EFRC Training Workshop
Basic training
Design & Construction
Niek Albers – Howden Thomassen
Compressors B.V.
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Compressor configurations
Horizontal Vertical
L-type V-type W-type
Image source: Howden, SIAD MI (V), GEA Grasso (W)
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Main components
Clearance pocket Suction valve unloader Cylinder Crosshead guide Frame
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Main components
Flywheel Driver (e-motor) Pulsation damper Pulsation damper
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Standards
• API
– 618: Reciprocating Compressors
– 614: Lubrication, shaft-sealing and control-oil systems and
auxiliaries
– RP 686: Recommended practices for machinery installation and
installation design
– RP 684: Standard paragraphs rotordynamic tutorial
– RP 688: Pulsation and vibration control in positive displacement
machinery systems
• Customer & project specifications
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Construction
Crankshaft Connecting rod Crosshead pin Piston rod Piston
Crankcase Crosshead Crosshead Distance piece Cylinder
(frame) guide
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Crankcase
• Function
– Contain and support
parts
– Transfer forces and
moments to foundation
– Oil reservoir
• Design
– Cast iron
– Ribbed construction
for force transfer
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Crankshaft
• Function
– Transfer rotating
motion from driver to
connecting rod big end
bearing
• Design
– Forged steel
– Drilled passages for
lube oil distribution to
connecting rod
– Flanged or shaft end
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Connecting Rod
• Function
– Connect crankshaft to
crosshead
– Transfer rotating to
reciprocating motion
• Design
– Forged steel
– Big end bearing cap
– Houses big and small
end bearings
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Crosshead
• Function
– Connect piston rod to
connecting rod
• Design
– Cast steel
– Replaceable shoes
– Floating or fixed
crosshead pin
– Crosshead pin
bushings
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Pin load and reversal
• Combined rod load/pin
load is the sum of gas
load and inertia forces on
the crosshead pin
• Load shall fully reverse
between pin and bushing
• Duration (°) and
magnitude (%) shall be
sufficient to maintain
proper lubrication
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Crosshead Guide
• Function
– Guide reciprocating
motion of crosshead
– Enable lubrication of
the sliding surfaces
• Design
– Cast iron
– Integral part of frame
or integrated with
distance piece
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Distance Piece
• Function
– Connect cylinder to
crankcase
– Provide barrier for
process gas between
cylinder and
crankcase
• Design
– Cast iron
– Single or double
compartment
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Distance piece arrangements
• Type A
– Single compartment, short
– Non-flammable, non-hazardous gas
– Oil carry-over acceptable
• Type B
– Single compartment, long
– Non-lube or oil carry-over not
acceptable
• Type C
– Double compartment, long/long
– Only for special service, e.g. oxygen
– Normally not used on process gas
compressors
• Type D
– Double compartment, long/short
– For flammable, hazardous or toxic
gases
Source: API 618, 5th edition
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Distance piece arrangements
Source: API 618, 5th edition
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Piston rod sealing
Oil wiper packing Intermediate packing Stuffing box
Wipes of the motion work Seals the inboard compartment Main pressure seal.
lubrication oil from the piston from the outboard compartment Seal between compression
rod. Seals crankcase from chamber and compartment.
inboard compartment.
Basic training September 13/14 2017
Cylinder
• Function
– Transfer process gas
to/from compression
chamber
– Contain process gas
during compression
• Design
– Double acting (DA)
most common
– Cast iron, cast steel or
forged steel
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Cylinder
• Design & analysis
– Casting
• <100 bar(g): Cast iron
• <180 bar(g): Cast steel
– Forged steel block for
higher pressures
– Cooling water
channels
– Replaceable liner
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Cylinder
• Testing
– Hydrostatic
• Mechanical integrity
• Using water
• 1.5 x Pdesign
– Pneumatic
• Leakage test
• Using inert gas
• 1 x Pdesign
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Piston
• Function
– Reduce process gas
volume
• Design
– Cast iron, stainless
steel or aluminium
alloy
– Solid or hollow
– Vent hole
– Grooves for piston
rings and rider rings
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Piston rings
• Provides dynamic sealing
between HE and CE piston
side in order to minimize
leakage due to differential
pressure
• Leakage mainly due to gap
(80% to 90%)
• Gap is necessary for mounting
of the piston ring and to allow
thermal expansion
• Required number of piston
rings depends on differential
pressure suction/discharge
Source: Prediction for the Sealing Characteristics of Piston Rings of a Reciprocating Compressor, Liu & Yongzhang, 1986
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Rider rings
API 618, 5th edition, 6.10.3.2
‘For non-lubricated, horizontal
cylinders, the bearing load on
nonmetallic wear bands shall not
exceed 0.035 N/mm2 based on the
mass of the entire piston assembly
plus half the mass of the rod divided
by the projected area of a 120º arc of
all wear bands.
For lubricated horizontal cylinders,
the bearing load on wear bands shall
not exceed 0.07 N/mm2.’
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Cylinder lubrication
• Yes or no?
– Lubricant allowed in
process?
– Reliability?
– Operating pressure?
• Lubricated
– Pump-to-point
– Divider block
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Cylinder lubrication
• Mineral oils
• Synthetic oils
• White oils
• Viscosity
– Gas components may
reduce viscosity, effect
of pressure
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Lubrication - Theory
• Boundary Lubrication
• Contact dominated by
interaction between sliding
and stationary surface
• High wear rate
• Mixed Lubrication
• Asperity contact may occur
• Partial fluid-film lubrication
• Viscosity of lubricant is
important
• Full Film Lubrication
• Sliding surfaces are separated
• Virtual absence of wear
Source: On the design of lubricant free piston compressors, PhD thesis, P. Owczarek, 2010
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Lubrication - Quantity
• Getting it just right is
crucial
• Over-lubrication leads to
accumulation of lubricant
in compression space, on
valves, in channels and
vessels
• Under-lubrication leads to
boundary lubrication
situation; excessive wear
rate
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Valves
• Function
– Retain gas during
compression and
expansion
– Allow flow during
suction/delivery stroke
• Design
– Check valves
– Valve elements either
metallic or plastic
plates or rings
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Capacity control
• Stepped
– Suction valve
unloading
– Fixed clearance
pocket
• Stepless
– Reverse flow control
– Recycle/spillback
– Variable speed drive
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Valve unloading
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Clearance pocket
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Drivers
• Electric motor
– Induction
– Synchronous
• Steam turbine
• Gas/diesel engine
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Electric motors
• Induction
– Motor speed lagging
from rotating magnetic
field – “slip” required to
induce torque
• Synchronous
– Motor speed
p 50 Hz 60 Hz
8
synchronized with
750 900
10 600 720 supply current
12 500 600 frequency
14 429 514
16 375 450
– Not self-starting
18 333 400
20 300 360 September
13/14 2017
Induction motors
• Characteristics
– High efficiency
– High starting current
• Application area
– Small to medium size
motors
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Synchronous motors
• Characteristics
– Very high efficiency
– Low starting current
• Application area
– Power factor
correction
– Large size, slow speed
motors
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Coupling
• Single bearing motor
– Rigidly coupled
• Double bearing motor
– Rigidly coupled
– Highly elastic coupling
Image source: VULKAN Kupplungs- und Getriebebau
Bernhard Hackforth GmbH & Co. KG
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Torsional analysis
• Determine torsional
natural frequencies
• Separation margins
– Operating speed
• 1 x : ±10%
• Up to 10 x : ±5%
– Power frequency
• 1 x : ±10%
• 2 x : ±5%
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Torsional stress analysis
• Required when
torsional natural
frequencies are within
the separation
margins
• Simulation
– Normal operating
– Start
– Stop
– Short circuit
Basic training September
13/14 2017
Conclusion
• API 618 heavy duty reciprocating compressors are
rugged, flexible and highly efficient
• State of the art design & analysis tools are applied to
optimize equipment safety and reliability
Basic training September 13/14 2017
