passes over two points A and B, B being due North of A;
on arrival over B the course is altered to S 6 E and the aeroplane passes
over C due East of B. Prove that tan 0 = sina sec. If AB = BC and
T;, Tz are the times taken for flying over the distances AB, BC respec-
tively, prove that 7,/T, = tan 4 (« + 8). [0.C.]
15. At 6a.m. a ship is at A, 8 nautical miles due South of a lighthouse L.
Given that the ship’s speed in still water is 10 knots find, graphically or
otherwise, the course to be steered through a current, flowing in the
direction N 30°E at 3 knots, so as to pass through the position K which
is 10 nautical miles due East of L. Find also, to the nearest minute, the
time of arrival at K. If the current remains unchanged, find how long
it will take the ship to go from K to A. [0.C.]
17.6 Components of velocity and acceleration
When a particle is moving along a curved path in a plane its position
at any instant may be specified with reference to fixed rectangular axes
442 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

OX, OY by its coordinates (x, y) at time t. Thus we may think of each

of the coordinates x and y as quantities which vary with t and may be
differentiated with respect to t. In Fig. 182, let A be the initial position
of the particle when t = 0, P its position at time ¢ and Q its position
after a small additional time 6t. Denoting by s the distance it has
travelled from A to P and by ds the additional distance from P to Q, the
average velocity between P and Q is ds/dt and its velocity V at time t is

Fic. 182

defined as the limiting value of this average velocity as dt becomes

indefinitely small. Thus
. Os) ds
ROR WO
Further, since the limiting direction of the chord PQ and of the arc PQ
is that of the tangent to the curve at P, the direction of the velocity is
along the tangent at P.
If the coordinates of P and Q are (x, y) and (x + 6x, y + dy) respec-
tively, the average velocities for the period dt in the directions OX and
OY are 6x/dt and dy/ét, so that the components of the velocity V
parallel to the axes are
Ons ities Ss eoy _idy soul
Par Tear a ant bi OF Rd
The acceleration of the particle is a vector quantity such that its
component in any direction is the rate of change of velocity in that
direction. Thus if u and v are the components of the velocity V at
time ¢t parallel to OX and OY respectively and u + du and v + dv the
components at time ¢ + dt, the components of acceleration parallel
to OX and OY are

a9 Ot 6dt” dt? :
2
fe” oe Oe eee
up OF are
 PARABOLIC MOTION 443
The quantities x, », ¥ and j are components of velocity and acceleration
measured in the positive directions of the axes. Thus if the axis OY is
directed vertically upwards and the acceleration is g vertically down-
wards, we have j = — g.

17.7 Parabolic motion

We now consider the two-dimensional motion of a particle which is
projected with a given velocity in a given direction. We shall suppose
the motion to take place near the earth’s surface, so that the accelera-
tion due to gravity may be taken as constant and in a constant direction
throughout the motion. We shall suppose also that the resistance of the
air is negligible. In practice the resistance of the air is by no means
negligible; at high velocities it may cause a retardation much greater
than that due to gravity and the range of an artillery shell is often less
than one-tenth of what it would be if there were no air resistance.
Long range rockets do indeed rise above the greater part of the earth’s
atmosphere and for most of the trajectory air resistance is negligible.
However, at these heights gravity may no longer be taken as constant
and the effect of the variation of the gravity acceleration is to make the
trajectory approximately an ellipse.
We shall suppose then that the motion takes place in a vacuum, or
in vacuo, and we shall see that in this case the path of the particle is a
parabola.

17.8 Equations governing the motion

Let the particle be projected with initial velocity V from a point O in
a direction making an angle « with the horizontal. Let OX and OY be

¥-

i}

0 fs .
Fic. 183

horizontal and vertical axes of coordinates through O, so that the

motion takes place entirely in the vertical plane XO Y and the position
of the particle at any instant may be described by coordinates (x, y)
with respect to these axes (Fig. 183).
444 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The theoretical acceleration at any instant has components ¥ and y

parallel to the axes. In fact the only acceleration is —g parallel to the
y-axis. Therefore
¥=0, pug. (17.3)
These equations are valid throughout the motion and may therefore be
integrated with respect to the time ¢, giving
x =constant, y= — gt + constant.
These relations are true for all values of ¢ and in particular when t = 0,
at which time x has the value V cos « and y the value V sin «. Hence the
values of the constants of integration are V cos «, V sin « and we have
xX=Vcosa, y=Vsina — gt. (17.4)
Thus the horizontal component of velocity remains constant throughout
the motion while the vertical component diminishes with the time and
eventually becomes negative.
Integrating again with respect to ¢,
x=(Vcosa)t, y=(Vsina)t — dgr. (17.5)
No constants need be added on integration since both x and y are
zero when ¢t = 0.
Equations (17.5) give the position of the particle for all values of t and
may also be considered as giving the equation of the path of the particle
in parametric form. This equation may be written in terms of x and y
by eliminating t between these equations. We have
ae
=>
V cos «

and substituting this value for ¢ in the expression for y

=V : x ele1 x
|ote \3he
y ae (Fa ;) 2 (Fe 4
that is
x8
i oyicea o (17.6)
This equation, being of the second degree in x and of the first degree in
y, is the equation of a parabola. With some rearrangement it may be
written in the more recognisable form
(x_ V? sin « cos “)“a (=2V? cos? *)( V2 sin?
g g oad 2g )
 RANGE AND TIME 445
showing that the vertex of the parabola is the point
[(V2/g) sin « cos «, (V?/2g) sin? «]
and the latus rectum is of length (2V2/g) cos? «.

17.9 Range and time

The range R is the distance measured horizontally from O to the
point where the trajectory meets the horizontal through O, and the
time of flight 7 is the time taken to reach this point. R is therefore the
value of x for which y = 0. When y = 0, equation (17.5) gives
0 = (Vsina) t — igt?

and hence y = 0 when ¢ = 0 and when t = es

Therefore
_ 2V sin «
T (17.7)
&
The corresponding value of x is (V cos «)T, and hence .
_ 2V*sin «cos «
R
&
ee
a= sin
V~ 20, (17.8)
&
The maximum range that can be obtained for a given initial velocity
V by varying the angle of projection is easily seen to be V*/g, since the
greatest value of sin 2« is 1. If sin 2x = 1, « = 45° and this is the angle
of projection for maximum range.
To find the angle of projection required to give a certain range R with
a given velocity of projection V, we use equation (17.8), giving
V2 sin 2« eo
R,
&
tn De eels
a
a = }sin“ (3): (17.9)
This gives a real value of « provided that gR/V? < 1, that is, that the
desired range is less than or equal to the maximum range. If gR/V? < 1,
since sin 2x = sin (180° — 2a), we have either
; é R
sin 2% = OF or sin (180° — 2a) = a
446 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

giving
a 1g= 4sin
geese
7 90° ee— a eee= $sin
eea

and hence the angle of projection may be « or 90° — «. The correspon-

ding times of flight for these two angles of projection are given by
equation (17.7) and are

q, _ 2V sin « T,= 2V cos aw (17.10)

& &
From this it can be seen that the angle of projection greater than 45°
gives the longer time of flight. Firing guns with angles of projection
greater than 45° is called upper register firing; most mortars can only
be fired at angles in the upper register.
An alternative form for the equation of the trajectory is

y=x(1 -3) tan a, (17.11)

where R is the range. Since R = (2V?/g) sin « cos a, this is equivalent
to
thie: —_— —2
gx* tan «
‘irae i eo 2V? sin « cos %

= <x ta a ee
a
gxt
bape 2V2 cos? «
which is the form given in equation (17.6).
17.10 Vertex and remaining velocity
The vertex is the highest point of the trajectory; at this point the
particle ceases to rise and begins to descend again. Hence the vertical
component of velocity is zero and we have
V sina — gt = 0,
so that
V sin«
t= ——_,
&§
and this is the time in which the initial vertical velocity is destroyed by
gravity. Thus the time of flight to the vertex is $7. The vertex height
is given by
y =(Vsin «) t — dg?
V2 sin? «
pace: > (17.12)

and the corresponding value of x is (V cos «) 47 = 3R.

 PROJECTION FROM A HEIGHT 447
The remaining velocity v at time t has components
Vcosa and Vsina« — gt,
and is given by
v? = (V cos a)? + (Vsin « — gt)’,
leading to
v= /{V? — 2V (sin a)gt + 277}. (17.13)
Its direction is inclined to the horizontal at an angle @ given by

tan 0 = ane et (17.14)

It is easily seen that when t = 7, v = V and tan 0 = — tan «, so that
the final velocity is V inclined at —« to the horizontal.
It is possible that at some instant during its flight the particle is
moving in a direction perpendicular to its original direction. If this is

an =PAB ne 97) = — et
so for some value of t, we have

so that
gt sin « = V (cos’« + sin*a),
and
fea
gsina

For this to be possible we must have V/(g sin «) <T

that is
y < 2V sin @
gsin« g
giving
: 1
=>—

so that the angle of projection must be greater than 45°,

17.11 Projection from a height
If a particle is projected from a height h above the ground at an incli-
nation « to the horizontal, its range R will be the horizontal distance to
448 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

the point where it hits the ground. This distance is easily found from
the trajectory equation (17.6) by putting y = — h when x = R, giving
os Tete es i 17.15
ha Rane 2V?2 cos? « ( )
and
R— 2V? sin « Cos @ gages 2V*h cos* & _ 0,
& &
so that
sit
_ V*sin ae ane 22: ~ VV? sin? « + 2gh). (17.16)
R

The negative value of the surd will lead to a negative value of R and is
rejected. The time of flight is that required to cover the distance R with
velocity V cos « and is R/(V cos «).
Equation (17.15) may also be solved to find the value of tan « for a
given range R. Writing 1/cos? a = sec? « = 1 + tan? «, the equation
becomes
Bs 2V*h
tan? « — —~ tana — (Fa _ )=0

giving

tana = 4 1 yt oghv?— gtr, (17.17

§Ro gr
Thus there is a real value of tan « if, and only if, V4 + 2ghV? > g*R3,
and the maximum attainable range occurs when the
V4 4 2ghV? = g2R?,
that is R = © (V2 + 20h).
In a similar manner the range on an inclined plane of inclination 8
can be found from the equations
y =x tan B and y=~x tan « — gx*/(2V* cos? «),
from which
= 2V2 cos? «
x (tan
« — tan f).

The distance measured along the plane is then x sec .

 TRAJECTORY 449
17.12 Condition for a point to lie on the trajectory
_If a point whose coordinates are (a, b) lies on the trajectory for a
given angle of projection « and initial velocity V, we have from the
trajectory equation (17.6)
2
be a tan oe Wcosta
See P
(17.18)
If « is given, V is easily found from this equation. If V is given, « may
be found by replacing 1/cos? « by sec? a = 1 + tan? «, giving
b=atana
= — spall + tan? 2 «),
ga

and this quadratic can be solved for tan «.

If the trajectory is to pass through two specified points we have two
equations of the form (17.18) from which both V and « can be found.
Example 6. A bomb due to explode in 5 seconds is thrown with velocity 30 m/s at
elevation 60°. Find the height, range and velocity of the bomb at the instant of
explosion. ‘
Here V = 30 m/s, sin a = 0-866, cos « = 0-5, Vsin « = 25-98, Vcosa = 15.
Then when t = 5,
x=5 x 15=75m,
y =5 X 25-98 — 4-905 x 57 = 7-28 m,
t= 15'mi/s)
y = 25-98 — 9-81 x 5 = —23-07 m/s,
v = (x? + y*) = 27-5 m/s,
and the inclination of its direction to the horizontal is given by
23-07 Sen Se
tan@ = — 57 6 = —56° 58’.

Example 7. A particle is projected from a point O with initial speed of 50 mJs in a

direction making an angle « with the vertical. At the same instant a particle is
projected vertically downwards with the same speed from a point in the plane of
- the line offlight 100 metres horizontally and 200 metres vertically from O. If the
two meet, find « and the time offlight to the point of impact. [L.U.]

Y f
|
|
50 |
2 |
100 |
O xX
450 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

With reference to horizontal and vertical axes through O (Fig. 184) we have for
the coordinates of the first particle at time t, remembering that the initial velocity
makes an angle 47 — « with the horizontal,
x=(50sina)t, y= (5S0cos a)t —dgt*.
If (x,, y) be the coordinates of the second particle at time ¢ we have, since it
falls vertically under gravity,

When the particles meet, x = x, and y = yj, so that

(50 sin «)t = 100
(50 cos «)t = 200 — 50f,
whence

a
2 1+ cosa a8
sin « 2 3
sin 5 cos 5

giving
a1
tan> =>
ae
= 53°38,

and

t= as = 2:5 seconds.
sin «

Example 8. A particle projected from the origin with velocity V passes through the
point P(a,h). Prove that there are two possible trajectories if (V? — gh)? >
g(a? + h*). If V2 =2ga and a= 2h, prove that the directions of motion at P
in the two trajectories include an acute angle whose tangent is 2, and that the
times taken to reach P are in the ratio 1/5: 1. [O.C.]
The point (a, h) lies on the trajectory given by equation (17.6) if
a’
h =atana— £5 secta,

that is, since sec? « = 1 + tan’ a, if

2v3 2V*h
tan?2g « pa tana +1+ a
Azat = 0,

giving
ae f(s merit)
rehash Fc pa ga —}

~ Fe AP (044)
This gives two real values of tan a if (V* — gh)? > g*(a? + h*). Since V?/ga = 2,
we have
tana = 24++/4 —2—1) =3 orl,
so there are two values of «, «, and «3, such that cos a, = 5 COS &, = a O°
 TRAJECTORY 451
If the corresponding times to P are t, and ft,
(V cos &)t, = (V cos &)tg = 4

giving
ao ap
th = ay is ty = 7 ¥10.

Thus the times are in the ratio 1/5: 1. The inclination of the velocity at P to
the horizontal is given by equation (17.14) of § 17.10, namely
V sin « — gt gt gt
tan 9 = Vcos a Gen Wiss 7 Cs ae
2
== tan a mee
a

tané,=1—-1=0, tané,
=3 —5 = -2,
and the angle between the directions is tan-1 2.

Example 9. A particle is thrown out to sea from the top of a cliff of height h with
velocity u at an angle of elevation « and strikes the sea at a distance x from the
foot of the cliff. Show that the maximum value of x for a given value of u is
urv/(u? + 2gh)\g. [L.U.]
The particle moves in a parabola whose equation with reference to axes through
the point of projection is
See yer
y= X lane ~ Du? cos? a
Where it strikes the sea y = —h and we have
gx? sec?a
—h=xtana— or

that is
gx? tan? a — 2u*x tana + gx* — 2u*h = 0.
Solving for tan « we find
@:ux + /{ubx* — gx*(gx* — 2u*h)}
tan « px

This gives a real value for « if, and only if,

leading to
x <u (l + 2gh)/g.
This gives also the maximum range obtainable for a given value of u, and if this
range is attained tan a = u#/gx = u//(u? + 2gh).
452 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 10. A, B, C and D are four vertices of a regular hexagon of side a with its
plane vertical and its two remaining vertices on the x-axis. If a particle projected
from the origin passes through A, B, C and D in that order prove that its ey
is av/7. AGF

Fic. 185

Let ABCDEF be the hexagon (Fig. 185) and let R be the range. Let L be the
mid-point of FE, and LN the vertical through L. The pairs of points A and D,
and B and C are symmetrically placed about LN, therefore LN must be the axis
of the parabola and hence OL = LM = 3R. The coordinates of A and B are
(QR —a,ta/3) and (R— }a,av/3),
and these points lie on the parabola y = x (1- 2) tana. Therefore

toys=(ta~e) (2+ 2) an
av3= (58-34)(5+74) ws
and hence, eliminating tan «,
(R — a)(R + a) = 2(R — 2a)(R + 2a),
Relea
R= av.

Exercises 17 (b)
1. A particle is projected from a point O with speed V m/s so that it passes
through a point whose horizontal and vertical distances from O are
4 m and 3 m respectively. If V? = 8g, find the initial angle of elevation.
Find also the range on a horizontal plane through O and the greatest
height attained. [L.U.]
2. A projectile is fired with a given initial speed from a point in a horizontal
plane. Show that for a given range less than the maximum there are
two possible angles of projection. If the times of flight for the two
paths corresponding to these angles are in the ratio 2:1, show that the
range is $ of the maximum. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 453
A partical is projected from a point O at an angle of elevation «. Prove
that, with respect to horizontal and vertical axes through O, the equa-
tion of its path is y = x(1 — x/R) tan «, where R is the horizontal
range. If « = 45° and the particle just clears the tops of two vertical
masts 120 m apart and each 45 m above O, calculate the value of R.
[L.U.]
A particle projected from a point A with speed u at an elevation «
strikes the horizontal plane through A at B. Find the distance AB. If
the particle is projected from A with the same elevation but with speed
2u, find its height above the plane when it passes over B. [L.U.]
A particle is projected with speed u from a point O on the ground at
angle of elevation «. Prove that the horizontal range is a maximum
for « = 45°. If R is this maximum range find the two angles of projec-
tion necessary to obtain a range $R with the same speed, and show that
the two times of flight are (R/2u) sec 15° and (R/2u) cosec 15°. [L.U.]
A particle is projected in vacuo with initial horizontal and vertical
components of velocity u and v respectively. Write down formulae for
the horizontal and vertical distances traversed in time.t. Prove that the
direction of motion of the particle will have turned through a right
angle after time (u* + v)/gv, and that the particle will then be above the
horizontal plane through the point of projection ifvu>u. [L.U.]
A ball is thrown with angle of elevation «, where tan « = $ from
horizontal ground and just clears the top of a post 24 m high at 45m
from the point of projection. Find the distance between the two points
of the trajectory at which the ball is at a height of 24 m. {L.U.]

At a range of 100 m in vacuo a bullet fired horizontally strikes the target

10 cm below the point at which its initial direction produced would cut
the target. Find the initial velocity of the bullet. [0.C.]
A projectile is fired from a point on a cliff to hit a mark 200 m hori-
zontally from the point and 200 m vertically below it. The velocity of
rojection is that due to falling freely under gravity 100 m from rest.
Show that the two possible directions of projection are at right angles
and that the times of flight are approximately 4-9 and 11-8 seconds.
10. Show that if R be the maximum horizontal range for a given velocity
of projection, a particle can be projected to pass through a point whose
horizontal and vertical distances from the point of projection are 4R
and }R respectively, provided that the tangent of the angle of pro-
jection is 1 or 3, and that in the second case the range on the horizontal
plane is $R. (L.U.]

Le A particle is projected from a point at a height 3h above a horizontal

plane at an angle « to the horizontal. Show that, if the greatest height
above the point of projection is A, the horizontal distance travelled
before striking the plane is 6h cot a.
454 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12, A heavy particle projected from a point O with speed u and elevation «
describes a parabola. At a point P on the trajectory the direction of
motion is at right angles to the direction of projection. Prove that the
time taken to travel from O to P is u/(g sin «) and calculate the were
OP. aU.
13. A particle is projected from a point O with horizontal and vertical
components of velocity u and v respectively. Show that the radius
vector OP will be perpendicular to the direction of motion of the particle
at some point of its path if v >2/2u. If v = 3u find the horizontal
distances from O when the path is perpendicular to the radius ai,
.U.]
14, A particle P is projected under gravity from a point O. Prove that in the
absence of air resistance it describes a parabola. If the line OP meets at
Q a fixed vertical line in the plane of motion, show that Q descends with
constant velocity. [L.U.]

15. Two particles A and B are projected simultaneously from the same point
with the same velocity u and move in the same vertical plane. If their
directions of projection are at right angles, prove that after time ¢
AB = ut/2 and that AB makes a constant angle with the horizontal.
Show that the particles are moving in exactly opposite directions at the
instant when the horizontal distance between them is u?/g. [L.U.]

16. A player stands on a tennis court at 12:19 m from the net 0-914 m high
and strikes the ball at a height 0-914 m above the ground. The ball
travels in a vertical plane perpendicular to the net and just clears the
net and hits the ground at 3-05 m beyond it. Find the speed and the
direction of flight of the ball on leaving the racquet. [L.U.]
17. A bowler in a cricket match delivers the ball at a height of 6 ft above the
ground at an angle of elevation ; the ball hits the wicket, 22 yd away at
8 in above the ground. If the maximum height of the ball in its trajec-
tory is 9 ft above the ground find the value of tan « and the angle with
the horizontal at which the ball hits the wicket. [O.C.]

18, A particle is fired horizontally with a velocity of 60 m/s from a point A

on the top of a vertical cliff so as to hit a boat B. If A is 200 m above
sea level, find the horizontal distance of B from A. Find the angle of
elevation and the velocity of projection for a projectile fired from B so
as to pass through A horizontally. [O.C.]

19. A particle P is projected from O with velocity V at angle of elevation a.

A and B are two points on the trajectory at a vertical height 4 above O;
at A and at B the acute angle between the direction of motion and the
horizontal is 8. Prove that, if H is the height above O reached by the
particle, H tan? = (H — A) tan®«. Ifthe time in the trajectory between
A and Bis equal to the time for P to reach height H, prove that 4h = 3H.
[0.C.]
 EXERCISES 455
20. A particle is projected with velocity V at angle of elevation « and the
horizontal range is R. Prove that, if R < V?/g, there are two possible
angles of projection «, and a, (%, > «,) which give the same range R,
and that if T, and T; are the corresponding times of flight T,7, = 2R/g.
Also, if x, = 15°, prove that T; — T, = V+/2/g, and that if two particles
are projected simultaneously, one in the «, and the other in the a,
direction, then the distance between them after ¢ seconds is Vt. [O.C.]

Exercises 17 (c)

Two football players A and B are running straight down the field in
parallel lines 5m apart. A, who has the ball, is 2m ahead of B. If
both are moving at 20/3 m/s, with what velocity (relative to himself) must
A pass the ball to B in order that the pass may just not be ‘“‘forward”’,
i.e. in order that the ball may travel at right angles to the length of the
field? Find also the velocity of the ball relative to the ground. [0O.C.]

If an aeroplane can travel at 200 km/h in still air and the air is moving
from the West at 80 km/h, how long will it take the aeroplane to reach
a place 500 kilometres off to the South-West?
An aeroplane travels in still air at 200 km/h. It starts from A to reach
a point B due North 300 kilometres away. There is a wind blowing due
West at 40 km/h, but when half the distance has been covered its
velocity increases to 60 km/h. Find the time taken over the flight to the
nearest minute.

An aeroplane can travel at 160 km/h in still air and the wind is blowing
at 60 km/h. Compare the times taken from A to B and back again if
the direction of the wind all the time is (i) A to B, (ii) at right angles to
AB, (iii) at 45° to AB.
A man swims at 3 km/h across a river 125 m wide, flowing at 5 km/h.
How long will it take him if he swims so as to reach the opposite bank
(a) as quickly as possible, (5) as little downstream as possible? [L.U.]
A destroyer, steaming N 30°E at 30 knots, observes at noon a steamer
which is steaming due North at 12 knots, and overtakes the steamer at
12.45 p.m. Find the distance and bearing of the steamer from the
destroyer at noon. [O.C.]

A cruiser which can steam at 30 knots receives a report that an enemy

vessel steaming due North at 20 knots is 29 nautical miles away in a
direction 30° North of East. Show (i) graphically, (ii) by calculation,
that the cruiser can overtake the vessel in almost exactly two hours.
[0.C.]
Two ships are sailing at speeds of 10 and 12 knots along parallel lines in
the same direction. When they are opposite one another and 2 nautical
miles apart the faster ship turns its course through 30° in the direction
of the other. Find how close they get to one another. [L.U.]
456 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If a ship is moving North-East at 15 knots, and a second ship appears to

an observer on the first to be moving due East at 7 knots, determine the
9.

actual direction and magnitude of the velocity of the second. [L.U.]

10. A vessel A is steaming due North at 18 knots, and a vessel B is steaming
South-East at 15 knots. Find, graphically or otherwise, the magnitude
and direction of the velocity of A relative to B. If B is initially 30 sea-
miles due North of A, find the shortest distance between the two vessels
in the subsequent motion. EAU"

11. A man who can swim at 2 km/h wishes to cross a river 250 metres wide,
flowing at 3 km/h, as quickly as possible. Find by calculation, in what
direction with respect to the bank he should head and how many minutes
he would take. Also, calculate how far down stream he would land.
[L.U.]
12. A man falling vertically by parachute in a steady downpour of rain
observes that when his speed is v, the rain appears to make an angle «
with the vertical. When his speed is v, the angle is 6. Show that the
rain actually falls at an angle 0 with the vertical given by
(ve — v1) cot 6 = vg cot a — v, cot B. [L.U.]
13. A ship at A which cannot sail at more than 20 knots wishes to intercept
a ship at B, 38 sea-miles due East of A, which is sailing at 24 knots in a
direction 30° N of W. Prove that in order to intercept, the first ship
may steer any course that makes an angle of not more than tan“ $
with due North. Calculate the least time in minutes in which she can
intercept. [L.U.]
14. To a cruiser C steaming North at V knots an enemy battleship B,
distant a sea-miles to the West, appears to be moving South-East at
V./2 knots. Find the true velocity of B, and show that when the vessels
are nearest to one another C is North-East of B. If C is within firing
range of B when the vessels are not more than b sea-miles apart, where
b < a, show that C is liable to be hit at any moment within an interval
of +/(2b? — a?)/V hours. [N.U.]
iene A and B are two points on the banks of a river 750 metres wide and
flowing due East at 3 km/h, B being due North of A. A boat, whose
speed in still water is 9 km/h is steered from A in a constant direction
tan! } West of North and reaches the opposite bank at C. Find (i) the
distance BC, (ii) the time taken and (iii) the time taken in returning in a
straight line from C to A. [O.C.]

16. A particle is projected from a point O with a velocity whose horizontal

and vertical components are u and v respectively. If u = 96 m/s,
» = 288 m/s show that at two points the direction of the particle’s
motion is at right angles to the line joining the particle to O, and find the
positions of these points.
 BXERCISES 457
17. A shell is observed to explode at the level of the gun from which it is
fired after 10 seconds and the sound of the explosion reaches the gun
after a further interval of 3 seconds. Assuming motion in vacuo find the
elevation of the gun and the muzzle velocity. (Take the velocity of
sound as 340 m/s.) [O.C.]
18. A mortar bomb fired at elevation 45° on horizontal ground hits a point
50 m beyond a target. When fired at elevation 60° it hits a point 50 m
short of the target. Find the correct elevation (> 45°) to hit the target
and the time of flight. [O.C.]
19, A particle projected from a point meets the horizontal plane through
the point of projection after traversing a horizontal distance a, and
attains a greatest height b. Find the horizontal and vertical components
of the velocity of projection. Show that when it has described a hori-
zontal distance x it has attained a height 4bx(a — x)/a’. [0.C.]
A ball is thrown with a velocity whose horizontal component is 12:26 m/s
from a point 1-303 m above the ground and 6-13 m away from a vertical
wall 4-982 m high in such a way as just to clear the wall. At what
time will it reach the ground? : [L.U.]
21. A ball is thrown from the top of a tower 29:43 m high with a velocity of
24-525 m/s at an elevation of 30° above the horizontal; find the hori-
zontal distance from the foot of the tower of the point where it hits the
ground. [L.U.]
22. A stone is projected horizontally from the top of a tower 36 m high
with a velocity of 10 m/s, and at the same instant another stone is
projected in the same vertical plane from the foot of the tower with a
velocity of 20 m/s at an elevation of 60°. Show that the stones will meet
and find the height above the ground and the distance from the tower at
this instant. [L.U.]
23. Two particles are projected at the same instant from points A and B on
the same horizontal level where AB = 28 m, the motion taking place in
the vertical plane through AB. The particle from A has an initial velo-
city of 39 m/s at an angle sin“ 3's with AB, and the particle from B has
an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle sin~ with BA. Show that the
particles will collide in mid-air, and find when and where the impact
occurs. {L.U.]
Two vertical posts, each of height h, stand on a horizontal plane ah
apart. A particle is projected from a point on the plane at an angle of
45° to the horizontal and just clears the top of each post. Prove that
the speed of projection is 3\/(¢gh) and find the horizontal distance of
the point of projection from the nearer post. [L.U.]
25. A shot is projected from a point on level ground with a speed of 120 ft/s
so as just to clear a vertical wall 20 ft high at a distance of 300 ft from
the point, and the flatter of two possible trajectories is chosen. Prove
that it will hit the ground at about 50 ft beyond the wall. [L.U.]
458 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

26. The horizontal distance between two men, A and B, is 16 ft. A cricket
ball is thrown by A to B with speed 32 ft/s; B catches it ata point whose
vertical height above the point of projection is 8 ft. Show that there are
two possible directions of projection and find the time of flight in each
case. [L.U.]

oie A projectile is fired from a point O with a speed due to a fall of 100 m
from rest under gravity, and hits a mark 50m below O and distant
100 m from the vertical through O. Show that the two possible directions
of projection are perpendicular and find their inclinations to the hori-
zontal. Determine the time from O to the mark in each case. [L.U.]
28. When at elevation «, a gun fires a shot to hit a mark P on the horizontal
plane through the gun. When the elevation is reduced to 15° the shot
falls 100m short of P, but when the elevation is 45° it falls 400m
beyond P. Show that sin 2x = 0-6 and calculate the distance of P from
the gun. [L.U.]
29, A ball is thrown from a height 1 m above the ground to clear a wall
12m away horizontally and 5m high. Show that the velocity of
projection must not be less than than acquired by falling under gravity
8-325 m, and, when this is the velocity of projection, find how far beyond
the wall it will hit the ground. [L.U.]
30. A stone projected with velocity V at an angle of elevation « from a
point O on the top of a cliff, hits a small object A at a horizontal distance
a from O and at distance h below the level of O. A hit is also made if the
stone is projected from O with velocity V at an angle of depression of
90° — a. Prove that V?+ gacot2x«=0, h+atan2x=0. Find
also, when « = 60°, the tangent of the angle between the two trajec-
tories at impact with A. [O.C.]

: 1 ~ 0\/—1 0\/—-1t-~_0 ‘
28 Find the product (
eds i)( 0 i)( ouiiee a Explain
geometrically.

20 ABCD is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle. Given that the

tangent at A makes an angle of 42° with AB and that the angle
ABC = 96°, show that BD bisects the angle ADC.
10. Find x if sin x = $ and tan x = —#.
 CHAPTER 18

NEWTON’S LAWS; POWER; WORK; ENERGY

18.1 Newtonian mechanics

In previous chapters we have discussed the motion of a body when
its acceleration is known; we now discuss the relation between the force
acting on a body and its acceleration. This relation is based on the
definitions and laws of motion enunciated by Newton in the seventeenth
century; these are the foundation of all theoretical work in applied
mechanics. Although these laws are incapable of direct proof, they are
firmly established by the agreement of predicted results with experience;
for example, the time and place of an eclipse can be foretold with
accuracy from calculations based on Newton’s laws.
The applications of the Newtonian system of mechanics are made
easier by the introduction of the concepts of power, work and energy.
In the second part of this chapter we shall define these quantities and
apply them in the solution of many practical problems.

18.2 Newton’s laws

Newton’s laws of motion, which form the basis of dynamics, may be
stated as follows.
(i) Every body perseveres in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line except in so far as it is compelled by applied external forces
to change that state.
(ii) The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied
force and is along the line of action of the force.
(iii) Action and reaction are equal and opposite.
The first law gives, in effect, a definition of force as that which changes
the state of motion of the body. A state of uniform motion is con-
sidered as not differing essentially from a state of rest, since all motion
is relative to some frame of reference which may or may not be itself at
rest. This law disposed of some pre-Newtonian theories that force was
required to keep a body moving.
The third law states that if a body A exerts a certain force on a body
B, then the body B exerts an equal and opposite force on A. These
equal and opposite forces are called the reactions between the bodies.
Such reactions occur between the particles that constitute a rigid body
and are called the internal forces of the body. Since they occur in pairs,
equal and opposite, their sum is zero and we shall see that their effect
on the motion of the rigid body is nil. Thus change of motion is caused
by the external forces acting on the body.
459
460 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

18.3 Newton’s second law

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and
velocity, that is
i momentum = mv. (18.1)

Assuming for the moment that for every particle or body there is some
constant which is a measure of its mass, we have
d
rate of change of momentum = 5 (mv)

where a is the acceleration. Thus Newton’s second law states that the
product of mass and acceleration is proportional to force. Hence if a
force F acts on a particle or body, F is proportional to ma, that is
F = kma, where k is a constant. By choosing a suitable unit of force
it is possible to make the constant k equal to unity and thus we have the
fundamental Newtonian equation, in suitable units,
F = ma. (18.2)
The mass of a body is usually defined as the quantity of matter that
it contains. This is not a very helpful definition but it is easily under-
stood that a small body requires less force to give it a certain accelera-
tion than a more massive one.
We may think of the mass of a body as being a number depending
on the size and density of the body such that the equation (18.2) is
satisfied. A standard piece of platinum is kept as a basis for the
measurement of mass and its mass is called one kilogramme or 1000
grammes. The masses of other bodies are found by comparison with
this standard and the comparison is made by weighing. If a certain
mass is double the weight of the standard, the force F due to gravity
acting on it is double the force acting on the standard and hence, since
the acceleration g due to gravity is the same for both, it follows from
equation (18.2) that its mass is two kilogrammes. In the same way the
mass of any body can be compared with that of the standard or with
other bodies.
We notice here the distinction between the mass of a body and its
weight. The weight is a force whereas the mass is a measure of the effect
of force. The mass of the standard piece of platinum is unchanged if
its latitude is changed, but its weight is altered with its distance from the
earth’s centre.
In the British system the standard of mass is one pound, and
1 pound = 453-39 grammes
 UNITS OF FORCE 461
approximately. A piece of platinum whose mass is one pound is kept
as a standard.

18.4 Units of force

Having defined masses of one kilogramme and one pound, we next
have to consider the units in which the force must be expressed in order
to make the equation F = ma true.
A newton (abbreviation N) is defined as the force which will give to
a mass of one kilogramme an acceleration of one metre per second per
second. Thus if F is the force in newton, m the mass in kilogramme
and a the acceleration in metre per second per second, we have F = ma.
Hence a force of 10N acting on a mass of 5 kg in a certain direction
will give it an acceleration of 2 m/s? in that direction. The newton is
called an absolute unit of force.
A mass of one kilogramme falling vertically under gravity has
acceleration g (=9-81 m/s” approximately), therefore the force acting
on it is g newton. This force is the weight of the body and is called
1 kilogramme force or 1 kilogramme weight (abbreviations kgf or kg
wt). This is called a gravitational unit of force since it is not indepen-
dent of the local gravitational attraction.
Therefore 1 kgf = g newton
= 9-81 N, approximately.
Thus, to find the acceleration due to a force F kgf we must first bring
the force to newton and write
Fg = ma. (18.3)
This is the form of equation to be used when the force F is expressed
in gravitational units.
The Systéme International (SI), which is recommended by inter-
national bodies for eventual adoption by all countries, takes as basic
units in dynamics the newton, the kilogramme and the metre and
envisages the eventual exclusion of other basic units. Previously the
metric system had used the dyne as the unit of force, the gramme as
the unit of mass and the centimetre as the unit of length, so that F
dynes gives to a mass of m grammes an acceleration of a cm/s® in
accordance with the equation F = ma. A little consideration will show
that
1 dyne = 10° newton.
In the British system the absolute unit of force is the poundal (pdl)
defined as the force required to give a mass of one pound an accelera-
tion of one foot per second per second in accordance with the formula
462 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

F = ma. The corresponding gravitational unit in the pound force or

pound weight (Ibf or lb wt) and
1 lbf = g pdl
= 32 pdl (approximately)
if g is taken as 32 ft/s.
Note that 1 pdl = 0-138 N and 1 Ibf = 4-448 N (approximately).
18.5 Motion of a rigid body
If all the particles of a rigid body have the same acceleration a and
the force on a particle of mass m, of the body is F, we have F, = mya.
A similar equation holds for every particle of the body and, adding
these equations for all the particles, we have
2, = (2m)a. (18.4)
Here, Xm, is the sum of the masses of all the particles and is therefore
the mass of the body, which we denote by M. 2F, is the sum of all the
forces, both external and internal, which act on particles in the direction
of the acceleration. Since the internal forces occur in equal and opposite
pairs (by Newton’s third law) their sum is zero, and hence XA, denoted
by F, is the sum of the external forces acting on the body. Thus
F = Ma, (18.5)
and this basic equation applies to the motion of a rigid body all of
whose particles have the same acceleration.
Example 1. An engine exerting a constant tractive force hauls six 10 tonne trucks
(1 tonne = 1000 kg) on the level against a resistance of 6 kgf per tonne and gives
them an acceleration of 3cm/s*. If one truck is uncoupled and the tractive force
is unaltered find the new acceleration of the remaining trucks.
Since the acceleration is 0.03 m/s? and the mass 6 X 10* kg the accelerating
force is
F=6 x 104 x 0-03 = 1800 N.
The resistance = 6 X 60 kgf = 360g = 3531-6 N.
The engine pull = 1800 + 3531-6 = 5331-6 N.
The resistance to 5 trucks = 300 kgf = 2943 N.
The net accelerating force = 2388-6 N.
The new mass accelerated = 5 x 104 kg.
2388-6
The new acceleration = 5x 10! = 0-0478 m/s*.

18.6 The inclined plane

Consider a particle of mass m kilogramme on a smooth plane inclined
at an angle « to the horizontal (Fig. 186). The only forces acting on the
particle are its weight, mg newton, and the reaction of the plane on the
particle, R newton (say). These forces combine to give a force (R — mg
cos x) newton perpendicular to the plane and mg sin « newton down the
plane. Since the acceleration perpendicular to the plane is zero we have
R— mg cosa = 0,
 THE INCLINED PLANE 463
and, if a is the acceleration down the plane in metres/s?
mg sin « = ma,
so thata
= gsin a,

Fic. 186

If the inclined plane is rough and the coefficient of friction is u, we

have in addition, if we assume the body to be in motion, a frictional
force wR acting up the plane. In this case
R—mgcos « = 0,
mg sin« — “wR = ma,
and hence
a = g(sin « — “Cos @).
If u cos « were greater than sin «, this expression would give a negative
acceleration. In fact, the acceleration would be zero, for the friction
would not be limiting but only sufficient to prevent motion. Hence,
for the particle to slide down the plane we must have uw < tan « or, if
fs = tan A where A is the angle of friction, A < «, that is the angle of
friction must be less than the angle of slope of the plane.
Example 2. A body is hung from a spring balance suspended from the roof ofa lift.
When the lift is descending with uniform acceleration 90 cm|/s*, the balance in-
dicates a load of 10 kg. When the lift is ascending with uniform acceleration
x cm|s* the reading is 12 kg. Find the value of x.
In each case the body moves under the action of two forces, its weight and the
pull of the balance shown by the indicated weight.
This if m kg be the mass of the body, when descending
mg — 10g =m x 0°9,
when ascending
12g — mg = m.x/100.
E Ce aay
From the first equation m aos 11-01
and hence
_ 12-11-01 & = 0:88 m/s? = 88 cm/s?
oS enlgOt
Example 3. An engine exerts a force of 315 x 10° kgf ona train of mass 2-4 x 10° kg
and draws it up a slope of 1 in 120 against track resistance of 7 kgf per 1000 kg.
Find the acceleration. Find also the braking force required on the return journey
with steam shut off to prevent the acceleration exceeding 0-2 cm|s*.
464 ADVANCED LEVBL MATHEMATICS

The component of the train’s weight down the track is 2-4 x 10° x sin «, where
sin « = 1/120, so that
slope resistance = 2°4 x 10° x 9-81/120 = 1-962 x 10*N
track resistance = 7 x 240 x 9-81 = 1-648 x 1¢N
engine pull = 3-75 x 10° x 9-81 = 3-679 x 10*°N
net accelerating force = 0-069 x 10*N
mass accelerated = 24 x 104 kg
acceleration = 0-069/24 = 0-0029 m/s?
On the return journey let P newton be the braking force required to keep the
acceleration to 0-002 m/s*.
Then
—P + 1-962 x 104 — 1-648 x 104 = 24 x 104 x 0-002
P x 10-* = 0-314 — 0-048 = 0-266
P = 2660N.

18.7 Motion of connected masses

We now consider the motion of two or more masses connected by a
light inextensible string so that their displacements, velocities and
accelerations are equal. The masses may lie on a plane surface or they
may hang vertically with the string passing over a smooth pulley.
Because of its negligible mass no force is required to move the string
and the tension will be the same throughout its length. The accelera-
tions of the masses are related by the fact of their being connected by
the string and, if the equation of motion F = ma is written down for
each mass, the tension T in the string can be eliminated between the two
equations and the accelerations found. The acceleration of either
particle being known the tension in the string is easily found.
Example 4. A light inelastic string passes over a fixed smooth peg. At each end of
the string is attached a scale-pan of mass 1 g. A 2 g weight is placed in one scale-
pan and two 2 g weights in the other. The system is released from rest with the
scale-pans hanging vertically. Calculate the acceleration of the system, the
tension in the string, the thrusts the weights exert on each scale-pan and the
reaction between the two 2 g weights in the second scale-pan. [L.U.]

Fic. 187
 MOTION OF CONNECTED MASSES 465
Let a cm/s* be the downward acceleration of one pan and the upward accelera-
tion of the other (Fig. 187). Let T dynes be the tension in the string. Applying
the equation F = ma to each pan we have
3g — T = Sa,
T — 3g = 3a.

Adding, we find a = 4” = 245 cm/s* and hence, substituting for a in either

equation, T = 3679 dynes.
Let R, and R, gmf be the reactions of the pans on the weights on the two sides
and R, the reaction between the two weights on the right-hand side.
Applying the equation F = ma to each of the weights separately we have
Rig —2g = 2a,

4g — Rag = 4a,
2g — R3g = 2a,
and hence R, = 2:5, R, = 3, Rs = 1:5.

Example 5. A mass 3m is connected by a light inextensible string over a smooth fixed

pulley to a movable smooth pulley of mass m over which passes a second light
inextensible string with masses m and 2m attached to its ends. Find the acceleration
of each mass when the system is released and the tensions in the strings. [O.C.]
Let the masses be in kilogrammes and let T newton be the tension in the first
string and T, the tension in the second (Fig. 188). Let a be the upward accelera-
tion of the 3m mass and the downward acceleration of the movable pulley;

‘Tt T

3mg
Ti [mg©

mg 2mg
Fic. 188

let a, be the downward acceleration of the mass 2m and the upward accelera-
tion of the mass m with respect to the movable pulley. Then the total down-
ward acceleration of the 2m mass is a + a, and of the mass m, a — a.
The forces acting on the masses are
on 3m, T— 3mg upwards,
on the pulley, 2T, + mg — T downwards,
on 2m, 2mg — T, downwards,
on m, mg — T, downwards.
466 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Applying the formula F = ma to each mass and to the movable pulley we have
T — 3mg = 3ma,
2T, + mg — T = ma,
2mg — T, = 2m(a + a),
mg — T, = ma — a).
Addition of all four equations and division by m gives
g=Tat+ Q.
Subtraction of the last two equations gives
g=at 3q.
Hence, a = vag, a, = vog, T = 3-3 mg, T; = 1:2 mg.

Exercises 18 (a)

On a level track the acceleration of a train, consisting of an engine of

mass 200 tonnes and a coach of mass 70 tonnes is 3 cm/s*. The resist-
ances to the engine and coach are 7 and 5 kgf per tonne respectively.
Find the tractive force of the engine and the tension of the coupling
between engine and coach. (1 tonne = 1000 kg.) iO'Ga
A particle is projected with velocity u from A up the line of greatest slope
of a rough plane inclined at « to the horizontal, and at the same time a
second particle slides from rest at a distance a from A, the angle of
friction A being less than «. The particles collide at distance $a from A.
Prove that u? = ag sin? a cos A/sin (« — A). [O.C.]
A and B are two points d apart on a rough plane inclined at 30° to the
horizontal, B being above A on a line of greatest slope. A particle P of
mass 7m is placed at B. Prove that if the coefficient of friction is +/3/6,
P moves down the plane with acceleration tg. P is now attached to one
end of a light inextensible string and a particle Q of mass M is attached
to the other end; P is placed at A and the string passes over a small
smooth pulley at the top of the plane in AB produced, with Q hanging
vertically. The system is released and P reaches B with acceleration tg.
Prove that M = $m. When P reaches B the string is cut. Find the
velocity of P on its return to A. [O.C.]
A balloon weighing 500 kg is descending at a steady speed of 3 m/s and
is 80 m above the ground when 60 kg of ballast is thrown out. Find the
acceleration with which the balloon begins to rise and its height when
the ballast reaches the ground.
A bullet weighing 30 g is fired into a fixed block of wood with a velocity
of 294 metres per second and is brought to rest in 1/150s. Find the
resistance exerted by the wood, supposing it to be uniform. [0.C.]
A ship of 10 000 tonnes slows, with engines stopped, from 6 knots to
5 knots in a distance of 30 m; assuming the resistance to be uniform,
calculate its value. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 467
A and B are two particles of mass m and 2m respectively lying on a rough
horizontal table and connected by a taut light inextensible string; B is
connected to a particle C, of mass 3m, by a similar string which passes
over a small fixed smooth pulley at the edge of the table, C hanging
vertically and in the vertical plane through AB. If the coefficient of
friction between the table and each of the particles A and B is 4, prove
that C descends 1-226 m in the first second of its motion. [O.C.]
A cord passes over a smooth fixed pulley and supports at one end a
mass of 4 kg and at the other end a smooth movable pulley of mass 1 kg.
A cord over this pulley supports at one end a mass of 1 kg and at the
other end a mass of Mkg. The system is released from rest with the
masses hanging vertically. Determine M if the 4kg mass remains at
rest. The mass M is removed and the loose end of the cord fastened to a
fixed point, the cord being vertical. If the rest of the system is unchanged
determine the acceleration of the 4 kg mass when released. [L.U.]
A particle of mass 3 kg lies on a rough horizontal table and a taut
inextensible string attached to the particle passes over a smooth pulley
at the edge of the table and carries a mass of 5 kg hanging vertically. If
the system moves from rest and each particle has acceleration 4 m/s?
find the coefficient of friction between the first particle and the table.
[L.U.]
10. Two scale pans each weighing 20g are connected by a light inexten-
sible string which passes over a small smooth fixed peg, and masses of
180 and 200 g are placed one in each pan. Find the acceleration of the
system when it is released and the reactions between each pan and the
mass it carries. {L.U.]
at Planes inclined at 6 and ¢ respectively to the horizontal meet in a crest
and AP and BP are lines of greatest slope on the planes. Particles X and
Y, of masses m and M respectively, are attached to the ends of a string
which passes over a smooth pulley at P and are placed with the string
taut on AP and BP respectively. If A is the angle of friction on each
plane, prove that Y will move downwards if
M sin (f — A) > msin (6 + A)
and find its acceleration. [0.C.]
12. A particle P, of mass 2 kg, is placed on a rough horizontal table at O;
a string attached to P passes over a small smooth pulley A at the edge
of the table and carries a particle Q of mass 4 kg hanging vertically.
The system is released when P is 1 m from A. If the coefficient of friction
on the table is 4, prove that P reaches A after 0-64 sec. Prove also that
when the particles have been moving for } sec the speed of their centre
of mass is 0-914 m/s.
13. A light inextensible string passing over a smooth peg O carries a particle
A of mass M at one end and a small smooth pulley B of mass m at the
other end; a similar string over the pulley carries particles C and D of
masses 2 and m at its ends. The pulley B is x below O and C is y
468 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

below B. Write down equations of motion of each particle and of the

pulley. When the system is released with the strings taut A ascends with
acceleration $9. Prove that M = 11m/6. [O.C.]
14. A light string ABCD has one end fixed at A, and, passing under a movable
pulley of mass M at Band over a fixed pulley at C carries a mass m at D.
The parts of the string are supposed vertical. Show that M descends
with acceleration (M — 2m)g/(M + 4mm). [O.C.]
15. A force equal to a weight of 1 kilogramme acts for 3 seconds on a mass
of 5 kilogrammes. Find the velocity produced and the space passed
over. {L.U.]

18.8 Work done by a force

The work done by a constant force F acting on a particle while it
moves from a position O to a position A, where the direction of the
force makes an angle 6 with the line OA (Fig. 189), is defined as
W =F x OA x cos 8. (18.6)
The work done is therefore the product of the resolved part of F along
OA and O4; it is also the product of the force F and the projection of

0 RTE
BAA oo

Fic. 189

OA on the line of action of the force. If 6 = $7, Wis zero and if cos 0
is negative W is negative.
We note that W
is, in fact (see § 6.8), the scalar product of the vectors
representing the force and the displacement, and we may write
W=F.OA. (18.7)
Work being the product of a force and a distance, the units of work
will be newton-metres in the SI system and a newton-metre is called a
joule (symbol J). A former measure in the metric system was the dyne-
centimetre, called an erg, and 1 erg = 10~* joule. The corresponding
unit in the British system is the foot-poundal; the unit foot-pound
(ft Ibf) is still widely used. We have
1 ft pdl = 0-0421 J
1 ft lbf = 1.356 J.
If the force F is a variable one, the element of work done by it in an
infinitesimal displacement dx alonn the line OX is bW = Fos 6 6x.
The work done in a finite displacement from x, to x, along OX is then

W= [" F cos 0 dx. (18.8)

oy
 WORK DONE BY FORCE 469
As an example of this we shall show that the work done in stretching an
elastic string is the product of the extension and the mean of the initial
and final tensions.
Let A be the modulus, a the unstretched length and 7 the tension in
the string when its extension is x. Then

=~ xX.
a

Then using (18.8) with 6 = 0 and cos 6 = 1, the work done in increas-
ing the extension from x, to x, is W, where

wa [rae Le

zy

mi [xa
a Ja,
A
= 5, ta" — 7»)

1 (A A
= (x, — x5 (;Xq + im) (18.9)

and this is the product of the extension and the mean tension.
Example 6. A car of mass 1000 kg accelerates uniformly from rest to acquire a velocity
of 50 km|h on a level road in a distance of 250 m against frictional and other
resistances of 30 kgf. Find the work done by the engine.
The constant acceleration a is given by
50 x i
(Peqa—) = 24 x 25,
so that
a = 0-386 m/s*.
The force required to give this acceleration is
F = 1000 x 0-386 = 386N.
The total force required is therefore 386 + 30 x 9-81 N and the work done is
W = 680-3 x 250 = 1:7 x 10° J.

18.9 Work done in lifting a body

We shall now prove that the work done against gravity in lifting a
body depends only on the height through which its centre of gravity is
raised.
Let W,, We, . . . be the weights of typical particles of the body and
suppose that these particles are raised from height x1, x2,. . . to height
Yy Yas» - - above some standard position. The height £ of the.centre of
470 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
gravity of the body before it is lifted and the height § afterwards are
given by
WX = WX, + WoxXq +. ° 99

WY = Wy + Woyot-- +s
where W
is the total weight. The total work done against gravity is
WV — X) + Wen — 2) +++
= (Wy + Wee t. » -) — (Wi + Wor%a +. - »)
= WY — x),

and this is the product of the weight and the height through which the
centre of gravity is raised. Thus the work done depends only on the
initial and final height of the centre of gravity and is independent of
the path followed by the individual particles.
Example 7. A right circular cone of weight W, base radius a and height h, rests with
a generator in contact with a horizontal plane. Find the work done in raising it so
that its base is in contact with the plane.

Fic. 190

Let « be the semivertical angle of the cone, so that tan a = a/h (Fig. 190).
Initially the centre of gravity, which is $h from the vertex, is at a height 3A sin «
above the plane and, when raised, it is at a height $4 above the plane. Therefore
the work done is
W(th — Bh sin «)

=i - Team
18.10 Work done by a couple
If a couple whose moment is M acts on a rigid body, no work is done
by the couple when the body moves without rotation, but if the body
rotates through a small angle 60 the work done is M66.
Let F be the magnitude of each force of the couple acting at a dis-
tance d apart, so that M = Fd. Let the forces act on particles A and B
of the body (Fig. 191). If the body moves without rotation so that A
moves to A’, then B moves to B’ where BB’ is equal and parallel to
AA’ so that the work done by one force F in the displacement AA’ is
equal and opposite to the work done by the other force F in the dis-
placement BB’. Thus the total work done is zero.
 POWER 471
If now the body rotates so that AB is turned through a small angle
66 to the position AB’ (Fig. 192), then B has a small displacement

Pred? mF A F
| | 84/|
i : id
|

Fie. 191 Fic. 192

relative to A of BB’ = d66 to the first order of small quantities and the
element of work done is
OW= Fdd0 = M60.
Thus the work done by the couple in a finite rotation of the body
through an angle « is

W= [Mab, (18.10)
0

and, if M is constant,
W = Ma. (18.11)

18.11 Power
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Thus if 30 joule
of work is done in 2 seconds the average power is 15 joule per second
(15 J/s). A power of 1 joule per second is called a watt (symbol W).
This is a small unit and that most commonly met is the kilowatt which
is 1000 W (symbol kW).
The British unit of power is the horse-power (abbreviation h.p.), which
is defined as a rate of 550 ft lbf/s or 33,000 ft lbf/minute. This represents
a rate of working which a strong horse might be able to maintain, for
example, when moving steadily at 10 ft/s and exerting a tractive force
of 55 lbf.
We have
1 horse-power = 746 watt
lkilowatt |§ = 1-34 horse-power.
The French cheval-vapeur (symbol C.V.) raises 75 kg through 1 metre
in 1 second and is 75 x 9-81 = 735-75 W.
If the power is n watt when a force F newton is applied to a body
472 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

at a point which moves along the line of action of the force at a steady
speed of v metre per second, the power exerted in watt is
n=FxX v. (18.12)
Thus the force F can be found if n and v are known, and v can be found
if n and F are known.

Example 8. Find the power exerted by a locomotive which keeps a train of 200 tonnes
moving at a constant speed of 72 km|h up a slope of 1 in 160 against resistances
of 7 kgf per tonne.
The resolved part of the weight along the track
= 2 x 105/160 = 1250 kgf.
The resistances
= 7 x 200 = 1400 kgf.
The total tractive force
= 2650 kgf = 25 996-5 N.
The work done per second
= 25 996'5 x 20 = 519 930 watt.
The power
= 520 kW.

Example 9. A car of 1000 kg mass whose engine is working at a constant rate of

12 kW can travel at a maximum speed of 45 km/h up a hill of inclination a,
where sin & = 1/14. If the resistance is unchanged and the engine works at the
same rate, calculate the acceleration of the car up a hill of inclination B, where
sin B = 1/20, at the moment when the speed is 36 km|[h. {L.U.]
If the tractive force is P newton and the velocity is 12-5 m/s, we have from
(18.12)
12 000
P= 35." 960 N.

The resolved part of the weight down the slope is 1000 g sin « = 700-7 N so
that the balance of the tractive force goes to overcome a resistance of 259-3 N.
On the second slope the speed is 10 m/s, so that the tractive force is 1200 N.
The resolved part of the weight is now 9810/20 = 490-5 N so that the total
force opposing motion is 749-8 N. The forward net force is then 450-2 N and
the acceleration a is given by
450-2 = 1000a
giving
a = 0-450 m/s.

Example 10. A car of mass 1000 kg tows a second car of equal mass at a uniform
speed of 40 km[h on level ground; the resistance to motion of each is 50 kgf.
Show that the rate of working is 10-9 kilowatts. The pull of the first car is gradually
increased until the tow-rope breaks under a tension of 75 kgf. If the rate of
working is then 21-8 kilowatts find how much further the second car then travels
before it comes to rest. [L.U.]
 EFFICIENCY 473
The total pull is 100 kgf when the speed is 40 km/h (100 m/s) so that the
/h(100/9
rate of working is ket P
100
100 x 9-81 x i> 10-9 kilowatts.

At the instant when the rope breaks the forward pull on each car will be 75 kg
as since the rate of working is then 21-8 kilowatts we have, if v is the speed in
8,
21-8 x 10° = 150 x 9-81 »,
v = 14-81 m/s = 53-33 km/h.
The second car is then retarded by the resistance of 50 kgf and the retardation
a m/s* is given by
50 Xx 9-81 = 1000a,
a = 0-4905.
The distance in which it comes to rest is given by the formula v* = u* — 2ax,
and hence
53-33 x “ih
(Sao) = 0984s
x = 224m.
18.12 Efficiency
The power of an engine may be measured in two ways. In a
piston engine, for example, the thrust of the expanding gases on the
piston end can be measured during its motion and the work done by
this thrust calculated. The rate at which this work is done is called the
indicated power of the engine. There is always a loss of power, due to
friction and other causes, between the piston and the rotating parts
of the engine, and the power measured at a later stage, for example
by a brake on the flywheel, gives what is called the brake power of the
engine. The efficiency of the engine is the ratio of the brake power to
the indicated power. The efficiency of any mechanical system may be
measured in a similar way as the ratio of the output of work to the
input of work. Thus, if a weight w is lifted by a pulley system through
a height h, the work done is wh and this is the output of work. The
input of work is then the work done in hauling on the rope that
causes the system to move and, due to friction, this will usually be
somewhat greater than the output.
Example 11. Find the rate of working in kilowatt of an engine which can fill a cistern
70 m above the level of a river with 1-5 x 10° litres of water in 24 hours, assuming
that a litre of water weighs 1 kg and that only two-thirds of the work actually done
by the engine is available for raising the water.
The rate at which work is being done in raising 1-5 x 10° kg of water through
70 m in 24 hours is
1-5 x 105 x 9-81 x 70
watt
24 x 60 x 60
= 1-192 kilowatt.
Since the efficiency of the system is $, the power of the engine must be
1-192 x # = 1-79 kilowatt.
474 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 18 (b)
A car travels at a uniform speed of 36 km/h on a level road when the
engine is working at 8 kW. Prove that the frictional resistance is 800 N.
If the total weight of the car is 1250 kg and the frictional resistance
varies at the square of the speed find the power required for the car
to travel at 18 km/h up a road inclined at sin (0-05) to the ee

A car of mass 2000 kg is travelling at 45 km/h up an incline of sin

(1/14), the resistance to motion being 15g N. Show that the engine is
working at 19-36 kW. The car reaches level ground and the engine con-
tinues to work at the same rate. Assuming that the resistance is pro-
portional to the square of the car’s speed, find the maximum speed
attainable. {L.U.]
A car of mass 1 tonne climbs a hill of gradient 1 in 10 at a steady speed
of 45 km/h. If the engine is working at 15 kW calculate the road resist-
ance. Assuming the road resistance varies as the square of the speed,
find the maximum speed attainable on the level with the same power.
[{L.U.]
A car of mass 1000 kg tows a trailer of mass 750 kg. With the engine
switched off, they run down a slope of sin (1/112) with constant speed.
Calculate the resistance to motion. When the car and trailer run on
the level the engine develops 15 kW when the speed is 45 km/h, the
resistances remaining unaltered. Calculate the acceleration at this speed
and the pull in the tow bar. Lea

A car of mass 1000 kg travels at a constant speed of 60 km/h on a level

road when the engine works at 15 kW. Prove that the resistance to
motion is 91:74¢ N. With the same rate of working and the same
resistance the car ascends a road inclined at @ to the horizontal at a
constant speed of 45 km/h. Find the value of sin 6. [L.U.]
A car weighing 840 kg freewheels down a slope of sin- (1/14) at uniform
speed against road resistances. On level road the engine is switched on
and the car accelerates at 2 m/s? from 50 km/h, the road resistances
remaining the same. At what rate does the engine work? (L.U.]
A train weighing 300 tons, including the engine, has a maximum speed
of 20 mile/h up an incline of 1°. If the engine can develop a maximum
of 1000 h.p. show that the frictional resistance, assumed constant, is
approximately 7000 Ibf. Find the maximum speed on level ground
assuming the frictional resistance to remain unaltered. {L.U.]
A motor-car of mass 1000 kg runs with constant speed with the brakes
released and the engine shut off down a slope inclined to the horizontal
at an angle sin~ (1/20). If the same car ascends the slope at 40 km/h,
determine the rate at which the engine must work. Find the acceleration
when the car is moving on level ground at the same speed with the engine
working at the same rate. {L.U.]
 EXERCISES 475
A cyclist with his machine weighs 100kg. He free-wheels at uniform
speed down a straight road inclined to the horizontal at sin-} (1/80).
Find the rate at which he must work if he cycles up the incline at a
constant speed of 18 km/h. On a horizontal road, working at the same
rate, the resistance to his motion being unchanged, find his maximum
speed and his acceleration when his speed is 18 km/h.

10. A lorry of mass M tonnes, with its engine working at H kW, has
a maximum speed on the level of ukm/h. If the maximum speed
up a road inclined at an angle « to the horizontal is v km/h when
the rate of work and the resistance are unchanged, prove that
40H(u — v) = 109 Mw sin a.
11. An 8-tonne truck, with the engine working at a constant rate of 20 kW,
climbs a road with a gradient of 1 in 40, the resistance being 7g N per
tonne. Find (a) the maximum speed v attained and (6) the acceleration
when the speed is $v. [0.C.]
12 A man cycles up a hill of inclination «, where sin « = 75, at a maximum
speed of 10 km/h, The combined weight of the man and his bicycle is
100 kg and the resistance to motion is 5g N. What power is he
developing? On level road he continues to work at the same rate, the
resistance remaining unchanged. Find his initial acceleration and his
maximum speed on the level. {L.U.]
13. A 500-h.p. locomotive draws a train weighing 200 tonnes (including
the locomotive) against a constant resistance. The train can attain a
maximum speed of 36 km/h up a slope and a maximum speed of 72 km/h
down the same slope. Find the inclination of the slope and the maximum
speed on the level. [L.U.]
14 A locomotive working at 500 h.p. pulls a train of 200 tons (including the
locomotive) along a level track, the resistance to motion being 16 lbf
per ton. When the speed is 30 mile/h, determine its acceleration. At
what steady speed will the locomotive pull the same train up an incline
of 1 in 100 with the same expenditure of power against the same resis-
tance? [L.U.]
ee A train of 3 x 10° kg is ascending a track at an inclination of 1 in 250
and the frictional and other resistances are 2000g N. Find the highest
speed of the train when the engine is working at 500 kW. If the engine
is also working at this rate when the speed if 30 km/h, find the acceler-
ation. [L.U.]

18.13 Kinetic energy

The kinetic energy of a particle is defined as the quantity $7nv®, where
m is the mass of the particle and v its velocity.
If a constant force F acts on a particle along a straight line as the
particle moves a distance x along the line, the work done by the force
is Fx. The acceleration, which is constant, is given by the equation
476 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

F = ma, m being the mass of the particle. The initial and final velo-
cities during the motion are given by the formula v* = u* + 2ax, so
that
work done = Fx
= max
= 4mv® — dmv’. (18.13)
Thus the work done is equal to the change of kinetic energy and equa-
tion (18.13) which expresses this fact is known as the work equation.
The change of kinetic energy may, of course, be an increase or a decrease
according as the work done is positive or negative.
The units in which kinetic energy is measured are the same as the
units of work. Thus, if the force F is in absolute units, the units of
kinetic energy will be absolute units of work such as joules. If the
force F is in gravitational units, then in absolute units the force is Fg and
Fgx = 4mv* — 4m’,
so that if the work is expressed in gravitational units, such as m kgf,
we have
1m 1m
Fx = Ig~-—y=> —-—: u (18.14)

The kinetic energy in gravitational units is therefore iFv?, When the

work done is expressed in gravitational units, it is convenient to write
w for m in the expression for the kinetic energy as a reminder and to
write the work equation as
w Ww
work done =—py_—
5) ai 7p (18.15)

Example 12. A bullet of mass 5 g moving with speed 400 mJs strikes a fixed block
of . and penetrates 15 cm. Find the resistance of the wood, assuming it to be
uniform.

The kinetic energy of the bullet

=x 5 x 10-* x (400)?
= 400 J.
If the resistance offered by the wood is constant and equal to F newton, the
work done against the bullet in its penetration
=Fx015J.
This work changes the kinetic energy from its initial value to zero, therefore
0-15F = 4:0,
giving
F = 2667N.
 KINETIC ENERGY AND HORSE POWER 477
When the force F varies in magnitude during the motion, the work
done is

I Fdx = m| adr
0 0
z d z
= m|"oF ae = m/v

= m[hv"]z = dmv? — dmv,

so that the work equation still holds good.
The kinetic energy of a rigid body is the sum of the kinetic energies
of its particles. Hence if a body is moving in a straight line, so that all
its particles have the same velocity, its kinetic energy is
Lsmv? = 4v?im = 4M,
where M is the total mass, and this change in kinetic energy is equal to
the work done by the forces acting on the body.
18.14 Kinetic energy and power
In calculating the rate at which an engine is doing work we have to
find the work done against resistances or against gravity in a given
time. If the velocity changes during this time we must add the work
done in increasing the kinetic energy or deduct the work done which
represents a decrease of kinetic energy.
Example 13. An engine in 7 seconds has raised a load of 1000 kg through a height of
1 metre and has communicated to it a speed of 3:5 m/s. At what average rate has
it been working ?
The work done in lifting the weight = 10°g = 9810 J.
The kinetic energy imparted

=5 x 1000 x (3-5)? = 6125 J.

The total work done = 15 935 J.

This work is done in 7 seconds so that the rate at which the engine is working
15 935
= 7x 1000 = 2-276 kilowatts.

Example 14. An engine raises water from a reservoir to a height of 10 m and delivers
it through a circular nozzle of diameter 10 cm at 9 mls. If the efficiency of the
engine is 20 per cent, find the power of the engine. [L.U.]

The mass of water delivered in each second is that contained in a tube 10 m

long and of 10cm diameter. Taking the density of water as 1000 kg/m’, this
mass is
M =77 (:05)? x 10 x 1000
= 78-54 kg.
478 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
The work done in raising this mass of water through 10 m is
10Mg = 7705 J.
The work done in giving this mass of water a velocity of 9 m/s is
$M x 81 = 3181 J.
The total work done per second is 10 866 J and the useful power is 10-87 kW.
Since the efficiency is only 20 per cent the power of the engine must be 5 x 10-87
= 54-4 kW.

18.15 Potential energy

The potential energy of a particle is defined as the work which the
forces acting on it would do if it moved from its given position to some
standard position.
This if a particle of mass m kg is at a height h m above a table, and
we take the surface of the table as the standard position, the force of
gravity acting on the particle is mg newton and the work which this
force would do as the particle fell to the table is mgh joule, and this
is the potential energy of the particle. It is clear in this case that as
the particle descends potential energy is lost and at the same time work
is done by gravity and, in fact, at any stage the loss of potential energy
is equal to the work actually done.
From the work equation we know that the increase of kinetic energy
is equal to the work done, so that the increase of kinetic energy is equal
to the loss of potential energy. In other words, the sum of the kinetic
energy and the potential energy remains constant during descent. The
equation based on this fact is known as the energy equation and is
sometimes written as
K.E. + P.E. = constant, (18.16)
where K.E. stands for kinetic energy and P.E. for potential energy. In
this case, if v m/s is the velocity when the particle has fallen x m, the
kinetic energy is 4mv?, the potential energy is mg(h — x) and the
energy equation is
4mv* + mg(h — x) = c (a constant).
If the velocity is zero when x is zero the value of c must be mgh and the
equation simplifies to
4mv* — mgx = 0,
so that
v? = 2px.
Potential energy due to the force of gravity is the most commonly
used form of potential energy, but there are other forms such as that
of a stretched string where the potential energy is the work that would
be done by the elasticity of the string as it returned to its natural length.
 POTENTIAL ENERGY 479

The potential energy of a body is, of course, the sum of the potential
energies of its particles. We have seen in § 18.9 that the work done in
lifting a rigid body is Wh, where W is its weight and h the height
through which its centre of gravity has been raised. This is therefore
its potential energy in the raised position if the old position is taken as
the standard position.
The energy equation (18.16) is an expression of a fundamental
scientific principle known as the principle of conservation of energy
which states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant.
This does not, however, imply that the total amount of mechanical
energy is constant since such energy may be converted by friction or the
deformation of a body into other forms of energy such as heat or sound.
Example 15. A light inextensible string passes over a small smooth pulley and carries
masses of 4 kg and 6 kg at its ends. Find the velocity of the heavier mass when it
has descended 2 m from rest.
Let v m/s be the velocity of either mass when the 6 kg mass has descended x m
from rest (Fig. 193). Then the kinetic energies of the masses are 4 x 4v? and
4 X 6v?, and the total kinetic energy is Sv’.
If / is the length of the string, when the 6 kg mass is x below the pulley the
4 kg mass is / — x below it. We can write the potential energies of the masses
with reference to a standard level h below the pulley as 6g(h — x)
+ 4e(h — 1 + x), or taking the pulley as the standard level we put A = 0 and
have for the potential energy —6gx — 4g(/ — x), the difference between the
two expressions being constant.
In either case the energy equation is
5v* — 6gx — 4e(/ — x) = c (a constant).
Since v = 0 when x = 0, c = —4g/ and we find
vt = Bex,
giving, when x = 2,0 = 2°80 m/s.

P|}
—
<x
——

49 69
Fic. 193

Exercises 18 (c)

1. A train travelling at 63 km/h begins an ascent of 1 in 75. The tractive

force during the ascent is constant and equal to 23 tonnes weight; the
resistance is constant and equal to 1:5 tonnes weight, and the mass of the
480 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

whole train is 225 tonnes. Show that the train will come to a standstill
after climbing for 1-76 km.

An army tank weighing 10,000 kg in surmounting an obstacle has its

speed reduced from 30 km/h to 15 km/h and its centre of gravity raised
by 1:2 m. Find the total loss of energy. [L.U.]

A motor car of mass 2000 kg arrives at the bottom of a hill 0-8 km long,
which rises 1 in 125, with a speed of 30 km/h and arrives at the top
with a speed of 15 km/h. If there is a retarding force due to friction
of 14 kgf, calculate the work done by the engine in getting the car up
the hill. [L.U.]
A motor car weighing 1000 kg starts up an incline at 18 km/h. The
road rises 125m in 1 km and at the end of that distance the speed
has been reduced to 9km/h. If the frictional resistances are 40 kgf,
find the average power exerted, the time for the km being 4:5 min.

A man strikes a block with a 10 kg hammer 33 times a minute. If the

velocity of the hammer on striking the block is 8 m/s and the hammer
is reduced to rest after each blow, find the average power exerted by
the man. fe we
A car of mass 3000 kg will just run down a slope of angle sin~ (1/20)
under its own weight. Assuming that the forces resisting its motion are
constant and that the engine exerts a constant tractive force, determine
the power developed when a speed of 45 km/h is attained from rest
on a level track in a time of 4 min. [L.U.]
Find the uniform force that will move a mass of 1 kg from rest through
1m in 1 second. If this force is exerted while the mass moves 100 m
from rest, find the work done by the force and the maximum power
attained. [L.U.]
An engine, pumping water from a well 10 m deep, discharges 20 gallons/
second with a speed of 7 m/s. Find the power of the engine, given that
1 gallon of water weighs 4:5 kg. [O.C.]
A body of mass M kg moves from rest under the action of a constant
force F kgf. At the same instant another body of the same mass moves
from rest under the action of a force in a fixed horizontal direction,
which does work at a constant rate Pmkgf/s. If after T seconds the
bodies have the same speed V m/s, show that P = 4FV. Find the ratio
of the speeds of the two bodies when they have been moving for 4T
seconds. [L.U.]
10. A fire-engine raises water through a height of 10 m from a reservoir and
delivers it at 15 m/s through a nozzle of cross-section 25 cm®. Neglect-
ing frictional losses, calculate the power at which the engine is working.
[L.U.]
11. Find the power of a pump which in 1 min raises 1 m° of water through
7m, discharging it at a speed of 2 m/s. [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 481
tz: The pump of a fire-fighting launch throws a jet of 6 cm diameter at a
speed of 30 m/s from the nozzle which is 3m above the water line,
Find the power required to drive the pump. [L.U.]
13. A mass m rests on a smooth plane inclined at « to the horizontal. It is
connected by a light inextensible string, parallel to a line of greatest
slope, which passes over a smooth pulley at the top of the plane and
carries a mass M hanging vertically. Find the velocity of the particle
when it has moved a distance c from rest up the plane, assuming
M> msin«.
14. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the middle, and masses of 2 kg to the ends
of a light inextensible string which is placed over two smooth pegs 4 m
apart at the same level, the 3 kg mass being mid-way between the pegs.
If the system is released, find how far the 3 kg mass descends before
coming instantaneously to rest.
Lee A uniform heavy chain of length 3a is placed over a smooth peg with
lengths 2a and a hanging vertically and released from rest. Write
down the kinetic and potential energies of the chain in terms of the
velocity v and the length x of the longer section, and prove that
au* = $2 (x? — 3ax + 22°). [O.C.]

Exercises 18 (d)

A train weighing 3 x 10° kg is travelling at 80 km/h and the frictional

resistances to motion are 0-01 kgf/kg. The train slips a carriage weighing
10* kg. How far will the carriage go before coming to rest and what
will then be the velocity of the train if the resistance to motion is
unaltered?
An engine exerting a constant tractive force is pulling seven 10,000 kg
trucks and giving them an acceleration of 3 cm/s? on the level the
resistances being 0-008 kgf/kg. If one truck is uncoupled and the engine
exerts the same tractive force, show that the acceleration is increased by
60 per cent.
A lorry travelling on the level at 30 km/h can be stopped by its brakes
in 16m. Find the speed from which it can be brought to rest in the
same distance when descending a hill whose angle of slope is sin~* (1/15).
A plumb-line in a ship is seen to be inclined at an angle of 1° 30’ to the
vertical. Find the acceleration of the ship in cm/s?.
Find in N per tonne the force exerted by the brakes of a train travelling
at 90 km/h, which will bring it to rest in 1 km, and find the time during
which the brakes act. [O.C.]

The diameter of the low-pressure cylinder of a marine engine is 1-1 m,

the average speed of the piston is 250 m/min and the average pressure
of the steam on the piston is 22 x 10‘ N/m?. What is the indicated
power of the engine? [L.U,]
482 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Aman with his bicycle has mass 100 kg. He begins to ascend an incline
of 1 in 10 at a speed of 25 km/h and with uniform retardation. He
has to dismount when his speed is not greater than 5 km/h. If he works
at an average rate of 0-15 kW, how far will he ascend? How far
would he have ascended if he had not worked at all ? [L.U]
A light inextensible string has one end attached to the under-side of the
edge of a smooth table. It passes through a small smooth ring of
weight W and has its other end attached to a weight W’ on the table.
If the system is held with the string taut and then released, prove that W’
will move with acceleration 2Wg/(W + 4W’). [O.C.]
A particle held at rest on a smooth table is attached by a light inexten-
sible string to a second particle of the same mass which hangs over the
edge of the table, the string being taut and at right angles to the edge.
If the particle on the table is released, find its acceleration. [0.C.]
10. Two particles of masses 3 kg and 5 kg respectively are connected by a
light inextensible string. The 3 kg particle lies on a plane inclined at
30° to the horizontal, the coefficient of friction between the particle and
plane being 4. The string lies parallel to a line of greatest slope and
passes over a pulley at the top so that the 5 kg mass hangs vertically.
Find the tension in the string when the system is released and the velo-
city after half a second. If the string then breaks, find the distance the
3 kg mass travels up the plane before stopping.
aT. Bodies P and R of masses 3 kg and 1 kg respectively lie on a smooth
table joined by a light string which passes through two holes in the table
and supports a light pulley Q which carries a load of 6kg. The hanging
parts of the string are vertical. Prove that the magnitudes of the
initial accelerations of P, Q, R are in the ratio 1:2:3. Find the velocities
acquired by P, Q, R in the first t seconds of the motion and verify the
energy equation at this instant. [L.U.]
12, A particle of mass 6 kg lies on a rough horizontal table, and a taut string
from the particle passes over a smooth pulley at the edge of the table
and carries a mass of 10 kg which hangs freely. If the system starts from
rest and each particle has acceleration 4 m/s?, find the coefficient of
friction. [L.U.]
13. A railway carriage runs down an incline of 1 in 250 and at the foot runs
along the level. Find how far it will run on the level if its speed was
constant at 20 km/h on the incline and the resistance is unchanged
on the level. [L.U.]
14. A man carrying a bag which has a mass of 30 kg steps into a lift. The lift
moves upwards a certain distance with constant acceleration and then
comes to rest under its own weight after travelling altogether a distance
of 30 m. If the man can only exert a force of 50 kgf, find the shortest
time in which the ascent can be made if he holds the bag all the time.
[L.U.]
 EXERCISES 483
15. The resistance to a train of 220 tons is 12 Ibf per ton. On the level it
acquires a speed of 45 mile/h from rest in 5 min. Find the least h.p. of
the engine, assuming that the pull of the engine is constant. With this
h.p. find the maximum speed of the train up a slope of sin (1/150).
[L.U.]
16. A car of mass 2500 kg is accelerating at 1 m/s? up an incline of 1 in 50,
the resistance being 30g N. Find the power exerted when the speed is
20 km/h. [L.U.]
Lie A mass of 10 kg is drawn up a slope of 1 in 96 against a resistance of
75g N. If 30kW is used, find the greatest speed that the mass can
have. [L.U.]
18. A train is running at 45 km/h when it is at a distance of 0-5 km from a
station. Steam is then shut off and the train runs against a uniform
resistance equal to 1/100 of the weight of the train. If the uniform brake
force which can be exerted is equal to 1/10 of the weight of the train,
find how far from the station the brake must be applied so that the train
may stop there. EAS
19. A car has mass 1500 kg and the greatest driving force that can be
exerted on it is 100 kgf. The resistance due to friction is 26 + v?/128 kgf,
where v is the speed in km/h. Calculate the greatest speed at which it
can be driven up a slope of 1 in 40, and the power developed when
running at a steady speed of 80 km/h on the level. {L.U,]

20. A car has a maximum speed of 100 km/h on the level and the engine is
then working at 65h.p. Calculate the total resistance to motion. If
the mass of the car is 1000 kg and the tractive force remains unaltered,
and the resistance varies as the square of the speed, find the greatest
slope up which a speed of 80 km/h could be maintained. [EeUet

AA The total mass of a train is 600 tonnes. Find the greatest power the
engine can develop on the level if the greatest speed is then 80 km/h
and the resistances to motion are 5 kgf/tonne. Find also the maximum
speed v km/h attainable up a slope of | in 80 if the horse-power then
developed is the horse-power on the level multiplied by (1 — 0/32).
[L.U.]
pee A train travelling uniformly on the level at 60 mile/h begins an ascent
of 1 in 50. The tractive force due to adhesion has a maximum value of
3 tonf, the resistances are 30 cwt and the weight of the whole train is
200 tons. Show that it cannot surmount the incline if this exceeds
11/6 miles in length, and find the horse-power exerted by the engine,
(i) just before beginning the ascent, (ii) just after. [L.U.]

23. A 10 ton tram-car arrives at the foot of an incline of 1 in 15 at a speed

of 15 mile/h and commences to climb with a constant tractive effort of
1 tonf, the frictional resistance being 16 lbf/ton. Find the speed of the
car and the effective horse-power after 30 seconds. Calculate also the
work done by the motors during this time. {L.U.]
484 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
24, A body slides down a rough plane (u = 4) adistance of 100 m, the inclin-
ation of the plane being 28°. It then runs over a short curved piece and
up an equally rough plane inclined at 35° to the horizontal. Find how
far it runs up this plane.
25. Three equal weights are attached to the middle and ends of a light cord
which is placed over two smooth pulleys at the same level so that the
central weight hangs symmetrically between the pulleys and the others
hang vertically. If the central weight is pulled down until its connecting
cord makes angles of 50° with the horizontal and then let go, find what
the angles will be when the weights next come to momentary rest.
[L.U.]
 CHAPTER 19

IMPULSE; IMPACT; UNITS

19.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we have discussed the application of Newton’s
laws to bodies for finite intervals of time. We shall now consider the
application of these laws to what is called impulsive motion in which a
large force acts for a very brief time interval. In such cases measure-
ment of the magnitude of the force acting on the body is often impos-
sible, but it is generally possible to measure the resulting change in the
momentum of the body. This leads to the enunciation of the impor-
tant principle of conservation of linear momentum which has many
practical applications.
A full discussion of the behaviour of two bodies which collide
requires a knowledge of the elasticity of the bodies and of the extent
to which their shapes are altered during the collision. However, a
simple approximate solution gives the resulting change in the relative
motion of the bodies in terms of a coefficient of restitution, and we
shall see how this can be applied to the impact of a body with a fixed
surface and to the direct impact of two spheres.
In the final section of this chapter a table is given of the quantities
used in dynamics and of the units in which these quantities are usually
expressed, and rules are given for changing from one system of units to
another.

19.2 Impulse and momentum

If a constant force F acts on a particle of mass m for time t, and in that
time increases its velocity from wu to v along the line of action of the
force, we have

F = ma,

v=u-+t at,

so that
Ft = mat = mv — mu,

= change of momentum. (19.1)

485
486 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If the force F is of variable magnitude,

= mv — mu,
= change of momentum. (19.2)
These formulae give the change of momentum for all values of ¢ for
which the force F is defined and apply to the motion of a rigid body, in
which case F is the external force acting on the body.
The quantity {F dt, or Ft if F is constant, is called the impulse acting
on the particle or body. An impulse is a product of force and time and
is therefore measured in newton-seconds or in kgf-seconds, or in corre-
sponding British units. The momentum is measured in the same units
as impulse and, with m in kg and v in m/s, the momentum is mv
newton-seconds. If F, is a force measured in kgf, Fig = ma and
F,gt = mv — mu
so that
m m
tie -
Fyjt=—-v——u. (19.3)
19.3

In this form the impulse is in kgf seconds and the momentum is also
in kgf seconds. It is convenient to write w for m in this equation as a
reminder that gravitational units are being used and to write
w w
sphens= Z
Ft=-v——-u. (19.4)
19.4

The concept of an impulse is particularly useful when dealing with a

large force acting for a very short time, as in the case of a bat striking
a ball, a hammer hitting a nail or a charge of ammunition giving velo-
city to a bullet or shell. In these cases it is usually impossible to obtain
accurate measurements of the magnitude of the force or its duration,
but the magnitude of the impulse can be found by measuring the
change of momentum.
Since velocity is a vector quantity momentum is also a vector
quantity with a definite direction, and impulse, being equal to change
of momentum is also a vector quantity.
19.3 Collision of particles
If two particles moving in a straight line collide, there is a brief period
of contact. During this period each particle exerts on the other a
 COLLISION OF PARTICLES 487
certain force, which may vary in magnitude. At any instant the forces
exerted by each particle on the other are, by Newton’s third law, equal
and opposite. Therefore, the impulses exerted by each particle on the
other during the period of contact are equal and opposite.
It follows that the momentum imparted to one particle is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to that imparted to the other.
Hence, the total momentum gained by the two particles is zero.
Let m,, m, be the masses of the particles, u,, uv, their velocities before
collision and »,, v2 their velocities afterwards, all velocities being
measured in the same direction in the same sense. Let J be the impulse
on m, measured in the same sense, so that —J is the impulse on mg in
the same sense. Then
[= mv, — mn,
— I= my, — mu,
so that
MV, — MU, + Mgv2 — My, = 0,
that is
MV, + Mv, = MU, + Mylo. (19.5)
This equation states that the total momentum in a given direction is
the same after the collision as it was before the collision.
This leads to the principle of conservation of linear momentum,
which states that the total momentum measured in any direction of a
system of particles is unaltered by mutual collisions between the particles.
This applies to the linear motion of rigid bodies during collision, the
line of impact being perpendicular to their plane of contact during the
collision. The time of contact is usually assumed to be small, so small
that the effect of other forces, such as the force of gravity, which may be
acting on the body during the collision can be neglected.
During a collision of two bodies there is always some deformation of
their shape. This deformation usually causes the generation of heat,
which is a form of energy, and this energy may be lost to the system.
It is to be expected then that there will always be a loss of kinetic
energy in a collision, and the principle of conservation of energy will
not apply.
Example 1. A railway truck of mass 8000 kg running at 6 km/h is overtaken by a
truck of mass 12,000 kg running at 10 km/h, After impact the trucks begin to
separate at 1 km/h. Find the speed of the trucks after impact and the loss of
kinetic energy in the impact.
Let v km/h be the speed of the heavier truck after impact, then the speed of the
lighter truck will be v + 1 km/h. The total momentum after impact will be the
same as that before and, since no other quantities are involved, we may write
the momentum with the mass in thousands of kilogrammes and the velocity in
kilometres per hour, giving
120 + 8( + 1) = 12 x 10+ 8 x 6,
488 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

so that
v = 8 km/h,
o +1 =9 km/h.
The loss of kinetic energy is

12 xx 103(10? — 8%) +4 x 8 x 1096? — 9%)} ba

(% x 12 3600 ie
10°
= 36 x 36 (6 x 18 x 2) —(4 x 15 x 3)}

= 2-78 x 10° joule.

Example 2. A shell weighing 12 kg is fired with velocity 800 m/s from a gun barrel
weighing 800 kg. Find the impulse caused by the explosion and the velocity of
recoil of the barrel, assuming the recoil to be free. If this recoil is taken up by a
buffer on the gun carriage which is fixed and the buffer exerts a constant force
which brings the barrel to rest in a distance of 45 cm, find this force and also the
time of recoil.
The forward momentum given to the shell is
12 x 800 = 9600 newton second,
and this is the magnitude of the impulse. Let V m/s be the velocity of recoil of
the barrel. Equating the backward momentum of the barrel to the forward
momentum of the shell we have
800V = 9600,
so that
V=12 m/s.
Let F newton be the thrust of the buffer. This force destroys the kinetic energy
of the barrel in a distance of 0:45 m, so that the work equation gives

F x 0-45 = 5X800 x 122

F = 128 kN.
If the momentum of the barrel is destroyed in ¢ seconds, we have
F xX t = 800 x 12,
m= 9600 3
= 728 000 = 49Sonds.

Example 3. A bullet of mass 30 g is fired horizontally into a small block of wood o

mass 8 kg which is suspended by a string 2 m long. The bullet remains embedded
in the wood and the block rises until the string makes an angle of 30° with the
vertical. Find the velocity of the bullet.
This is an example of a ballistic pendulum such as were at one time used to find
the velocities of bullets and shells. Let V m/s be the velocity of the bullet before
 COLLISION OF PARTICLES 489
impact and v m/s the velocity of the bullet and block after impact. The mo-
mentum equation gives
30 x V = 8030 x »,
so that

Thus the velocity to be measured, that of the block, is considerably smaller than
that of the bullet before impact. When the string turns through 30° the block
rises a height (2 — 2 cos 30°) m, and the work done against gravity is
8-03 x 2(1 — cos 30°) = 2-152 m kgf.
The kinetic energy of the block has been destroyed by this work, so that
1 (3 & 5
5 X 8-03 303 = 2-152 x 9-81,

giving
V? = 2-152 x 2 x 109 x 803,
V = 614 m/s.

Example 4. Two particles, A and B, each of mass 4 kg, are joined by a light inextensible
string of length 2-5 m and are placed on a smooth horizontal table 1-5 m apart.
A is projected along the table at right-angles to the line AB with velocity 10 mls.
Show that when the string tightens B begins to move with velocity 4 m/s. Find
the loss of kinetic energy of the system when the string is taut. [L.U.]
B ro. A

2:5 ra

Fic. 194

Let A’ be the position of the particle A when the string becomes taut (Fig. 194).
Then since BA’ = 2-5 m, BA = 1:-5m and BAC isa right-angle, AA-=)2\m:
and the angle 4A’B =6 where sin 0 = %, cos @ = %. A’s velocity of 10 m/s
has components
10 cos 6 = 8 m/s, along BA’,
10 sin 6 = 6 m/s, perpendicular to BA’.
The string has an impulsive tension along BA’ which brings B into motion along
this line, and, if v m/s is the common velocity of the particles in this direction, we
have from the momentum equation
4+40=4 x 8,
so that
vo=4m/s.
490 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
The velocity of A in the direction perpendicular to the line of the impulse is
unchanged, therefore the kinetic energy of the system becomes

7x4 x 4845 x 4(42 + 6%) = 136 J.

The kinetic energy initially was

5x 4 x 10" = 2003,

The loss of kinetic energy is therefore 64 J.

Example 5. An inelastic pile weighing W kg is driven a metres into the ground by a

hammer weighing w kg falling h metres before hitting the pile. Show that the
resistance of the ground, supposed uniform, is W + w + wh|{(W + w)a} kef.
[L.U.]
The hammer falling A m acquires a velocity »/(2gh) m/s, and after impact with
the pile the common velocity of the hammer and pile is V m/s, where
(W + w)V = wv (2gh).
The kinetic energy of the hammer and pile is therefore
(W+ ¥) yao re. 2ghw*
2g 2g (W+w
wh
“W+w
This kinetic energy is destroyed in a distance a by the resistance of the ground
R kgf less the weight W + w, so that
wh
R-W—-wa= pT,

and
wh
Re WX Yt Or iw)

19.4 Impact of water jets

If a jet of water is played on a fixed surface at right angles to the jet,
the momentum of a certain quantity of water is destroyed in each
second, and the destroyed momentum is a measure of the impulse on
the surface. Now the duration of the impulse is one second, therefore
we can find the average thrust on the surface during that second.

Example 6. Water issues from a circular pipe 6 cm in diameter with a velocity of

1‘ss and strikes a fixed plane at right angles. Find the thrust of the water on
the plane.
The volume of water discharged per second is 1500 x 92 cm® and the mass
discharged per second is 13,5007 g. The momentum of this mass is
13-577 x 15 newton seconds,
 IMPACT OF WATER JETS 491
This momentum is destroyed by a force F newton in 1 second and
FX1=13'57 x 15,
so that
F = 636 newton.
This is therefore the magnitude of the equal and opposite thrust of the water on
the surface.

Exercises 19 (a)

A bullet of mass m moving horizontally with speed u strikes a small

block of mass M lying at rest on a smooth horizontal plane. If the bullet
becomes embedded in the block, find (a) the impulse on the block,
(6) the loss of kinetic energy at impact. [L.U.]

A pile-driver of mass 240 kg falls through 2 m from rest on to a pile of

mass 800 kg which is driven 10 cm into the ground by the blow. The
pile-driver rebounds through a height of 2 cm. Calculate the resistance
offered by the ground to the motion of the pile. [L.U.]
A particle of mass m is attached to one end of a string of length 2/ the
other end being attached to a fixed point P. The particle falls from rest
at A on the same level as P. If AP = +/3/, show that the impulse on the
string when it tightens is $7+/(2g/) and find the inclination of the string
to the vertical when it first comes to rest. {L.U.]

A truck of mass 6000 kg, travelling on a straight level track at 6 m/s,

overtakes a truck of mass 4000 kg travelling in the same direction at
1 m/s; at the moment of impact they are automatically coupled together
and they then travel 105 m before coming to rest. Find the resistance
(assumed uniform) in kilogrammes force.
A shell weighing 60 kg is fired from a piece weighing 1500 kg with
velocity 500 m/s. Find the impulse of the explosion and the velocity of
recoil (assuming the recoil to be free) at the instant when the shell leaves
the muzzle. If the recoil is taken up by a constant force in a distance of
1 m, find this force and the time of recoil.
A and B are two particles of mass 4 kg and 8 kg respectively, lying in
contact on a smooth horizontal table and connected by a string 1 m
long. B is more than 1 m from the edge of the table and is connected
by a taut string passing over the edge to a particle C of mass 4kg
hanging vertically. If the system is released from rest, find the speed
with which A begins to move. {L.U.]

Two trucks, of mass respectively 5 tonnes and 3 tonnes, are on the same
level set of rails. If the heavier truck impinges on the lighter, which is at
rest, with a speed of 5 m/s, and the velocity of the lighter relative to the
heavier after they separate is 3 m/s, find the actual speeds of the trucks
and the kinetic energy lost by the impact. [0.C.]
492 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A truck of mass 5000 kg is moving on level rails at 5 m/s and impinges

on a second truck of mass 10,000 kg which is at rest. After impact, the
second truck moves on at the rate of 2 m/s. Find the speed of the first
truck and the number of joules of kinetic energy lost by the impact.
A railway truck of 12,000 kg strikes at 6 m/s a truck of mass 2000 kg
which is at rest against a buffer in a fixed frame. The buffer is in the form
of a spring of natural length 1m. The two trucks are brought instan-
taneously to rest when the spring is compressed to 50cm. Find the
force that would hold the buffer compressed by 25 cm. [L.U.]

10. A train of trucks is being started from rest and, just before the last
coupling becomes taut, the front part has acquired a speed of 15 km/h.
If the front part has mass 72,000 kg and the last truck has mass 6000 kg,
find the jerk in the coupling in kgf-sec units. [L.U.]
11. A wooden ball of mass 250 g is moving horizontally at 10 m/s at a
height of 50 m above the ground when it is struck centrally by a bullet of
mass 20 g moving vertically upwards at 500 m/s. If the bullet emerges
vertically with its speed halved, find the magnitude and direction of the
velocity of the ball after impact and the time before it reaches the ground,
assuming the penetration to be instantaneous. [20
12. If a gun of mass M fires horizontally a shot of mass m, find the ratio of the
energy of recoil of the gun to that of the shot. If a 500 kg gun discharges
a 25 kg shot with a velocity of 400 m/s, find the uniform resistance
necessary to stop the recoil in 15 cm. [L.U.]
13. Water issues from a circular pipe of 6 cm diameter at 5 m/s; find the
mass of water discharged per minute. If the water impinges directly
on a plane and its momentum is thereby wholly destroyed, what is the
pressure of the jet on the plane? [L.U.]
14. Waves are striking against a vertical sea-wall with a speed of 50 ft/s.
Taking a cubic foot of sea-water to weigh 64 lb, show that the pressure
on the wall due to the destruction of the momentum of the waves is,
very approximately, 34-7 Ibf/in?. [O.C.]
15. A 2000 kg mass is raised 3 m above the top of a pile of mass 1000 kg.
It is let fall and drives the pile 10 cm into the ground, the weight re-
maining on top of the pile. Assuming the resistance of the ground to be
uniform, find its resistance in kgf and the time in seconds during which
the pile moves. What is the loss of kinetic energy in the impact? [L.U.]
19.5 Coefficient of restitution
When a body strikes a hard fixed surface there is an instant during
the impact when the momentum of the body has been destroyed, and
at this instant the body has its maximum deformation. After this
instant the body begins to regain its shape and some momentum in the
reverse direction. There is, therefore, firstly an impulse that destroys
momentum and secondly an impulse that restores momentum.
 IMPACT OF A SPHERRB 493
The ratio of the two impulses, that is the ratio of the momentum
after impact to the momentum before impact is called the coefficient
of restitution (or elasticity) and denoted by e. Thus, the mass of the body
being unaltered, if we measure the velocities before and after impact
in the same direction, we have
velocity after impact
velocity before impact (19.6)
If e = 0 the body is said to be inelastic, if e = 1 it is perfectly elastic in
the impact with the given surface.
The theory is most easily applicable to the impact of spheres on
smooth surfaces or on each other, so that the impulse during com-
pression and restitution is normal to the surface or to the common
tangent plane of the spheres. The theory has its origin in experimental
work carried out by Newton, which led him to formulate the law of
impact of spheres, namely, the relative velocity of the spheres along the
line of impact immediately after impact is —e times the relative velocity
before impact. This theory gives fairly consistent results for hard
bodies at low velocities, but it is not easy to find a value of e which
does not vary with the velocity of impact. The treatment of this problem
in modern work on impact is considerably more complicated.
19.6 Impact of a sphere on a smooth fixed surface
The impact is said to be direct when the motion is normal to the
surface, indirect when it is not. For direct impact, if u is the velocity
before impact, e the coefficient of restitution and v the velocity after
impact, both velocities being measured in the same direction we have
v= —eu. (19.7)
Thus, for example, if a sphere falls from a height / on to a fixed hori-
zontal plane, the velocity before impact is
u = +/(2gh).
Therefore, the velocity, measured upwards, after impact is
v = e/(2gh).
This velocity is destroyed by gravity when the sphere has risen to a
height A’ given by v? = 2gh’, so that
2gh' = 2ghe*,
h’ = eh,
and
e= V(h'|h).
494 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Thus the value of e may be found experimentally by measuring the

height of rebound.
If the impact of the sphere on the surface is indirect, let u be the
velocity before impact in a direction inclined at an angle « to the surface
and let v be the velocity after impact in a direction inclined at an angle
f to the surface (Fig. 195). Since the impulse is along the normal to the

Fic. 195

surface, there is no change in the component of velocity parallel to

the surface. Therefore
ucos a = vcos B. (19.8)
The components of velocity normal to the surface before and after
impact are u sin « and v sin # in opposite directions, therefore
vsin B = eu sin a. (19.9)
From equations (19.8) and (19.9)
v? = u*(cos? « + e? sin? «),
and
tan B = e tana.
The loss of kinetic energy due to the impact, if the mass of the sphere
be m,
= dm? — 0%)
= $m(u? — u? cos? « — eu? sin? «)
= $mu*(1 — e?) sin? «.
Thus, there is always a loss of kinetic energy unless e = 1.
Example 7. A ball dropped to the ground from a height of 10 m rebounds to a height
of 8m. Find the height to which it rebounds after ask impact and the ek
between the second and third impacts. [0.C.]
As seen in § 19.6, the velocity acquired in falling from a height h is / (2gh).
Similarly, the velocity required to rise to a height h’ is //(2gh’). Therefore, if
e is the coefficient of restitution ;
V 2gh’) = ev/(2gh),
 DIRECT IMPACT OF SPHERES 495
giving e* = h’/h = 8/10. If h” is the height to which it rebounds after the second
impact, we have in the same way,
h* 8
anes
whence, since h’ = 8, kh” = 64m. The time to fall to the ground from height
6:4 m is given by 6:4 = 377, so that

giving t = 1-14 seconds, The time between the second and third impacts is
twice this time, that is 2:28 seconds.

Example 8. A small ball is projected horizontally with velocity 10 m/s from a point
above a smooth horizontal plane. It strikes the plane at a point A, rebounds and
strikes the plane again at a point B, 3 seconds after the instant of projection.
If AB = 10 m, find the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the plane.
[L.U.]
Let the ball be projected from a point at a height h m above a point O of the
plane. The horizontal velocity remains unchanged throughout at 10 m/s, and
hence B is 30 m from O. It follows that A is 20 m from O and that the time to
A is 2 seconds. The distance fallen in 2 seconds from rest under gravity is given
by the formula h = $gt*, and hence h = 19°62 m. The vertical velocity acquired
in falling is given by the formula v? = 2gh, and is 19-62 m/s. After the impact
at A the ball rises for 4 second and the velocity u with which it starts to rise is
given by the formula v = u — gt with v = 0, so that the velocity u is 4-905 m/s.
Therefore the coefficient of restitution is

19.7 Direct impact of spheres

Let two spheres, assumed to be of equal radii so that their common
tangent plane at contact is vertical, have masses m, and m,. Let u, and
us be their respective velocities before impact and v, and v, their veloci-
ties after impact, all velocities being along the same line and measured
m Me

Gen Grr
my me

Fic. 196

in the same direction. Fig. 196 shows the spheres and their velocities
before impact and after impact. Two equations are needed to deter-
mine v, and v, when u, and u, are known. The first of these is derived
from the fact that the total momentum before impact is the same as
that after impact, that is
My,V; + MzVo = mW, aa Mpg. (19. 10)
496 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The second equation is given by equating the relative velocity v; — v,

after impact to —e times the relative velocity u, — u, before impact,
that is
V1 — Ve = — (Uy — Uy). (19.11)
Multiplying equation (19.11) by m, and adding to (19.10) we have
(m, + me)v, = (m, — em,)u, + m1 + €)ug,
and similarly
(m, + mg). = m(1 + e)uy + (mz — emmy)uy.
19.8 Loss of kinetic energy
The velocity V of the centre of gravity of the two spheres before im-
pact is given by
V= My + Mgly
m, + Me
and equation (19.10) shows that this velocity is unchanged by the
impact.
The kinetic energy of the two spheres before impact is
1
gm? + 3mu? = 2m, + my) {m Pu? + mz2u? + mym,(u,? + up”)}

1
= 2(m, + mz) {(myuy, + Moy)” + mym,(u, — Us)?}

ba (my re ms)V
Sad + ct a
2m, em Mg) (4
winnaar
Us) ©

Similarly, the kinetic energy of the two spheres after impact is

mM,
amv? + $mgvy? = $m, + Mmy)V? +
2m,
+ma) — 9
Hence, the loss of kinetic energy in the impact is

ie (CA — ty)? — (v, — V2)",

and, using (19.11), this loss is

mM,
20m, Ln ee (19.12)
It follows that there is always a loss of kinetic energy if e < 1.
 LOSS OF KINETIC ENERGY 497
Example 9. Three smooth spheres A, B and C of equal radii, but of masses m, 2m and
3m respectively, lie at rest in a straight line on a smooth horizontal table. A is
Projected with speed u so as to impinge directly on B, which subsequently impinges
on C. Find the value of the coefficient of restitution ifA is brought to rest by its
impact with B and, assuming that this coefficient is the same for the second impact,
find the final speeds of B and C. Find also the loss of kinetic energy. [L.U.]
Fig. 197 shows the velocities of A and B before and after the first impact. The
momentum equation is
mu
= 2mv,
so that

OnmOne
@-+0 O-» Fic. 197

The relative velocity of A with respect to B is u before impact and —v = —}u

after impact. Therefore

and
e=}.
Fig. 198 shows the velocities of B and C before and after the second impact.
The momentum equation is
2mv, + 3mv, = mu,

Got +0

(8)—>u (C}->ve
Fic. 198

and the restitution equation is

Vy — 0g = —4F(hu).
From these equations », = u/20, vg = 3u/10, and these are the final speeds of
Band C. The final kinetic energy is

0m (4)* + 3m ()* =
Since the initial kinetic energy was $v’, the loss is 29nu*/80.
498 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 10. A particle A, of mass 2m, moving with a velocity u impinges directly
on a stationary particle B, of mass m, placed at a distance d from a wall which
is at right angles to the direction of motion of A. After B rebounds from the wall
a second impact occurs between A and B, T seconds after the first impact. Prove
that, if the coefficient of restitution between A and B is 4 and between B and the
wall is e, then Tu(1 + 2e) = 2d(1 + e). [O:Ga4
Fig. 199 shows the velocities of the particles before and after the first impact.
The momentum equation gives
2mv, + mvg = 2mu.
The restitution equation gives
Dy — Vg = —F(U).

em m
(au (8)}—+0

Fic. 199

Solving these equations we find that v, = 4u, v, =u. The particle B will hit
the wall in time d/u and after impact with the wall its velocity will be eu in the
reverse direction. The distance moved by the particles from their initial position
after time T(> d/u) will be respectively
d
4uT = and d—eu (r-£).

If the particles are together after time T we have

d
wr =d—eu(r—*),

giving Tu(1 + 2e) = 2d(1 + e).

Example 11. Two light inextensible strings OA and OB, each of length a, have one
end of each attached to a fixed point O. Particles of mass 2m and mare attached to
the strings at A and B respectively and are held so that AOB is a horizontal line of
length 2a. The particles are released simultaneously from rest. If the coefficient
of restitution is , show that the heavier particle is brought to rest by the first
impact. Calculate the loss of kinetic energy caused by this impact. [L.U.]
If a particle swings at the end of a string attached to a fixed point, at the lowest
point of the swing it will be moving horizontally and the kinetic energy at this
point will be equal to the work done by gravity as it falls from its initial position.
The pull of the string, being always at right angles to the direction of motion,
will do no work. In this case, the work done on the lighter particle as it falls to
its lowest point is mga and if its velocity there is v we have
$mv* = mga,
and hence
v = /(2ga).
 LOSS OF KINETIC ENERGY 499
It is easily seen that the velocity of the heavier particle at this point is also v,
but in the opposite direction. The velocities before and after impact are shown in
Fig. 200. The equations of momentum and restitution are
2mv, + mv, = mv
vy — Vg = —}3(20).
From these equations we find that », = 0,v, =v = Vf (2ga). The loss of kinetic
energy is
3(2m)v? + gmv* — 4mv* = mv* = 2mga.

ott
Fic. 200

Exercises 19 (b)

A marble dropped on a stone floor from a height of 3 m is found to

rebound to a height of 25m. Find the coefficient of restitution to the
nearest hundredth. [L.U.]
A particle is dropped from a height of 4 m on to an elastic horizontal
plane and just before the third impact with the plane it has described a
total distance of 6°5 m. Calculate the coefficient of restitution. [L.U.]
If sheets of paper are placed on a table, the coefficient of restitution is
reduced by an amount proportional to the thickness of the paper.
When a ball is dropped on the bare table it rises after impact to three-
quarters of the height of fall. When the thickness of paper is 1 cm, it
rises to only one-half of the height of fall. What thickness of paper
is required in order that the rebound shall be one-quarter of the height
of fall? [L.U.]
A billiard ball of mass 200g strikes a smooth cushion when moving at
3 m/s in a direction inclined at 30° to the cushion. If the coefficient of
restitution is 4, find the loss of kinetic energy due to the impact. [L.U.]
Hailstones are observed to strike the surface of a frozen pond when
moving in a direction inclined at 30° to the vertical and to rebound in a
direction inclined at 60° to the vertical. Assuming the contact to be
smooth, calculate the coefficient of restitution. Calculate the speed of
impact if the hailstones rise to a vertical height of 30 cm after ey +i
ice. LNs
A small sphere hangs freely by a light inextensible string from a point
on a smooth vertical plane. It is drawn aside so that the string is taut
and makes an angle of 60° with the plane, and released to strike the
plane at right angles. After impact the sphere rises until the string makes
500 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

an angle of 30° with the plane. Find the coefficient of restitution between
the sphere and the plane. IE.)
A billiard ball of mass m strikes the cushion of a billiard table with
speed V at an angle to the cushion and rebounds on to a perpendicular
cushion. Show that it rebounds off this cushion in a direction opposite
to that in which it started originally. If half the energy is lost after the
two rebounds, show that e = 44/2. After the second rebound the ball
is brought to rest by direct impact on a stationary ball of the same size
but of different weight. If the coefficient of restitution between the balls
is also 44/2, show that the loss of energy in the final impact is
(2 — V/2)mv?/8. [L.U.]
A ball is projected with speed u at elevation « from horizontal ground at
distance a from the foot of a vertical wall. The ball strikes the wall at
right angles at a height b above the ground. Prove that tan « = 2b/a.
If the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the wall is e, show
that the distance between the point of projection and the point at which
the ball strikes the ground is a(1 — e). [Eu]
Two spheres which are travelling at the same speed in opposite direc-
tions collide directly. Immediately after the collision they move in the
same direction with equal momenta. If e = 4, show that the ratio of
the masses of the spheres is (2 + +/3):1. [L.U.]
10. A smooth sphere of mass 1 kg moving at 7 m/s impinges directly on
another smooth sphere of mass 2 kg moving in the same sense at 1 m/s.
If the lighter sphere is brought to rest by the impact, determine the
coefficient of restitution. Find the loss of kinetic energy, due to the
impact. [L.U.]
th. Two spheres of masses 3 kg and 2 kg moving in opposite directions with
velocities of 4 m/s and 1 m/s respectively impinge directly. If e = 4,
find their velocities immediately after impact and calculate the loss of
kinetic energy due to the impact. [L.U.]
12; Three equal smooth spheres A, B, C lie at rest on a horizontal table;
their centres being in a straight line and B lying between A and C. No
two of the spheres are in contact. If A is projected with speed u towards
B, show that, after the second collision, the spheres have speeds
#(1 — e)u, $(1 — e*)u, (1 + e)?u respectively, where e is the coefficient
of restitution between the spheres. [L.U.]
13, A smooth sphere of mass m impinges directly with speed V on another
smooth sphere of equal radius, but of mass 2m, at rest. The motion
takes place on a horizontal plane and e = 4. Show that the velocities
after impact are in the ratio 1:4, After this impact, the heavier sphere
impinges directly on a wall. If the coefficient of restitution between the
sphere and the wall is 4, show that the impulsive action between them
is gmV. [L.U.]
14, Two elastic particles A and B of equal mass rest on a smooth horizontal
floor, the line joining them being at right angles to a vertical elastic wall
which is 13 centimetres from the nearest particle B. The coefficients of
 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS 501
restitution between the particles and between B and the wall are each %.
If A is projected directly towards B, show that the second collision
between the particles takes place 8 centimetres from the wall. Find what
fraction of its original speed A retains after this collision. [L.U.]

19.9 Units and dimensions

The fundamental units used in dynamics are those of length, mass
and time which are denoted by L, M and T respectively and the units
of all quantities used in dynamics are expressible in terms of these
basic units. Thus velocity is a unit of length divided by a unit of time,
that is L/T or LT, and may be in metres per second, miles per hour,
etc. The following table gives the fundamental units of various quanti-
ties used in dynamics and the expression of a quantity in terms of these
units is called its dimensions.
Dimensions
Velocity LT
Acceleration |bg
t=
Force (absolute units) MLT~-?
Force (gravitational units) M
Energy (absolute units) ML?T-?
Energy (gravitational units) ML
Momentum (absolute units) MLT-
Momentum (gravitational units) MT
Power (absolute units) ML?T-*
Power (gravitational units) MLT
Pressure (absolute units) ML-!T-?
Pressure (gravitational units) Miz

To change the units of a quantity the dimensions must be considered.

Thus, since force (in absolute units) has dimensions MLT~ and 1 Ib
= 0-4536 kg, 1 ft = 0-3048 m,
1 poundal (1 Ib)(1 ft)(1 sec)-?
Inewton — (1 kg)(1 m)(I sec)~?
= 0-4536 x 0:3048 = 0-1383
and
1 poundal = 0-1383 newton.
19.10 SI units
In 1960 the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, the inter-
national body which aims at maintaining standards of measurements,
formally approved the use of SI units (Systeme International d’Unités)
and the use of these units is being actively encouraged in this country
and elsewhere. The main features of the system for use in dynamics are:
1. The basic units of length, mass and time are respectively the metre
(symbol m), the kilogramme (symbol kg) and the second (symbol s).
502 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

2. The unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is an absolute

unit giving to a mass of 1 kg an acceleration 1 m/s?.
3. The unit of energy is the joule (symbol J), which is the product of
a newton and a metre, and the unit of power is the watt (symbol W)
which is 1 joule/per second.
4. Some other derived SI units are:
Quantity Dimensions SI units Symbol
area L? square metre m?
volume L* cubic metre m?
density ML-* kg per cubic metre a
velocity LY metre per second m/s
acceleration LT metre per second per second m/s*
angular velocity
T-t radian per second rad/s
pressure ML“T-? newton per square metre N/m*
In this country a complete change from Imperial units to SI units
will have to wait upon the installation of metric machinery and equip-
ment. In the interim period such units as the poundal, the pound per
square inch and the horse-power will continue to be widely used.
19.11 Conversion table to SI units
Length: 1 inch = 0:0254 metre
1 foot = 0-3048 metre
1 mile = 1609-34 metre
1 sea mile = 1853-18 metre
Velocity: 1 foot/sec = 0-3048 metre/second
1 mile/hour = 0-44704 metre/second
1 knot = 0-51477 metre/second
1 km/hour = 0-2778 metre/second
Mass: 1 pound = 0:45359 kilogramme
1 ton = 1016-05 kilogramme
1 tonne = 1000 kilogramme
1 slug = 14-594 kilogramme
Force: 1 poundal = 0-138255 newton
1 Ib force = 4-44822 newton
1 ton force = 9964-013 newton
1 dyne = 10 newton
1 kg force = 98067 newton
Energy, Work: 1 ft pdl, = 0:042140 joule
1 ft lbf = 1:35582 joule
lerg = 107 joule
1metre kgf § = 9-8067 joule
Momentum: 1 pdl sec = 0-138255 newton sec
1 Ibf sec = 4-44822 newton sec
Density: 1 Ib/in® = 27 680 kg/(metre)?
1 Ib/ft® = 16-0185 kg/(metre)*
Pressure: 1 Ibf/in? = 6894-76 newton/(metre)*
1 gmf/cm? = 9806-7 newton/(metre)*
1 millibar = 100 newton/(metre)?
Power: 1 horse-power = 745-70 watt
1 metric h.p.
(cheval vapeur)= 735-48 watt
 EXERCISES 503

The following prefixes are used to denote multiples of standard SI

units:

10! tera ¥ 10-4 dei d

10° giga G 10-2 —s centi_ cc
10° mega M 10-3 milli m
10° kilo k 10-* micro pu
10? hecto h 10-° nano on
10 deca da 1074 “pico ™p
10-5 femto f
10-£ .atto a
Symbols for units do not take a plural form.

Exercises 19 (c)
1. Assuming atmospheric pressure to be 14-7 Ibf/in?, calculate its value in
dyne/cm?*, taking 1 kg = 2:205 1b and 1 in = 2:54cm. Use the same
data to determine the number of ergs in a foot-poundal. (Take
& = 32 ft/s*.) [L.U.]
2. Taking 1kg = 2:2051b, lin=2:54cm, g = 32:2 ft/s’, express a
pressure of one bar (10® dyne/cm?) in lbf/in?. [L.U.]
3. Given that 1 cm = 0-3937 in, and 1 kg = 2-205 lb, find the number of
dynes in a poundal. [L.U.]
4. Ifasecond be the unit of time, the acceleration due to gravity (981 cm/s”)
the unit of acceleration, and a kilogramme the unit of mass, find the
unit of energy in joule. [L.U.]
5. Find the ratio of (a) the momenta, (b) the kinetic energies, of a mass of
8 oz moving at 14 miles a minute, and a mass of 10kg moving at
2 metres per second. (1 lb = 454 g, 1 ft = 30-5 cm.) [L.U.]
6. Ifa force of 1 newton acts on a mass | slug, find the acceleration in
ft/s?.

Exercises 19 (d)
1. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres of a car and the road
surface is 2, find the times in which a car can be brought to rest with all
wheels locked from a speed of (a) 30, (6) 60 km/h. Find the stopping
distance in each case.
2. A ball weighing 125g and moving at 6 m/s is struck by a bat and
rebounds with a velocity of 14 m/s. Find the work done on the ball,
and the average pressure on the bat, assuming the bat and ball to be
in contact for 0-1 seconds. [0.C.]
3. Asmall block of mass M is moving with velocity V when it is struck by a
bullet of mass m moving with velocity v in the same direction. If the
bullet becomes embedded in the block, show that there is a loss of
kinetic energy 4Mm(V— v)?/(M + m), and find the impulse on the
block. [L.U.]
504 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

4, A bullet weighing 25 g, when fired from a gun weighing 20 kg has a

muzzle velocity of 800 m/s. What is the velocity of recoil of the gun
and the total energy of the gun and bullet? If the same bullet were
fired from a gun weighing 10 kg, and if the total energy were the same
as in the previous case, show that the muzzle velocity of the bullet
would be about 0-5 m/s less than before. iL.Us

Prove that if a horizontal jet of water could be made to issue through a

nozzle of 6 cm? orifice at the rate of 6-5 m*/min, it would exert a force
about equal to the weight of 2 tonnes against any obstacle placed in
its path; and find the power required to produce the jet. [L.U.]
An inelastic vertical pile weighing 500 kg is driven 1 m into the ground
by 30 blows of a hammer, weighing 2000 kg, falling through 2m. Show
that the resistance of the ground, supposed uniform, is 9°85 x 10* kgf.
[L.U.]
A billiard table is 6 ft by 8 ft. Find the distance of a point in the shorter
side from a corner and the direction of projection, such that a ball thus
struck off will describe a rectangle and return to the same spot after
rebounding at each of the other three cushions, the ball being smooth
and the coefficient of elasticity being ¢. [L.U.]
Each step of a flight of smooth steps has width a and depth d. A marble
is projected from a point on the highest step with a velocity whose
horizontal and vertical components are u and v respectively. After
time ¢ it rebounds from the next highest step with a velocity whose
vertical component is also v. If e is the coefficient of restitution between
the marble and a step, show that v? = 2gde?/(1 — e”), t = v(1 + e)/ge.
Show that the marble will continue to strike each successive step at the
corresponding place if v? has the above value and if, in addition,
2du*(1 + e) = ga*(1 — e). [L.U.]
Two spheres of masses 60g and 90g are moving in their line of
centres towards each other with velocities of 8 m/s and 10 m/s re-
spectively, and their coefficient of restitution is }. Find their velocities
after impact and the amount of kinetic energy transformed in the
collision. [L.U.]
10. Two smooth equal balls A and B lie on a smooth table, their line of
centres being perpendicular to a smooth vertical wall. The coefficient
of restitution between the balls is }and between a sphere and the wall is
3. If the ball A, farther from the wall, is given a velocity of 16 m/s
towards the centre of B, find the velocities of the balls after their second
impact, and show that there will be no more impacts between the balls.
[O.C.]
ii; Two particles each of mass m and moving in opposite directions with
speeds of 6 m/s and 3 m/s collide directly. Prove that, if e = %, the
kinetic energy of the two particles before impact is twice the kinetic
energy after impact. [O.C.]
 EXERCISES 505
12. Two small beads of masses m and 2m slide on a smooth circular wire of
radius a fixed in a vertical plane. The lighter bead is projected from the
top of the wire whilst the heavier bead is at rest at the bottom. Upon
impact the two beads coalesce and subsequently the combined mass
reaches an extremity of the horizontal diameter of the wire. Find the
speed of projection and the loss of kinetic energy at impact. [Eu

1s. Three spheres A, B and C, of equal radii but of masses m, 2m and km

respectively, lie at rest on a smooth horizontal table with their centres in
a straight line. A is projected with speed u towards B and is brought to
rest by the first impact. Determine the coefficient of restitution between
A and B. The coefficient of restitution between B and Cis 4. Determine
the value of k if C’s speed after this second impact is u/12. Show also
that B collides with A again and determine the final speed of A. [L.U.]

14. Two smooth spheres of equal radii but of masses 2 kg and 5 kg lie ona
smooth horizontal plane. The lighter sphere is projected on the plane
so as to impinge directly on the other, which is at rest; e = %. After
impact the second sphere strikes a fixed barrier at right angles to its
path, with which its coefficient of restitution is e. Prove that the first
sphere reverses its direction of motion after impact and find the smallest
value of e that will ensure a second impact between the spheres. If
e = 3, find the ratio of the final velocity of the first sphere to its original
velocity. [L.U.]

15. A smooth sphere of mass m moving with speed u impinges directly on

another smooth sphere of mass km moving with speed Au in the same
sense. If the first sphere is brought to rest by the impact, show that the
coefficient of restitution is (1 + kA)/{k(1 — A)}, and deduce that, for
this to be possible, k must be greater than 1. [L.U.]

16. A smooth sphere of mass m, moving with speed u on a smooth hori-

zontal table, impinges directly on an equal sphere of mass M which is
at rest, the coefficient of restitution being e. Prove that the kinetic energy
after impact is 47(m + Me*)u?/(m + M). If half the kinetic energy is
lost, prove that e is not greater than 34/2. [L.U.]

17. Two beads A, B, of equal mass, are threaded on a smooth circular wire
fixed in a horizontal plane. The bead A is projected with speed u
towards the bead B which is at rest. If the coefficient of restitution is e,
find the speeds of the beads after impact, and show that after the second
impact (when B catches up with A) the velocities of A and B are respec-
tively $u(1 + e) and 4u(1 — e”). [L.U.]

18. A sphere of mass m and velocity 2u impinges directly on a sphere of

mass 2m and velocity u, moving in the same direction. Prove that,
whatever the value of the coefficient of restitution e, the second sphere
must have its velocity increased. Find e if the velocity of the sphere of
mass m is halved by the impact. wl
506 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

19. Three balls, A, B, C, of mass 3mm, 2m, 2m, and of equal radii, lie on a
smooth table with their centres in a straight line. The coefficient of
restitution is }; show that if A is projected with velocity V to strike B,
there are three impacts and that the final velocities are (50, 57, 60) .
C.}

20. A, B, C are three exactly similar small spheres at rest in a smooth,

horizontal, straight tube. A is set in motion and impinges on B. Show
that A will impinge on B again after B has impinged on C, and show
that there will be no more impacts if the coefficient of restitution is not
less than 3 — +/8. [0.C.]
21. Two particles of masses 7m, mz lie at rest on a smooth horizontal table
connected by a light flexible inelastic string of length a. Initially the
string is taut and a blow J is given to m, in the direction to make it hit
mg. If the coefficient of restitution is e, find the time that elapses before
the string is again taut and the common velocity of the particles at this
instant. [L.U.]
22. Two particles lie on a smooth horizontal floor between two parallel
vertical walls and on a line perpendicular to the walls. One, of mass
8 kg, lies halfway between the walls and the other, of mass 2 kg, is
projected along the line to strike it directly. The coefficient of restitu-
tion between the particles is }and that between the 8 kg mass and the
wall which it hits is . Calculate the coefficient of restitution between the
2 kg mass and the other wall if the particles again meet halfway between
the walls. [L.U.]
Two small balls A and B, of equal radii and of masses m and 2m respec-
tively, lie at rest on a smooth horizontal table in a line perpendicular to
a vertical wall, B being nearer to the wall than 4; 4 is given a velocity u
so as to impinge directly on B, and after B rebounds from the wall it is
brought to rest on its second impact with A. If the coefficient of restitu-
tion between A and B is }, find the coefficient of restitution between B
and the wall. [0.C.]
A ball, mass 4 0z, is released when at relative rest from a position 6 ft
above the floor of a lift which is descending with a uniform acceleration
of 4 ft/s*. Prove that if the ball rises to the same position after striking
the floor, the impulse on the floor at impact is nearly 9-2 ft-Ib-second
units, and find the times of ascent and descent of the ball relative to the
lift. [0.C.]
25; Three spheres A, B, C, of mass m, 2m, 4m respectively rest on a smooth
table with their centres collinear, B lying between A and C. The coeffi-
cient of restitution between A and B is equal to that between B and C.
A is projected directly towards B with velocity u and C moves with
velocity 3u after it has been struck by B. Prove that A and B are reduced
to rest, and find the coefficient of restitution. [L.Uz]}
 CHAPTER 20

MOTION IN A CIRCLE

20.1 Introduction
We know, from Newton’s first law, that when a body moves in a
straight line with uniform speed it requires no force to keep it going.
This is not so when a body is moving along a curved path at uniform
speed since, although the speed is constant, the direction of motion is
constantly changing, and therefore the velocity is constantly changing.
We shall show that for a particle to move in a circle of radius r with
constant speed v it must have an acceleration of magnitude v?/r towards
the centre of the circle and there must therefore be a force acting on the
particle to give it this acceleration.
There are simple applications of this theory to the conical pendulum
and to governors of steam engines. A very practical application con-
cerns the motion of vehicles on a curve. By considering the curve to be
approximately circular at any point we can find the limiting speeds at
which a vehicle will tend to skid or overturn, and we shall see how the
tendency to skid or overturn can be diminished by suitable banking
of the road.
We shall also consider motion in a circle with variable velocity and
see how the energy equation can be used to determine the speed at any
point when the path is a vertical circle.

20.2 Normal acceleration

Suppose that a particle is moving in a circle of radius r with uniform
speed v. Let O be the centre of the circle and P and Q two points on
the circle such that the angle POQ is 6 (Fig. 201). If PT and QS are
tangents to the circle at P and Q respectively the angle between PT and
QS is also 6. The velocity of the particle at P is of magnitude v and its
direction is along PT; at Q the velocity is also v but its direction is
along QS.

Fic. 201
507
508 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The velocity at Q can be resolved into components v cos 6, parallel

to PT, and v sin 0, perpendicular to PT. Hence, the change in velocity
while the particle moves from P to Q is
vcos 6 — v, parallel to PT,
vsin@, perpendicular to PT.
Since the particle is moving with uniform speed v and the length of the
arc PQ is r0, the time taken from P to Q is rO/v. Hence the average
acceleration of the particle in this time has components
2 ae
= (= —). parallel to PT,

:(=), parallel to PO.

The limiting values of these quantities as 6 tends to zero are the com-
ponents along and perpendicular to the tangent at P of the acceleration
at P. Now

cet ee et ee

and, since the limiting value of sin 46/46 as 6 tends to zero is 1 and the
limiting value of sin $0 is 0, we have
lim ( —_ *)ae
0-0 0
Therefore, the component of acceleration along PT is zero.
The component of acceleration parallel to PO is
tei (“ *) v
= x 60
lim{—-) ==Fr (20.1)
Hence the acceleration at P has magnitude v?/r and is directed towards
the centre of the circle. The acceleration v?/r towards the centre of the
circle is called the centripetal acceleration and the particle can not move
in a circle unless there is a force acting on it to give it this acceleration.
If s is the length of the arc of the circle, measured from P, which
subtends an angle 0 at the centre of the circle, s= r6, where @ is in
radians. Therefore

omar 6. (20.2)
 EFFECTIVE NORMAL FORCE 509
6 is called the angular velocity of the particle about O and is measured
in radians per second. The centripetal acceleration can be written in
terms of the angular velocity, and we have for its value

a = 62, (20.3)

20.3 Effective normal force

The term effective force is used to denote the product of the mass and
the acceleration of a particle. Thus if a particle of mass m has an
acceleration a in a certain direction, we say that it has an effective force
ma in that direction. If F be the resultant of the forces acting on the
particle, F will have the same magnitude and direction as the effective
force ma.
The equation F = ma applies when the force is in absolute units and
hence the effective force ma is in absolute units of force such as newton
or poundals. In gravitational units the effective force is (w/g)a, where
w is written for the mass as a reminder of the units being used.
When a particle of mass m is describing a circle of radius r with
uniform speed 2, its effective force in absolute units is mv*/r towards
the centre of the circle, and this is called the effective normal force.
Thus if the particle is describing the circle on a smooth horizontal table
at the end of a string attached to a point O of the table, the tension T
in the string must equal the effective normal force and we have

mo (20.4)
r

If the circle is described under the action of a number of forces, the

forces acting on the particle and the effective normal force must be
equivalent. It is sometimes useful to show the forces and the effective
normal force on separate diagrams before writing down equations
which state that the resultant of the forces has the same magnitude and
direction as the effective normal force.

Example 1. A particle describes a horizontal circle of radius r at the end of a light

string of length | attached at a point A above the centre O of the circle. Find the
tension in the string and the velocity of the particle.
Fig. 202 shows the forces and the effective normal force acting on the particle
when it is at a point P of the circle. Then, if the angle APO is «, so that
cos a = r/l, we have
T sin « — mg = 0,
mv?
Tcosa = ye
510 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Hence, since sin a = +/(/? — r*)/I, we have

esti: Lame
T= Ter)
and
v? = gr cota,
gr?

“Vea

—_——_———— c

20.4 Reversed effective force

In Example 1 the forces acting on the particle and the effective normal
force are shown on two separate diagrams and the equations of the
motion merely state the equivalence of the forces in the two diagrams.
It is sufficient, however, to draw just one diagram if the effective normal

Fic. 203

force is shown on this diagram as acting in the opposite direction to

that in which it acts. Thus Fig. 203 shows the forces and the reversed
effective force for the problem given in Example 1. Now if we consider
the particle at P as if it were in statical equilibrium under the action
 REVERSED EFFECTIVE FORCE Sil
of the three forces shown in the diagram we have, resolving the forces
horizontally and vertically,
T sin « — mg = 0, (20.5)

T cos « — me =0, (20.6)

leading to the same solution as before. Thus by considering the re-
versed effective force as one of the forces acting on the particle and
balancing these forces the problem of motion in a circle becomes a
statical one.
The reversed effective force which balances the other forces in the
case of uniform motion in a circle is always in a direction away from
the centre of the circle.
Example 2, A mass of 10 kg rests on a rough horizontal table with coefficient of
friction 4. It is attached to one end of a light inextensible string which passes
through a smooth hole in the table and carries a mass of 4 kg hanging vertically.
If the 4-kg mass describes a horizontal circle with a uniform speed of 4 m/s and
the 10-kg mass is then on the point of slipping, find the radius of the circle and the
length of string below the table.

Let r be the radius of the circle and @ the inclination to the horizontal of the
string below the table (Fig. 204). The forces (including the reversed effective
force) acting on the 4-kg mass are 4g, 4v*/r and T, the tension in the string.
Since the 10-kg mass is on the point of slipping T= 5 kgf. Therefore, since
5 kgf is 5g newton, where g = 9°81 m/s’,
Bis 4y% 64
oats APa oa

5g sin6 = 4g,
; 64
so that sin 9 = 4/5 and, since cos 0 = 3/5, r= 3 = 2:18m. The length of
string below the table is r sec @ = 3-63 m.
512 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

20.5 Conical pendulum

An arrangement by which a particle attached by a string to a fixed
point describes a horizontal circle is called a conical pendulum since as
the particle describes the circle the string traces out a cone whose
semi-vertical angle is the inclination of the string to the vertical. The
systems discussed in Examples 1 and 2 are examples of the conical
pendulum. We shall consider further examples in which the particle
is joined to a vertical axis during rotation by more than one string or
by light rods.
If v is the speed with which a circle of radius r is described, the time
of a complete revolution is 27r/v. There will, therefore, be one revo-
lution in v/(2mr) seconds and the number of revolutions per minute
(denoted by r.p.m.) is given by

Example 3. A smooth ring of mass m is threaded on a light inextensible string of

length 1:5 m. The ends of the string are fixed to two points A and B in the same
vertical line 1m apart. The string and the ring are made to revolve about AB
as axis with one part of the string horizontal. Find the tension in the string and
the period of rotation. [L.U.]

Fic. 205

Let the portion CA (Fig. 205) of the string be inclined at an angle « to the
vertical. Then since the angle CBA is a right angle and AB = 1m, BC = tana
and AC = sec «, so that
seca + tana = 1-5,
This equation gives the value of « and is easily solved if it is remembered that
sec? a — tan? « = 1, so that
1 2
sec a — = ———_= -.
Ek seca+tana 3
From these two equations we find
_ 3 tana= 5
SES Taio 12
 CONICAL PENDULUM 513
LetT be the tension in each part of the string, v the speed and r(= tan «) the
radius of the circle. Balancing the forces and the reversed effective force on the
particle we have
T cos « = mg,
T + Tsin « = mv*
cot a,
Hence
13
T = mg sec a = 7 mg,

v* = e(1 + sin «) tan « sec a

4 55 wgl'3
= 9-81 (1+7 x D x me 6°13,

v = 2-48 m/s.

The circumference of the circle is 27 tana = 107/12, so that the period is

(107/12) + 2-48 = 1-06 seconds,

Example 4. A conical pendulum consists of a particle of mass m attached to one end

A of a light elastic string of natural length | and modulus of elasticity mg. The
other end of the string is tied to a fixed point B. The particle describes a horizontal
circle with constant angular velocity w. If the string makes an angle « with the
downward vertical, show that 2lw* = g sec? 4a. If « = 60°, find the time of
revolution of the particle. Gis UE

Fic. 206

Let x be the length of the string when the particle is describing the circle (Fig.
206). Then the tension T in the string is given by

and the radius of the circle is

rome ()
r=xsina,
If v is the velocity and w the angular velocity, v = rw and the effective normal
force is mrw*, Balancing the forces and the reversed effective normal force, we
have
T cos % = mg,
T sin « = mro*,
17—40 pp.
514 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
From the first and third equations we have, on eliminating T,

cosa Pr
= pteEs
mee

whence
x = I(1 + seca). Also rw* = g tan a, so that
(to Sars
Oo =I + sec a) sin «

& E sect dar,

=i + cosa)2/
When « = 60°, sec? 4a = ; Oa E and the time of a revolution is

= /(2}
Exercises 20 (a)
1. An inelastic string of length 2 m is fastened at one end to a fixed point O
two metres above horizontal ground. At its other end is attached a small
bob which describes a horizontal circle in a plane one metre below O.
Show that the angular velocity of the bob is 3-13 radians per second.
If the string snaps, find the distance of the point where the bob strikes
the ground from the vertical through O. [E.U:]

2. A small smooth ring is fixed at height 4 above a smooth horizontal table.

A light inextensible string passes through the ring and carries particles
of masses M and m at its ends. M moves on the table in a circle with
uniform angular velocity w while m hangs at rest above the table. Find
(i) the reaction between M and the table, (ii) the cosine of the angle
between the two parts of the string. Deduce that w? does not exceed the
smaller of g/h and (mg)/(Mh). [L.U.]
3. The ends of a light inelastic string of length 2b are attached to fixed
points A and B, distant 2a apart in a vertical line. A heavy particle is
attached to the string at its middle point and the system rotates about
AB with uniform angular velocity . If aw > g, show that both parts
of the string are in tension and find the ratio of the magnitudes of the
tensions. {L.U.]
4. A particle of mass m connected by a light inextensible string of length /
to a point A, describes with uniform velocity w a horizontal circle whose
centre is vertically below A. If the breaking tension in the string is
4 kgf, the mass of the particle 2 kg and the length of the string 1 m, find
the greatest possible speed with which the particle can describe the
circle. L2U.]
5. Anelastic string of natural length 1 m has one end fixed and to the other
end is tied a small 2-kg mass. This mass rotates uniformly in a hori-
zontal plane, describing a complete circle every second, with the string
stretched to 15m. Find the modulus of elasticity of the string, and
the angle it makes with the vertical. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 515
Four smooth vertical pegs A, B, C, D are fixed in a smooth horizontal
plane at the corners of a square of side a. One end of a light inelastic
string of length 4a is fastened to A and at the other end is attached a
particle of mass m. Initially the particle lies at rest on the table at a
distance 4a from A in DA produced. The particle is given a velocity u
in the direction 4B. Find the time taken by the particle in reaching
A, [L.U.]
AC, of length a, and BC are two light rods hinged at C, the mass of the
hinge being M. The ends A and B are hinged to two points, A being
vertically above B; angle ACB = 90° and angle BAC = 6. If the system
revolves with uniform angular velocity w about AB, prove that both rods
are in tension if aw* cos @ > g. If either rod can withstand a maximum
tension of 5 Mg, find the maximum value of w if a = 14 and 0 = 60°.
[0.C.]
Two equal particles are connected by a string passing through a hole in
a smooth table, one particle being on the table and the other underneath.
How many revolutions per minute would the particle on the table have
to perform in a circle of radius 15 cm, in order to keep the other particle
at rest? 3 [L.U.]

A string 2 m long has its ends attached to points A and B, A being 1m

vertically above B. A small heavy ring C is threaded on the string and
slides on it without friction. If the ring is made to describe a horizontal
circle, find the speed of rotation in revolutions per minute when the
radius of the circle is 75 cm.

10. One end of a light inextensible string is attached to a mass of 7:5 kg

which is at rest on a rough horizontal table, the coefficient of friction
being 4. The string passes through a small hole in the table and sup-
ports at its other end a mass of 2 kg which is revolving in a horizontal
circle of radius 20 cm. Find the number of revolutions made per minute
if the mass on the table is on the point of slipping. [L.U.]

11. - A particle of mass 4 kg is whirled round at the end of a string 50cm long,
so as to describe a horizontal circle, making 60 revolutions per minute;
calculate the tension in the string and prove that the fixed end of the
string is a little less than 25 cm above the centre of the circle. [O.C.]

12. A particle suspended by a fine string from a fixed point describes a circle
uniformly in a horizontal plane. If it makes three complete revolutions
every two seconds, show that its vertical depth below the fixed point is
11 cm approximately. [O.C.]

13, A particle attached to a fixed point by a string 1 m long describes a

circle in a horizontal plane. The string can only support a tension equal
to fifteen times the weight of the particle; show that the greatest
possible number of revolutions per second is just under two.
516 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

14. A particle attached to a fixed point by a light inextensible string de-

scribes a horizontal circle with uniform velocity. If the length of the
string is 7-62 cm, the weight of the particle is 30 g, and it is inclined at
an angle of 60° to the vertical, find the tension in the string and the
number of revolutions per minute that the particle is making.

15. A particle P of mass 6 kg is attached by two strings, PQ and PR, of

lengths 30 cm and 50 cm respectively to points Q and R, of which R is
40 cm vertically above Q. If the particle describes a horizontal circle
with a speed of 4 m/s, both strings being taut, find the tension in each
string. Find the minimum speed of the particle in order that both
strings may be taut. Uae

20.6 Vehicles moving in a circle

When a vehicle is moving in a circle with constant speed the forces
acting on it, including the reversed effective normal force, must balance.
If the forces do not balance the vehicle will overturn or skid.
Let a vehicle of mass M be moving in a horizontal circle whose
centre is O with uniform angular velocity w. The effective normal

Fic. 207

force on a particle of mass m of the vehicle distant x from the vertical

through O, and therefore moving in a circle of radius x, is mxw?. For
the whole body the effective normal force is Xmxw?, and since
umx = Mr where r is the distance of the centre of gravity of the vehicle
from the vertical through O, the total effective normal force is Mrw?.
When a vehicle is said to be moving in a circle of radius r it is to be
understood therefore that its centre of gravity is moving in a circle of
radius r.
To examine the balance of forces on the vehicle we must include the
reversed effective normal force Mrw? acting outwards from O at the
centre of gravity of the vehicle. The forces on the vehicle are (Fig. 207)
its weight Mg, the friction F exerted by the track, the reactions R and
S at the inner and outer wheels and the effective force Mrw®. Let 2a
be the width of the track of the vehicle and h the height of its centre of
 VEHICLES MOVING IN A CIRCLE 517
gravity G, assumed to be mid-way between the wheels. The statical
balance of forces gives
R+S= Mg, (20.7)
F= mro’, (20.8)
and, equating to zero the sum of moments about G,
Sa — Ra = Fh. (20.9)
From these equations we find
1 h
R ea 5M(g Seige3 f@ ),

1 h 2
S=5M(g
—
+2= rot).

The vehicle will skid if the friction between the tyres and the road is
insufficient, that is, since the maximum friction is w(R + S) where u
is the coefficient of friction, if wMg < Mrw®, that is if

giving in terms of the speed v (= rw),

v> V(ugr). (20.10)
The vehicle will be on the point of overturning when the reaction
at the inner wheel vanishes, that is, when R = 0. Overturning will
occur when

or, in terms if the speed v (= rw),

v > V(agr|h). (20.11)
Thus the vehicle will skid at a lower speed than the overturning speed
if
pgr < agr/h,
that is
at
ceded
518 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 5. A car travels in a curve of 60 m radius on a level road. The wheel base is
150 cm and the centre ofgravity is central and 60 cm above the ground. Find the
speed at which the car will begin to overturn and the least coefficient offriction
between the tyres and the ground to prevent slipping at this speed.
R S

Fic. 208

Let v be the speed, M the mass, F the frictional force, R and S the reactions at
the inner and outer wheels (Fig. 208). If R = 0, we have by taking moments
about the bottom of the outer wheels
Mv?
a7 x 60 = Mg x 75,
whence
v? = 9-81 x 75, v = 27:12 m/s = 97-7 km/h.
We have also
Mv? 75
F = G00 = 60 “8
R+S= Mg,
so that a large coefficient of friction of 75/60 = 5/4 would be required to prevent
slipping at this speed.

20.7 Banking
_ A road or railway is usually banked at curves, so that the road-is
inclined downwards in the direction of the centre of the curve, and on
railways the outer track is placed higher than the inner one.
Let « be the inclination of a road towards the centre of the circle that
coincides with the curve (Fig. 209). Let R and S be the reactions at the

Fic. 209
 BANKING 519
inner and outer wheels respectively, F the friction and Mrw? the
reversed effective force, which is horizontal. Also, let 2a be the width
of the track of the vehicle and h the height of the centre of gravity,
before. Resolving parallel to and perpendicular to the road, we
ve
R+S = Mgcos «+ Mra? sin «, (20.12)
F = Mro* cos a — Mg sin a, (20.13)
and, taking moments about the centre of gravity,
Fh = Sa — Ra. (20.14)
These equations determine the values of F, R and S as before.
If F = 0, we have from the second equation,
2
tan « = a (20.15)
and this gives the ideal angle of banking for a speed v (= rw) with no
tendency to skid.
The vehicle begins to overturn if R = 0, and this gives
a(Mg cos « + Mrw? sin «) = h(Mrw* cos « — Mg sin a),
so that
sed raiss l (2+ htan ‘)
h—atane (20.16)
This gives the overturning speed when the angle of banking is «.
Example 6. A circular racing track has an effective diameter of 1 kilometre. The track
is banked so that a car moving round it at 45 km/h has no tendency to side-slip.
Find the tangent of the angle which the track makes with the horizontal. What is
the minimum coefficient offriction between the tyres and the track if the car can
travel at 90 km/h without side-slip ? [L.U.]
As in § 20.7, the ideal angle of bank « is given by
ra?
tana = —:
&
Here, r = 500 m, rw = 12:5 m/s, so that reo* = 0-3125, and
0:3125
i gone 0-0319,
ivin:
a a= 1° 50’.
With the notation of § 20.7, we have
F rw* cosa — gsin «
R+S ro®sin« + gcosa
ro* — g tana
ro tana +¢
520 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

When the speed is 90 km/h = 25 m/s, rw? = 1:25, so that

F 1:25 — 9-81 tana
R+S 1:25tana + 9-81
= 0-095,
and this is the coefficient of friction required.

Exercises 20 (b)

A vehicle whose wheel track is 150 cm wide and whose centre of gravity
is 90 cm above the road and central takes a curve of radius 45 m on a
level road. Find the speed at which the inner wheels would leave the
ground. Show that if the centre of gravity were displaced 40 cm towards
the inner wheels, the overturning speed would be increased by about
24 per cent.
A two-wheeled vehicle has its wheels 165 cm apart and its centre of
gravity at a height of 120 cm. If it is travelling round a curve of 100 m
radius on a level road at 45 km/h, find the ratio of the normal reactions
on the wheels.

A car is moving round a curve of 20 m radius on a level road. If the

outer wheels do not slip, find the speed at which the inner wheels will
leave the ground. Assume the centre of gravity of the car is 60 cm from
the ground and that the width of the wheel base is 135 cm. [L023

A railway carriage, of mass 20,000 kg, moves round a curve of radius

240 m with a speed of 36 km/h. The distance between the rails is 140 cm,
and the outer rail is raised at such a height above the inner that there is
no thrust on the flanges of the wheels. Calculate this height and find
the thrust on the flanges when the speed is increased to 54 km/h. [L.U.]

A circular bend on a railway track is of radius 440 yd and the distance

between the rails is 4 ft 84 in. When a train travels round the bend at
36 mile/h there is no lateral thrust on either rail. Show that the outer
rail is approximately 3-7 inches higher than the inner one. If an engine
of mass 40 tons travels round the bend at 30 mile/h, find the lateral
thrust, stating on which rail it acts. [LU]

A train of mass 250,000 kg is moving at 48 km/h round a curve of radius

1120 m. If the track is level, find the lateral thrust on the rails. If the
width of the track is 144m, find the height to which the outer rail
must be raised above the inner if there is to be no lateral thrust on the
rails at a speed of 64 km/h. [L.U.]
A bicyclist is describing a curve of 20 m radius at a speed of 17-6 km/h;
find the inclination to the vertical of the plane of the bicycle. What is
the least coefficient of friction between the bicycle and the road, that
the bicycle may not side-slip ? [0.C.]
 CIRCULAR MOTION WITH VARIABLE VELOCITY 521
The gauge of a railway is 144 cm, and the line runs along an arc of a
circle of radius half a kilometre. The average speed of trains on the line
is 75 km/h; what should be the height of the oute 1rail above the inner
rail? [L.Ue]
A vehicle travels round a curved track of radius 270 m at a speed of
96 km/h. The track is banked at an angle of 10° to the horizontal.
Determine the ratio of the normal component of the reaction between
the wheels and the track to the component along the line of greatest
slope of the track. For what speed would this latter component be zero?
10. A motor track describes a curve of 75 m radius and is sloping down-
wards towards the inside of the curve at an angle tan“! 4. At what
speed must a car run along it so that there should be no tendency to
side-slip ? [N.U.]
at, The shape of a cycle-track at a corner is that of an arc of a circle whose
radius is 100m. Find the angle at which the track should be inclined
to the horizontal, so that a rider can take the corner at 48 km/h without
any lateral reaction between his bicycle and the track. If a motor-
cyclist can take the corner on the banked track safely at 96 km/h,
find the least possible value of the coefficient of friction between the
track and his tyres.
12. A curve on a railway line is banked up so that the lateral thrust on the
inner rail due to a truck moving with speed v, is equal to the thrust on
the outer rail when the truck is moving with speed v2 (> v,). Show that
there will be no lateral thrust on either rail when the truck is moving
with speed {(v,2 + v,”)}*. [0.C.]
20.8 Circular motion with variable velocity
When a particle moves in a circle of radius r with varying velocity »,
the acceleration towards the centre of the circle is v?/r as before, but
there is in addition a component of acceleration dv/dt at any point in the
direction of the tangent to the circle at the point.
LetP and Q be two positions of the particle on the circle (Fig. 210),
and let the angle subtended by PQ at the centre be the small angle 60.
Let PT and QS be the tangents at P and Q respectively, the angle

Ds
S

oe
Fic. 210
522 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

between the tangents being also 66. Let the velocity at P be v along
PT, and at Q, v + dv along QS. The components of the velocity at Q
along and perpendicular to PT are (v + dv) cos 66 and (v + 6v) sin 60.
The change of velocity while the particle moves from P to Q is therefore
(v + dv) cos 66 — »v, parallel to PT,
(v + dv) sin 68, perpendicular to PT.
The time in which this change occurs is the time taken to describe the
arc PQ of length ré6 and this time is rd6/v, to the first order of small
quantities. Hence the average acceleration has components

= {v(cos 66 — 1) + dv cos 66}, parallel to PT,

v(v + dv) sin 60

, perpendicular to PT.
ro6
The acceleration of the particle at P has components which are the
limits of these quantities as 60 tends to zero. Now
lim (= 66 — *)ai.
50-0 66
ot (= cos =| _vdv_vdvdt
rae ro rdo rdt do
and, since v = ré,
vdv _ dv
rdo- dt
Also
7 (fs+ dv) sin “|5 Jae
600 r 60 le

Therefore the acceleration of the particle at P has components

dv
Pr along the tangent at P, (20.17)
v= towards the
centre of the circle. (20.18)

Example 7. A particle of mass m is tied to the end B of a light inextensible string

AB of length a. The end A is attached to a small fixed peg on a rough horizontal
plane. The particle is laid on the plane with the string taut and is then projected
in a direction perpendicular to AB. If the coefficient of friction is 4 and the particle
just describes a semi-circle before coming to rest, find its initial speed and the
initial tension in the string. Through what angle will the string have turned when
the particle has lost half its initial speed? [L.U.]
 MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE 523
Let v9 be the initial speed of the particle and v the speed when the string has
turned through an angle 6. The forces acting on the particle are the tension T in
the string and the frictional force mg opposing motion and therefore acting
along the tangent to the circle. We have therefore

m—=T,
a

m=a = —pmg.

From the second equation we have by integration

v = —pgt + c (a constant),

and since v = vy when t = 0, c = uy. It follows that the particle comes to rest
when ft = v/(ug). Since v = a6 we have
do
az, = % — HBr,
and integrating,
a0 = vot — 4ugt* + d (constant),
and since 6 = 0 when t= 0, d=0. We know that 6 =a when v = 0 and
t = v,/(ug), so that

giving
0% = V/(2ugan).
The initial tension in the string is

The particle has lost half its initial speed when v = }up, that is when ¢ = v9/(2u7g),
and for this value of ¢

giving, since v)* = 2ugam,

6 = 3.

20.9 Motion in a vertical circle

We next consider the motion of a particle moving in a yertical circle
swinging at the end of an inextensible string whose other end is fixed, or
sliding on a smooth wire or surface.
Suppose the particle, of mass m, is attached to the end of a light
inextensible string of length a the other end of the string being attached
to a fixed point O (Fig. 211). Let vp be the initial velocity given to the
particle when it is at height 4) above the lowest point of the circle;
let v be the velocity and h the height at time t.
524 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The forces acting on the particle are the tension T in the string and
its weight mg. Because at any instant the direction of motion of the
particle is at right angles to the string the force T’ does no work as the
particle moves in a circle; the work done by gravity as the height
changes from hy to h is mg(hy — h), which is negative if h > hy. Equat-
ing the change of kinetic energy to the work done, we have
gmv? — $mv,? = mg(hy — h),
so that
v? = v9? + 22(hy — h). (20.19)

This equation is sufficient to give the velocity at any point of the path
and shows how the velocity diminishes as the particle rises and increases
as it falls.
If 6 be the inclination of the string at any instant to the down-
ward drawn vertical through O, we have h=a(1 —cos@) and
hy = a(1 — cos 4), so that equation (20.19) can be written
v? = v9? + 2ga(cos 6 — cos 6). (20.20)
The tension in the string is found from the normal balance of forces,
including the reversed effective force, depicted in Fig. 212, giving
mv*
T = mg cos 6 + ser (20.21)
 MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE 525
For the particle to describe a complete circle it must not only have
a residual velocity at the highest point of the circle, but also have
enough residual velocity at this point to ensure that the string does not
become slack. Thus the value of T given by (20.21) must not be nega-
tive when 6 = 7z, that is

or v* > ga at the highest point. If vp is the velocity at the lowest point,

that is with hy = 0, we have from (20.19) for the velocity at the highest
point
v? = vp? — 4ga (20.22)
and the condition v? > ga gives
Uo" > Sga (20.23)
for completion of the circle.
If the particle describes the circle attached to a smooth circular wire
on which it slides the question of the string becoming slack does not
arise and it is sufficient that there should be a residual velocity at the
highest point. The condition for this is, from (20.22), v9? > 4ga.
Example 8. One end of an inextensible string of length | is attached to a fixed point
and the other to a particle. With the string taut and the particle vertically below
O, the particle is given a velocity u so as to describe complete circles in a vertical
plane through O. At the topmost point of its path the particle strikes and coalesces
with an equal particle which is at rest and continues to describe the same circle.
Prove that u® must not be less than 8gl. [L.U.]
The velocity v of the particle at the topmost point of the circle is given by equa-
tion (20.22), namely
v= u° — 4gl,
so that
v= V( — 4g).
After coalescing with the other particle, which is at rest, the new velocity at the
topmost point will be
0%, = 3V(u* — 4g),
and this velocity will be the same when the particle has completed another circle.
For the string to remain taut we must have, from equation (20.21), v,* > gl, so
that
4? — 4gl) > gl,
that is, u? > 8gl.
Exercises 20 (c)

1. A bob is suspended by a string of length / from a point O. The plane of

oscillation is intersected perpendicularly at C by a fixed smooth straight
wire, C being at a vertical distance / — h below O (h < $I). The bob B,
of mass m, is released from rest with the string taut and OB making an
526 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

angle « with the downward vertical. Prove that, if 54 < 4/ sin? 4a, B
describes a circle about C. [O.C.]

A ring is threaded on a smooth circular wire, centre O and radius a,

fixed in a vertical plane. When at the highest point of the wire the ring
is given a horizontal velocity /(ga) in the plane of the wire. Prove that
the magnitude of the horizontal component of the reaction of the wire on
the ring is a maximum when the ring is at a vertical distance $a below
O. [0.C.]
A bead B of mass m is threaded on a fixed smooth vertical wire, with
centre O and radius a, whose plane is vertical. When the bead is at the
lowest point of the wire it is projected horizontally with velocity u, and
in the subsequent motion B reaches a maximum vertical height of $a
above O. Prove that u? = 3ga. Also, if 9 denotes the angle which OB
makes with the downward vertical, prove that the reaction R of B on
the wire is given by R = mg(1 + 3 cos 6). [0.C.]
A small ring of mass m can slide on a smooth circular wire, radius r and
centre O, which is fixed in a vertical plane. From a point on the wire
at a vertical distance 4r above O the ring is given a velocity »/(gr) along
the downward tangent to the wire. Show that it will just reach the highest
point of the wire. Find the reaction between the ring and the wire
when the ring is $r below O. [L.U.]
A particle of weight W attached to a fixed point by a light rod describes
a vertical circle. If the speeds of the particle at the highest and lowest
points are u and 3u respectively, prove that the tension in the rod when
its inclination to the downward vertical is 6 is W(3 cos @ + 2:5). If the
length of the rod is 17:5 cm, determine the speed of the particle when
6 = 60°. [L.U.]
A heavy particle in a smooth circular tube, fixed in a vertical plane is
slightly disturbed from rest at the top of the tube. Find the ratio of
the thrusts on the particle in the two positions when its vertical distance
above and below the centre of the tube is half a radius. [L.U.]
A smooth hemispherical bowl, whose lowest point is A, is fixed with its
rim uppermost and horizontal. A particle of mass m is projected along
the inner surface of the bowl with a speed «/(gr) towards A, froma point
at a vertical height 4r above A, so that its motion is in a vertical plane
through A. Show that the particle will just reach the top of the bowl,
and find the reaction between the particle and the bowl when it is 4r
above A. [L.U.]
A heavy particle, of mass m, oscillates through 180° on the inside of a
smooth circular hoop of radius a fixed in a vertical plane. Prove that the
pressure on the hoop at any point is 37mv?/(2a). [0.C.]
A mass of 1 g, hanging by a string 1 metre long, is swinging as a pen-
dulum through an arc of total magnitude 1 radian. Find the central
 EXERCISES 527
acceleration and the tension in the string when the mass is passing
through its lowest point. [L.U.]
10. A mass m hangs by a string of length a from a fixed point. If the mass
be given a horizontal velocity of +/(7ga/2), show that the string will be
about to become slack when it makes an angle of 60° with the upward
vertical. Find the tension in the string when it is inclined at 60° to the
downward vertical. [L.U.]
11. A heavy particle hanging from a fixed point by a light inextensible string
of length / is projected horizontally with speed »/(g/). Find the speed of
the particle and the inclination of the string to the vertical at the instant
of the motion when the tension in the string equals the weight of the
particle. [L.U.]
rz. A ball of mass 6 kg is attached to one end of a thread, 75-5 cm long,
which can just support a mass of 18-2 kg without breaking; the other
end of the thread is fixed. The ball is held with the string taut at a
height of 37-5 cm above the level of the fixed point, and is started at
right-angles to the string with a velocity of 2 m/s. Show that the string
will break when the ball is directly below the starting-point. [O.C.]

Exercises 20 (d)
A particle of mass m lies on a smooth horizontal table and is attached,
by an inextensible string which passes through a smooth hole in the
table, to a particle of mass 2mm which hangs freely below the table. The
particle of mass m describes a circle of radius 1 m on the table with such
uniform speed that the particle of mass 2m remains at rest. Calculate
the speed required. [L.U.]
Three equal particles each of mass 2 kg are at the vertices of an equi-
lateral triangle whose sides are taut inextensible strings of length 15 cm.
If the figure is on a uniform horizontal plane and revolves uniformly
about its centre at the rate of 5 revolutions per second, find the tensions
in the strings. [L.U.]
A particle of mass 6 kg is fastened by a string 150 cm long to a point
90 cm above a smooth horizontal table. How many r.p.m. must the
particle make in horizontal circles so as just to keep clear of the table?
Calculate the thrust between the particle and the table if the speed is
reduced to 25 r.p.m.
A small ring of mass m, free to slide on a thin smooth vertical rod, is
attached by a light inelastic string of length 2a to a point on the rod.
A particle of equal mass is fixed to the mid-point of the string. Prove
that the system can rotate in steady motion about the rod with each
art of the string inclined to the rod provided the angular velocity
exceeds +/(3g/a). [L.U.]

Particles of masses 37m and 5m are attached to the ends of a light string of
length a which passes through a fixed smooth ring at O. The lighter
528 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

particle describes a horizontal circle about the heavier particle (which

remains stationary) as centre. Prove that the two particles lie in a
horizontal plane at a distance 3a below O, and that the time of a com-
plete revolution is 7/(3a/2g). [O.C.]

Two small weights, of 60 g and 30 g respectively, are connected by a

light inextensible string, 30cm long, which passes through a small
smooth fixed ring. The 60 g weight hangs 22-5 cm below the ring while
the 30 g weight describes a horizontal circle. Show that the plane of
this circle is 3-75 cm below the ring, and show also that the 30 g weight
makes very approximately 154 r.p.m.

A plane horizontal circular disc is constrained to rotate uniformly about

its centre, describing two complete revolutions per second. Show that
the greatest distance from the centre at which a small object can be
placed so as to stay on the disc is, very approximately, 6-22 44 cm, where
is the coefficient of friction between the object and the disc. [0.C.]

A rough horizontal circular disc is rotating with uniform angular

velocity w about a fixed vertical axis through its centre. Two particles,
of masses M, m, lie on the disc at rest relative to it, being on the same
radius and at distances a and 2a respectively from the centre. They are
connected by a light inextensible string of length a and y is the coefficient
of friction between either particle and the disc. Show that both particles
are on the point of slipping outwards if w? = ug(M + m)/(aM + 2am),
and find an expression for the corresponding tension in the string.
[0.C.]
A steam governor consists of four equal light rods AB, BC, CD, DA, of
length 25 cm, freely hinged at their ends and rotating about a vertical
axis to which it is hinged at a fixed point A and on which it slides without
friction on a light collar attached to the rods at C below A. It carries
masses of 6 kg at B and D and is kept in position by a spring at C. Find
the number of revolutions being made per minute if the force exerted
by the spring is 2 kg downwards and AC equals 30 cm. [L.U.]

10. The smooth inside surface of a bowl is a segment of a sphere of radius

20 cm, the height of the segment being 10cm. The bowl has its axis
fixed and vertical and is rotated about the axis. Find the greatest possible
angular velocity of the bowl, in r.p.m., if a particle placed in it can
remain at rest relative to the bowl just within its rim. [L.U.]

11. A light inextensible string of length / has one end attached to a fixed
point and the other end to a particle of mass m which describes a
horizontal circle with constant speed u. If the string makes an angle «
with the vertical, show that u? = g/ sin? « sec aw. The particle hits an
inelastic object which brings it to instantaneous rest. If in the subse-
quent motion in a vertical plane the greatest speed acquired by the par-
ticle is 4u, show that 7 cos « = 1. Find the values of the tension in the
 EXERCISES 529
string (a) just before the blow, (4) just after the blow, and (c) when the
string is vertical. [L.U.]
i A cyclist turns a corner on a curve of radius 30 m on a level road at a
speed of 20 km/h. Find the angle at which he leans from the vertical
and the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road necessary
to prevent skidding.
13. A humpback bridge has the shape of an arc of a circle of 40 m radius.
Find the greatest speed at which a cyclist can cross the bridge without
leaving the road.
14. The width of the track of a car is 46 in and the centre of gravity is 24 in
above the road and 3 in to the right of the centre line of the car. The
road bends, first to the right and then to the left, the radius of each curve
being 40 yd. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
road is 0-9, show that if the car were driven too fast it would skid at the
first bend and overturn at the second.
RE A cyclist rounds a curve of 30 m radius on a road which is banked at
20° to the horizontal. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and
the road is 4, find the greatest speed at which he can ride without
skidding and his inclination to the vertical at this speed.
16. A vehicle rounds a curve of radius r at constant speed v on a level road
on which the angle of friction between the tyres and the road is 4. Show
that the car will be on the point of skidding if (v*/gr) = tan A and that
banking at an angle « will eliminate any tendency to skid at this speed
if « = 2. Show that, if the angle of bank is in fact B, the car will be on
the point of skidding when the speed is V, where (V*/gr) = tan (8 + A).
17. A vehicle rounds a curve of radius r at constant speed v on a level road.
The shortest line joining the centre of gravity to the outer wheel track is
inclined at an angle f to the vertical. Show that the vehicle will be on
the point of overturning if (v?/gr) = tan 8 and that the reactions at the
wheels either side will be equal if the road is banked at an angle 8. Show
that if the road is banked at an angle « the vehicle will be on the point of
overturning when the speed is V, where (V*/gr) = tan (a + f).
18. A stone of mass 1 kg is whirled round on a smooth horizontal table with
constant speed in a circle of radius 1 m, at the end of a string whose
other end is fixed. If the string can only bear a tension of 8 kgf, find the
maximum speed the stone can have. If the same stone is whirled round
in a vertical circle of radius 1 m, find the greatest speed the stone can
have at the highest point of its path in order that the whole circle can be
described without the string breaking. [L.U.]
19. A mass of 1 kg is attached to two fixed points A and B, which are 18 cm
apart in the same horizontal line, by means of two strings each 15 cm
in length. The mass is held with the strings taut in the horizontal plane
through AB and then released. Find the tension in a string when the
mass is in the vertical plane through AB. [0.C.]
530 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
20. A particle hanging at rest from a fixed point by a string of length a is
started with velocity 2/(ga), and when the string is horizontal it is
held at such a point that the particle just completes the circle. At what
distance from the particle is the string held? [L.U.]
21: A particle attached by a light inextensible string of length a to a fixed
point is held with the string taut and inclined at an acute angle « to the
upward vertical and then released. Show that after the string tightens
it will not rise to the level of the fixed end of the string if « < }1, but
that, if « > 47, the particle will rise above this level and the string will
go slack again when it is at a height —%a cos « cos 2x above this level.
 CHAPTER 21

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION. MOTION ABOUT AN AXIS

21.1 Introduction
In this chapter we study in detail the type of motion known as simple
harmonic motion which obtains when a particle oscillates to and fro
about a central point. This type of motion is of fundamental impor-
tance in the study of physical and engineering problems. Many
complicated vibrational problems, such as the flutter of aircraft wings,
and many problems of structural stability are solved by treating the
motion involved in small displacements as being approximately simple
harmonic. As a practical example we shall consider small oscillations
of a simple pendulum, that is, of a small mass swinging at the end of a
light inextensible string.
In the second part of the chapter we shall show how the kinetic
energy of a rigid body turning about a fixed axis can be expressed in
terms of the moment of inertia of the body about the axis. When this
has been done, most problems involving this type of motion can be
solved very simply by the use of the energy principle. In this case also
we shall show that the small oscillations of a body turning about an
axis can be expressed in terms of simple harmonic motion.

21.2 Simple harmonic motion

When a particle moves in a straight line with acceleration always
directed towards a fixed point of the line and proportional to its dis-
tance from that point, the particle is said to move with simple har-
monic motion.
Let O be the fixed point on the straight line X’OX (Fig. 213), and
let x be the distance of the particle from O at time t, x being positive

: (@) A
A }-——a——4 ¥
x ——$>——_|]e—- ce
Fic. 213

if the particle is to the right of O. Then we may take the acceleration

of the particle along OX as —w*x, where w® is a positive constant.
If x is positive this acceleration is directed towards O, and if x is nega-
tive —w2x is positive and it is again directed towards O. A differential
531
532 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

relation is obtained by equating one of the theoretical expressions of

the acceleration to —w*x, and we have
d*x
— )
dv
——— |
-
— 1)“ X. 21.1
dt? dx aie?
Let us suppose that the particle starts from rest at A, where OA = a.
Then the initial conditions required in the solution of the differential
equation (21.1) are

ae ine Oe SY
dt

We have
dv_d wlerert, §
dx a. dx 3 v*) aa ox,

and, integrating with respect to x, this gives

$v? = —}w*x? + c (constant).
Since v = 0 when x = a, c = 4w*a*, and hence
v = wa — x2),
v=+a/(a — x). (21.2)
This equation shows that the velocity is zero when x = a and when
x = —a and that it has its greatest value +wa when x = 0. The
sign is positive when the motion is towards A and negative when it is
towards A’. Thus the motion is an oscillation between the values
x= +a. O is called the centre of the oscillation and the length a
is called the amplitude.
Writing v = dx/dt in the equation (21.2) we have
ax ii git
Hs. + ao/(a 55

and, separating the variables, we find

+ | Soa [a

Now the integral on the left-hand side is sin(x/a) plus a constant, the
sign + merely altering the constant, and we have

sin == wt + we (constant)

or
x = asin w(t + 6).
 OTHER INITIAL CONDITIONS 533
Then since x = a when t = 0, we find we = 7/2, and hence
x =acos ot, (21.3)
and it follows, by differentiation, that
= — aw sin wt. (21.4)
Since cos (wt + 27) = cos wt and sin (wt + 27) = sin wt, both x
and v have the same values when wt is increased by 27, that is, when ¢
is increased by 27/w. The quantity 27/w is called the period of the
motion and is the time of one complete oscillation starting from any
point and ending at the same point moving in the same direction.
The frequency is the number of oscillations made in unit time. Thus if
n the frequency and 27/w the period

n — oO.

27
It will be noticed that the period, or frequency, can be written down
directly when the value of w is known without solving the differential
equation. If, in addition, the amplitude a is known the motion is
completely determined and is given by equations (21.3) and (21.4) if the
time is measured from an instant when the particle is at A.
21.3 Other initial conditions
If the time in a harmonic oscillation is measured from some instant
when the particle is not at A, the solution of the equation (21.1) is
x =asino(t + 6), (21.5)
where ¢ is a quantity determined by the initial conditions. If the initial
conditions are that x = xX) and v = uv, when t = 0, we have
Xo = asin we,
and
Vp = aw COS we.
From these two equations we easily find that

In particular, if x) = 0, that is if the time is measured from an instant

when the particle is at O, we find a = v)/w and « = 0, and the equa-
tion (21.5) becomes
x= sin wt. (21.6)
(63)
534 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

The variation of distance with time, whatever be the initial condi-

tions, is shown in Fig. 214, and is seen to be a sine curve. A portion of
the curve for negative ¢ is shown by a broken line.
X
em
WwW

Fic. 214

21.4 Relation to uniform motion in a circle

If a particle is describing a circle of radius a with uniform angular
velocity w, its orthogonal projection on a diameter of the circle moves
on the diameter in simple harmonic motion of amplitude a and period
2r/w.
Let the time be measured from the instant when the particle is at the
end B of any diameter AOB (Fig. 215) which we may take as the x-axis.

Fic. 215

After time ¢ the particle is at a point P, where the angle POX = at.
If N be the foot of the perpendicular from P to AB, we have
ON = x = acos at. (21.7)
By comparison with equation (21.3) we see that x varies harmonically
and therefore that the point N moves with simple harmonic motion of
amplitude a and period 27/w.
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 535
Example 1. A particle is moving in a straight line with simple harmonic motion.
Its velocity when at a distance x from a fixed point of the line is given by
v* = 7°(9 — x*). Find the periodic time and the maximum acceleration. Find
also the least time taken by the particle to move between the points given by
x = 3/\/2 and x = 3/2, and the value of x for which the kinetic energy is one-
third of its maximum value. {L.U.]
By comparison with the formula v? = w*(q? — x2), it is easily seen that w = 7
and a = 3, so that the periodic time is 27/w = 2. The acceleration w?x is a
maximum when x = 3, and the maximum value is 37%. Measuring the time t
from an instant when x = 3, we have from equation (21.3)
x = 30 cos zt.
Let t, and f, be the times corresponding to the given values of x, so that

Are 3 cos zt,

== 3 COS wf,

1 1
giving mt, = + i= z and mt, = * t= 3? 80 that

—h =t-—f=%.
The velocity is 37 at the centre of the oscillation and the maximum kinetic
energy is $7 9n*, When the kinetic energy is one-third of this v = +/37 and the
corresponding value of x is given by
37? = 7°39 — x4),
so that x = 7/6.

Example 2. On a certain day high water for a harbour occurs at 5 a.m. and low water
at 11.20 a.m., the corresponding depths being 15 m and 5 m. If the tidal motion
is assumed to be simple harmonic prove that, to the nearest minute, the latest time
before noon that a ship, drawing 12-5 m, can enter the harbour is 7.6a.m. [O.C.]
If the motion is simple harmonic the centre of the oscillation is a depth of 10m
and half its period is 64 =*s hours. Then, 7/w = 19/3 so that w = 3n/19
and the amplitude is 5m. Therefore, if x is the depth in excess of 10 m,
x = Scos (371/19),
and, when x = 2:5,
cos (37t/19) = 4 = cos 7/3,
giving t = 7+ = 2h 6§ min, bringing the time to 7.6 a.m. The depth will again
be 12:5 m when 3 wt/19 = 57/3, but this is afternoon.

Example 3. A particle, describing simple harmonic motion, is 3m from the central

position when its speed is 2 m/s, and 2 m from the centre when its speed is 3 ms.
Find the amplitude and period of the motion. If the two positions are on opposite
sides of the centre, show that the particle will take a quarter of a period to travel
direct from one position to the other. [L.U.
Using the formula v? = w°(a? — x*), we have
4 = w(a? — 9),
= wa? Fe 4),
536 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
so that w = 1 anda = 4/(13). Thus the period is 27 seconds and the amplitude
(13) m. Again, since w = 1, the distance x from the centre at time ¢ is given
by
x = (13) cos t.
If x = 3 when ¢ = 4,, and x = —2 when ¢ = fg, we have

ah a
= Saye pices.
cos a ea LtA

It foll
PLOUOWS hat Se
Cat Sto Tee dint
sin techs
ie: «aie that
a

—6+6
COS (ty — ty) ae =0,
giving 7
t—-h= 3 seconds,

and this is a quarter of the period.

21.5 The simple pendulum

The simple pendulum consists of a heavy particle attached by a light
inextensible string to a fixed point and moving along an arc of a circle
in a vertical plane.
Let O be the centre of the circle, / the length of the string, 0 the angle
which it makes with the downward drawn vertical OA at time t, and
m the mass of the particle (Fig. 216). The velocity is /6 along the

Fic. 216

tangent to the circle. Let « be the inclination of the string to OA

when the velocity is zero, then the work done as the particle falls from
the position « to the position 6 is
mg (1 cos 6 — Icos «),
so that
4ml?62 = mel (cos 0 — cos «)
and
$16? = g(cos 8 — cos a). (21.8)
 THE SIMPLE PENDULUM Bei,
Differentiating this equation with respect to t, we find
166 = —gsin6.6
and :
16 = —gsin 0. (21.9)
When @ is small, so that sin 9 = 6 approximately, this equation gives
§= —*9, (21.10)
and this is an equation of simple harmonic motion with w? = g/l.
Thus 6 varies harmonically and the period of the oscillation is T,
where an
= 7 |(5) (21.11)

This is the time of one complete oscillation from the position 6 = «

(assumed small) through the position 6 = 0 to 6 = —« and back to
O0= «a.
The seconds pendulum is a pendulum whose period is 2 seconds, and

“(.)=»
whose half-period is 1 second. If / be its length, we have

so that
l= &.
7

Taking g = 981 cm/s*, and 7? = 9-870, we find / = 99-4 cm = 39-12 in.

Example 4. A pendulum, supposed to beat seconds, is found to lose 50 seconds a day.
By what percentage must it be shortened so as to beat seconds accurately ?

The pendulum should beat 24 x 3600 = 86 400 seconds a day and in fact beats
86 400 — 50. The time of a beat is therefore
86400 ( 50 pe
86400 — 50° \" ~ 86
400
Hence if / be its length

™/ UG)
\g] ~ \" ~ =(-san)
36 400
If /’ be the corrected length, 7/(I’/g) = 1, so that
San
,
pine
86400), |
=1 aides
~ 864 , approximately,
= 0:9988.
Hence the pendulum must be shortened by 0:12 per cent.
538 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Exercises 21 (a)

A, O and B are three points in this order on a straight line and 4O =

2-4cm, OB = 20cm. A particle is projected from A towards O with
velocity 7 cm/s and performs simple harmonic oscillations about O as
centre. The velocity of the particle at Bis 15 cm/s. Show that the ampli-
tude of the oscillations is 2-5 cm and find the maximum velocity of the
particle. LAUR

A particle of mass m moves in a straight line, being attracted to a fixed

point O in the line by a force equal to mk? times its distance from O.
When at a point P distance b from O its velocity is u towards O. Prove
that the particle reaches O in time (1/k) tan (6k/u). {L.U.1

A point is moving in a straight line with simple harmonic motion and O

is the middle point of its path. If its velocity is u when distant b from
O and v when distant c from O, find the amplitude of the motion and its
periodic time. [L.U.]

A particle moves with simple harmonic motion in a straight line; find

the time of a complete oscillation if the acceleration is 4 m/s* when the
distance from the centre is 2m. If the maximum velocity is 8 m/s, find
the amplitude.
A particle is moving with simple harmonic motion of period 47 about a
centre O. It passes through a point 4m from O with velocity 4 m/s
away from O. Find the time which elapses before it next passes through
this point.
A particle moves in a straight line with simple harmonic motion making
7 complete oscillations in 11 seconds. The velocity is 4 ft/s when the
distance from the centre of oscillation is 5 in. Find the amplitude of the
motion, the maximum velocity and the maximum acceleration. [L.U.]

A particle moving with simple harmonic motion in a straight line has a

speed of 6 m/s when 4 m from the centre of oscillation and 8 m/s when
3 m from the centre. Find the amplitude and the shortest time taken by
the particle in moving from an extreme position to a point midway
between this position and the centre. [L.U.]
A particle moves in a straight line with simple harmonic motion, the
centre of oscillation being A. When the particle is 1-5 m from 4 its
velocity is 4 m/s and its acceleration 6 m/s*. Find the amplitude and
period of the motion and the maximum velocity attained. [L.U.]
A piston moving with simple harmonic motion performs three complete
oscillations per minute, and its maximum speed is 5 centimetres per
second. Find the amplitude of the motion, the velocity when the dis-
placement from the centre is 7-5cm, and the maximum acceleration.
[L.U.]
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 539
10. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion performs 10 complete
oscillations per minute and its speed when 20cm from the centre of
oscillation is 3 of its maximum speed. Find the amplitude, the maximum
acceleration and the speed when it is 15 cm from the centre. [L.U.]
11. Two particles moving in simple harmonic motion pass through their
centres of oscillation at the same instant. They next reach their greatest
distances from their centres after 2 and 3 seconds respectively, having
been at the same distance from these centres after 1 second. Find the
ratio of their amplitudes. [L.U.]
12. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion passes through two
points A and B, 50 centimetres apart, with the same velocity having
occupied 2 seconds in passing from A to B; after another 2 seconds it
returns to B. Find the period and amplitude of the oscillation. [L.U.]
43. A pendulum beats seconds at sea-level. How many seconds per day
will it lose if taken to the top of a nearby mountain | kilometre high?
Take the earth’s radius as 6400 kilometres. (See § 16.8, Example 8.)
14. A clock regulated by a seconds pendulum loses 10 séconds a day. Find
by what percentage the length of the pendulum should be altered to
keep correct time, and state whether it should be lengthened or shortened.
[L.U.]
13, Calculate the length of a seconds pendulum at a place where g = 981
cm/s’. If a pendulum clock loses 9 minutes a week, find what change is
required in the length of the pendulum in order that the clock may
keep correct time. [L.U.)

21.6 Forces causing simple harmonic motion

If the acceleration of a particle of mass m at a distance x from a
fixed point O is w*x towards O, the force acting on the particle must be
mwx towards O, and thus the force is proportional to the distance
from O. Simple harmonic motion is, therefore, caused by forces of
magnitude proportional to the distance from a point. A simple example
is the force in a spring or the tension in an elastic string.
Example 5. A particle of mass m rests on a smooth horizontal table attached to the
end of a light spring of natural length | and modulus of elasticity 4. The particle is
displaced a distance a from its equilibrium position O along the axis of the spring
and released. Find the period of the oscillation and the maximum velocity of the
particle.
When the particle is distant x from O, the force in the spring is Ax// towards O,
and we have
a A
a7, aap Rad
so that
d*x :
ap =— wx,
540 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
where w? = A/(ml). Hence the period is 27/w, and since the velocity is given by
v = w*(a* al a

the maximum velocity is aw.

Example 6. A particle of mass m is attached to one end of a light spring of natural

length | and modulus of elasticity 4. The spring is suspended with its other end
attached to a fixed point and is in equilibrium. If the particle is then given a dis-
placement a vertically downwards and released, find the period of the subsequent
oscillation.
Let O be the position of the particle in equilibrium and let x be its distance below
O at any instant in the subsequent motion. If c be the extension of the spring in
the equilibrium position, since the tension in the spring balances the weight of
the particle, we have
A
7° = M8.

When the spring is extended a further distance x the tension in the spring is
(A/D + c), and the force acting on the particle is
A A
7 +x) — mg =7x.

Thus we have

oo eet
ed -enneclon
and the period is 27/m, where w? = A/(ml). An oscillation is always about a
position of equilibrium and hence it is convenient always to measure the dis-
placement x from a position of equilibrium. If, however, we work in terms of
the extension y of the spring, the equation of motion becomes
d*y A
eae ET
A
= =O). 0).

This is reduced to the previous form by the substitution y — c = x, but the

period of the oscillation can be written down without making this substitution,
since w? = A/(ml).

21.7 Suspension by an elastic string

If a particle is suspended by an elastic string and displaced from its
equilibrium position, the motion is simple harmonic, just as in the case
of the spring, provided that the string does not return to its natural
length during the motion; if this happens the string becomes slack
and the particle beings to move freely under gravity. Hence, the ampli-
tude of the simple harmonic motion must be less than the extension
of the string in the equilibrium position.
The elasticity of a string is often given by stating how much a certain
weight stretches it. Thus if a mass m, attached to the end of an elastic
 SUSPENSION BY AN ELASTIC STRING 541
string, stretches it a distance c, we have, if / be the natural length and A
the modulus of elasticity,

dey
ieee
so that A = mgl/c. Thus if a particle of mass M is now suspended in
place of m and oscillates about its equilibrium position, we have the
equation of motion

ir Bats gent (21.12)

and the period is 27/w, where w* = (mg)/(Mc). If the extension of the

string in the equilibrium position is now d, we have Ad/] = Mg, so that
d = Mc/m, and the amplitude of the oscillation must be less than d.

Example 7. A light elastic string of natural length 2a is fastened at one end to a fixed
point. It hangs vertically and carries at its other end a particle of mass m. In the
position of equilibrium the length of the string is 9a/4. Find the period of small
vertical oscillations of the particle. If the greatest acceleration during the oscil-
lation is $g, find the amplitude. [L.U.]

In the position of equilibrium the extension is ta, so that

4a
2a ~ 8:
and
A = 8mg.

so that w? = 4g/a, and the period is 7-/(a/g). If c is the amplitude, the greatest
8
_ acceleration occurs when x = c, and $g = = giving c = 4a.

Example 8. Three elastic strings each have one end attached to a particle of mass m.
Each string is of natural length a and modulus kmg. A and B are two fixed pegs
on a smooth horizontal table 3a apart; the free ends of two of the strings are
attached to A and the free end of the third string to B. Find the distance of the
particle from A in the equilibrium position. If the particle is given a small dis-
placement from its equilibrium position along the line AB and then released,
prove that it performs simple harmonic motion and find the period of sear

If y be the distance of the particle from A in equilibrium, the extensions of the

strings are y — a, y — a and 3a — y — a respectively and, since the tensions in
the strings balance,
kmg kmg iPARES ds SI
pa ae a anh wah Yo bods
542 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
giving y = 4a/3. When the particle is displaced a further distance x from A;
the additional tensions in the strings are kmgx/a, kmgx/a and —kmgx/a.
Therefore, the force back towards A is 3kmgx/a. Then

dt® a
giving w? = 3kg/a, and the period is 27+/ (a/3kg).

Example 9. A particle of mass 2 g is fastened to a horizontal board which is oscillating

in a horizontal plane in simple harmonic motion of amplitude 0-25 cm; 10 complete
oscillations are made each second. Find the magnitudes of the greatest and least
forces which act between the particle and the board. [L.U.]
Since the frequency of oscillation is 10, w/27 = 10 and » = 207 radians/second.
If x be the horizontal displacement of the particle from its central position at
time ¢, we have
¥ = —w*x = —4007*x,
and since the mass of the particle is 2 g = 0-002 kg,
¢ = —0-87x.
This is therefore the force that must be exerted by the board on the particle to
make it oscillate, and if x is in metres this force will be in newtons. Therefore
the greatest force, when x = 0-0025 m, is 2 x 10-87? = 1-974 x10-? N. When
x = 0 the force is zero. There is also, of course, in both cases the reaction of
the board on the particle which is a force of 0:002g N.

Exercises 21 (b)
1. A particle of mass m is performing simple harmonic motion under a
force to a fixed point O. The motion is of period p and amplitude a.
Find, in terms of m, p and a, the greatest kinetic energy of the particle,
the displacement from O when the speed is 4a/p, and the greatest rate of
working of the force and corresponding displacement from O. [L.U.]
2. OA is a fixed straight line of length 4a. A particle P of mass m moves
along OA under the action of two forces, one of magnitude mk? . OP
towards O and the other of magnitude 3mk? . PA towards A. Show that
the motion of P is simple harmonic with period 7/k and determine the
centre of this motion. If the particle is instantaneously at rest at A,
what is its speed at the centre of motion? ({L.U.]
3. One end ofa light elastic string of natural length a is fixed. To the other
is attached a particle of mass m which hangs freely at rest, the length
of the string then being 5a/4. Find the modulus of elesticity. The
particle is then pulled down through a distance 4a from its equilibrium
position and released from rest. Find the period of oscillation, the
greatest speed of the particle and the least tension in the string. [L.U.]
4. A particle of mass m is attached to one end of a light elastic string of
natural length / and modulus mg, the other end being fastened to a
fixed point A. If the particle is allowed to fall from rest at A, find the
greatest extension of the string. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 543
A mass m hanging in equilibrium from the lower end of a light elastic
string of natural length a causes an extension d. If another mass m is
added to the first and the combined mass now released from rest, find
the period of the motion and the maximum extension of the string.
[L.U.]
An elastic string of natural length / is fixed at one end and hangs
vertically at rest with a mass mm attached to the other end extending the
string a distance a. A second mass M is now attached to the first mass
and the system is released. Find the greatest extension of the string in
the subsequent motion and the period of the oscillations. [L.U.]

A particle of mass m is tied to one end of each of two strings each of

modulus 4mg and unstretched length a. The strings are attached at
their other ends to fixed points A and B respectively, in the same vertical
line, B being 4a below A. Find the depth of the particle below A in
the equilibrium position. Also find the period of oscillation of the
particle about the equilibrium position. {L.U.]
One end of an elastic string of unstretched length / is attached to a
fixed point and the other to a mass M. The system hangs in equilibrium
with the extension of the string equal to }/ and a smooth ring of mass m
slides down it from rest at its uppermost end. If, after colliding, the
ring and load move on together and the further extension to the position
of instantaneous rest is #/, prove that M = 4m. [L.U.]
A particle P, of mass m, is attached to one end of each of two equal light
elastic strings, each of natural length 1 m, the elasticity of each string is
such that a force mg produces an extension of 12:5 cm. Two fixed points
A and B are 2:5 m apart on a smooth horizontal table and the free ends
of the strings are attached to A and B. Initially P is at rest at the mid-
point O of AB. P is pulled 12:5 cm towards A and released. Prove that
P executes simple harmonic motion about O with period 0-167 seconds.
Find the speed of P when equidistant from A and B.
10. One end of an elastic string, of natural length 30cm, is fixed to a
point O; a particle of mass m attached to the other end hangs vertically
at rest and extends the string 10cm. If this particle is replaced by a
mass of 3m which is released from rest at a distance 30 cm below O,
find the period and amplitude of the subsequent motion. [0.C.]
11. A particle of mass mkg is fastened to the mid-point O of an elastic string
of natural length 2/; the ends of the string are attached to two fixed
points A and B on a smooth horizontal table at a distance 2d apart.
The particle is pulled a distance c from O(c < d — /) towards B and
released. Given that a force 1 kgf stretches the string one-twelfth of
its length, prove that the subsequent motion of the particle is simple
harmonic of period 7+/(ml/6g). [0.C.]

12. One end of an elastic string, of natural length / and modulus 5mg, is
fixed at O, and to the other end is attached a particle A of mass m.
544 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
When A is held at a distance / vertically below O, it is given a downward
velocity of +/(3g//5). Prove that the maximum extension of the string
is 3//5. Find also the acceleration of A when the tension in the string
is 4mg. [O.C.]
13. Asmall body A, of mass m, is attached to one end of an elastic string, of
natural length 3 m, the other end being attached to a fixed point O; when
the body is at rest with A vertically below O, the extension is 25 cm.
If the body is raised to O and allowed to fall, prove that the maximum
extension of the string in the subsequent motion is 1:-5m. When the
particle is hanging freely it is given a small displacement downwards and
is then released from rest. Prove that the subsequent motion is simple
harmonic of period P given by 9-81 P? = 47°.
14. A body weighing 12 kg is suspended by a spring and makes three com-
plete oscillations per second. Find how far the spring would be stretched
by a load of 10 kg hanging at rest. [L.U.]
15. A spiral spring supports a carrier weighing 2 kg, and when a 10-kg
weight is placed in the carrier the spring extends 2 centimetres. The
carrier and its load is then pulled down another 3 centimetres and let
go. How high does it rise and what is the period of its oscillation?
[L.U.]
21.8 Motion of a body about an axis
If a rigid body is turning about a fixed axis, the position of the body
at any instant is known if the position of any section of the body
perpendicular to the axis is known. The section usually considered is

Fic. 217

that containing the centre of gravity of the body, and the motion is
equivalent to that of a lamina turning about an axis perpendicular
to its plane (Fig. 217). The position of the lamina at any instant is
known if the angle which some straight line in the lamina makes with
the vertical is known. Let OG be the straight line (Fig. 217), joining
the axis of rotation at O to the centre of gravity G and let the position
 KINETIC ENERGY 545
of this line be determined by the angle 6 which OG makes with the
downward drawn vertical OA.
Let P be any particle of the body such that OP = r and the angle
GOP = «; the inclination of OP to the vertical is then 6 + «, where «
is constant. The angular velocity of P about O is
d d6
at (6 + «) = a

and this is the same for all particles of the body. Since P is moving in a
circle about O, its velocity is r6 in a direction perpendicular to OP.
21.9 Kinetic energy of the body
Let the particle P have mass m. Then its kinetic energy is
dmr*62,
A similar expression gives the kinetic energy of each particle of the
body, with the same value for 6 but with different values of r and m.
The total kinetic energy T of the body is then
T = 36°Xmr?,
where the symbol & denotes the sum of the quantity mr? for all par-
ticles of the body. This quantity is the moment of inertia of the body
about the axis through O, and denoting this sum by J,
= 1162, (21.13)
Moments of inertia of bodies have been considered in §§ 10.7, 10.8 and
found for a number of standard shapes of body. The moment of
inertia is often written in the form Mk, where M is the mass of the
body and k is called the radius of gyration about the axis. With this
notation we have
T = 4Mk262. (21.14)
Since the kinetic energy of the particle, dr?6*, is in absolute units, the
expressions for T given by (21.13) and (21.14) are also in absolute
units such as joules.

Example 10. Find the kinetic energy of a solid cylindrical flywheel of mass 200 kg
and radius 75 cm, rotating at 1200 revolutions per minute.
The moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis is (see § 10.8) Ma’, where
M = 200 and a = 75cm. The angular velocity is 20 x 27 radians per second,
and the kinetic energy is therefore given by
LP
= 7 x 200 x (3)
{7} ; x 40m) a
= 4-44 x 10°J.
546 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

21.10 The energy equation

Suppose that the body turns about the axis under the action of
gravity alone, and let the centre of gravity G be distant h from the axis
of rotation at O (Fig. 218). Let M be the mass, Mk? the moment of
inertia about the axis through O and @ the angular velocity at any
instant. If we suppose that the axis is smooth, so that no work is done
by friction at O, we may write the potential energy of the body at any
instant in terms of the height of the centre of gravity (see § 18.9) above

Mg

Fic. 218

some standard position, and, taking the lowest position of G during the
motion as this standard position, the potential energy is
Mg(h — hcos 6).
Then the energy equation is
4Mk?62 + Meh (1 — cos 6) = constant. (21.15)
If the initial position and velocity are known, the constant can be
evaluated and equation (21.15) then gives the angular velocity 6 for
any value of 0.
In particular, if the body starts from rest with 0 = «, so that 6 = 0
when 6 = «a, the value of the constant is Mgh (1 — cos «) and equation
(21.15) gives
4Mk262 + Mgh(1 — cos 6) = Mgh(1 — cos a),
so that
1 k? /d6\?
ha a hee g(cos 6 — cos «). (21.16)

It is clear that this equation represents an oscillatory motion with the

body coming instantaneously to rest when 6 = a and when 0 = — a.
Example 11. A uniform circular disc of mass 10 kg and radius \ m is free to turn ina
vertical plane about a horizontal axis through its centre. A particle of mass
2 kg is attached to the highest point of the disc and given a small displacement.
Find the greatest angular velocity of the disc in the subsequent motion.
 THE ENERGY EQUATION 547
The moment of inertia of the disc about the axis is } x 10 x 1% and that of the
2-kg weight about the same axis is 2 x 1°, hence the total moment of inertia is
7 kg m*. If 6 be the angular velocity when the disc has turned through an angle
@, the loss of potential energy in this position is 2¢(1 — cos @) and, equating
this to the kinetic energy gained, we have

4 x 76? = 2g(1 — cos 6).

Hence the maximum velocity, when 6 = 7, is given by

622 = 8g
7 = 11-21,
RY eas °

and

6 = 3-35 radians per second.

Example 12. A uniform rod AB of mass M and length 2a is free to turn about a
horizontal axis through A perpendicular to the vertical plane ABC, where C is a
point distant 2a from A at the same horizontal level as A. One end of a string is
attached to B and the string passes over a smooth peg at C and carries a particle
of mass m hanging vertically. The system is released from rest when B is at C.
Prove that the angular velocity w of AB when the rod is vertical is given by
a(2M + 3m)o* = 3g(M — 2m/2). [0.C.]

Al 2]a ae
Mg

2a :
|
|
|
B mg

Fic. 219

The figure (Fig. 219) shows the rod AB in the horizontal position and in the
vertical position AB’. In the vertical position, the velocity of B’ ishorizontal
and equal to 2aw. The component of this velocity along the line CB" is
2aw cos 45° = aw4/2, and this is the velocity at this instant of the end of the
string and also of the mass m. The kinetic energy of the system when AB is
vertical is therefore, since the moment of inertia of the rod about A is 4Ma’*/3,
4. $Ma’o* + 4m(aw/2)? = 42M + 3m)a*’w?.
The loss of potential energy of the rod as it falls is Mga and, since a length of
string 2a,/2 has passed over the peg, the potential energy of the mass m has
increased by mg(2a1/2). Hence, the energy equation gives
$(2M + 3m)a*o* = Mga — mg(21/2a),
so that
a(2M + 3m)w* = 3g(M — 2m/2).
548 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 13. Masses of 4g and 6g are attached to the ends of a light inextensible
string passing over a rough pulley mounted on a smooth horizontal axle. The
pulley is approximately a circular cylinder of mass 5g and radius 4 cm. If the
masses are released from rest find their acceleration and the tensions in the two
parts of the string.

ts Ty
To Ti

a E

4g 6g
Fic. 220

When the pulley has turned through an angle 6 (Fig. 220), the masses have each
moved a distance 40 and the loss of potential energy is
6g x 40 — 4g x 40 = 8g.
If 6 is then the angular velocity, the kinetic energies of the two masses and of the
pulley are
3. 4(40)? + 4. 6(46)? + 4. $(4)?6? = 10063,
Therefore
1006? = 896,
giving
6 = vse.
If we differentiate this equation with respect to t we find
266 = weg,
so that
6 = wg
and hence
45 = 5
This is the acceleration of each of the masses. The tensions T, and T, in the two
parts of the string are easily found from the equations of motion of the masses,
namely
6g —T,=6 x 46 = Hg,
T, —4g=4 x 46 = ity,
whence T, = *re°g, T, = *ss"g dynes (taking g in cm/s?),

21.11 The compound pendulum

If we compare equation (21.16) with equation (21.8) of § 21.5 which
gives the motion of a simple pendulum, we see that the equations are
 WHEEL TURNED BY A FALLING WEIGHT 549

identical if k?/h = 1. The length k?/h is called the length of the equivalent
simple pendulum, and, if the oscillations are small, the period of oscil-
lation is as found for the simple pendulum, namely

An “fi
(=). (21.17)
Example 14. A uniform thin rod of length 2a oscillates in a vertical plane about a
horizontal axis through one end of the rod. Find the period of small oscillations.
The moment of inertia of a uniform rod of mass M and length 2a about a
perpendicular axis through its centre is (§ 10.8) 3Ma*; about a parallel axis
through one end it is }Ma? + Ma? = 3Ma*. The radius of gyration about this
axis is therefore given by
4
=ae we3 a.

The distance of the centre of gravity from the axis is a, therefore, the length of
the equivalent simple pendulum is

fore
Weds3 a,
and the period is 27+/(4a/3g).

21.12 Wheel turned by a falling weight

Suppose that a light inextensible string is wrapped around and
fastened to a wheel mounted on a horizontal axis and that the free end of

mg
Fic. 221

the string carries a weight hanging clear of the wheel. The descending
weight will cause the wheel to rotate.
Let M be the mass, a the radius and k the radius of gyration of the
wheel about its axis; let m be the hanging mass and 7 the tension in
the string (Fig. 221). When the wheel has turned through an angle 6,
a length a0 of string has unwound from the wheel and the hanging mass
has lost potential energy mga0. In this position the velocity of the mass
mis ab and the total kinetic energy of the system is $k°6? + 4ma?6?.
550 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Equating this kinetic energy to the loss of potential energy we have
4(Mk2 + ma?)6? = mgaé, (21.18)
and this equation gives the angular velocity of the wheel when it has
turned through an angle 0.
The tension in the string is easily found by considering the work
done on the mass m separately, namely (mg — T)a0 as it falls a distance
aQ, so that
4ma*6? = (mg — T)a6. (21.19)
From equations (21.18) and (21.19) we find
Mmgk?
T= Mie + mat (21.20)

The angular acceleration can be found by differentiating equation

(21.18) with respect to the time, giving
(Mk? + ma*)66 = mgad,
whence
mga
= Me (21.21)
Example 15. A flywheel is mounted on a horizontal axle 2 centimetres in diameter. A
mass of 10 kg attached to a light string wrapped around the axle falls 3 m from rest
in 10 seconds. Assuming the bearings are frictionless, find the moment of inertia
of the flywheel and axle.
Equation (21.21) of § 21.12 shows that the angular acceleration of the wheel is
constant and hence that the acceleration of the falling mass is constant. Since
it falls 300 cm from rest in 10 seconds we have, from the formula x = 4ar?,
300 = 50a, so that a = 6 cm/s*. Hence, since the radius of the axle is 1 centi-
metre,
6 = 6 rad/s’.
From equation (21.21)
oy=8 te
ME + 10°
giving
Mk + 10 = “e = 1635,
so that Mk* = 1625 kg cm*,

Exercises 21 (c)
1, A uniform straight rod AB of length 2a is smoothly jointed at A to a
horizontal table and is allowed to fall from rest when AB makes an
angle « with the vertical. Prove that, when the angle which AB makes
with the vertical is 0, then 2a? = 3g(cos « — cos #). Find also the
angular acceleration of the rod just before it becomes horizontal. tore
 EXERCISES =35))|
A uniform circular disc of mass 120 kg and radius 25 centimetres is free
to rotate about a horizontal axis through its centre perpendicular to its
plane. A particle of mass 30 kg is attached to the highest point of its
rim and the equilibrium slightly disturbed. Find the angular velocity, in
revolutions per minute, when the particle is passing through its lowest
position. [L.U.]

Find the kinetic energy of a uniform rigid disc of mass M and radius a
rotating with angular velocity w about an axis through its centre per-
pendicular to its plane. Prove that if it rotates about a parallel axis at a
distance $a1/2 from its centre, with the same angular velocity, its kinetic
energy will be twice its previous value. [L.U.]

A heavy circular disc of mass 20 kg and radius 1 m is capable of rotating

about its centre in a vertical plane. A mass of 10 kg is attached to the
rim at its highest point, and the whole slightly displaced. Find the angu-
lar velocity when the mass of 10 kg is at the lowest point. [L.U.]
A flywheel, 60 cm in diameter and of mass 20 kg, is keyed on to a shaft
of 15 cm diameter, which can turn freely in smooth horizontal bearings;
a long fine chain is attached to and wrapped round the axle and carries
at its other end a mass of 16 kg. The wheel is turned till it acquires a
speed of 480 r.p.m. and is then left running. Prove that it will come to
rest after about 32 more revolutions. (Neglect the mass of the axle and
chain and assume the mass of the wheel to be uniformly distributed
round its rim.)

A wheel has a cord of length 10 m coiled round its axle; the cord is
pulled with a constant force of 25 kgf, and when the cord leaves the
axle the wheel is rotating five times a second. Calculate the moment of
inertia of the wheel and axle. [L.U.]

Masses M, and M, (M,> M,) are attached to the ends of a string

which passes over a pulley, of radius a and mass M, with its axis hori-
zontal and rotating in frictionless bearings; the pulley is sufficiently
rough to prevent the string from slipping. Initially the masses hang
vertically. Prove that when they are released from rest the angular
acceleration of the pulley is 2(M, — M,)g/(M + 2M, + 2M,)a, and
that the ratio of the tensions in the two parts of the string is
M,(M + 4M,)/M,(M + 4M)). [O.C.]

Two equal masses are attached to the ends of a light string passing over
a pulley, which may be regarded as a uniform circular disc, whose plane
is perpendicular to the edge of a horizontal table, coefficient of friction
4. One mass rests on the table, the other hangs vertically and the mass of
the pulley is equal to the mass of each body. Assuming that the string
does not slip on the pulley and that the string over the table is parallel
to the table, find the acceleration of the system and prove that the ratio
of the tensions in the two parts of the string is 7:8. [L.U.]
SoZ ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

A heavy uniform rod AB of length 2a and mass M has a mass m attached

to it at B and oscillates about a horizontal axis through A. Prove that
the time of a small oscillation is 4r{(M + 3m)a/3(M + 2m)g}*. [L.U.]
10. A rod AB of length / and negligible weight has two equal weights w
attached to the end Band toa point M distant 3/from B. Find the period
of small oscillations about a horizontal axis through A. [Ew]
11. A uniform circular disc of radius a has a particle of equal mass attached
to a point A of the circumference. If the whole can turn freely about a
horizontal axis perpendicular to the plane of the disc and through the
other end of the diameter through A, find the length of the equivalent
simple pendulum. DBAS
12. Calculate the period of small oscillations of a uniform rod 6 m long,
about a horizontal axis through one end, when a particle of weight equal
to that of the rod is attached to its middle point. [0.C.]
13: The end A of the rod AB of mass M and length 2a is smoothly hinged
to a vertical post and a particle of mass m is attached at B. The system
is released from rest when AB is horizontal. Prove that the angular
velocity w of the rod when AB makes an angle @ with the horizontal is
given by 2(M + 3m)aw? = 3(M + 2m)g sin 6. Find also the angular
acceleration of the rod when 0 = 60°. [O.C.]
14. O is the centre of a uniform circular lamina of mass M and radius a; two
particles each of mass m are attached to opposite ends of a diameter
PQ. The system is free to rotate about an axis through A, a point on
PQ distant b from O, and perpendicular to the plane of the lamina;
the system is released from rest with PQ horizontal. If 0 is the acute
angle between PQ and the vertical and M = 4m, prove that the angular
velocity of the system about A is given by w*(2a* + 3b?) = 6gb cos 6.
[0.C.]
15. A uniform circular disc of mass M and radius a can rotate about a
horizontal axis through its centre perpendicular to its plane. A light
inextensible string is wound round the rim with one end attached to the
rim; to the other end is attached a particle P of mass m. Prove that, the
velocity of P when it has descended through a distance b from rest is
2{bmg/(M + 2m)}*. Find also the tension in the string. [0.C.]
Exercises 21 (d)

If the period of a simple harmonic motion is 8 seconds and the ampli-

tude 4m, find the maximum velocity and also the velocity when the
particle is 2 m from the central position. [L.U.]
A particle is performing a simple harmonic motion of period T about
a centre O, and it passes through a point P with velocity v in the direc-
tion OP. Prove that the time which elapses before its return to P is
(T/m) tan“{(vT)|(27 . OP)}. [L.U.]
 EXERCISES 553
A circle of radius a rolls with uniform angular speed on the inside of a
fixed circle of radius 2a. Prove that any point on the circumference of
the moving circle describes a straight line with simple harmonic motion.
[L.U.]
A particle moving with acceleration — 4x has coordinates x, and x, and
velocities v, and v, at any two moments. At the moment midway in
time between them its coordinate and velocity are ¥ and v. Show that
Rah oo 1 y+ xX. _ X
Vg ae vy px vy + Vg v [0.C.]

If a be the amplitude and 7 the frequency in a simple harmonic motion,

find the velocity in any position in terms of (i) the distance from the
centre, and (ii) the time that has elapsed since the particle was at rest.
Show that the time that elapses as the particle moves from the position
of maximum velocity to the position in which the velocity is half the
maximum is 1/(6m) seconds. {L.U.]

Calculate the length of a simple pendulum to beat time to a march of

100 paces per minute. In what ratio would the length have to be
decreased if the march quickened to 150 paces per minute? [L.U.]

Prove that if a pendulum swings from rest n times per second, then
& = nx’, where / is the length of the pendulum. In old French measure,
the length of the seconds pendulum (for which n = 1) at Paris is 3-06
French feet. Calculate the value of g in these units.
The period of a simple pendulum consisting of a heavy bob and a thin
wire of length / and negligible mass is 1 second when the temperature is
15°C. At a higher temperature the wire expands to a length / + Al.
Prove that now the pendulum loses approximately 43,200 A/// seconds
per day. [O.C.]

A body of mass 12 kg is suspended by a spring and makes 3 complete

oscillations per second. Find how far the string would be stretched by a
mass of 10 kg hanging at rest. [L.U.]

10. A spring loaded with a certain weight is extended 4 cm when in equili-

brium. Find the time of oscillation if the weight is pulled down a further
distance of two centimetres and let go. Find also the velocity and acceler-
ation when the weight is one centimetre below its equilibrium position.
[L.U.]

11. An elastic string of natural length 2a can just support a certain weight
when it is stretched till its whole length is 3a. One end of the string is
now attached to a point on a smooth horizontal table, and the same
weight is attached to the other end and can move on the table. Prove
that, if the weight is pulled out to any length and let go, the string will
become slack again after time 47-/(a/g). [L.U.]
554 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12. One end of a light elastic string of natural length a and modulus mg is
attached to a particle of mass m; the other end is attached to a fixed
point O. The particle is released from rest at a point 4a below O. Prove
that it returns to its initial position after a time (7 + 2)/(a/g). Prove
also that the greatest speed attained is /(2ag). [O.C.]

13. A rough horizontal table moves horizontally in simple harmonic motion,

the period being 3 seconds and the maximum speed 4 m/s. A small
heavy mass is placed on the table. Find the least coefficient of friction
required to prevent the mass from sliding on the table during the motion.

14. A small body A, of mass m, is attached to one end of an elastic string, of

natural length 6m, the other end being attached to a fixed point O;
when the body is at rest with A vertically below O, the extension is 50 cm.
If the body is raised to O and allowed to fall, prove that the maximum
extension of the string during the subsequent motion is 3m. When the
particle is hanging freely it is given a small displacement vertically
downwards and is then released from rest. Prove that the subsequent
motion is simple harmonic of period P where gP? = 27°. [O.C.]

15. A light elastic string is stretched between two points A and B, distant
2/ apart, the tension in the string being 7. A particle of mass m, attached
to the middle point of the string, is displaced a small distance per-
pendicular to AB and released. Show that the periodic time of an oscil-
lation is 27+/(4ml/T).
(The tension T may be supposed constant throughout and the approxi-
mation sin 6 = tan 6, where 6 is small, may be assumed.) [L.U.]
16. A non-uniform rod AB of mass M, whose centre of gravity is at C, is
free to rotate about a horizontal axis through O in a vertical plane
perpendicular to the axis, O lying between A and C; the moment of
inertia of the rod about the axis is and OC = h. The rod is released
from rest when OA makes an angle « with the upward vertical OV.
Prove that, when angle AOV = 6, the angular velocity w of the rod is
given by Jw® = 2Mgh(cos 8 — cos «). Deduce that if « is small the
period of an oscillation is 27+/(/Mgh). This period is the same as
that for small oscillations when a particle of mass m is attached to the
rod at D, between O and B, the length OD being H. Prove that
I= Mh. [O.C,]
17. A uniform rod AB of length 2a and mass M can rotate about a smooth
horizontal axis through A and perpendicular to the vertical plane ABC,
where C is a point at the same horizontal level as A and 2a from A.
One end of a string, of length greater than 24/2a, is attached to B and
the string passes over a small smooth peg at C carrying at the other end
a small particle P of mass m which hangs vertically. The system is
released from rest when Bis at C. Prove that the angular velocity w of
AB when the rod is vertical is given by
a(2M + 3m)w* = 3g(M — 2m1/2). [0.C.]
 EXERCISES 555
18. A uniform rod AB of length 2/ and mass M is welded to a uniform
circular disc of radius a(< 2/) and mass M, in the plane of the disc and
with the end B at its centre. The system can rotate freely in a vertical
plane about a horizontal axis through A perpendicular to the disc. If
6 denotes the angle between AB and the downward vertical and the
system is released from rest when 6 = a, prove that the angular velocity
@ of the system in the subsequent motion is given by
(32/7 + 3a”)w? = 36gl(cos 0 — cos a).
Find also the period of small oscillations if 4/ = 3a. [0.C.]
9, A lamina, of mass M, rotates freely about a horizontal axis through O
perpendicular to the lamina and / is its moment of inertia about the
axis; the centre of gravity G of the lamina is at a distance A from O;
OG is produced to L at a distance / from O, and at L a particle of mass m
is attached. Prove that if, at time t, OG makes an angle 6 with the down-
ward vertical, then (J + ml?)62 — 2g(Mh + ml) cos 6 = C, where C is
constant. Hence find the period P of small oscillations about the axis.
When the particle is detached it is found that the period of small oscil-
lations is again P; prove that J = MAl. ; [O.C.]
20. A light inextensible string, carrying masses M and m(< M), passes over
a uniform solid pulley, of mass 2m, which can rotate freely about a
fixed horizontal axis through its centre O; the groove of the pulley is
sufficiently rough to prevent the string from slipping. The system is
released from rest when M is at a distance b vertically below O. Prove
that when M is at a distance x below O,
(M + 2m)x® = 2(M — m)g(x — 5).
Hence find the ratio of the tensions in the parts of the string. [0.C.]
pal AB is a diameter of a uniform circular disc, of radius a and mass M,
which can rotate freely in its plane about a horizontal axis through A;
a particle of mass m is attached at B and, with B vertically above A, the
system is slightly disturbed. Prove that the velocity v of the particle
when AB makes an angle 6 with the upward vertical is given by
v® = 16ag(M + 2m) (1 — cos 8)/(3M + 8m).
Find also the horizontal and vertical components of the linear acelera-
tion of the particle when AB is horizontal and M = 4m. [O.C.]
The end A of a uniform rod AB, of length 2a and mass M, is freely
hinged to a fixed point, and a particle of mass }M is attached at B. If
the system is slightly displaced from rest when B is vertically above A,
prove that the angular velocity of the rod when it reaches the horizontal
position is »/(6g/5a), and find the corresponding angular Ec

23. A uniform circular lamina of radius a and mass M is fixed at its centre
to one end of a light rod of length 6 (6 > a) in its plane, the other end
of the rod being freely pivoted on a horizontal axis perpendicular to the
556 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

rod and parallel to a diameter of the lamina. The rod is moved through
an angle « from the vertical and then released from rest. If « is small,
find the period of oscillation of the approximate simple harmonic
motion. [O.C.]
A uniform rectangular plate ABCD is free to turn about a smooth
horizontal axis coinciding with the edge AB. If BC = 2b, show that the
time of a small oscillation about the position of equilibrium is
27/(4b/3g). Find the position of another horizontal axis, parallel to
AB, about which the time of a small oscillation would be equal to that
about AB. [Lu
25. A uniform circular disc of radius a has a particle of mass equal to that
of the disc fixed to its circumference. The disc can turn freely about a
fixed horizontal axis through its centre at right angles to its plane.
Show that the length of the equivalent simple pendulum for small
oscillations of the system about the position of stable equilibrium is
2a. [O.C.]
 CHAPTER 22

MATRICES

22.1 Introduction
In this chapter we consider the definitions and elementary uses of
matrices. We discuss the multiplication and factorization of matrices
and their application to the solution of linear equations. Their use in the
specification of mapping processes is also considered.

For simultaneous linear algebraic equations such as

ax + by=p (22.1)
cx +dy=q
we can think of the coefficients of x and y as a group or array of numbers
and write the array in the form

Ai ee ie a} (22.2)
Such an array enclosed in square brackets as shown above is called a
matrix or, more particularly, a square matrix or a2 x 2 matrix since it
has two rows and two columns. More general arrays with any number m
of rows and any number v of columns are called m x n matrices; for
example
1 4
B=/|0 2
Ba
isa3 x 2 matrix.
A matrix with m rows and only one column, that is am x 1 matrix
is called a column vector, or more simply a vector. Similarly a 1 x n
matrix is called a row vector and the set of components of each can, in
fact, be thought of as the components of a vector.
We shall see that such arrays can be considered as an extension of the
concept of number, much as vectors and complex numbers are, and we
shall formulate rules for the addition and multiplication of matrices.
The quantities x and y in equations (22.1) can be shown as a 2 X 1
matrix or vector denoted by x and similarly the numbers p and q as a
vector denoted by p. Thus
x= ”'] and p= Ea (22.3)
ay q.
557
558 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

We define the product of the matrices considered so far as being such

that the equation
Ax =p (22.4)
is a short way of writing equations (22.1) since all the information in the
equations is known when A, x and p are known. We thus have

AX =
eadblslesel-GI-s
a. bil ix =
ax + by

In equation (22.4) A can be said to operate on x or to multiply x; both

=>
A = p. 22.5

expressions are used.

These ideas may be extended so that, for example, if we have three
simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y, z, such as
aX + aay + a3z = p
b,x + boy a b3z = q (22.6)

CX + Coy + ogz=r

we may write the equations in the same matrix form

Ax =p (22.7)
where now
a, ag az x P
A = b; bs bs x = iV and P S q e (22.8)

Cy Co Cg zZ r

Example 1. Given that

sats.
a=[o =I i].
ge 2 4
write down the full form of the equations Ax = p. Find the vector p when
1
x= |2|
The equations are
3x 277-5 = 4
— yt Z=4, (22.9)
3x —2y+4z=r7r.
Since x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 it follows that
p=3+44+3=10, g=—-24+3=1, r=3—-4+4+12=11
and hence

=| 1}
10

11
 THE PRODUCT OF TWO
2x2 MATRICES 559
Note that when x, y, z are unknowns and p has this value the solution of equa-
tions (22.9) is

22.2 The product of two 2 x 2 matrices

The product of the two 2 x 2 matrices
A = A bE 2 B = c1 ¢2
| ~ asp Is ‘A
is defined as the 2 x 2 matrix

a ma + a.d, a,c + ee
; 22.10
bycy + bod, byCq + bode ( )
The elements in the product are the cross-products of rows of A and
columns of B. Thus the first element is the cross-product, or scalar
product (see §6.8), of the row (a, a.) and the column (c,d,), that is
a,c, + a,d,. The other elements are similarly formed and may be
remembered by the scheme
pe lcoll rowlcol |
row2coll row2col2 caer
where in each case rows refer to A and columns to B.

Example 2. Find the product AB where

1.92 ne WES
A=[> a] and B= |; ah

First fill in the matrix A twice in the product giving

ee etl. 2
a3 2a aut
Insert in this format the columns of B giving
13428 6 iT “22
Pisa’ Ks; PES COANE
Inserting plus signs and completing the arithmetic we obtain the required result
as
=[3+10 7+ 13 11
Se eG 45 reel E 20|°
Notice that a change in the order of a product changes the result and,
in general, AB 4 BA. Thus in the above example
ee Sf. 722032 44 a Ie A
aie 2-9.05°5-1.2:3 9 16]
560 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

In AB, A is said to premultiply B or B is said to postmultiply A. The

scheme shown in (22.11) applies also to a matrix premultiplying a vector
if one remembers that a vector has only one column. Thus

A[]- Bete
y bx + bey
and the product is itself a vector as seen in §22.1.

Exercises 22 (a)

2 es
A=j;-1 0 1],
37 442
write down the value of Ax
1 -—1 3
(a) when x = Ht (b) when x = a} (c) when x = 1].
1 1 3

2. With the same value of A as in Exercise 1 above, write down the value of
AB
ied 2700
(a) whenB=jJ|1 1], (b) whenB=/]1 1],
1 1 OQ. 2
1 2
(c) when
B = | —1 -i|
2 1

3. Find AB and BA when

anil ie, ol & slags:
DN E 4 and B
ie 5. dee Bk
4. Given

a-[ ik 3-5 c=L 3h

find AB, AC, BC and A(BC).

5. Find AB, BC and CA when

a-[s tb B=[5 i} c=G 7

6. Find A? and A? when
oy
Alm E Al
and verify that A(A?) = A?(A).
 THE PRODUCT OF TWO 3X3 MATRICES 561

a efosa
7. Given

find AB.

8. Find A(BC) when

eT Tae La fe? i 1
A=[j i: B=([5 4): c=[j
9. Find A? + B? given that
pari tg Ti? 1
A=[1 1} and B=} 7
10. Find AB, BC, CA and A(BC) where
_f2 0 SF r
=(5 3) B=[, gj and C=1o g!-
X2
11. If x, = [x1, Jis 21] and Xq = E > find X Xa.
v4

12. Calculate AB, BA and BB when

A= 2 3] and B= (7 a

22.3 The product of two 3 x 3 matrices —

The product of two 3 x 3 matrices A and Bis given by the gape of
cross-products
rowlcoll rowlcol2 row1col3
AB row2coll row2col2 row2col3 (22.12)
row3coll row3col2 row3col3
whence if
Qa, a, ag l1 I I;
A= by be bs and B=|m 4 Meg Ms

Ci Cao Cz Ny Ng Ng

then
Ql, + agmy, + agny ayla+ agitg+ Ashe ayl3 + aams + ashg
AB byl, + bam, + bgt, byl + baa t+bang dyls + dams + dans |.
Cyl, + catty + Cay Clg + Coa + CgNg Crlg + Calg + Cals
(22.13)
562 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 3. Find the product AB when
101 4 -—1 3
A= E 1 3. B= E Z a.
4 2 1 3 Tm
First fill in the matrix A three times in the product giving
19D 2 200 2b ieee
[2 ae ee! ee ae | 3] ,
AZ 4) Al Zig se Ss
Insert in this format the three columns of B each in its own column giving
1.4 0.2 1.3 1.—1-0.2 Isty ph ended
[24 1.2.3.3) SOS ee Bet 23> Pate
AVA 2.2 153 4.—-1,2.2 197 114,.3 2.2158
Inserting plus signs the final result is
44+0+3 —-1+0+ 7..34-0+1 Ia i, oe
ap=| 84249 —24+2+21 64243] — fale eae ys
16-443 —4+4+ 7 1244-71 ay ape t

Example 4. If A is the 3 x 3 matrix in Example 3 above, find the product AC where

i +i
c= 2 2.
Sy:
We work as before but remember that the third column
of C does not exist.
Hence the working is
1 Gk pee
2 Pe aa j]
A 2-1 4
leading to
Pea O.2r1.5 1, el ae fae
[2:4 1o2) 3... U2 MI 2 2:7|
4,4 2.2 1.3 4.~-1 2.2 1.7
and
7. 6
AC = E a]3
St tee
The above example shows that matrices of different dimensions can
be multiplied provided that the number of columns in the premultiplier
is equal to the number of rows in the postmultiplier. Such matrices are
said to be conformable and the product is not defined for matrices which
are not conformable. Thus the product CA in Example 4 above is
meaningless.

22.4 Some general definitions

(i) Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
The result of multiplying a matrix by a scalar (or number) is defined
as being the same matrix with each element multiplied by the scalar.
 SOME GENERAL DEFINITIONS 563
Thus if
2 —1 6 —3 —4 2
A= E 0] then 3A = E i and _ —2A = pe (

(ii) Addition of two matrices

Two matrices of the same shape, i.e. with the same number of rows
and columns respectively in each, can be added or subtracted simply by
adding or subtracting the elements. Thus if
2 —1 4
/ Ne 3 o| and B= f 4

then

6 5 oo 4 2
A+B=|! 3} 4B =| : ap at a=2a=[% nt
It is evident that addition is a commutative operation, ic. A+ B=
B+A.

(iii) The distributive law

The operations of matrices also satisfy the distributive law both for
addition and multiplication, that is
(A+B)+C=A+(B+O,
the quantities in brackets being added first. Also
A(B + C) = AB + AC.

(iv) Commutative matrices

In the product of two matrices A and B, the matrices are said to be
commutative if, and only if, AB = BA. For example with the matrices
in (ii) above
7 10 26 —4
AB= |) ah BA =|") zi
so that these two matrices are not commutative.

(v) The power of a matrix

Just as in elementary algebra, the powers of a matrix are defined by
products so that
A?=AxA, A? =AXAXA,
and so on.
564 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

22.5 Some particular matrices

(i) Diagonal matrices
A square matrix, that is one with an equal number of rows and
columns, whose only non-zero elements occur in the principal diagonal
is called a diagonal matrix. An example is
a 0 0
A=1i0b 0
00a

and this is often written omitting the zeros as

a
A= b
c
or as diag (a, 5, c).

(ii) Unit matrices

A diagonal matrix in which all the non-zero elements are unity is
called a unit matrix. Thus
1 1
= r 1L,'= 1 and so on.
1 1
The suffices on the I’s are often omitted if the order of the matrix is clear.
The unit matrix has all the properties of unity in ordinary algebra and
it can be easily verified that
IA = AI= A,
I=P=fe=...
(iii) The null matrix
A matrix in which all the elements are zero is called a null matrix,
denoted by 0, and has the properties of zero in elementary algebra. Thus
A0 = AO = 0.
It should be noted however that the equation AB = 0 does not imply
that either A or Bis 0. For example AB = 0 when

PN
Site Ae eo.
sii o eevnss
4

(iv) Triangular matrices

A square matrix in which all the elements above the principal diagonal
are zero is called a lower triangular matrix and one in which all the
2
 DETERMINANTS 565
elements below the principal diagonal are zero is called an upper triangu-
lar matrix. These are usually denoted by L and U respectively and
examples are
3 ee Coe |
L= 4 2 5 U= ) 4},
—1 4 1 1
the omitted elements being all zero. Either is called a unit triangular
matrix (and usually denoted by the suffix 1) when the elements of the
principal diagonal are all unity; examples are
] 14 —1
L, = 41 ’ U, = 1 4}.
—-1 4 1 1

22.6 Determinants
With any square matrix there is associated a number A which is
calculated from products of the elements of the matrix. Thus if

a=|é dat POAT ors lg

ond
(22.14)
and A is the number ad — bc. Similarly fora3 x 3 matrix
a-0" «¢ nao oe
a=[ae 7) A= |Al[=|def
Pal, J ae a |
and
Nea ea el iE” de
h : pie gh
= a(ei — hf) + b( fg — id) + c(dh — ge) (22.15)
The value of the associated determinant has often to be calculated when
solving simultaneous equations and an example of the calculation so
involved is given below.
A matrix A is said to be singular if the associated determinant / is
zero; otherwise it is said to be non-singular.
Example 5. Calculate the value of the determinant
1 Zn 3
A =|90 te3"5
2 =i 5
re 3 0 0 1
At Lj 3[+2] 5 of +3/3 =i
ie a2 646 (2) = 14.
566 ADVANCED LBVBL MATHEMATICS
22.7 The inverse matrix
The inverse of a square matrix A is a matrix, denoted by A~*, which is
such that A~!A = I. Thus to solve the simultaneous equations of §22.1,
i.e.
Ax =p
we operate on the equation with A~* giving
A-'Ax = A“3p
that is
Ix =x=A~'p
and this is the solution of the equations. It should be noted that the
inverse matrix does not exist if the determinant associated with the
original matrix is zero.
The following example shows how the inverse matrix may be calcu-
lated. This is not a very straightforward way of doing this but less
complicated methods will be used later.

Example 6. Solve the equations 2x + 3y = 8, 5x — 2y =1 by finding the inverse

of the matrix
eas
rs
Let
Se aoe
Dues cd
then, since A~?A = I we have
[2 Ait 4 _ [2a+5b 3a—2b] _ [1
e djJ({5 —2}] [2%c¢+5d 3c—2d| i|-
Hence 3a — 2b = 0, 2c + 5d = 0, 2a + 5b = 1, 3c — 2d = 1 giving
-] i a
= d=a is

Therefore
= 1= —bis Bb ge Ss
4 19 E 4
and

Gl-ell-sls -)L]
= Af2 843-1] 1g) 1
19L5.8—2.1] ~ 79138 =[3]-
Thus
x = 1, y = 2.
 EXERCISES 567
Exercises 22(b)
Given that

Find the values of A?, B?, C? and D?.

2. Find ABC and ABCD.
Find E?, F? and EF where

howe
abe
A=|/d ef and D
Ya
show that
ap bq er
AD=|dp eq fri, DA =
ip hq ir

1 12 4
L= [2 1 and Ue 2 —2
3 01 3
then
{2-4
LU=/2 6 6}.
. 3 6 15
6. If

A=/4
12
1
-1
2 and D -|1 = : |
3 0 -—3 1
show that
1 —2 -1
ie13ConaayO |-2]
3
3 0 -3
Prove that
568 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

8. Show that
a
h ¥ = abe + 2fgh — af? — bg? — ch’.
& c
9. Verify that if
Jovieet vegtl ia 4
A= 1 Sho tu) ten “Apel d bo
=i. fad pe
10. Prove that the inverse of the matrix product LU is the matrix U-*L~*
where U-1 and L~? are the inverses of U and L respectively.
ae 0 1
11. Writing K= ‘i 0 , Show that K? = —I, K° = —K and K* = L.
12. Prove that
iF ie ee 2 4-=+
00 Oj;/-1 —2 1| =0.
001 0M 0

22.8 The decomposition of a matrix

A square matrix A can, in general, be expressed as a product of the
form
A=L,U (22.16)
where U is an upper triangular matrix and L, is a lower unit triangular
matrix. The combination U,L is also possible and, as a further step
when required, U can be replaced by DU;, D being a diagonal matrix
and U, an upper unit triangular matrix. It can be shown that the decom-
position is unique.
The decomposition of a matrix in this way is not difficult to perform
and when it has been expressed in the form (22.16) it is a much simpler
process to find the inverse matrix A~* and hence to solve the equation
Ax = p.

Example 7. Express the matrix

reqies 3

in the form L,DU,.

a=[53]
Write A = LyU, that is
[3 4 ré a 0O|fb c
> —2) “Lo LW
where a, b, c and d have to be found. Carrying out the multiplication we have
E lies PD.elho. dc) Th. ne
5 =—2}” La.b+1.0 a.c+1.d}~ [ab a tall
 THE INVERSE OF A UNIT DIAGONAL MATRIX 569
Hence b = 2, c = 3, ab = 5 giving a = 5/2, ac +d = —2 giving d = —
and we thus have stadia giving 19/2

E 2 ? [si 1]il -isn]:

A further decomposition, if required, is found by writing

[’ ~i92] i. B fl[' i x [’ 7]:

Thus e = 2, f = —19/2, eg = 3 so that g= 3/2 and we have

E 2] : [si 1][’ ~192] K th

and this is of the required form.

Example 8. Express in the form A = L,U the 3 x 3 matrix

Le 2a 4
A= [2 6 é|.
5h JT SLB)

Say
Write
1 dgh

cei ii
1.d+0.0+0.0 1.g+0.e+0.0 1.44+0.1+0.f
-[«:d+1.0+0.0 a.g+1.e+0.0 ach 1.1+0:/]
d+c.0+1.0 b.g+c.e+1.0 b.h+c.i+1.f.
d g h
= E ag+e ah+i |
d bg+ce bh+cit+f.
Hence d, g, A take the values 1, 2, 4 respectively, that is the values of the first
row of A. This is always the case. Then
ad=2 giving a=2, bd=3 giving b=
ag+e=6 giving e=2, bg +ce=6 giving c=0,
ah+i=6 giving i=—-2, bh+cit+f=15 giving f=3.
Therefore
1 12 4
a=[2 i iil 2 -2].
3 0 1 3

22.9 The inverse of a unit diagonal matrix

Provided that the determinant associated with the matrix is not zero,
the inverse of a unit diagonal matrix is easily found as may be seen in
the following examples.
Example 9. Find the inverse of Ly = E i?
Writing a=
= [25
b we must have

alle =D 1]
570 ADVANCED LBVEL MATHEMATICS
and this gives
a.1+b.k a.0+56.1 myo ae al =[' |
cvl +d.k ce. 02d... list Le-Ada a) s eh
Hence b = 0,a = 1,d =1,c + k = 0 leading to c = —k and we have
mit dete
Li=|_} |:
That L~} is also a unit lower triangular matrix is not surprising and this form
might have been assumed at the start.

Example 10. Find the inverse of

1
t=[s 1 (
By 1
Assuming that L~; is a unit lower triangular matrix we write

and

‘ baie ele :
5 ae .
a 3 6. ‘
0 1
fl R 1 0]=[ 1 |
Ga!
_ae.
rile
cat+B c+y 1 1

1
3-[ oc eee | |
ap —y 4

22.10 Reduction of a system of equations

Whena system of equations can be expressed in the form L,Ux = p
and the inverse L~} of L, can be found (and this implies that |L,| + 0),
the equation can be reduced as follows. Operate on both sides of the
equation with L~}, giving
L-iL,Ux = L-}p,
that is
TUx = Ux = L}p (22.17)
and this is the reduced equation.
 REDUCTION OF A SYSTEM OF BQUATIONS 571
Example 11. Reduce the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 8, Sx — 2y = 1 to the
ove form and hence solve the equations.
The matrix of the coefficients is [3 | and this, by Example 7, can be

written

E il[? “9p |:
Hence

Le [se 1] and u=(? ~i9p2]-

Now, by Example 9 with k = 5/2,
= 1
t= [sp 4]
and so equation (22.17) becomes

’ isp] Hi =[-se li] =[-5}

' The reduced equations are therefore
2x + 3y =8, ~ Fy = -19,
giving
y = 2andx = 1.

Example 12. Solve the equations

Bidet
Using the result of Example 8, the equations can be written L,Ux = p where
1 iP 23 4
L=|2 1 | and u-| 2 -2].
0 1 3
From Example 10 with « = 2, 8 = 3, y =0, the inverse of Li is given by

ui =|-2 1 |
1

—3 0 1
so that, since Ux = Lip,

Hence
pees entire
x + 2y + 4z =2,
2y —2z= —1,
3z = —5.

The third equation gives z = —5/3, the second y = —13/6 and the first then
leads to x = 13 and this is the required solution of the equations.
 572 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

22.11 Alternative method of reduction of the system of equations

A system of equations Ax = p may be reduced to the form Ux = L~ip
by the traditional method of successive elimination of the unknowns,
and this method is often the better way of dealing with a large number of
equations especially when desk calculating machines are available. The
method is outlined in the following example for the case of three equa-
‘ tions in three unknowns.

Example 13. Solve the equations 2x + Sy — 3z =5,x —4y +z= —S and

4x + 3y —z = 10.
First reduce each equation by dividing by the coefficient of x (if this coefficient
is not zero) and so obtain the equations
% + 25y = 1-52 me 25, (22.18)
x—4y+z=-—5, (22.19)
x + 0-75y — 0:25z = 2:5. (22.20)
By subtracting equation (22.19) from (22.18) and then (22.20) from (22.19) we
have
6Sy = 2:52 = 7:5, (22.21)
—475y + 1:25z = —7°5. (22.22)
Then reduce the coefficient of y to unity in each of these equations to give
y — 0:385z = 1-154, (22.23)
y — 0:263z = 1-579. (22.24)
Subtraction then yields
0:122z = 0-425
and
z = 3-48. (22.25)
Equations (22.18), (22.23) and (22.25) can be written in matrix form as
1 25 —1:5 2°5
| ; =0385|| = [115s]
1 z 3-48
and this is of the form U,x = p. The values of x, y and z are easily deduced
as x = 1:56, y = 2:49, z = 3:48. It should be noticed that accuracy is often
sacrificed when dividing unless a large number of figures are retained in the
calculation. In this case the accurate'solution is x = 1:5, y = 2:5, z = 3-5.

22.12 Matrices as transforms

If the coordinates of a point P are (x, y) referred to coordinate axes
OX, OY and (x’, y’) referred to new axes OX’, OY’ obtained by rotating
OX, OY through an angle « (Fig. 222), the relations between the two
sets of coordinates are obtained by projecting OP on the axes OX and
OY giving
x= x'cosa—y’sina,
y=x'sina
+ y’ cos «.
 MATRICES AS TRANSFORMS 573
Y

Fic. 222

By projecting OP on OX’ and OY’ we obtain similarly the inverse

relations
x' =xcos« + ysing,
y' = —x sina + ycos«. <
In matrix notation these results are

[ea
x cosa —sin x
y sina cosa} Ly
A cos sin x
|
y
= | -
—sing
4 H
cosa}|y
(22.27)
and it is evident that one matrix is the inverse of the other, that is
cos« —sina|[cos« sina] [1
sina cosa|[—sin« cose 1]
Again if a second rotation through an angle f gives new axes OX”, OY”.

ee, Se)
with reference to which the coordinates of P are (x”, y’), it is clear that

aA l
ss pee + f) sin(« + B |al
—sin(« + 8) cos(« + f)
More generally if the scale is changed in addition to the rotation of axes
we may have a relation of the form

ble Palo
574 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
and in this case
(x’)? + (? = (p? + g?? + y”).
The mapping of a point on a plane is sometimes given as the reflection
of the point in some line. If this line passes through the origin the
mapping is found in matrix form as follows. Let (x, y) be the coordinates
of a point P and (x’, y’) those of its reflection Q in the straight line
y =xtana. Let the polar coordinates of P be (r, 6); with the line y =
x tan « as a new initial line the polar coordinates of P will be (r, 8 — «).
With respect to this new initial line the polar coordinates of Q will be
{r, — (0 — «)} and therefore the polar coordinates of Q with respect to
the x-axis will be {r, — (0 — «) + a}, that is (r, — 0 + 2a). Hence
x’ = rcos(2«— 6) = rcos
6 cos 2a + rsin
6 sin 2
= x cos 2a + y sin 2a,
y’ =rsin
(2a — @)= rcos
@sin 2« — rsin
6 cos 2«
= x sin 2x — y cos 2a,
and therefore
i v fee2a sin 2a] [x
‘ sin2« —cos2«}Ly]

Example 14. Show that the matrices that correspond to the reflection of a point in
the lines y = —x tan « and y = x tana are respectively
_ [|cos 2« —sin 2« _ [ cos 2« sin 2«
M. —sin 2x —cos ses) and M= he 2% —cos al ;
Show further that the combination of these reflections in the order first M, and
then Mg is equivalent to a counter-clockwise rotation about the origin through an
angle 4a.
The value of Mg has been given above and that for Mj is obtained by writing
—ain place of x. The matrix for the combined transform in the required order is
MLM, = he 2a sin 2a][cos2e —sin 2a
oe sin 2x —cos 2a) |_—sin 2x —cos 2a
cos? 2x — sin? 2xe —2 sin 2« cos 2«
2 sin 2a cos 2« cos? 2a — sin? 2«
so that
[7] — [cos4a —sin 4a] [x
; sin4da cos 4a ]
and this, from equation (22.26), corresponds to a rotation of 4« about the origin.

Exercises 22(c)
1. Express in the form L,U the matrix

Lr ol
 EXERCISES 575
Find the inverse of the matrix
1
2: 4 :
3 41
Assuming it also to be a unit upper triangular matrix, find the inverse of
)ae 3
L, =f}.
1
Express in the form L,DU the matrix
cfae ae
eee aE
6 =Fe7
Reduce the simultaneous equations x + 3y = 4, 3x + 2y = 5 to the
form Ux = L” ip and hence solve the equations.
Reduce the simultaneous equations x + y + z = 2, 2x + 3y —z=8
and 4x + Sy + 3z = 10 to the form Ux = L“}p.
Solve by the method of §22.11 the equations 2x — y + 5z = 27,
3x — 2y — z= —3, 4x + 3y + 2z = 24.
Solve by the method of §22.11 the equations 2y + 3z = 13,
4x — 4y + 5z2=19,2x +y—z=1.
Show that the reflection of the point (x, y) in the line y = x tan a is
given by x’ = Ax where
cos 2a sin 4
A=|.in2a —cos 20
Find the reflection of the line y = x.
10. The transformation A = e 4 maps the point (x, y) of a plane on to
the point (x’,y’), i.e. x’ = Ax. Find the equation of the line onto which
the line x + y = 0 is mapped. Find also the values of m for which the
line y = mx is mapped onto itself.

Exercises 22(d)
Evaluate as a single matrix the product diag (a, bi, c1) diag (aa, ba, ¢2).
Evaluate as a single matrix A? — 4A where
;ae ae
A=/|2
1 2}.
@ 62at
If
2 1 y
Ae" 2-
2 —-2 -1
show that A? = 9A.
Find the possible pairs of values of x and y which satisfy the equation

> 2 -4][3|-L2
576 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Find the inverse of the matrix

By solving the equations

Be dele
find the inverse of the matrix
i i a 4
B=/01 1}.
0-4
If the matrices A and B are those given in Exercises 5 and 6 above, find
the inverse of the product AB.
Express as a product of linear factors the determinant
a b c
b+ecta atb\.
be ca ab

Evaluate the determinants :—

Gall 1 (ii) | 1 1 1
45 61, 1 l+a 1
8 9 10 1 1 1+ 5
10. Express as a product of linear factors
4 aie Tp) “ay
tot Dty(ace 2y 1 :
a+1 1 (a + 2)?

11. Find A~? when

je AE)
A= |2 0 1
4 zeny
and hence solve the simultaneous equations x — 3y = a, 2x + z = b,
4x+y+3z= Cc.
12. If a+ 2b+c=p,
b+ 2c =q, 3a+ 4c =r find a 3 x 3 matrixA
such that

13. IfA= i“ | show that

At ee eA = |Al
and hence find A~? whena = 2,b = 3,c=4,d= 8.
 EXERCISES 577
14. Find the inverse of the matrix
0.0
Devls0
ce ae |
and hence solve the simultaneous equations x =a, 2x+ y=),
4x + 3y + z =c in the cases
a 1 2

b| =|5 and 3].

rid i 8

tr, Y? = (X + Y)?.
Lie E “4 and Y = fe =] show that X2 +

16. Show that

PP Haka sa 2 1 0 a 078
a 0 a 0 => = =f) S28 tss= 10
0 0 a ¢g 0 0 a

17. If
M(2) = Es ® sin Eh
sin « cos
show that
(i) M(«)M() = M(8)M(«) = M(« + ),
(ii) M?(«) = M(2z),
(ii) M(«)M(—«) = I.

18. If xisa single column matrix with elements x, y, z, x’ is a single row

matrix with the same elements, and
ah g
A= |h b fi,
fire
show that
x’AX = ax? + by? + cz? + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy.
1g. Solve the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y + z = 9, x + 2y + 3z = 6,
3x + y + 2z = 8.
20. If A’ is the matrix obtained from a square matrix A by interchanging its
rows and columns and if A’ is the matrix obtained from A’ by replacing
its elements by their complex conjugates, the matrix A is said to be
Hermitian if A’ = A. Show that
1 1-—i 2
A=|/1+i 3 i
2 -—i 0
is Hermitian.
 CHAPTER 23

STATISTICS

23.4 Introduction
In this chapter we consider statistical methods of arranging and classify-
ing numerical results obtained from experiment or observation.
The method employed for the classification of the results is the same
whether the results be the breaking strengths of steel bars, the heights of a
nuinber of individuals, thé daily takings of a shop, marks obtained in an
examination or any set of numbers derived from a common source.
The first, and most obvious, way of describing a set of numbers is to
quote their average value. Thus we have the average number of runs
scored by a cricketer, the average number of eggs produced daily by a
poultry farm, the average life of an electric-light bulb, etc. In statistics
the average of a set of numbers is called the mean, and the first step in
analysing any set of numbers is to find their mean. In dynamics the mean
is associated with the position of the centroid; thus the mean distance of
the particles of a lamina from an axis in its plane is the distance of its
centroid from the axis.
The second statistical parameter used to describe a set of numbers is
called the standard deviation, and is usually denoted by the Greek letter
sigma. This quantity o is a measure of the spread of the set of numbers
about the mean, and corresponds to the radius of gyration about an axis
through the centroid in dynamics. It measures the compactness of a set
of numbers. For example, if the average mark of a number of students in
an examination was SO per cent, the marks might be closely grouped
around 50 per cent or they might be spread over values ranging from
0 to 100 per cent. In the former case the value of o would be small, in the
latter case it would be comparatively large.

23.2 The mean, standard deviation and variance

Let a set of n numbers be x,, x,...x,, Then the mean x of the set of
numbers is defined by the equation
 MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE 579
The standard deviation o of the set of numbers is defined by the equation

o?= -{(x
1
1 —X)? + (%—¥)? +... + (0, -8)7},

The quantity a, which is the square of the standard deviation, is

called the variance of the set of numbers.
The quantity x,—xX is called the deviation of the number x, from the
n

mean. The sum of the deviations from the mean, )’ (x,—x), is zero,
> r=1
from the definition of the mean. The sum of the squared deviations, how-
ever, is not zero unless all the numbers of the set are equal, and the variance
is the mean value of the squared deviations from the mean.

Example 1. A light rod has particles of unit mass fixed at distances of 3, 7, 8, 12, 15 cm from
one end of the rod. Find the distance of the centre of gravity of the system from the end of
the rod and the radius of gyration about an axis through the centre of gravity perpendicular
to the rod. Show that these lengths are equal to the mean and standard deviation of the set
35758, 12:15 iin:
The distance X of the centre of gravity from the end of the rod is given by

K = 234748412415)
= 9'cm.
The moment of inertia of the masses about the axis is given by
I = (3—9)?+(7—9)? +(8 — 9)? +(12—9)? + (15 — 9)?,
= 36+44149+36,
= 86.
Also I = 5k?, where k is the radius of gyration,

[ed esyiba es
k = 415 cm.
The values of x and k are obtained by the same methods as the mean and standard
deviation of the numbers.
Hence, for this set of numbers

23.3 Second moment of a set of numbers

Just as in dynamics we may calculate the moment of inertia about an
axis which does not pass through the centroid, so in statistics the second
moment of a set of numbers x,, X2,...x, about a value x = a is denoted
by y,(a) and defined by the equation
580 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

h(a) = *((x,— a)? +(xq—a)? +... Hq @)"},

The variance is, therefore, the second moment about the mean.
The second moment of the set of numbers 3, 7, 8, 12, 15 cm about the
value zero is

1,(0).= 537+ 7 +8 + 122 +152},

= £19+49+64+ 1444225},

= 98:2.
If the numbers are considered as the distances from the end of the rod
at which particles of unit mass are fixed to the rod, it is easily seen that
L,(0) = 98-2 is the square of the radius of gyration of the weighted rod
about an axis perpendicular to the rod through its end.
Corresponding to the parallel axis theorem for moments of inertia
we have an important relation between the second moment and the
variance of a set of numbers, namely
U,(a) = 0? +(x—a)’. (234)
We have
1 n

,(a) a ms (x,—a)’,
n r=1
1 n : 2a n az n

a: », a a rk »

gig gadring
Ny=y

Also, a” = (x),

= :Y. x,7 — 2%? + x?.

r=1

Therefore,
H,(a)—a? = xX?—2ax+a?,
L1,(a) = 0? +(%—a)’.
 CALCULATION OF MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION 581
Thus for the set 3, 7, 8, 12, 15 cm, we found
o? = 17-2,
H2(0) = 98:2,
H(0)—o? = 81,
ms
When calculating the mean and standard deviation of a set of numbers
it may be found that the mean is not a whole number and thus each of
the deviations x,—x will contain fractions or decimals. In this case it is
very much simpler to calculate the second moment about an integer
value x = a, and deduce the value of the standard deviation from the
equation (23.1). It should be noted that the variance is always less than
the second moment about any other value of x.

23.4 Calculation of the mean and standard deviation

The arithmetic of the calculation of the mean and standard deviation
is simple, but to avoid errors it is essential that some of the elementary
rules of computation should be observed. Thus, digits must be clearly
formed and equally spaced, numbers which are to be added must always
be arranged in columns and never in rows, and the digits to be added
must also form a vertical column. No subsidiary calculation should be
done on rough paper and the whole should be so arranged that every
figure can be quickly checked by another computor.
In calculating the mean, the computation is often simplified if a rough
approximation to the mean is taken and the difference between the mean
and this approximation computed.
Thus, for a set of numbers x,, X3,...x, let a be an approximate value
of the mean.
Writing
xX, =a+Z,,
we have a set of numbers z,, and we have

That is X = atzZ,
where Z is the mean of the quantities Z,. It is often convenient to calculate
the second moment about the same approximation to the mean. Then
we have 12
h(a) ma n ys (x,-a)?,
r=1

Dew 5
* fe ay

and o? = p,(a)— 2.
582 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 2. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the breaking strengths of 16 steel bars
in the following table:
Breaking Strengths (N/m?)
367 359 38:2 376
35:8 36:4 37:3 365
37:9 367 36°6 34:5
38:3 36°5 368 38-1
Let x, be the breaking strength of r™ bar; taking a = 34-5 as a first approximation
to the mean we write x, = 345+z, and tabulate the quantities z, and z,? so as to
calculate Z and y,(a). The values of z,? may be written down from a table of squares.
5% Z

36:7 2-2
35-8 1-3
37-9 3-4
38-3 3-8
35:9 1-4
36-4 1:9
36:7 22
36°5 2:0
38-2 3-7
37:3 28
36:6 2:1
36:8 OS
37-6 3-1
36:5 2:0
34:5 0
38-1 3-6

Total 37:8
Mean 2:3625

Hence Z = 2-3625,
Gi 54:5,
xX = 368625,
H2(a) = 654625,
z? = 5°58141,
o* = 0:96484,
o = 0-982.
Since the original figures are given to one place of decimals only, we may write
X = 36:86 N/m?,
o = 0:98 N/m?.

EXERCISES 23 (a)
1. Find the mean and standard deviation of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3,4, 5,.6, 7,
8, 9, 10.
2. Find the second moment about the value 2 of the natural numbers 1 to 10.
 EXERCISES 583
. Twelve measurements of a length in cm are:
125 136 131 128 D27 133
129 129 134 132 133 130
Find the mean and standard deviation of the measurements.
. Ten rounds fired from a gun at the same elevation fall at the following distances
in m from the gun:
9875 9842 9920 9894 9873
9901 9863 9876 9910 9859
Find to the nearest m the mean range and standard deviation.
. Eight measurements of an angk are:
2 25 32° 72° 25' 49" 72° 25' 45” 722.25; 30"
fe 2528 7225 37° 72° 25' 40” Te esas
Find the mean and standard deviation.
. The mean of a number of measurements is 25 m and their second moment
about the value 20 m is 50 (m)?. Find their standard deviation and their second
moment about the value 28 m.
. The breaking strengths of 16 steel specimens in N/m? are:
32:3 33-1 332 32:9 326 32:8 32:8 32:7,
33'3 33-0 32:7 32:9 32:8 33-0 33:5 32:8
Find the mean breaking strength and the standard deviation.
. The weights in lb of twelve individuals are:
140 162 175 144 164 182
150 164 192 152 161 194
Find the mean weight and the standard deviation.
. The atmospheric pressure in millibars at Kew at noon on ten successive days
was

995, 993, 989, 994, 994, 1014, 1016, 1015, 1015, 1016.
Find the mean pressure and its standard deviation.
10. Six measurements of the extension in centimetres ofa steel bar under a load were:
0-241, 0-238, 0-244, 0:250, 0-240, 0-245.
Find the mean extension and the standard deviation.
11. The number of faulty articles produced by a machine in ten successive shifts
were:
47, 32, 29, 48, 53, 65, 84, 41, 52, 45.
Find the mean number and the standard deviation.
12. The marks, out of 100, obtained by 18 students in an examination were
72 35 50 55 93 13
28 45 84 49 70 a4
52 70 54 23 54 69
Find the mean mark and the variance.
584 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

13. A sample containing n, members has mean M, and standard deviation oj.
A second sample of n, members has mean M, and standard deviation 0}.
Show that the common mean of the samples is (n,M,+n,M,)/(n,+n,) and
that their common variance about this mean is
nyo,? +n20,7 n,n,(M,—M,)"
n, +n, (n, +n,)?

14, Ten numbers have mean 32 cm and standard deviation 2:5 cm. Twelve other
numbers have mean 33 cm and standard deviation 3 cm. Find the mean and
standard deviation of the twenty-two numbers taken together.
15. The table below gives the annual sunshine in hours, rounded to the nearest
10 hours, at a certain meteorological station. Find the mean annual sunshine
in this 10-year period and the standard deviation.
Year 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949
Sunshine 1470 1200 1300 1470 1190 1470 1300 1430 1360 1580

[L.U.]
16. Define the mean and standard deviation ofa distribution. In a given distribution,
M is the mean and a the standard deviation. When a provisional mean M’ is
chosen, the corresponding provisional standard deviation is found to be a.
Prove that 0,7 = 0? +(M—M’)’. Explain briefly the advantage of this procedure
in numerical work. [L.U.]

23.5 Frequency distributions

When a large number of values of a quantity are obtained it is often
impracticable to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the set
by the methods considered in the previous sections. For example, if there
were 1000 values of the quantity, the computation would extend over
several pages. A large set of this kind is dealt with by first of all reducing it
to what is called a frequency distribution. The range of values of the quantity
is divided into a certain number of intervals, the number of values falling
in each interval is found, and this is called the frequency of the quantity
in the interval. For example, let the heights of 50 individuals be given in
the following table, where for convenience the heights are arranged in
order of magnitude.

Heights of 50 individuals (in)

647 659 666 670 67:3 67:7 679 681 687 69:3
650 661 666 670 674 677 679 683 687 69-7
656 663 667 671 676 678 680 683 688 700
657 664 668 672 676 678 680 684 689 703
657 664 669 672 676 678 680 686 690 704
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS 585
The range of variation is from 64-7 to 70-4 in, so we may take six intervals
each of one in, that is the intervals are
64:5-65:5, 65:5-66°5, 66:5—-67-5, 67-5-68-5, 68:5-69:5, 69:5-70°5.

The number of individuals whose heights fall in these intervals are

respectively,
7 a VS a We eg a:

and these are the frequencies for the intervals. It is usual to specify each
interval by its central value. Thus we have the set of SO heights of indi-
viduals reduced to the following frequency distribution:

Centre of Interval (in) | 65 66 67 68 69 70 | Total

Frequency 2 8 12 17 ii 4} 50

The mean and standard deviation are then calculated by assuming that
all the individuals in each interval have a value exactly equal to that of
the centre of the interval.
The method of calculating the mean and standard deviation of a
frequency distribution will be considered in §23.7.
In the formation of a frequency table the number of intervals which is
required will usually depend on the nature of the observations which
are recorded and their accuracy, but more than twenty intervals for a
frequency distribution would be unusual. A difficulty arises when a
number of the set falls exactly on the dividing line between two intervals,
and this is sometimes counted as halfa frequency for each of the intervals.

23.6 Graphs of frequency distributions

‘A frequency distribution can be represented graphically by plotting
the intervals on a horizontal axis and drawing a line parallel to the axis
above each interval at a height such that the area is proportional to the
frequency in that interval. Such a diagram is called a histogram.
For example, let the frequency distribution be the following, which
gives the breaking strength of 120 steel bars.
Centre
; of Interval
(N/m?) 305.. :
3107315. 320": °325 33:0 33:5 340] Total
ota

Frequency

The intervals are 30-25 to 30-75, 30:75 to 31-25, etc. and the histogram
is as shown in Fig. 223.
586 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

305 310 315 320 325 330 335 34-0

Fic. 223.

A frequency distribution may also be shown graphically by what is

called a frequency polygon, by plotting a value equal to the frequency for
the interval above the centre of each interval and joining the points by
straight lines. Thus, the frequency polygon for the distribution of the
breaking strength of steel bars is as shown in Fig. 274.
In a histogram the horizontal portions of lines which represent the
frequencies are usually joined up to the axis by vertical lines, so that the
diagram consists of a number of rectangles, and it is the areas of these
rectangles which give to the eye a picture of the frequency distribution.
The relative frequency for any interval is defined as the frequency for that
interval divided by the total frequency, and for a histogram the scale to
which the frequencies are plotted is not of great importance, since the
picture presented to the eye is of the relative frequencies of the intervals.
When the total frequency is small, a histogram or a frequency polygon
will usually be somewhat irregular in form, but with a larger total frequency
the irregularity often disappears and the element of chance in the selection
of the original observations will have less effect. We may thus arrive at a
graph of regular shape, and a smooth curve may be drawn to fit the

305 310 315 32:0 325 330 335 340

Fic. 224.
 MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION 587
histogram or frequency polygon. The areas under the curve above each
interval would then give a picture of the relative frequency for that interval.
This curve might then be regarded as giving a picture, not only of the
observations actually recorded, but of all possible observations of the
quantity which is being measured. Thus, for example, from a curve which
fitted the diagram of breaking strengths of 120 steel bars one would be
able to deduce the distribution of the breaking strength of a large con-
signment of steel bars, of which the 120 tested were a sample.

23.7 Mean and standard deviation

In calculating the mean and standard deviation of a frequency distri-
bution it is assumed in the first instance that each frequency is associated
with the centre of its respective interval.
Let x,, X2,...x,, be the centres of the intervals, f;, f;,...f,, the correspond-
ing frequencies and N the total frequency.
Then N =f, tf.+...+f,

= yt:

The mean X is defined by the equation

getath im
Y= N Li

The variance o? is defined by the equation

oF = yD Seles —¥)
1 n
?A le no)

The second moment of the distribution about a value « is defined by

the equation
Hila) = 5 YH,—2
We have also

H,(a) = “p>fx - a2, Je

x,+5
; 5je

ss 7, f,x,? —2aX
+ a,

= ay" hme LSet hy

> 3So
Nae
ie
iM:=
"
® = Oe ee
588 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Hence,
H(a)—a? = X?—2aX+07,
H,(a) = 07 +(%—a)’.
This is the formula already obtained in § 23.3 which enables us to
deduce the value of the variance from the value of the second moment
about an arbitrary value.

23.8 Calculation of the mean and standard deviation

Let x,, X>,...x, be the centres of the intervals, f;, f,...f, the corresponding
frequencies and N the total frequency.
Let a be a first estimate of the mean, and let
xX, — Ona gs

X2 => A+ Z,

gy

Then NE Matz

= ats, D Sitn
IY

a+2, where Z is the mean of the frequency

distribution for z.

To calculate the values of Zand y,(«) we need to form the sums of the
quantities fz and fz’. This is done by drawing up a table in which succes-
sive columns are values of x,, f,, z, fz, Siz," In this table the terms in the
fourth column are products of terms in the second and third columns,
and terms in the fifth column are products of terms in the third and fourth
columns. The sum of the fourth column is NZ and the fifth column
Np,(a).
Example 3. The weights of 100 adults are given in the following frequency table:
Centre of Interval (kg)

Frequency
 SHEPPARD’S CORRECTION 589
Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

Centre of
Interval, x

Hence Za 22
e107 2
H2(a) = 68:5,
Zz? = 484,
a? = 63:66,
o = 7-98.
Thus the mean is 67-2 kg and the standard deviation 7-98 kg approximately.

23.9 Sheppard’s correction

The assumption that each frequency is associated with the centre of
its interval causes a certain loss of accuracy in the calculation of both
mean and variance. In the case of the mean this is negligible since, if the
assumption causes overestimates of values of the set which are less than
the mean it usually causes underestimates of values greater than the
mean, and the errors tend to balance out.
In the case of the variance, the deviations from the mean are squared,
and these deviations tend to be overestimated by assuming all frequencies
to be related to the centres of their intervals. This is evident when the
graph of the frequency distribution tapers away on each side of the mean.
The overestimate of the deviations causes the variance as calculated to be
too large, and an allowance is made for this by subtracting from the
calculated variance the quantity c?/12, where c is the magnitude of an
interval of the distribution.
Denoting the corrected variance by a,”, we have
Diy ped ee
Co) =a) 12°

This is known as Sheppard’s correction for grouping.

590 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Example 4. Jn the example of §23.8, we found

a? = 63-66.
The class interval for the distribution is 5 kg and we have
ctVlad et25
= 2085
Therefore o,? = 61-58,
o, = 785 kg.
The corrected value of the standard deviation is therefore 7:85'kg.

EXERCISES 23 (6)
1. The heights of 50 individuals in inches are given in the following table to the
nearest inch. Form a frequency distribution of the heights and draw a histogram
of the results.

Calculate the mean of the distribution.

. The crushing load in kN on 40 wooden cubes is given in the following table.

Form a frequency distribution with intervals of 0-5 KN centred at 6 KN, 6:5 kN,
etc. Draw a histogram and a frequency polygon of the distribution and calculate
the mean.
7-76 8:51 8:96 6:66 6:92 7-02 7-40 8-69
6°48 7:50 8:84 7-62 53 7-59 8:07 7:28
8:05 7:16 9-35 6:14 8-42 7:96 6:98 8:31
8:39 9-12 7:94 9:22 8:16 6:30 Itz 8:20
9:56 7:32 6:87 7:99 8:56 7-12 7:24 7:82
. The marks out of 10 obtained by 100 candidates in an examination are given in
the following frequency table:

Frequency

Draw a frequency polygon and calculate the mean and standard deviation.
4. Find the mean and standard deviation of the grouped distribution:
Centre of Interval = 25 27 29 31 33 35 |
Total

Frequency 2 13 24 25 9 2 75
 EXERCISES 591
. Twenty-five measurements of a length in centimetres are given in the following
frequency table, the readings being grouped to the nearest centimetre:
Centre of Interval 215 276 277 9278 279 280:9:281r 282 Total

Frequency 1 2 3 4 8 4 2 1 25
Find the mean and standard deviation.
. An article is being manufactured to a mass specification of 25 kg. Thirty finished
articles are measured and their masses in grammes above or below 25 kg are
given in a frequency table in which the interval is 1 g:
Centre of Interval -4 -3 -2 -1 UP es Ts eee 3 ee 4 Total

Frequency | 1 2 1 O92 iad A Je oem 30

Find the mean weight and standard deviation.
. The heights of SO individuals are given in the following table, grouped in a
frequency distribution with an interval of one inch:
Centre of Interval 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 | Total

Frequency 1 5 12 14 10 6 2 50

Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

. The following frequency table gives the crushing load in kN on 40 wooden
cubes, grouped with an interval of 0-5 kN:
Centre of Interval 6:0 65 7-0

Frequency

Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

. Twenty observations of an angle are made. The following table gives the dif-
ferences in seconds of the observations from 20° 32’ 25” to the nearest second:
Centre of Interval —4 —3 —2 —1 0 1 i 3 | Total

Frequency 1 1 4 7 3 1 2 1 20
Find the mean value of the observations and their standard deviation.
10. The breaking strengths in kN/m? of 100 specimens are given in the following
frequency table:
Centre of
Interval

Frequency 1
Find the mean and standard deviation.
i. The birthrate per thousand of the population in 60 towns is given in the following
table, where the frequency is the number of towns whose birthrate lies in each
interval :
Birthrate (centre
of Interval)

Frequency
Find the mean birthrate and the standard deviation.
592 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

12. From the records of accidents in a large factory a table is drawn up showing
the number of shifts in which 0, 1, 2, etc. accidents occurred.
Accidents per shift 0 1 Zz 3 4 5 6 | Total

Number of shifts 652 243 97 21 6 0 1 1020

Find the mean number of accidents per shift and the standard deviation.
13. The masses in pounds of 250 adults are given in the following frequency table
with an interval of 10 Ib:
Centre of
Interval |120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 | Total

Frequency) 4) 12 ~25 30 37 4im 35,9 32.9 25 7 2 e250)

Find the mean and standard deviation.
14. A hundred rounds are fired from a machine gun at a fixed elevation and their
ranges in metres beyond a mark 2000 m from the gun are given in the following
frequency table:
Centre of Interval 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 | Total

Frequency 2 Si 14 28 25 18 tf 1 100
Find the mean range and the standard deviation.
15. The heights in inches of 2000 adults is given in the following frequency table:
Centre of Interval : 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

Frequency 7 22 34 TS ~ 113 AGS 9252 QRSe 277

Centre of Interval 68 69 70 71 72 73 | Total

Frequency 268 218 131 87 49 14 |2000

Find the mean and standard deviation.
16. The frequency distribution of the numbers 0, 1, 2,...n, is such that the frequency
of the number r is "C_ Show that the total frequency is 2", the mean is 4 and

the variance is -

17. A batch of 200 metal bars was made to a supposed length of 34 cm. On
measurement the number n of bars of length / was found to be:
l 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Si 38 39

n 4 8 23 35 62 44 18 4 1 1
Draw a frequency diagram and calculate (i) the mean length, (ii) the standard
deviation from the mean. [L.U.]
18. Define the mean and standard deviation of a set of observations. In the following
table fis the frequency of an observation x.
x |iF, 29 3-1 3:3 3:5 377

if pd 7 15 21 12 3
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of x. [L.U.]
 PARAMETERS OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 593
23.10 Parameters of a frequency distribution
The two chief parameters which are used to describe a set of values of
a quantity are the mean and the standard deviation. In this section we
consider some other numbers which are used to describe a set.

(a) The median

The median is defined as the middle number of a set when the
numbers are arranged in order of magnitude, or as being such that
there are the same numbers of values greater and less than it. If the
number of values in the set is even, the median is taken as half-way
between the two middlemost values. In a frequency distribution the
median is calculated on the assumption that individuals grouped in
each interval are spread uniformly over the interval.
Example 5. Find the median of the distribution.
Centre of Interval (cm) 25 27

Frequency 2 13
The median will be the value corresponding to the 38th individual, that is, since
there are 15 in the first two intervals, of the 23rd individual in the third interval. The
interval is from 28 to 30 cm, and the 24 individuals are assumed to be spread over the
interval, therefore the median
23
= 28+ 24 aps

==329-92.6m:

(b) The quartiles

The quartiles are values of a set which divide it into four equal sets.
Thus the first quartile is such that if the numbers are arranged in order
of magnitude 25 per cent of them are less than it and 75 per cent of
tham are greater. The second quartile is identical with the median,
the third quartile is such that 75 per cent of the numbers are less than
it and 25 per cent greater. One half of the difference between the first
and third quartiles is called the semi-interquartile range.
To obtain the quartiles of a frequency distribution of total Bren
: N
N we can consider the first quartile as being the value of the + th
‘ 2(N +1
Jen
individual, the second quartile or median as the value of the ayA+1)
3(N+1)., .
individual, and the third quartile as the value of the a thin-

dividual. If these numbers are fractions the quartiles are fractions of

the differences between individuals.
594 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Example 6. Find the first and third quartiles and the semi-interquartile range of the distribution:

Centre of Interval (cm)

Frequency

The first quartile is the value of the 19th individual and the third quartile the value
of the 57th. i ee
The 19th individual lies in the interval 28 to 30 cm and is the 4th in this interval.
Therefore the first quartiles
4
=n +54 x pm

= 28-33 cm.
The 57th individual lies in the interval 30 to 32 cm and is the 18th in this interval.
Therefore the third quartile

= 304582,
= 31-44 cm.
The semi-interquartile range
= 31-44—28:33
er, ae

=D ise iiaire

(c) The mode

The mode is defined as the value ofa set corresponding to a maximum
of a curve drawn to fit the frequency distribution. The mode is thus
the value of greatest frequency. The mode can only be determined by
finding the curve that fits the distribution, but it is sometimes taken
as being the centre of the interval with the greatest frequency. This
is not very satisfactory since it makes the value, of the mode depend
on the size of the interval.
When a distribution is symmetrical about the mean, the mean,
median and mode coincide. When a distribution is slightly asym-
metrical the mean, median and mode occur in this order (which is
alphabetical order) or in this order reversed, that is, the median lies
between the mean and the mode. An empirical relation for slightly
asymmetrical distributions which gives surprisingly good results is
Mode— Mean = 3 (Median — Mean).
This gives a better estimate of the mode than the centre of the
interval of greatest frequency.
When the magnitudes in a frequency distribution are not grouped
and the frequencies relate to exact values, the median is the exact
value to which the middle frequency belongs, and the mode may be
taken as the value with the highest frequency.
 PARAMETERS OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION 595
Example 7.
For the distribution:
Centre of Interval (cm) | 25 27 29 31 33 35 Total

Frequency 2 13 24 25 9 2 75
the mean is 29-85, and the median was found in §23.10 (a) to be 29-92 cm.
Therefore
Median— Mean = 0:07,
Mode— Mean = 0:21,
Mode = 30-06 cm.

(d) Skewness
When the mode does not coincide with the mean the distribution
is said to be skew, and a curve drawn to fit the distribution will tail
off more rapidly on one side of the mean than on the other.
The skewness of a distribution is sometimes measured by a formula
due to Pearson, namely,
Mean — Mode
Skewness =
Standard deviation
Using the empirical relation between the mode and the median,
this gives
3(Mean — Median)
Skewness =
Standard deviation’
This gives positive skewness if the mean has a greater value than
the median and negative skewness if the mean is less than the median.

Example 8.
For the distribution:
- Centre of Interval (cm) | 25 27) 29 31 33 35 Total

Frequency 2 13 24 25 9 2 75
mean = 29-85 cm,
median = 29-92 cm,
standard deviation = 2-07 cm,
0-21
skewness = —
2-07
= —0-1 approximately.

(e) Coefficient of variation

The standard deviation shows the variation of a set of quantities,
and the standard deviation expressed as a percentage of the value of
596 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

the mean gives a measure of variation independent of the units of the

set. This is called the coefficient of variation, C, and we have
— 100a
x
The coefficient of variation can be used to compare the variability
of distributions whose units are different.
Example 9.
For the distribution given in §23.10 (d) we have
x = 29-85 cm,
o = 2:07 cm,

C= 595
gos

23.11 The normal distribution

The histograms or frequency polygons of a large number of distribu-
tions derived from experiment or from observation of natural phenomena
are found to fit very closely to a curve, known as the error curve, whose
equation is
1 (x—m)?
alia 2e2 >»

where m is the mean of the distribution and a its standard deviation.

The shape of the error curve is that of a cocked hat, it is symmetrical
about the value x = m, and is defined for values of x running from — oo
to +00 although if x differs from the mean by more than about 3a the
value of y is negligible.

ie) xsm x
Fic. 225.
 STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN 597
The diagram (Fig. 225) shows an error curve fitting closely the histogram
of a distribution. If the fit is exact the distribution is said to be a normal
distribution and as such has several important properties.
(1) The total area included between an error curve and the x-axis is 1,
and a histogram fitting it would have the same area and would
therefore show relative frequencies.
(2) The area under the curve between any two values of x corresponds
to the relative frequency of the distribution between these two
values of x. These values of x need not be the end points of intervals
of the distribution.
(3) Almost the whole area (in fact 99-75 per cent of the area) under
the error curve is comprised between the values x = m—3o and
x = m+ 3o, and therefore almost the whole frequency distribution
will lie between these values of x.
(4) About 95-5 per cent of the total area lies between x = m—2o and
x = m+2o, 68:3 per cent between x = m—o and x = m+o, and
50 per cent between x = m—430 and x = m+3o.
(5) If we know that a distribution is normal and know its mean m and
standard deviation o, we can take m— 3a and m+ 3a as limits outside
which there is only a chance of 0-25 per cent, or 1 in 400, of an
individual value of the quantity lying.
Similarly the chance of an individual value lying outside the
limits m—2o¢ to m+2e is 45 per cent, or about 1 in 22.
These results for a normal distribution can be proved from the equation
of the error curve by methods of numerical integration which are outside
the scope of this book.

23.12 Standard error of the mean

If we have a frequency distribution of n individual numbers we can
determine the mean x and the standard deviation a of the distribution.
Now, distributions are of interest less for their own sake than as samples
of a very much larger set of results. Thus we may test the strength of steel
specimens to find out all we can about a large consignment of steel which
we do not test. We therefore regard the mean x as the mean of a sample
of n individuals and we wish to discover the magnitude of the true mean
m of the larger unsampled set.
If we take repeated samples, each of n individuals, we will get a series
of values for the mean which may be denoted by X,, X2, X3....These
means will not usually be identical, and by taking a large number of
samples we get a new frequency distribution of which each individual is
the mean of a sample of n members. This distribution is called a sampling
distribution of the mean.
598 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

An important theorem of statistics states that if a very large number

of samples were taken, the sampling distribution of the mean would
usually be very close to a normal distribution, whose mean m would be the
true mean of the numbers as a whole and whose standard deviation would
+
be nae where o is the standard deviation of the numbers as a whole and
n
n the number in the sample.

This quantity ae is called the standard error of the mean.

Jn
It follows that individual means of samples would be very unlikely
to differ from the true mean by more than 3. This is the same as saying
n
that the true mean would be very unlikely to differ from a sample mean by
more than 3-%. If we take just one sample of n members with mean x
n
and standard deviation o, and we accept o as being an estimate of the
standard deviation of the numbers as a whole, we may say that the true
mean m is very unlikely to lie outside the range,

cade tig ya
ny
We thus have, by measuring the mean and standard deviation of a
sample, a bracket for the true mean of the numbers as a whole. The
larger the sample the smaller is the value of & and the closer the deter-
n
mination of the true mean. We may use a smaller bracket for the true
mean, namely

Fe
2
Rf teeseyeia
and there is about one chance in twenty-two of the true mean lying
outside this range.
In stating the mean of a set of observations it is usual to give also the
standard error of the mean.
Thus if a sample of n has mean -X and standard deviation o, we write

the mean = X¥+ sO,

vn’
this is equivalent to stating that the mean is determined to within
Ce : -
Jn
3—~ either side of x.
 EXERCISES 599
Example 10.
We found (§23.8), for 100 adults, that their mean mass was 67:2 kg with standard
deviation 7-98 kg.
If we regard these 100 adults as being a fair sample from a much larger population
and wish to determine the mean weight of the population as a whole, we have
X = 672 kg,
o = 7:85 kg,
o
= 0:785k
J100 . “4
= 0:80 kg approximately,
Seat
x= = 67:2+0-80 kg.
100 :
This is the form in which the mean would be stated, implying that the true mean of
the population is very unlikely to differ from 67-2 kg by more than about 3 x 0-80 = 2-4
kg.

EXERCISES 23 (c)
1. Find the median and mode of the grouped distribution of 100 measurements
in centimetres:
Centre of Interval |0

Frequency

2. Find the quartiles of the crushing load in kN on 40 wooden cubes, given in

the following table:
Centre of Interval | 6-0 6°5 Tew 5 8-0 8-5 90 95 | Total

Frequency 1 3 7 8 9 6 4 Z 40

3. Find the mode of the distribution given in Exercise 2 and the skewness of the
distribution.
4, Find the three quartiles of the distribution of the heights in inches of 2000 adults
given in the following table:
Centre of Interval | 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

Frequency |7 22 34 75 113 168 252 285 277

Centre of Interval 68 69 70 71 72 73 Total

Frequency 268 218 131 87 49 14 | 2000

5. Find the median, mode and skewness of the following distribution of the heights
in inches of 50 individuals:
Centre of Interval 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 | Total

Frequency | 5 12 14 10 6 21 SO
600 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

6. Twenty-five measurements of a length in centimetres are given in the following

frequency table:
Centre of Interval 275.276. 277. 2789279. ~2800" 281 SO2824 Total

Frequency 1 2 3 4 8 4 i ee 25
Calculate the skewness and the coefficient of variation.
. For the distribution given in Exercise 4, find the skewness and the coefficient
of variation.
. Two thousand candidates were given a test, the marks for which were zero or
one of the integers 1 to 20. The following table gives the number of candidates
obtaining various marks:
Mark 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 fi 8 9 10

Frequency 6 39 43" 82 4 ay sd. St 89 ns

Mark 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Frequency 187 = 145 89 84 63 38 14 10 6 4

Find the mean, mode and median of this distribution and plot a frequency
polygon. The standard deviation of this distribution is 3-76; find the value of
Pearson’s measure of its skewness from the formula (Mean—Mode)/Standard
Deviation. [L.U.]
. Assuming that the heights of 50 individuals given in Exercise 5 are a sample
from a normally distributed population, find limits within which the heights of
99-75 per cent and 95-5 per cent respectively of the population should lie. Show
that 50 per cent of the heights should lie between 64:19 and 65-93 inches.
10. Assuming that the distribution of crushing loads on wooden blocks given in
Exercise 2 is a sample from a normally distributed set of crushing loads, find
99-75 per cent and 95:5 per cent limits for crushing loads.
11. Twenty observations of an angle are made and the following table gives the
differences of the observations from 20° 32’ 25”, to the nearest sec:

Centre of Interval

Frequency
Find the mean with its standard error.
12. The heights of 2000 individuals given in Exercise 4 have mean 66-62 in and
standard deviation 2°67 in. Assuming that these heights are a sample from a
large normal population, give limits (99-75 per cent limits) outside which it is
unlikely that the mean height of the population will lie.
13. The masses in pounds of 250 adults are given in the following table with an
interval of 10 Ib:
Centre of
Interval 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 Total

Frequency
Find the mean with its standard error.
 EXERCISES 601

14. Twenty steel bars from a large consignment are tested and their breaking
strength in kN/m? is given in the following table:
Centre of Interval | 30:0 30-4 30-8 31:2 31:6 32:0 32-4 Total

Frequency 1 1 3 5) 4 4 2 20

Give limits outside which the mean breaking strength of the consignment is
unlikely to lie. Give limits outside which the breaking strength of individual
bars is unlikely to lie.
 iltrail ssi
ei
oe
e » +’
my a het
% Urrvagi (ns wi ly a paride eet
tarae AEs, ve Sli es rier Mie
oi. > wv Ver Che a on eal ohsts
ae
ei * (a oA ctiap bohie givte Penh swnje
+ % +4 ® nae
‘

* ‘ ‘
~~

, ? ad aw >

iteoe <

=f —
: ‘ = ;

: a a we 4
— i a
x a)
\ a hiss iv @

wy 44 a
-
So
: Sg
< = ’
¥ « g 1@ & _
it , t ad ¢ =

ane =
|
: a oe =
4
» oy : _ ®
i] Bic j at,
\ a i -
™

= ve 5 | 5S ” A ,

t 2 . fae
&
y thes ~ "¥ :

71
* j \ :
te
e ~
f
. °
¥ —
’ ny
ne Pect m= aba tan .
" .

- @, Iu ri cite os Wy, Parsee ues roma

"
al isg
We of
eae
ee,
td oT}
a as
a
rn a
on akeipa
dine be {its tidy —
shir al intent, Sa en
i

ar» §73 can ar7 >

7 Ty. Scat a
’ ’

aa ft
f
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES

EXERCISES 1 (a) (p. 16)

1. G ee A pena oa i LOY soaceit 4
- Gi) y’, Gi) afc*, (iii) 0. 2. (i) 6xy’, (ii) 3x*y. 3. (i) OBS (ii) Bexar

4. (i) 100, (ii) 8. 5. (i) 2, ii) 4, (ii) 3/5. 6-1-2, 1, 0-833, 0°44.
8. x=14+y. 9. (i) 2, (ii) 4, (iii) —}.
10. 216. 11. 256/81. 13. (@) (a — 1%, (ii) 1.
14. 4.
EXERCISES 1 (6) (p. 19)
1.454. §,0359. 6. 3.
1S. eS 9. (i) 30, (ii) 1000, (iii) 3.
10. (i) 8, (ii) 1. 11. 1-920819. 12. y = 100x-2/8,
13. 1-468. 14. 5, 4-192. 15. 3 — 10 log 2,4— 13 log2.
EXERCISES 1 (c) (p. 23) ;
1. @ 2, 3, Gi 4/3, —3. 2. (@):1,3,;%ii) 2, —2/7.
(SS 4. (i) 1-44, 5-56, (ii) 1:18, —0-85.
5. (i) 8/7, —1/3, (ii) 3/2, 3/2. 6. 4, 11/10; 3} <k <8.
7. 3/2,6. 9.k>6andk <2.
11. 52/9, 4. 12, x? — 2(p — 2q)x + pp? — 4q) = 0
14. (i) 25/8, (i) 16x* — 42x +9 =0.
EXERCISES 1 (d) (p. 26)
64, —1. 2. —2, —1, 1/3, 4/3.
—3, —1, —1,1. 4. —4/5, 9/8.
4, 7. 6.x = —7,y =3; x =3, y= —7.
x= +2,y = F3. 8 x= -—2,y=1; x= 4/3, y = 6.
x=4,y=1; x=5, y=2; x=—Il,y
= —4; x = —44/5,
y = —13/5.
10. x = 8, y = 64; x = 64, y = 8. ll.x=3,y=—-2;
x =2,y = —3.
12. 1:53; 13. 1, —2.
14. 0, 0-861. 15. x =2:71, y = 1-71.
EXERCISES 1 (e) (p. 30)
1. —10. 2535
3, A = —13, B = —26. 4. A = —6, 4 = 0; third factor = x.
5. b = 2, c = , third factor = }(3x — 2).
6. 0, —4tp. 7.a@=2,b=—5; x = —3,
}, 5.
8. 3(x — yy — Dz — x). 9. —a@+y+ 2% — yy — DE — x).
12,A=1,8B=3,C=1. 14.4 =1,B=—-1,C=
—-3.
15. a= —2,5=1.
603
604 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

EXERCISES 1 (f) (p. 31)

4.45 x=10,y=1; x=1,y=10. 5. 0-934.
7. 16. 9k <landk>9.
10. p?)—1 = 49; k = —3, 2. 11. 4b? = 25ac.
12. x2 + (A + wax + Aya? + (A — wb = 0; 1/5, 5.
13.k < (19/1), k > 3; —1/3,1; @ k =3, Gi) k = 7/5.
14. $5 1,.3. 15. (i) —1, 2, (ii) —2, 0.
16, G)izis, (G1)4, 75 17. —3, —1:175, 4, 1-275.
18.) x=t,y=3; x= -b, y=7,G)x=y
=a.
20. A = P(0), B = P(l) — PO). 21. b = —3,c =2; ®°—2x +2.
22. c = —11; —1, —1, —4, 3. 24. 6, 66.
25.a=2; (x + 2)(x — 1).

EXERCISES 2 (a) (p. 38)

1. (i) 1, 4, 7, 16, Gi) 1, 4, 16, 1024, (ii) —1, 1, —1, 1, (iv) 2, 3/2, 4/3, 7/6.
2. 2353. 3. ic —a),9(2c —a). 4. —69, —510.
5. 34, 6. 4n(3n + 13), 14. ae ES
8. Ba —c)/(a +c). 10. 3/2, 729/8. 11, 3% —1.
12. 8, 3/2. 13. 3/2, 3; —1} 2 14. 2.
15. (b/a)("-), a™l2b"/2, 16. 4, 2. 20. 3/2, 211/5; 6; 2673.
EXERCISES 2 (5) (p. 41)
1. 54, 162. 2. 4/27, 160/27.
6. (i) x > 0, (ii) x > 0, x < —}. 7. 3/4, 1/3.
8.7 9. 81 — x42 — x).
10. $1 + V5), V5 — 1.
EXERCISES 2 (c) (p. 47)
1. 24, 6. 2. 364. 3, 216, 4. 1120.
eh ee 6. 36. 7. 256,711 040. 8. 665 280, 9 979 200.
9. 2940, 1080. 10. 16/21. il. 205. 12. 11/24.
13. 5/18. 14. 7, 4/7. 15. 3/14.

EXERCISES 2 (d) (p. 51)

1. x* — 3x5 + Abt — Gx + Tox? — Bex + ae.
2. 0:9230. SOl2. Sezs 6.95:
7. 11, 55,165, 330, 8. 16. 10. 3, 2, 6. 11. 7, 14.
14. —9, 46.
EXERCISES 2 (e) (p. 57)
1. 5x*/81, 10-03322. 2. 0:49753.
3. 1 — 2x + 5x2 — 4°23; 1:0205. 4. 1 + sx — dex’, 2:080,
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 605
. —2, —h4: 82 4 SFI 23F"1, 0:
10. b? = 8(a? + 1). 11. 4n? + 2.
oe | hy ge 4 2 1 1
0 5 -p © Set -e}
pe id(aa| x+2 i
a 5{-4}
4 { 38 2 1
3G — 1) 36 DS se Pea ee
3 1 1
PEL
x 2)+ xap —3 — te + fet — be + Bt, -1 <<.
5 SpE OB te — At ta —-Il<x<1l.

EXERCISES 2 (f) (p. 58)

aes ps 3. (a) 1, (6) 0.
. en(n + 1a + {5r01 — r™)}/0 —r); a =8,r =2; 10670.
. m(6m — 1). 6. 3.
. 02 —ar + ar) {1 —r — ar)}. 9. (i) 360, (ii) 144.
. 60, 60. 11. 354, 282.
. L121, 13. (i) 3/44, (ii) 12/44, (iii) 29/44.
. 1 to 242. 16. —1, —80, 432.
. 1 — ix — ee — The, 27-9623. 19, 1, 4, 1.
i i 21.1 +4x—d3
1 —de +be
. 1 —4y + 3)? — sey®; cy = 0039, cg = 43 cos* 6 — 1),
C3 = $.cos 6(5 cos? @ — 3).
. 4, i, ve.
1
>, x
3 el
— x + et — a.
oO 2

oes) MD

25. plas x ot
ee Gt wee"
EXERCISES 3 (a) (p. 68)
. (i) 155° 29’, 335° 29, (ii) 143° 4’, 216° 56’.
. (D 176° 42’, (ii) 265° 17’. 3,30 $2501, S25 216° SP
(i) 60°, 300°, (ii) 60°, 300°. 5. 30°, 150°, 210°, 330°4
= .xy—1)+2=0.
NPN 8. 30°, 210°.
EXERCISES 3 (6) (p. 71)
. 210°, 330°. 4. 90°, 180°, 270°. 9. 1:88, —0-35, —1°53.
. 37° 46’, 14° 28”. 13. a. 14, 24/25, 24/7, 336/625.
15. +(1 + tan $6)(3 + tan $6)(1 + tan? $6).
606 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
EXERCISES 3 (c) (p. 75)

1. Rw 4/2, 0 = 45°, +4/2, 2. R= Wi + py), tanB= I/p.

3. S = 29, B = 133° 36’. 4. 90°, 306° 52’.
5. 36° 52’, 126° 52’. 6. 36° 52’, 241° 56’.
7. 81°, 199° 24’. 8. 80° 44’, 234° 2’.
13. 20°, 90°, 100°, 140°. 15. 0 = 149° 20’, ¢ = 98° 1’.
EXERCISES 3 (d) (p. 80)
1. 7/180. ie 6. 117111 km.
TY he 8. 0:00795. 10. 4a, $1, —1°107, 42.
14. 1/6. 15. 0, +}.
EXERCISES 3 (e) (p. 81)
1. (i) 90° 24’, 198° 24’, 306° 24’, (ii) 15°, 75° 195°, 255°.
5. 4/5 — 1). Ga7/s.
Ts $5 [a3 53° 8, 60% §.cR =-5, & =)367/52’; 66> 52’,
9. R=5, tana = (4 tan B — 3)/(4 + 3 tan f).
10. 45°, 165° 58’, 225°, 345° 58’. 12. 131° 48’, 11° 48’; 168° 12’, 48° 12’.
13. cot (5«/2); 36°, 90°, 108°, 180°, 252°, 270°, 324°.
16h 252.15 S128e tie 17. 0, 32, &7, 37, 27.
20. 31’, 3:09 x 10% km. 22. 0°7391.
25. (i) V(@* + 5"), Gi) +V2.
EXERCISES 4 (a) (p. 87)
13. 45°, 15. 120°.

EXERCISES 4 (5) (p. 91)

3. 0-181 m, 6. 0:26, 0-30 m,

EXERCISES 4 (c) (p. 98)

1. a= 14:35, 5 = 13:0; C= 51° 44’.
2. 6 = 122:2:'m, c = 95:08 m, C = 49° 13”,
3. b = 6:295 cm, c = 5:395cm, A = 72°. 4. No solution.
5. No solution. 6. a = 3, A = 36° 52’, B= 90°.
7. b= 36, B=67- 28,6 = 90>, 8. a = 5‘7.cm, A = 32°; C = 287 54”,
9, b = 0:7026 m, A = 11° 18’, B = 40° 1’.
10. a = 1001/3, A = 90°, C = 60°; a = 50/3, A = 30°, C = 120°,
11. b = 64-44 m, A = 45° 40’, B = 100°; 6 = 12-85 m, A = 134° 20’, B = 11° 20.
12. a = 6, B = 38° 56’, C = 70° 32’. 13. c = 35 km,A = 21° 47’, B = 98° 13’,
14. A = 35° 6’, B = 64° 38’, C = 80° 16’.
15. A = 20° 56’, B = 26° 30’, C = 132° 34’,
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 607
EXERCISES 4 (d) (p. 101)
4. 95 m. 5. N 10° 54’ E, 1149 a.m. 6. 60°, 70 m, 3° 38’,
7. (i) 19 m, Gi) 3 m. 11. d=6htana/(3 +tan?«). 14. 13° 46’.
150°35°.16%

EXERCISES 4 (e) (p. 104)

4. 180° — 2A, 180° — 2B, 180° —2C. 10. 47° 5’, 68° 27’, 76:54 mi’.
23641 12. 79°.
14. 56° 11’, 43° 49’, 3-61 km. 15. 76° 9’, 16° 9’.
17. 4/3. 18. 116° 8’, 11° 52’, 3-91 m, 17:09 m.
20. 1011 m. 21. 60-1 m.

EXERCISES 5 (a) (p. 115)

1. @ (1, 1), @ (—1, V3), Gi) (—1, —1), (iv) 2, —2-3).
2. @) (V2, 24), Gi) (V/13, 146° 127, (iii) (13, 213° 481), (iv) (V2, é7).
3. 3/10, 3/2, V2.
4. @ (V3, —V3), (— V3, V3), Gi) 4 + V3, 4— V3), 4 — 73,4 + +3).
5. 6 + 24/3. 6. (13/3, 8/3). 7. (4/3, —2/3), (0, —10).
85 35. ON 18-89", 13s 11. @) 10, Gi) 15.
12. £(8 — 34/3). 13. 10. 14. 4.
Lise Ze

EXERCISES 5 (6) (p. 119)

1. 20x + 6y = 109. 2. x2 + y? + 6x + 8y = 75.
3.°%+y—6x—12y+6=0. 4.3x+y=19.
5. x24 y?—8x—Sy+16=0. 6. y= +3x.
iT. (0, 0), (1, 2), V5. 8. (4, -1), (4, ==); (4, —3/2).
9. (0, 2), (2, 6), (6, 4). 1022 = 6) Oi 3,, AB 12,
11. G, 3), @, 4), (4, 6), (3, 5). 12. x = 4, 2x — Sy + 4 =0, G, 1), $V/(145).

EXERCISES 5 (c) (p. 124)

1. (i) 3x + 4y =0, (ii) x — 2y + 4 =0, (iii) x ty +2=0.
2. @ 2, Gi) 4, —3. 3. (2, —2), 5x — 2y = 14.
4.x —2y+2=0,4x—-—y=6. 5. (19, 8), 4x + 3y = 50.
6. 3x — 4y = 7, 35/12, (7/6, —7/8). 7. 3x + 4y = Sa.
8. 4x + 3y = 35, x + Ty + 10 = 0, (11, —3), 25.
10. 6x — y = 27, 2x —3y + 15 =0, 2x + y =5.
( ab oe)
Il. y + mx = 0, (a + bjm)y — bx + ab = 0, \ ae on + 2b)”
12. 3x + y = 12, x + 3y = 12. 13. 4/7, —4/13.
14. 4; 3, —3/2. 15. (c/3,0) fc — 8, 12 — $c); 12.
 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

EXERCISES 5 (d) (p. 132)

135°.
. (AB) 3x + 4y = 19, (BC)x — 3y =2, (CA) 5x —2y +3 =0; 13/9, 13/11.
-x—y+1=0,(2,3),,x+y=5.
. @) 7x — 2y = 7, (ii) 3x + y = 2, (iii) (11/13, —7/13).
y — 2x = 3. 7. (29/13, 15/13), (45/13, —9/13).
yt V3x=24+ 73,14 49V3. 10. An escribed circle.
xt + y? — 8x — 14y = 3. 12. 2x — Sy = 18.
. 43x — 29y = 71. 14. x + 7y = 31, 7x —y = 17.
x+y =0,4/5/5.

EXERCISES 5 (e) (p. 137)

. a= 0-031,
5 = 2-5. 2. m =2°3,¢= —10.
a=3,b = —2. 4.a=4,c=4.
.a=2,b=0; n= 0-044. 6. k = 12-7,n
=}.
.A=02,n=}.
x 0
oOonunwe 0-4 1:0 1:5 3 6
yee 1:265 2-000 2-449 3-464 4-898.

5S,k = 3. 12, a = 0°58, b = 2:2.

EXERCISES 5 (f) (p. 140)

. (—14, —10). De 52355
. (6, 10), 52. 4. 60, (2, —3).
. (11/3, 13/3), (29/6, 14/3). 7. 2 + y? — 6x — 10y +9 =0.
. 64, 44. Il. x —S5y +11 =0,5x+y =23.
2 2)
a(b —k)
pet
Bh — a .
. Gerla) + (ky[b4) = 1, (FE =9, hb — ka

- y—x+18 =0. 14. (3, —4).

. acos $(a — f). 16. 2+/5/5.
ete St eta
- 43° 40’, 2°31. 19: SA43 Sad 33"

. 8x —y=7,x + 8y =9, 23. K = 0-0021,

n = 3.
) 1°13, 412 25..a = 5:99, 6 = 1-20.

EXERCISES 6 (a) (p. 153)

2. 13{(5/13)i + (12/13)j}. 3. 38 — 2j, V(13). S$: 1/2;
qh 6°5. 13. 120°, 90°. 14. 3-6 N, 29° 26’.
15. 2AB at 60° to AB.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 609
EXERCISES 6 (6) (p. 162)
-3+4i; 18 —i; —i; —4, 2. —1—i; —2, $i; 7/10 — i/10.
» 24/2, 225°; 1/2, 90°; 54/5, 116° 34’: 25, 106° 16”.
. 5/34; (13/3. 6. 1/2, (I + i4/3)/2.
. £@ + 23). 9. aE x 1 = 0,
. (++/3 + i). 11. 3; 60°, 180°, 300°,
= V5, 295° 34°55, 36° 527 13. V2, +V/2i, (41 +i).
- $2, 52/4; 4/2, 37/4; $4/(10), 161° 34’.

EXERCISES 6 (c) (p. 163)

. 97:13 km, 297° 50’. 3. +/(61) m at 86° 18’ to AC.
VIN. 8. 14:14 km/h from N.W.
. 3771 N, N 47° 44’ EB, 11. 2+/2, 45°; 2+/5, 26° 34’,
. 0-4(3 + 4i). 14. 2/3, +2i/1/3.
RV A 16. 1/4 +i; (17/4.
sedate 92, G9, 292 37 EV/(17), 25) 58-5 32°5, 59° 29".
(i +i/2; V2/2.
EXERCISES 7 (a) (p. 172)
0, —3; 4, —2. 2. 0, 8-402, 29-61.
.2+6x4+8. 4.x2°4+3x+1.
. —1,( +h — 10/2 + 2hx + h? + 1).
» ARV (2x — 2°), (—1 + V5)4/2). 8. 9.
. 0, —10. 10. 8.
eS. 12. —}.
.1,-1. 14. (4, —2).
we

EXERCISES 7 (5) (p. 176)

35 2. 2x + 3. 3. 4x3 — 2x. 4. —2)23.
—3)x4. 6. —1/(x + 1). 7. 1/a — x)?. 8. —2/(2x + 1).
. 1 + cosx. 10. 3 cos 3x. 11. — sin ax. 12. sec x tan x.
. sec? x. 14. —5 + 8x — 3x7. 15. 6 + (4/x*). 16. 1 — (1/x?).
.—-l—sinx. 18. 1. 19. 4x — (8/x*), 15%. 20. —3/(x + 1)%.

EXERCISES 7 (c) (p. 181)

. 5x(x8 + 4x7 + 4). 2. 20x° + sin x.

. 9x4 + (2/x%). 4, x72 — x 8/2,
. 3x? + 4x + 3. 6. —2x(1 + 42°).
. 4x? — 3). 8. 3x2 — 2 — (1/x*).
—3(1 — 2x + x’). 10. 9(9x? + 12x + 4).
 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

.1—2x. 12. cos? x — sin? x.

. MiCOS x; 14. 4x7 cos x.
. 2x tan x + (x? + 1) sec’ x. 16. sec x(sec? x + tan? x).
. — cosec x(cosec? x + cot? x). 18. secx + xsecx tan x — sin x.
(1 + x/ — x7". 20. (1 + 2x — x*)/(1 — x}.
. (2 — 4x08 + x — 2)". 22. (4x)/(5 — 2x*)*.
. (4x8) (4 + 1). 24. (x cos x — sin x)/x*.
. 1/4 + cos x). 26. (—16 cos x)/(3 + 5 sin x)*.
. (—11 sin x)/3 + 5 cos x}. 28. (cos x — sin x tan* x)/(1 + tan x)*.
. cot x— x cosec? x. 30. (4x°)/(1 + x*)*.

EXERCISES 7 () (p. 185)

6(2x — 3). 2. 1/+/(Qx — 1).
—3 sin 3x. 4. 2x cos (x3).
. 2 sec? (2x+ 1). 6. 3x? sec (x°) tan (2°).
2(cos? 2x — sin? 2x). 8. (—1/2+/x) cosec +/x cot +/x.
~ 30 + x(x +1—x7). 10. 4 tan x sec? x.
. 3 sin? x sin 4x. 12. (1 + 2x*)/-/(1 + x4).
. 1 + x*)3/3, 14. (2x? — 3)/{x4./01 — x}.
» PF — DKA + x}. 16. —2/[V(1 + {V1 + x*) + x}.
. (sin x cos x)/+/(1 + sin? x). 18. 3(1 + x)*%{tan 3x + (1 + x) sec* 3x}.
. 48sec" x tan? x. 20. — sin x cos (cos x).
. sin™— x cos") x(m cos? x — n sin? x).
. 2 sec x (tan x + sec x)*. 23. x™-1 cos x(n cos x — 2x sin x).
. 0.

EXERCISES 7 (e) (p. 191)

. UxV/GP = 1}. 2. —1/(1 + x).
. 2//0 — 4x). 4. 1/{1 + x)V/}.
. 2V( — x). 6. (2 sin x cos x)/(1 + sin‘ x).
1/t.
. (i) (1 — 3x4y*)/(2x*y), (ii) Gy*)/(sin 2y — xy).
. —(2x + y)/(x + 3y’). 12. 2a* sec? ax tan ax.
. —4 cos 2x, 8 sin 2x. 17. (1 — 4x — x*) sin x + 4(2 + x) cos x.
. 9/4. 20. (— 23/2)/(1 + 2).

EXERCISES 7 (f) (p. 193)

. 42 + 3x + 1, 23, 19. 2.a@=6=1; 1, —1,
. —3, 2, —6. 4. —1/(x + 2).
. (i) x cos x, (ii) 6x — 10.
ea~ (i) (2 sec®
aAunw x)/(1 — tan x)*, (ii) (2x + 4)/(1 — x)°, Gi) 1/01 — x*)?/,
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 611
. (i) x(2 sin 3x + 3x cos 3x), (ii) (x? — 2x — 3)/(x — 1)?, Gii) (1/x*) sin (1/x).
14. @ —1/ + x), i) (—2x)/0 + x4),
22. (x cos x — 2 sin x)/x, {(6 — x*) sin x — 4x cos x}/x4.
23. x(6 — x*) sin x + 6x" cos x. 25. tan $0, (1/4a) sec* 40.

EXERCISES 8 (a) (p. 200)

1. 14-33 m®/min. 2. 0:0119 cm/s.
3. (4k3/b) cm?/s. 4. (i) 1-587 m, (ii) 0-0331 m/h.
6, 2 cm/min. 7. 1:86 x 10° m/s,
8. (180v/zh) sin? 6 deg/s. 9. 18° 26’.
10. 4-5 cm/min. 11. 1:6 mm/s.
12. 27x*(6 + 4x) m’. 13. 60°.
14. (i) 4-91, (ii) 7-07; 1-44.

EXERCISES 8 (6) (p. 203)

1. 67 m/s, 96 m/s*. 2.c =4,d = —1; 1 m/s*.
4. —2:24 m/s. 6. a, 2a.
9. 41, $0 seconds; $7 seconds. 10. 0-8.
11. 0-38 cm’. 13. 0-0041 seconds.
14, +0-857.

EXERCISES 8 (c) (p. 210)

1. 0 (min.), 4/27 (max.). 2. 3 (min.), 7/3 (max.).

3.a=3,b = —12; x = —2; 20. 5. (1, 5) (max.), (—4, —5/4) (min.).
6. 2:38 (max.), 2:32 (min.). 7, 0°362 (max.), 12:20 (min.).
0125; 10. Max. at x = }r, min. at x = 4n.
11. 0 (min.), 1 (max.). 127253
13e-23

; EXERCISES 8 (d) (p. 214)

1, 2 radians, 625 m?. 3. 48 m3, 4. 6365 km.
6. 0-042 m3. 8. 2:1, more efficient. 9. 47a? sin 0 cos? 0,
10. (i) $d?, Gi) 4-V/3d?. 11. 7-023 m. 12. Each 0°15 m.
13. 8 kilometres. 14. 0:224 m3,

EXERCISES 8 (e) (p. 219)

1. —4, 2. 3. —0-443, 1, 1-693. 4. (2n + 1)n, n an integer.
5. x = ~2 a minimum, x = 2 point of inflexion.

EXERCISES 8 (f) (p. 220)

. —3 cm?/s, 2. 0-316 m/min,
. 1-333 cm/min. 4, 47:13 m3/s, 0-104 m/s.
612 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
5. 0°743 m. 6. 48 m.
10. 1-155. 11. a?/(a + 5), min.; a*/(a — b), max.
13. 1 (min.), —1 (max.). 14. a= —3,b =0; 0(max.), 1 (min.).
15. 7/3 (max.), 57/3 (min.). 16. 2 (max.), 0 (min.).
Woa= 16 =2;-% => —4, 18. 64/x*, 2x7 + (256/x).
19. 26:3 m. 20. (i) 24, 44, Gi) 3, 6.
21. (32+/3)/9. 22 536n025-
23.a=1,b = —3. 24. 4 (max.), —4 (min.).

EXERCISES 9 (a) (p. 226)

1. x5/8
+ C. 2. (—3/x)
+ C.
3. 4x — 3x9 —4°4+0C. 4. 3x9°4+3242x4+C.
5. Rx8/2 4 2x12
+ C, 6. #x5 + 2x —Fx9 + C.
7 $6 +x —xI+C. 8. $° — 2X7 -—4x14+C.
9, 2x12 + 2x + 3x9P +, 10. $x? —2cosx +4tanx+C.
11. $59 + 2tan2x+C. 12.x+3tan?x+C.
13. x8 — 4x2 ++ 7x + C. 14. ax? + 4698 + 40x44 + C.
15. —}x? — x1 -—4x4+C. 16. —cosx —3cotx+C.
17, $x3/2 — $x5/2 4 3x72 + C, 18. #2 —xI+C.
19. 3x? + 2sin7x+C. 20. $9 + 2x —x14+C.
21. tanx —x+C. 22. (x —sinx) + C.
24. (i) and (ii) $29 —F2° 4x4. 25. 4sin+x + C.
EXERCISES 9 (6) (p. 230)

1. cos(1 — x) + C. 2. ¢sin4x
+ C.
3. —4(1 — 4x)8F +. 4. 2(x + 2)1/? + 2(x + 2987 +.
5, —42 —x)®+C. 6. #\/(5x —7) + C.
7. —(2x — 3)? + C. 8. 41 + 2x82? +.
9. —hx — 1)7 —4Q2—x)°4+C. 10. 4 tan (x/3) + C.
11. sin (x/4) + C. 12. 4tan2x+C.

13, } tan-2 (3x/2) + C. 14. sin (253) +c

15. + sin (4x/5) + C. 16. 4 tan (2+!) +C

Rls
17. sins(2 =") +6.
1 18.
PRs
Gata
275 — 2
(2) +0.

19. x +4c0s2x+ C.

EXERCISES 9 (c) (p. 234)

1. —411 — x9? + C. 2.30 +2252 +,
3. 2x —2tan?V/x+C. 4. B28 +x +21 + x82 40,
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 613
5. F(a + x8)12 4. C, 6. } tan (x4) + C,
7. $ tan?
x + C. 8. ¢ sin (3) + C.
9. $ tan (27/3) + C. 10. VG? + 2x —9) + C,
11. ¢sin® x —}sin'x + C. 12. —}cos>
x + 4.cos? x + C.
13. —}cos§
x + ¢cos§x + C. 14. snx —4sin'x+C.
15. — cos x + 4#cos*x —}cos'x+C. 16. seccx+cosx+C.
17. —}. cos 2x + 4cos*2x + C. 18. 24/(sin x) + C.
19. tan (sin x) + C. 20. —4 sin (3x) — $/(1 — 9x*) + C.

EXERCISES 9 (d) (p. 238)

1. }sinx + #wssin5x+C. 2. —tcos 2x — }cos 4x + C.
3. sinx — wesin5x + C. 4. cos 2x — wacos 6x + C.
5. xsinx +cosx +C. 6. vs(3x — 2)(1 + x)3/2 + C,
7. rée(15x* — 12x + 8)1 + x)9?+C. 8. xsintx+ V1 —x)4+C.
9.x— V7 —x*)sin?x+C. 10. —4x cos 2x +}sin2x+C.
11. (2 — x*) cosx + 2xsinx + C. 12. —4(m — x) cos3x — 3 sin 3x + C.
13. @ 4x —}sinxcosx + C, (ii) $sin?x + C.

EXERCISES 9 (e) (p. 246)

1. 254/7. 2. 16/3. erat ol 4. 29/6.
5. 20/3. 6. 47. 7. /3/16. ae
9. —4. 10. 1/16. 14. (i) 7/9, (ii) 1/6. 15. £(7 + 2).
16. 1/12. 17. 1/6. 18. 16/5. 19. 16/3.

EXERCISES 9 (f) (p. 254)

1. 0°75. 2. 0°779,-0°752. 3. 2940. 4. 2965.
5. 94-5. 7. 0-67. 8. 74°8. 9, 0°5235.

; EXERCISES 9 (g) (p. 256)

1. x4 + 4° 4+ 6°°4+-C. 2. 3x9 + 6x7 + 4x + 4sinx + C.
3. $x° — 6x4 + 24x7 + C. 6. —t(cos 2x + +/3x) + C.
7. (i) $ tan (2x + 1) + C, (ii) —$.cos x— cos3x + C.
8. (i) 41 + x*)% + C, Gi) § tan (**) + C.

9. DAG + 2x+4 +6, W) — art C.

10. —cot4x+C. 11. cos 3 sin a.
12. —9/8. 13. (i) 1/42, (ii) 13/3.
16. Gi) 4, Gi) 1 —}. 17.@a@=1,6=0,c=—1,d=1.
18. 42(7 — 2). 19, 4/3.
PE EE 24. (i) 39:3, (ii) 39-0.
614 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
EXERCISES 10 (a) (p. 264)
1.4. 2. 79/6. 3. 72 —1. 4. 8/3.
5. (i) 4, Gi) 1. 6. 142 kg/cm*. 8. 7297/35. 9. 167.
11. $2*. 14, $na*. 15. 2507.

EXERCISES 10 (6) (p. 278)

2. $+/(ah). 3. 85/31.
4, % = 40/21, 7 = 10/3. 5. ¥ = 3/2, ¥ =0.
7. X=,
j) =tn. 9. tpa*.
10. 2/+/(15). 11. $./(3aA).
13. 4a, {ax/(9n* — 64)}/(67).

EXERCISES 10 (c) (p. 281)

1. After 10 seconds, 500 m from starting point.
2. 4m. 3.x =3—43t+
7 —38; 4} second.
4. p =4,q9 =2; 669m. 5. 3(1 — cos 22).
6, 2. 7. (i) 32/27 m, (ii) 2 seconds.
8. (i) 8 m, (ii) 0-86 seconds. 9. (i) 2a/z, (ii) 7a/4.
10. (i) 4 m/s?, Gi) —67°5 m/s?.
11. 120¢, 110¢ + zsr?; 120 seconds, 130 m/s.
13. 64 m/s, 5 seconds.

EXERCISES 10 (d) (p. 283)

1. 37/12. 2. fra9(2b — a); 1:2.
5. dn. 6. 377/16.
esl Ouel se 9. (0, 5), (2,9); 34%; (35927/15).
3/(2a + b
10. 0:4775 m’, ge een
12. 507a*; < = 10a/3, ¥ = 0. 13i¢5 18) 5,0.
21. 113 m. 22. 3 seconds, 4-5 m.
24. 80 cm/s, 1440 cm, 85-3 cm/s. 25. 6006 m.

EXERCISES 11 (a) (p. 292)

. (i) log, x, (ii) —1/x, (iii) tan x.
—_ 2. (i) dog, x — 1)/(log, x), (ii) 2 sec 2x.
4. 1/{x(1 — x}.
7. (i) e**"{(1/x) — 4x log, 3x}, (ii) e#*(2 log, sec x + tan x),
(iii) x(x + 2)e” tan x + x%e7(1 + x),
9. Zo(e®* + 1). 10. 1, 2/+/e. 11. in, én, 427.
13. @) 41 — e*), (ii) H(e* — e*) — 2, (iii) 2.
14. @) e727 + C, (ii) e729 — 2x +1) + C.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 615
EXERCISES 11 (5) (p. 298)
- slog, (8 +4) +C. 2. $ log, (x? + 4x + 10) + C.
- log, (e? —e*) + C. 4. (l/e) log, (x*+ e7) + C.
- —x + 2 log, (1 +x) +. 6. ax? — ox + 7# log, (2x + 3) + C.
. log, (x — 2) —flog,x+C. 8. 2 log, (x — 2) — log, (x —1) + C.
+ C.
. 2 log, (x — 2) +4 log, (2x +1)
. 2log,(«& +2) —log, «#+4)+C. 11. x + log, (x — 2) — log, (x +2) + C.
- 4 log,(x — 3) — 15/(x —3) + C.
. —hx — 1)* — $ log,(«— 1) + Flog,G2 +1) +0.
. 2 log, (x — 3) — log, (x? + 4) + f tan (Gx) + C.
. 3 log, 2. 16. log, (4/3).
. G/T) log, 2. 18. 4 log, (5/2).
. b2Q2 log,x— 1) + C. 20. ($x? — 8) log,(x+4) —}x?+2x+C.
. rex4(4 log, 5x — 1) + C. 22. x tan x + log,cosx + C,
. log, tan 4x + C. 25. 2-/x — 2 log, (1 + Vx) + C.

EXERCISES 11 (ce) (p. 302)

7. y = — log. (1 — x), x = y — ay? + dy? — Fay.
~y=4—x7 4+ 3, log,y= 2 log,2 — ix? + Zax’, (—1)"Y/(n. 2").
9,x<—landx>0.

. log,2+ ax + $x? + vex®; E = 2 log, (3/2) or log,2 + ——

ai 1-098.
.A=2,8B=8,C=—-9, 13. 4-01.
. 1-052. 15. 5-099,

EXERCISES 11 (d) (p. 304)

. (—7 sin x)/{B + 4cos x)(4 + 3 cos x)}.

_A=kl(2 + p?), B= —pi(k* + p?); Be(3e87/4 + 2).
1:7. 7x +b? — $8 4+ be + bo — He.
. @) $x + 2 log,
(2x — 3) + C, (ii)
2x — log,(x + 2) + C,
(iii) $x° + x2 + x + log, (x —1) + C.
9. (i) 9 log, (x —3)- 3 log. (x—1)+C,
(ii)8° log, (x — 1) — xo log, (2x + 3) + C,
(iii) 4 log, (1 + 2x) — log, (1 — 2x) + C.
10. (i) ¢ log, (5/3), (ii) $ + log, (3/4).
11. G@ 4x9 tan x — 9x + flog,
(7 +1) +,

(ii) (4,
a -)log,x— log,(x +1) + C.

12. 4 —2v/e. 14. (15 + +/3)77/(324 loge 2).

15. (3 — 2e7)/13. 16. A = —1, B=2; loge 2 seconds.
616 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

18. 1 + x* + bx. 1S AXE Rs

21. (1 + x){1 + 2 log, (1 + x)}, 3 + 2 log, (1 + x).
24. 3-006. 25. 4°36.

EXERCISES 12 (a) (p. 312)

ly=xt+C. 2. -U/y =x +44.
3. y=cosx+C. 4.%=C—x.
5. siny = C —sinx. 6: y= Ce™:
7. y = Cxe*. 8. log, sin y + cosx = C,
91+2%)/01 —-y)=C. 10. y+ 1 = Cet”.
11. y+ log y=xX*+C. 12.y—4sin2y=x*+6x4+C.
13. y= 34e), 14. y=1—e*.
15. y = 3e7 — 1. 16. 4y° = x + log, x.
17. y? = 4(1 — cos 2x). 18. x? = y? + 2y.
19. y=(¥4+ Dix — I. 20. y = e*/(x + 1).

EXERCISES 12 (5) (p. 317)

1, x —2xy=C. 2. (x + y)el* + x log, Cx = 0.
3. (y — x)? = Cxy?. 4, x8 — 3xy? = 2.
5. =x— x8. 7 —4,
8. JG2 + y*) = x(V2 + 1) -1. 9. y =cos x.
10. 4y = 1 — cos 2x + sin 2x. 11. 9y = 6sin 3x + 4(1 — cos 3x).
12. 2y = 5 — 3(cos 2x + sin 2x).

EXERCISES 12 (c) (p. 320)

1. v= 0 exp (—#/RC). 3. 2 m/s. 4. y = x(x — 5)?; 625/12.
Shek 7. 3kt = log, {(6 — x)/(6 — 2x)}, k = 0-231.
9. 19-0 g. 10. 95 million. ilx22+y?=y, 12. 2m/s.
EXERCISES 12 (d) (p. 321)
1. y= x7/(1 — Cx’). 3. tanx+coty—x+y=C.
4. (i) —he™Y = x8 — x + C, (ii) e = log, (x — Ix + D}+C.
5. y = 1 — exp (— tan x). 7. yi=x— $e -}.
9.3: 10. y = tan (x + C) — x.
11S 7/16; 13. xy = exp {(x/y) — 1}.
14. x4 + 4xy¥8 —yY = 1. 17. y =}sin 4x + 2.cos 4x.
18. y = 10 exp {—¢/(1 + 4}. 19. 2r+/(2n/15).
22aze
23. A = 1/30, B = 1/308, x = 30? log, {1 + (1/30)}, v = 30 exp (—x/30*),
24. 30 m/s, 129-5 m, 16-5 seconds. 25. y = e~* (sin 2x + 2 cos 2x).
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 617
EXERCISES 13 (a) (p. 329)
(5, —6); V6l. 3. (a, 0); fa. 4.a+B =p, af =g.
. (1, —3), @, 11); x* + y® — 2x + 6y = 90, x2 + y? — 6x — 22y + 30 =0.
. x9 + y? + 2x + 6y = 90; circle centre (—1, —3), radius 10,
x+y —S5x-—y+4=0. 8.x+2y=7,x+2y=0.
. 3x + 4y +47 =0, 3x + 4y +17 =0.
xi + y= 4,3x + 4y = £10, (46/5, +8/5).
. 4x + 3y = 425. 12. a = 5, (25/13, 60/13).
2+ y— 4x —10y+4=0. 14. 12y = (14 + 5v/10)x.
x+y? — 6x — 8y + 15 =0, y — 3x = 5, 53y — 9x = 15.
~ x9 + y? + Sy = 0, 3(x7 + y*?) — 20y
= 0.
- 4x3 + 4y? — 13x — 26y = 0.
x+y — 2x — by +5=0,4,y=3 + V5.
+ y?— 6x —4y +9 =0.
EXERCISES 13 (5) (p. 334)
.x—2y + 144 =0, 2x + y + 18 = 0,(—36,
54).
. (a/16, —a/2), (a/4, a), 16x + 4y +a =0, 4x — 2y + a = 0, (—a/8, a/4).
~1L+k. 7. alm, (a, 42a), (0, a).
x+y =3, 26° 34’. 13. xy = (h — 2a)y + 2ak.
x2 + y? — alt, + ty + att, = 0.

EXERCISES 13 (c) (p. 344)

. x2 4+ 2y? = 100, 4, (—la*|n, —mb?/n), (£4, ¥2).
. (5, 15/2). 11. 3x? — y? = 3a’,
. (£4VB4)/5, 9/5). 15. 3x — 4y + 7 = 0, (—16/3, —9/4).
~ (x7 + y?)? = 4cPxy.

EXERCISES 13 (d) (p. 346)

1. {(n? + laf(n® — 1), 0}, 2na/(n? — 1). 2. 0, +V3/a), V/2Ja.
3. [0, 2a%b)/(a?—b?)). 4.9, G,.5), 5.
5. 3y = x + 35, (—5, 10), (1, 12). 6. (—k, 2k), 2k; 3y = 4x.
10. (4a, 0). 12. 2ay = m(y* — 2ax) + 2ac.
13. 9y? + 8a? = 12ax. 15.h =0,k = 2t; x =0.
21. al? — Bm? = n’, (a2/I2) — (b2/m) = (a? + b*)?/n?.
EXERCISES 14 (a) (p. 353)
1. 18-25 N, 25° 17’. 2. 68° 12’, 27° 41’.
3. 5-18, 7:32g N. 4, 5-18g, 17-32g, 518gN.
5. 9-99, 3-16 N. 6. 518g, 7:32g N.
2+ 7331. 8. 13,7.
618 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

vi 6 N at 60° to BA. 11. 120°, 90°.

13. 57:26 N, E 49° 39’ S. 15. 10-64g N, 26-95g¢ N, 32° 8’.

EXERCISES 14 (6) (p. 361)

1. (Ys 2. 21+/3a P/2. 3. 6 kg, 9:33 cm. 4. 9 gm, 2 cm.
Sf, 280 kg, 28kg. 6. 17:3 kg. 7. 48g mN. 9. 2E,
10. 12, 4. 11. 2.cm. 12. 75, 45, 40, 40g N.

EXERCISES 14 (c) (p. 368)

. 104/5 N at 15cm from A in BA. 2. 2+/(58), 7y + 3x = 10.
. 5f2—4,5—2V2N. 5. 10+/2P, parallel to AC.
. 24/2 N at 45° to a side.
. 1:30, 3:93 N, 81° 9’ to AB, 16a from A.
. 2P, 60°, 5a/2 from A. 11. 1/5 N, 63° 26’ to BC, (3+/3/4)a.
. 2+ 2/3, —9, —11 — 2/3 N. 13.°7/3-
. 12N,6mN. 15. 6F, tan-1 (54/5 — 9)/8 to AB, 4-17 AB, 1-14 BC.

EXERCISES 14 (d) (p. 372)

.9mN 2. 1-5WN.
. ISN, 18mN. 4. 150mN, 312-5N.
. 3/3a/2.
, 2/5 N, tan-! 2 to AB, 2mN, 0:5 m.
. rod sin-1(G/aW) to vertical, W. 8. 15 N, 10cm.
. 5/2.N, 45° to CD, 25 cm N.
1236p © ack IN 8h 11. 1, 4, 194/3/2.
. V(31) at 51° 3’ to OD, 17+/3a/2.

EXERCISES 14 (e) (p. 381)

. 25/3g, 25/32 N, tan} 3/4 to AB. 2. 20//3g, 20/+/3g N, 60° to AB,
. WV(P + 9b?)/(2b), W+/(P + b*)/(2b), tan- b/] to beam.
. 4:20g, 10-85g N, 67° 13’ to horizontal.
. 53g, 57g N, tan (2/+/3) to ground.
. 40/+/3g, 20/+/3g N, tan-} (2/4+/3).
. WI/6, W+/(37)/6, tan 6 to horizontal.
. 10°5¢ N, 149 N vertically.

EXERCISES 14 (f) (p. 383)

. 2DA through the centre of the circle.
. 90°, W»/3/2. 3.0 = on/2P> l0aite
. AO, 15; OF, 21; FA, 15N. TSP AB =a.
. (4P, 3P), —2Pa.
- 5/2P at 45° to AB, 66a/25 from A, —34Pa/5.
CAND
We
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 619
11. 24/5 N, 2cm.
16. 80/+/3g N, 20+/(7/3)g N at 40° 54’ to horizontal.
18. W(P + a)/22. 19. a(1 + 1/n), WA + n)/3.
20. (13/12) sin B, W(S sin B + 12 cos B)/12.

EXERCISES 15 (a) (p. 390)

. 1000g N, 100+/(65)g N at tan-* (1/8) to AB.
. 29-7g, 198g, 205g N. 3. 0:190W, 0-165W, 1-095W.
. 66-042 N; 61-33g N at tan (25/56) to horizontal.
. P=2, 8/3
N at 150° to AB. 7. 20/3 g.
. 113-3g N, 663-8g N at 81° 30’ to horizontal.
. sin? a:cos?a; Wsina/(cota — 1). 10. cos (7/9).
11. 3-/2¢ N, 6 — 2/6 kg. 12. tan~) (3/4), 11:25 cm, 3 cm.

EXERCISES 15 (6) (p. 396)

1. 114/28. 2. 8a/9, 7a/9. 3. 3-46 m.
4. 0:55 cm. 5. b(a? — Sc*)/(a* — 4c*). 6. 5h/4.
4.4/3; 5/3, 3'cm. 10. tan (16/33). 11. 4-31 cm,
12. 3./7W/14. 13. tan (1/6). 14. +/(17/7).
iie4Tcmy27, 3 18. (a? — 3ax? + x5)/3(2a? — x*) from a face.

EXERCISES 15 (c) (p. 403)

1. 0-35, 2-192 N. 2. 736g N. 8. 4W.

10. 3/9. 11. 3-2 m, 0°48. 1251/7, S/F
16. 74°.
EXERCISES 15 (d) (p. 407)
1. 2W. 2. tan- (6/7), A.
6. 4W(tan 6 — 2 tan ). 7. 4W/5 parallel
8. cot? @ = 3 + 4W,W,|/(W, + W,)*. 9. 6W.
10. W, W, W, W. 12. 8-6 N.
15. 2P//3, P//3, PvV3, PV3, P.
EXERCISES 15 (e) (p. 410)
4. wv/S. 6. tan (1/2).
7. y = 4x/(37); x = 3a/2,y = 2a/7. Seulems, f<S.cme
9. 57/8. 10. 4a/3 from end, tan? (5), tan~* (1/5).
11. 7a/18, a/3, a/24. 13. 3°59 cm, 2°15 cm.
15. 37/16. 19. Wcot 6, horizontal.
20. 24/3 W/9, horizontal. 21. 30/59, A slips.
 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

EXERCISES 16 (a) (p. 419)

. 600 m, 40 m/s, 15-9 seconds. 2. 24:9 m/s.

. 27 seconds, 729 m. 4. 45 km/h.
. 0:049 m/s*, 1:25 min. 7. 1:59 sec.
. 30 cm/s, 225 cm. 10. 62:5 m, 15 seconds.
. 12-09 p.m., 136°5 km. 12. 110 seconds.
. (u — u,)?/2a, (2u — u)alu. 9 1552 -33imi/s¥

EXERCISES 16 (0) (p. 428)

. 3°98 cm/s?, 2:3 km.
. 2:7, 7:8, 13-4, 18°5, 23-5, 26°5, 26-5, 26-5 cm/s*.
. 50 cm/s?, 16°6 seconds. 4. 12:3 cm/s?, at t = 67°5 seconds.
. accel. 0 and 1-5 m/s?, 275 m. 7. 81:1 m, 12-6 cm/s*.
$ km. 9. 3-75 seconds.
. 19°36 m/s. 14. $+/(15).

EXERCISES 16 (c) (p. 430)

. 0-31 m/s*. 2. 0:56, 0-35 m/s?, 79-5 sec.
. 62:5 sec. 5. 6% seconds. 6. 7 m/s, 45 m.
. 31:6 m, 4-76 sec. 8. 76 m. 9. 0-1 m/s?,
. 25 m/s. 11. 3, 4, 720 m. 12. 35-35 seconds.
16-6: 14. 3-33 m/s, 0-056 m/s?, 19 m.
. 17:5 m/s, 216-7 m. 17. 48 m/s, 0-64 m/s?.
. 24 m/s, 0-267 m/s?; 10-5, 18, 22-5, 24, 8 m/s.
. 6:93 seconds, 1 m/s?, 2 m/s?. 20. —18 cos 3¢.
. 38 m/s, 33 m. 22. 5060 m, 29-4 m/s.
. 484 m. 24. 391 m.

EXERCISES 17 (a) (p. 440)

. 30 km/h, 330°; 038° 16’. 2. N 28° 4’ E, 170 km/h.
etd Onmn/S, 4. gt.
. 52 min, 22 min. 6. 20 sea-miles, 12:40 p.m.
. 1:89 km, 12:86 min. 8. 21-3 km/h, N 39° 54’ W.
. 0:77v, E 673° S, 90 m. 10. 9 min. 117° 37’.
. 50 km/h; 85 m, 51 m, 68 m. 12. 21:25 mile/h, N 19° 48’ E,
. 34 min, 58 min. 15. N 57° 36’ E, 7 a.m., 108 min.
EXERCISES 17 (6) (p. 452)
. tan-1 2, 6:4 m, 3-2 m. 3. 240 m.
. W? sin 2a/g, 3u?sin? «/2g. SN does
B ilepuant, 8. 700 m/s.
. Uu* cosec” a/2g. 13. 4u?/g, 5u?/g.
. 16-2 m/s, 13° 30’ to horizontal. 17. 8/33, tan-+ (40/99),
. 383 m, 46-° 15’, 86:7 m/s.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES
621
EXERCISES 17 (c) (p. 455)
. 17-95 m/s, 16-67 m/s, 25 3°70 Kh:
. 93 min. 4. 29221 3205
. 2:5 min, 3$ min. 6. 15-38 sea-miles, E 43° N.
. 0°131 nautical miles. 3: E 31° 4’N, 20-5 knots.
. 30:5 knots, N 20° 20’ W, 10:4 sea-miles.
. 90°, 74 min, 375 m. 13. 62 min.
. V, due E. 15. 250 m, 64 min, 5 min,
. (3754, 3754), (4694, 2347). 17a 25724 )° 13:2 m/s}
. 55° 33’, 14:4 seconds. 19. av/(g/8b), /(2g0).
. 24 seconds. 21. 85m.
. 20-8, 14:8 m. 23. t = } second, x= 18m, y = 6:27 m.
. th. 26. 44/2, $+/10 seconds,
. 76° 43’, —13° 17’, 9-82, 2:32 seconds.
. 600 m. 29. 4-49 m.
5 4/3/12.

EXERCISES 18 (a) (p. 466)

2 25°27, 19*13. KN, 3. /(5gd/6).
. 1:34 m/s?, 78-2 m. Se 1:32)KN,;
. 486 kN. 8. 3, a2.
: 0:58, 10. g/21, 4g/21, 33g/175.
M sin(¢ — A) — msin
ve g. 15. 5-89 m/s, 8-83 m.
(M + m) cosa

EXERCISES 18 (5) (p. 474)

. 4:07 kW. 2. 98-6 km/h.
. 219 N, 79:3 km/h. 4. 153-3 N, 0-6 m/s’, 514.N.
. 0:0306. 6. 31:5 kW.
. 53°6 mile/h. 8. 10-9 kW, 0-49 m/s?.
. 123 W, 36 km/h, 0-123 m/s’. 11. 28-7 km/h, 0-314 m/s’,
. 410 W, 0-981 m/s, 30 km/h. 13, 1 in 210, 48 km/h.
. 0:218 ft/s?, 24-4 mile/h. 15. 57:3 km/h, 0-135 m/s*,

EXERCISES 18 (c) (p. 480)

. 1-427 x 10°J. 3. 1-832 x 10°J.
8 h.p. 5. 179 W.
. 20:3 kW. 7. 2N, 200 J, 40 W.
. 11-0 kW. 9. 2.
. 7:9 kW. 11. 1:18 kW.
. 40:7 kW. 13. {2gc(M — msin «)/(M + m)}#.
. 6857 m.
 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

EXERCISES 18 (d) (p. 482)

1. 2:52 km, 82:7 km/h. 3. 25-1 km/h.

4. 25-7 cm/s?. 5. 312, 80 seconds.
6. 871 kW. 7. 313 m1, 236m,
9. 2. 10. 30-8 N, 1:82 m/s, 25-1 cm.
11. tet, $gt, gt. 12; 0°58.
13. 0-39 km. 14. 3-92s.
15. 723 h.p., 45-7 mile/h. 16. 18-2 kW.
17. 61:5 m/s. 18. 29:7 m.
19. 68:35 km, 16°6 kW. 20. 178 kgf, 1 in 15-6.
21, 654 kW, 13-3 km/h. 22. 537°6 h.p., 1075-2 h.p.
23. 32:14 mile/h, 507 b.p., 1037 ft tonf.
24. 32m. 255 Si2 5

EXERCISES 19 (a) (p. 491)

1. Mmu/(M+ m), 4Mmu?/(m + M). 20 1%1 KEN,

3. 82° 49’, 4. 77:7 kgf.
5. 3 x 104 newton seconds, 20 m/s, 300 KN, 0-1 seconds.
6. 1:92 m/s. 7. 2 mis, 5 mijs,.15) 10" Je
8. 1 m/s, 4 x 104 J. 9. 92°5 KN.
10. 2:35 x 10° kgf seconds.
11. 22-4 m/s, at 63° 26’ to horizontal, 5-83 seconds.
12. m/M, 6°67 x 10°N. 13. 848 kg, 70:5 N,.
15. 4:3 x 10* kgf, 0-039 seconds, 1-962 x 104 J.

EXERCISES 19 (6) (p. 499)

1. 0-91. 2. 4.
ah POeWernl A. 5°27 % 10-75;
5. 4, 8°41 m/s, 6. 0:52.
10. 2, 5-25 J. 11. 14 m/s, 3 m/s, 13-3 J.
14. 47/108.
EXERCISES 19 (c) (p. 503)
1. 1:01 x 10°, 4-22 x 105, 2. 14°5,
35 13625: 4, 96-2.
5. 0-457, 9-2, 6. 0-225 ft/s’.

EXERCISES 19 (d) (p. 503)

1. 1-27, 2:55 seconds, 5:31 m;21-:23m. 2. 14-5 J, 25 N.
2. mM(v — V)/(M + m). 4. 1 m/s, 8-01 x 103 J,
5. 1750 kW. 7. 4.8 ft, tan (1-5).
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 623
- 10-9, 2-6 m/s; 2:55 J. 10. 0-875 m/s, 5-875 m/s.
- V(14ga), 6 mga. 13. 4, 14, u/12.
fe] 5. 7/18. 17. 411 — e)u, 411 + e)u.
3. 21. ma(1 + e)/Je, J/(m, + mg).
= Sibi 23.02) 7.
. V¥(3/7) seconds, +/(3/7) seconds. 25. 4.

EXERCISES 20 (a) (p. 514)

3m. 2. Mg — Mhw*, Mhw*/mg.
. (aw* + g) : (aw* — g). 4. 3-84 m/s,
. 2:37 x 10? N, 80° 28’, 6. S5za/u.
. 12 rad/s. 8. 77:2 r.p.m.
- 48°8 r.p.m. 10. 57-9 r.p.m.
. 8-05 kgf. 14, 0°59 N, 153 r.p.m.
. 73:5 N, 276 N, 1:49 m/s.

EXERCISES 20 (6) (p. 520)

. 69 km/h. 2. 0:624.
. 53°5 km/h, 4. 5-9 cm, 1:04 x 10!N.
. 0°8 tonf, outer rail. 6. 3970 N, 2:35 cm.
b6-097, 07122. 8. 12:7 cm.
. 11-4, 77-8 km/h. —y0. 43-7 km/h.
. 10° 16’, 0-48.
EXERCISES 20 (ce) (p. 525)
~ 3-5 mg. 5. 2:45 m/s. Cbs
. 2 mg. 9, 240 cm/s?, 12°2mN. 10. 3 mg.
. Vg), cos.
EXERCISES 20 (d) (p. 527)
. 4-43 m/s. 2. 9°87 x 10 N.
. 31-5 r.p.m., 2°18 x 10 N. 8. uMmg/(M + 2m).
. 89 r.p.m. 10. 94-6 r.p.m.
. 7 mg, + mg, 19 mg/7. 12. 5° 59’, 0-1.
. 71:3 km/h. 15. 63-5 km/h, 46° 34’,
. 8-86 m/s, 5-43 m/s. 19. 18-4.N.
. $a.

EXERCISES 21 (a) (p. 538)

. 25 cm/s.
3. V(b? — cu®)/(v* — u)}, AVP — c*)/(? — v*)}.
. 74/2 seconds, 44/2 m. 5. 4 cos} (1/+/5).
624 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS
6. 13 in, 44 ft/s, 174 ft/s”. 7. 5m, 2/6 seconds.
8. 2:5 m,z seconds, 5 m/s. 9. 15-9 cm, 4-41 cm/s, 1-57 cm/s”.
10. 25 cm, 27:4 cm/s”, 20:9 cm/s. 14, 14/2;
12. 8 seconds, 35-35 cm. 13. 13-5 seconds.
14, shortened 0-02 per cent. 15. 99-40 cm, shortened 0-18 per cent.

EXERCISES 21 (6) (p. 542)

1. 2ma?n?/p?, arx/(1 — 4/27), 4ma?a3[p?, a/+/2.
2. 3a from O, 2ka. 3. 4mg, m/(alg, 4-/(ag), 0.
4. 1 + V3). 5. 2n/(2d/g), 3d.
6. a(l + 2M/m), 2x-/{(M + m)al/(mg)}. 7. 17a/8, 2+/(a/8g).
9, 1:57 m/s, 10. 0-52 seconds, 6-67 cm.
12. 42. 14. 2:3 cm.
15. 6:075 cm, 0-31 seconds.

EXERCISES 21 (c) (p. 550)

1. 3g/4a. 2. 69-1 r.p.m. 3. 4M,?w?,
4. 4-43 rad/s. 6. 4-97 kg m*, 8. tg.
10. 224/(13//15g). 11. 11a/6. 12. 3-75 seconds.
13. 3(M + 2m)g/8(M + 3m)a. 15. Mmg/(M + 2m).

EXERCISES 21 (d) (p. 552)

1. 7 m/s, $7+/3 m/s. 5. 2an»/(a? — x), 2xna sin 2nnt.
6. 35:8 cm, 4:9. 7., 30:2. ft/s*.
9. 2:3 cm. 10. 0:40 seconds, 27-1 cm/s, 245 cm/s?.
13. 0-854. 18. 27/(14a/9g).
19, 27+/{UI + ml?)/(Mh + ml)g}. 20. 3M:(2M + m).
21. 12g/5, 68/5. 22. 3g/Sa.
23. /{(a? + 4b?)/bg}. 24. 4b/3 from AB.

EXERCISES 22 (a) (p. 560)

6 1 16
1. (a) fo, (b) | a} (c) |a.
—1 19.
6 6 Siaei 6
2. (a) |0 o|, (b) |-2 2, (c) E -1].
9. 10 8 4.

3. AB= [5 yi BAe:

an= [9 J], ace [2]. sc=[f 2].

5. AB= [5 og), BC=[") [po cas [lt 27.
apor=[}
6a=[5 ob =[8 sis:
 ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES 625
10 3 10 14 aK 9. [2
16 4 14 20]° NT W16:)° a
mers 4 8 2 4
10. AB= [3 oh Bc = |} ica ats12)2 ABO = 1G ca
11. x1X2 + yiye
+ 2122.
5 4
Popo La} ca Le a} B = | 5]:
EXERCISES 22 (6) (p. 567)
eee, 14 20 26
1. A? =3A, B? = E 1 al Cc? = [20 29 28)
001 6 38 50
LO
p= [0 1 2
OmOret
16-23" 3 1692396
2. ABC = i23 30}, ABCD = E 23° +69 |.
16523 - 16 23 69.
1 -e 2B +a
w DES e=[o 1 2y “
+ ca a 1
1 4
EF=/a axc+1 prise |
bate bB+cy+1

ee 22 (c) (p. 574)

ue
food
es
a v— E ee ery

eee fy
7 lies a
S beet eae
s7?
hee reer. t
if

Z —2 —1 14110
7.x=2,y=2,z=5. 8 x=ly=2,z7=3.
9. y’ cos 4a + x’(1 — sin 4a) = 0. 10. x’ = 2y’; m= +2.

EXERCISES 22 (d) (p. 575)

i diag (@1a2, bybe, C1C2). 2: ok.

- X= 2/73, y = —1/V3; x = —2/V3, y = 1/73.

1 0 1 —3 1
vi | 2. —1 A 6. E 1 -1].
=—7T 6) =I O20 5 <1
626 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

—12 9 —-1
“p | 9 —7 i]. 8. —(a+b+ cb —ci(c —a)a— bd).
—7 6 —1
9. (i) 0, (ii) ab. 10. 2(a + 1)(a + 3)*.
11. x = #(—a + 9b — 3c), y = H{(—2a + 3b —c), + 6c).
Z = #(2a — 13b
ir 4-8 3 ir 8 37.
12.5| $ 1 -2]. 3.4/2 4 |

+ eee al
19. x = 35/18,y= 29/18, z = 5/18.

EXERCISES 23 (@) (p. 582)

EEE PAS De DU: 3. 130-58 cm, 3-04 cm.
4. 9881 m, 23 m. 5. 72° 25’ 37”, /(47) sec. 6. 5 m, 34 (m)?.
7, 32:9 N/m?, 0-28 N/m?. 8. 165 Ib, 16-95 Ib.
9. 1004-1 mb, 11:2 mb. 10. 0-243 cm, 0-0039 cm. Be 8SBd
12, 53-3, 410. 14. 32:55 cm, 2-83 cm. 15. 1380 hr, 120 hr.

EXERCISES 23 (6) (p. 590)

1. 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 65-06 in.
1 Se 2s Le 0 Ge 2
(Se (Oo ae FR ICHS ey) 23a)
=. |, 781 KN. 3. 4:54, 1-97.
Le poee |2 30 NO G4 oe é
4, 29:85 cm, 2:07 cm. 5. 278-64 cm, 1:62 cm. 6. 24:9999 kg; 1-614 g.
7. 65-06 in, 1-33 in. 8. 7:81 KN, 0:83 KN. 9. 20° 32° 2A”-3, 1:65'sec.
10. 32:89 KN/m?, 0:36 kN/m?. WOE Gt oR FE
12. 0-520, 0-812. 13. 168-88 Ib, 21-91 Ib. 14, 2131-2 m, 27-4 m.
15. 66-62 in, 2:67 in. 17. (i) 33-9 cm, (ii) 1:48 cm. 18, 3-24, 0-224.

EXERCISES 23 (c) (p. 599)

1. 4-81 cm, 5:35 cm, 2. 7:20 KN, 7:83 KN, 8-48 KN.
3. 7:87 kN, —0-07. 4. 64-82 in, 66-66 in, 68-50 in.
5. 65-04 in, 65-00 in, 0-05. 6. —0-44, 0-57,
7. —0-045, 4-0. 8. 8-66, 9, 9, —0-09
9. 61:06 to 69:06 in, 62:40 to 67-72 in. 10. 5-32 to 10-30 KN, 6:15 to 9:47 kN.
11. 20° 32’ 24”-3-.0"-37. 12. 66-44 in to 66:80 in.
13. 168-88+1-39 Ib.
14, 30-99 to 31:81 kKN/m?, 29-55 to 33:25 kN/m?.
 INDEX

Abscissa, 107 Compound pendulum, 548

Acceleration, 152, 196, 201, 279, 414; Conical pendulum, 512
components of, 441; constant, Conservation, of energy, 479; of
280, 415, 417; explicit expressions momentum, 487
for, 425; normal, 507; units of Coordinates, Cartesian, 107; of
414 point dividing joint of two points,
Additional formulae, 66, 110 111; polar, 108; relation between,
Ambiguous case for triangle, 93 109
Amplitude in simple harmonic mo- Cosine formula for triangle, 86
tion, 532 Couples, 369
Angle between two lines, 125 Cube roots of unity, 160
Approximations, 203 Curve sketching, 217
Area, as integral, 240; as limit of
sum, 238; calculation of, 244, 259 Definite integral, 242, 244
Area of triangle, formula for, 89; Demoivre’s theorem, 161
in terms of coordinates, 113 Derivative, 173
Argand diagram, 158 Determinants, 565
Asymptotes, of hyperbola, 342 Differential coefficient, 173; of a
constant, 177; of a function of a
Banking, 518 function, 182; of a product, 178;
Binomial theorem, for fractional and of a quotient, 179; of a sum, 177;
negative indices, 52; for positive of e7, 291; of inverse functions,
index, 48 186; of logé¢x, 290; of parametric
and implicit functions, 188; of
c.g.s. units, 461 sin x and cos x, 176; of tan x,
Cartesian coordinates, 107 etc., 180; of x”, 175
Centre of gravity, 265, 269, 374, 391 Differential equations, 307; applica-
Centre of mass, 266, 374 tions of, 318; first order, 308;
Centroid, 268, 374, 391 homogeneous, 313; second order,
Change of units, 501 315
‘Circle, equation of, 325; on given Differentiation of a graph, 421
diameter, 326; tangent to, 327 Dimensions, 501
Circular motion, 507, 516; in vertical Directrix, of ellipse, 336; of hyper-
circle, 523; with variable velocity, bola, 340; of parabola, 330
521 Distance between points, 110; of
Coefficient, of friction, 398; of point from line, 129
restitution, 492 Dyne, 461
Collision of particles, 486
Combinations, 42; with similar and Eccentricity, of ellipse, 336; of
repeated objects, 44 hyperbola, 340
Complex numbers, 154; algebra of, Effective normal force, 509; re-
155; conjugate, 156; modulus versed, 510
and amplitude of, 156; products Efficiency, 473
and quotients of, 157 Elastic strings, 389, 540
627
628 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Ellipse, equation of, 336; normal to Hyperbola, equation of, 340; normal
339; parametric equations of, 338; to, 342; parametric equations of,
tangent to, 338 342, 343; rectangular, 343; tan-
Empirical laws, 134 gent to, 342
Energy, conservation of, 479; kin-
etic, 476; potential, 478; units of, Imaginary parts of a function, 162
476 Impact, 490, 493, 495; energy loss
Energy equation, 479, 546 in, 496
Equation acos x + bsin x = c, 73 Implicit functions, 167
Equilibrium, 352, 405; conditions Impulse, 485
for, 375; with four or more forces, Inclined plane, 398, 462
386 Included angle formula for triangle,
Equivalent simple pendulum, 549 90
Erg, 468 Increment notation, 170
Error curve, 596 Indefinite integral, 223
Explicit functions, 167 Indices, 13; fractional, 15; negative,
Exponential function, 290; derivative 15; positive, 13
of, 291 Induction, method of, 49
Exponential series, 301 Inflexion, points of, 215
Integral, as limit of a sum, 240;
Focus, of ellipse, 336; of hyperbola, definite, 242, 244; indefinite, 223;
340; of parabola, 330 of e%, 291; of f’(x)/f(x), 293; of
Force, 350; as vector, 152, 355; on tational algebraic fractions, 295;
a particle, 351; on a rigid body, of x~1, 286
354; units of, 350 Integration, by change of variable,
Frames of reference, 433 231, 245: «by eparts, «23682972
Frequency, 533 numerical, 247; of a graph, 423;
Frequency distribution, 584; graphs of products of sines and cosines,
of, 585; parameters of, 593 235
Friction, angle of, 398; coefficient Inverse trigonometrical functions, 79
of, 398; laws of, 397; problems
on, 400 Kilowatt, 472
Functions of a variable, 166 Kinetic energy, 476; loss in impact,
496; of rotating body, 545
Gradient, 168
Lami’s theorem, 377
Graphical methods in dynamics,
Latus rectum, of parabola, 331
417, 425
Limiting value of (sin x)/x, 78
Loci, 116; intersection of, 118
Half-angle formulae for triangle, 88 Logarithmic function, 289; deriv-
Heights and distances, 99 ative of, 290
Higher derivatives, 190 Logarithmic series, 301
Histogram, 585 Logarithms, 17; common 19
Homogeneous differential equations,
313 m.k.s. units, 461
Hooke’s law, 389 Maclaurin’s series, 300
Horse-power, 471; brake, 473; in- Matrices, 557; decomposition of,
dicated, 473 568; determinant associated with,
 INDEX 629
565; general definitions of, 562; Parametric equations, 332, 338, 342,
inverse of, 566; inverse of unit 343
diagonal, 569; particular, 564; Partial fractions, 54
product of, 559, 561; use in Pascal’s triangle, 50
reducing a system of equations, Pendulum, compound, 548; conical,
570; use in solution of simultane- 512; equivalent simple, 549;
ous equations, 572 seconds, 537; simple, 536
Maxima and minima, 205; applica- Period, 533
tions of, 211 Permutations, 42
Mean, 578; calculation of, 581 Perpendicular lines, 127
Mean values, 260 Polar coordinates, 108
Median, 593 Potential energy, 478
Mensuration formulae, 199 Poundal, 461
Mode, 594 Power, 471; units of, 471
Modulus of elasticity, 389 Probability, 46
Moments of a force, 358 Progression, arithmetical, 35; con-
Moment of inertia, 273, 275; of vergent geometrical, 40; geo-
lamina, 274 metrical, 37
Momentum, 460, 485; conservation
of, 487; units of, 486 Quadratic equations, 20; equations
Motion, about an axis, 544; cir- leading to, 24; functions of roots,
cular, 507; of connected masses, 22
464; of rigid body, 462; para- Quadratic functions, 20
bolic, 443; relative, 433; simple Quantiles, 593
harmonic, 531; with constant
acceleration, 280, 415, 417 Radius of gyration, 273
Range, in parabolic motion, 445
Napierian logarithm, 289 Rate measurer, 196
Newton (unit of force), 461 Real part of a function, 162
Newton’s approximation, 302 Rectangular hyperbola, 343
Newton’s law of motion, 459, 460 Reduction of a system of equations,
Normal acceleration, 507 570; alternative method of, 572
Normal distribution, 596 Relative motion, 433, 436
Numerical integration, 247 Relative path, 438
- Numerical solution of triangles, 91 Remainder theorem, 27
Resultant, 351; line of action of, 363
Ordinate, 107 Resultant velocity, 433, 436
Overturning of vehicles, 516
Sampling distribution of mean, 597
Parabola, equation of, 330; normal Scalar product, 151, 468
to, 333; parametric equations of, Second derivative, 190
332; tangent to, 332 Second moment, 580
Parabolic motion, 443; equations of, Seconds pendulum, 537
443; remaining velocity in, 446; Separation of variables, 308
vertex height in, 446 Sequences, 34
Parallel axis theorem, 273 Series, 34; for e?, 300; for
Parallel forces, 356; centre of, 373 log, (1 + x), 301
Parallel lines, 127 Sheppard’s connection, 589
630 ADVANCED LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Skewness, 595 Triangle of forces, 377

Simple harmonic motion, 531; am- Trigonometrical, addition formulae,
plitude in, 532; forces causing, 66, 110; factor formulae, 74;
539; frequency, in 533; initial half-angle formulae, 72
conditions in, 533; period in, 533; Trigonometrical ratios, definitions
relation to circular motion, 534; of, 62; for general angle, 63;
with elastic string, 540 graphs of, 65; of multiple angles
Simple pendulum, 536 69; of small angles, 76
Simpson’s rule, 251 Turning points, 205
Sine formula for triangle, 84
Slug, 502 Undetermined coefficients, 29
Solution of triangles, 91 Unit vectors, 144
Standard differential coefficients, 188 Units, 414; absolute, 461; change
Standard deviation, 578; calculation of, 501; gravitational, 461; of
of, 581 energy, 476; of force, 461; of
Standard error, 597; of the mean, 598 mass, 460; of momentum, 486;
Standard integrals, 214, 227 of power, 471; of work, 468;
Statistics, 578 table of, 502
Straight line, equation of, 199; in Units and dimensions, 501
terms of intercepts, 122; in terms
of slope and coordinates of a point, Variance, 579
121; in terms of slope and inter- Vector algebra, 147
cept on y-axis, 120; passing Vector qualities, 152
through intersection of given lines, Vectors, 142; addition of, 144, 150;
131; passing through two given components of, 149
points, 122 Velocity, 152, 196, 201, 279, 414;
Systéme International, 461, 502 components of, 441; relative, 433,
436; units of, 414
Taylor-Maclaurin theorem, 299 Volumes, by integration, 262
Time of flight, 445
Toppling problems, 395 Watt, 472
Trajectory, 446, 449 Wheel, rotation of, 549
Transformation of a cos x + b sin x, Work, 468; done by a couple, 470;
72 in lifting body, 469; in stretching
Transmissibility of force, 354 elastic string, 469; units of, 468
Trapezoidal rule, 248 Work equation, 476
 i» A, SY
hs oo / a on
2 > nag
q*

7 ;
s

<

— : :
in . mali
lhe 4s, 7 rae Po
] r a i a ah wat > ’
. \ a} , fr . r > ho
t Thaks Dian a Set: iad
-~ i vd ih

° , e
7 LJ - are

of uv "
* j* Ls

ae { ait s) }

di , =!

ba|
1 c 4

‘ ™~
; és
‘

; ae, >
SF
SP
ving
ite ' A

ae é
‘| P
i Ra ‘
é 1’ — . .
~s i UF
6 4
~ ars
en) ial
yy ay
‘ “i
‘ vs i
are oe mr, a oA Pek oe ee.
nl ,
v, Wet, aoh)
06, S
tetator Ge ag
>.
qeaminal NMS
a.
’ es <=, é * -

mips rberplar ae ci a‘
| =
ee e\,
nal 7
mS
a a
ine 0S, ?
ae i

a vwioys Sui oe * }
* Auk se

. > 200s ae
P/ s 3 i - _ : ie A
i
i:

il

é/

_£
7 -

me

: A

—~
‘

s. =

en =

oe:

KY

Nes

ws

_ . a

Fa

.
 ?
.

_*
 ee
oa

in this book the authors of Advanced Level Pure Mathematics and

Advanced Level Applied Mathematics have collaborated to produce
single volume suitable for students preparing themselves for the
joint subject Pure and Apgied Mathematics at the Advanced Level
of the General Certificate of Education. The material inciuced
therefore covers the syli@bus laid down for this subject by the. major _
examining boards. This inclusion of both Pure and Applied
Mathematics in one book has enabled some repetition to be
avoided and has made it possible to knit the two subjects closely
together, thus bringing out the manyinter-relationships which areso
often unnoticed when the subjects are taught separately.

In this fourth edition, a chapter on Statistics has been added, asan.

introductory knowledge of this topic is of increasing use in modern +
life and it now forms a part of many Advanced Level examinations. *

“ISBN
0 340 24202 7