CHAPTER 1

VECTOR
An exploration of the fascinating world
of geometry vectors, including their
definitions, notations, operations,
applications in mathematics, and the
significance of vector spaces.

by CAR OL YNA SIL A

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1Vector in Three Dimensions
1.2 Scalar Product
1.3 Vector Product
1.4 Application of Vector Geometry

by CAROLYNA SILA
 1.1Vector in Three Dimensions

Learning Outcomes
By end of this topic, students must be able
to:
 Determine the types of vectors
 Find the magnitude of a vector and a unit
vector.
 Perform addition and scalar multiplication
of vectors.

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1.1Vector in Three Dimensions
Introduction to Vector
Vectors vs S calars
Vectors Scalars
A vector has both A scalar has only magnitude
magnitude and direction

One of the key differences between vectors and scalars is that vectors have direction, whereas scalars
do not. Scalars only have magnitude.

by CAROLYNA SILA
How to Denote Vectors
 2,3 

Vector denoted by a single lower case bold letter,

A or lower case and underline it (i.e. a) or by
putting an arrow above the letter 𝑂𝐴

by CAROLYNA SILA
 Exercise 1.
Determine whether the following is a vector
or scalar.
a) The distance between P and Q is 200m.
b) The volume of the prism is 65cm3.
c) The time taken to run round the block was
184s.
d) A man walks 2 km on a bearing of 062o.
e) A horizontal force of 3 N was applied at right
angles to the length of the book.
f) The velocity of the airplane is 800 km/h on a
bearing 158o.

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 Directed Line segment

Vector represented by a directed line segment.

Direction of vectors
B

AB
End point of directed line
A segment

a. The arrow represents the direction from A

to B, and
b. The length of the line represents the
magnitude of the vector.
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 Component of vector
 A vector may be represented by its
component, which we write it column.
 For example
a=  2  is vector in two dimensions
 3
 
 4 
 
b=   3  is vector in three dimensions
 1 
 

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 Components of a Vector

◦ Let’s consider a vector P whose initial point is

the origin and whose the terminal point is
(x, y, z).
◦ We say that the vector P is in standard
position and refer it as a
position vector= P= OP
z
P (x, y, z)

O
x
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 Components of a Vector

 Row vector: p = <x, y, z>.

 x
  y
 Column vector:  
p
z 
 Basic vector: 𝒑 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌

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 Components of a Vector
 Any vector with all its components zero
is called Zero Vector, can be written as 0
= 0
 
0
0
 

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 MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR
 The modulus of a vector is its magnitude;
simply the length of the vector

The modulus of the vector is denoted by



 PQ
the symbols | PQ|; the modulus of the vector


a is written |a|.

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 MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR
It can be calculated as follows

 

a
if PQ    then PQ  a2  b2
b

a


  

if PQ   b  then PQ  a2  b2  c2
c
 

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 Distance in Three Dimensions
The distance between the points A and B

is dAB = AB

The distance d between the point

x1 , y1 , z1  and x 2 , y 2 , z 2 

d x 2  x1  2

 y 2  y1 
2
 ( z 2  z1 ) 2
units

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 Example 2
 5 
  12 
a. Given 𝐴𝐵=   , find |𝐴𝐵|
8 

 5
 
b. Find the magnitude of a =  6 
 
 3 

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 Unit vector

Where i , j and k are unit vectors in the positive

direction along the x-axis, y-axis and the z-axis respectively.

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 Example 3
Find unit vector of 𝑃𝑄 = 2𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 7𝑘.

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 Equality of Vectors
B
Vectors are said to be equal
D
only if they have the
A
same magnitude
and direction. C

a and b are equal  a and b

have the same direction and a  b .

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 Equality of Vectors
For example, E D

Figure shows parallelogram

ABDE and BCDE,
A B C

◦ The directed line segment AB, BC , and ED

have same magnitude and direction, therefore,
AB  BC  ED

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 Negative Vectors
B
The directed line segment
D
AB and CD are equal length but
A
in opposite directions.
C

o The vectors AB and CD are negative vectors

of each other and we write:
AB  CD or CD   AB
a  b  a and b are in opposite direction and a  b .
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 Example 4
B

BA  BO  OA b

 
  OB  OA O
a A
 b  a
 a b

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 Addition of Vectors
Triangle Law of Vector Addition R
◦ In the triangle PQR, the vectors are
related as follows:

P Q
 Let 𝑃𝑄 be the displacement from P to Q,
𝑄𝑅 be the displacement from Q to R, and
𝑃𝑅 be the displacement from P to R.

 In physical situation, the displacement 𝑃𝑄 followed by the 𝑄𝑅

displacement , is the displacement 𝑃𝑅 and we write:

PQ  QR  PR
 This process of adding the two vectors using the triangle PQR is
known as the triangle law of addition.

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 Addition of Vectors
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
◦ Refer to the parallelogram ABCD.

D C
v u+v

A u B
◦ Let the two vectors be the two sides of a
parallelogram, which starts at the same initial point,
as in the figure above.
◦ Note: v = AD = BC, therefore u+v = AB + AD = AC
◦ Then the sum of u+v is the diagonal of the
parallelogram.
◦ This process of adding and using the parallelogram
ABCD is known as the Parallelogram law.
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 Example 5
Simplify :
a) AB  BC  CF

b)
PQ  ST  QS  TU

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 Example 6
ABCD is a parallelogram with 𝐵𝐶 = 𝒎,
𝐵𝐴 = 𝒏. T is the midpoint of AD. Express
𝐴𝐶 , 𝐵𝐷 and 𝐵𝑇 in term of m and n.

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 Example 7
O, A, B, C and D are 5 points with 𝑂𝐴
= 𝒂, 𝑂𝐵 = 𝒃, 𝑂𝐶 = 2𝒂 − 3𝒃 and 𝑂𝐷 = 5𝒂
− 𝒃. Find 𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐶,𝐴𝐶, 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐷𝐵 in terms
of a and b.

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 Algebraic Properties of Vector
Vector addition, vector subtraction and scalar
multiplication are operations involving algebraic
properties similar to real numbers.

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 Example 8
Given that a = 2i – 6j + 3k and b= – i +7j –
5k, find
a) ‫ ׀‬a-b‫׀‬
b) 2a + 3b
c) a unit vector in the direction of 2a – b.

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 Example 9
In the figure, OA= a, OB = b and C divides AB in the ratio 5:1
(a) Write down, in terms of a and b, expressions for AB, AC and OC .
(b) Given that OE= λb, where λ is a scalar. Write down, in terms of a, b
and λ, an expression for CE .
(c) Given that OD= μ (b – a), where μ is a scalar. Write down, in terms
of a, b, λ and μ, an expression for ED.
(d) Given also that E is the mid-point of CD. Deduce the values of λ and
μ.

C
A B

O D

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 Parallel vectors, Non-Parallel Vectors &
Collinear Points
If two vectors a and b are parallel then one is a scalar
multiple of the other, that is: a  b

 If  is positive then a is in the same direction as b.

 If  is negative then a is in the opposite direction to
b.

a
a
or
b
b

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 Example 10
a) Given a and b are not parallel and
a + b = a + b, where , , ,  are
scalars, if and only if
when  -  = 0 and  -  = 0.

a  b  a   b where a and b are non  parallel

    and    .

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 Example 10
b.Vector a and b are not parallel.
If (m-3)a=(n-m+1)b, find the values of m
and n?

c. The vectors a and b are not parallel and

   a  (   1)b  7a  (  2)b
where  and  are scalar. Find the value of
 and 

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 Collinear points
Figure shows three distinct points,A
A, B, and C.
◦ If A, B, and C lie on a straight line, B
the vectors AB and BC
are parallel. C
Hence, we have the following
results:
Three distinct points A, B, and C
are collinear  AB  k BC, where k is a scalar.

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 Example 11
If OA = 6a, OB = 3b and OC = 4a + b.
Show that the point A, B and C are
collinear.

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 1.2 The Dot product

Learning Outcomes
By end of this topic, students must be able
to:
 Find the scalar product.
 Use the properties of scalar product.
 Find the angle between two vectors.

35 by CAROLYNA SILA
 1.2 The Dot product
1. The dot product ( also called the scalar
product), represented by the multiplication
‘dot’ symbol 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 , is an operation on
vectors especially useful in calculus and in
application of vectors to physics and
engineering.

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 2. The Dot Product Theorem
If 𝜃 is the angle between two nonzero
vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏, then
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜃

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 3. Result of this calculation is a Scalar
(Number).
- This formula only works when the directions
of the vector a and b are either both
toward/ away from their intersection point.
- Θ is the angle between their directions.

Both point away from angle Both point into the angle

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 4. However, if one vector is pointing away
from the angle, while the other points into
the angle, we find that 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = − 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜃

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 5. For two vectors a and b
a.

 a.b 
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜃 cos    
a b 
 

 a.b 
  cos 
1


 a b 

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 b) If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are parallel,
then
𝑎∙𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏

c) If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
perpendicular 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 =0

**This characteristic is
used to determine if two
vectors are perpendicular.
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 6. If a= a1i +a2j +a3k = < a1, a2, a3 > ,
b = b1i +b2j+b3k = <b1, b2, b3>,
then the dot product of a and b is

a  b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3

~ ~

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 7. Some useful properties of the scalar
product are as follows:

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 Example
8) Find a.b . Given that a <2,5, 2>,
b <-3,1,4>.

9) Find the angle between the vectors

a=2i-3j+k and b=-i+5j+4k .

10) Show that a (2, 4, 0) and b (4, -2, 0) are

orthogonal/perpendicular

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 1.3 The Cross Product
Learning Outcomes
By end of this topic, students must be able
to:
 Find the vector product.
 Use the properties of vector product.
 Find the area of a parallelogram and a
triangle.

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 1.3 The Cross Product

1. The cross product ( also called vector product),

𝑎 × 𝑏, allow us to find a vector which is
perpendicular to two given vectors.
Cross Product Theorem

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  2. One of the most important properties of
the cross product is the following theorem.
Cross Product Theorem
If a= a1i +a2j +a3k = < a1, a2, a3>,
b = b1i +b2j+b3k = <b1, b2, b3>,
Then the vector 𝑎 × 𝑏 is orthogonal
(perpendicular) to both a and b

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 3.To help us remember the definition of cross
product, we use notation of determinant in matrix.
If a= a1i +a2j +a3k = <a1, a2, a3>,
b = b1i +b2j+b3k = <b1, b2, b3>
then the cross product of a and b is the vector:
𝒂 × 𝒃 = <a1, a2, a3> × <b1, b2, b3>
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
= 𝒂𝟏 𝒂 𝟐 𝒂𝟑
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐
= 𝒃 𝒃𝟑 𝑖 − 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟑 𝑗 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝑘
𝟐

= 𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑖 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑗 +
𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑘
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 4. For two vectors a and b
a.

b. If a and b are parallel, then

axb = 0
** This characteristic is used to determine if
two vectors are parallel.

c. If a and b are perpendicular,

then

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50 by CAROLYNA SILA
 Example
5. Find the cross product for a =<5,1,4>
and b= < -1, 0, 2>

6. Evaluate (3i-2k)x(j+3k).

7. Find a vector which is perpendicular to

both a= 2i-j+3k and b= -i+3j-k.

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 Area of a Parallelogram
and a Triangle
The area of a parallelogram and the area of a triangle
can be calculated using the vector if vector of two of
the sides are know

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 Example
8. Calculate the area of the triangle PQR
where
𝑃 2,4, −7 , 𝑄 3,7,18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 −5,12,8 .

53 by CAROLYNA SILA
 Example
9. Calculate the area of the parallelogram
PQRS where 𝑃 2,1,3 , 𝑄 1,4,5 , 𝑅 2,5,3
and 𝑆 3,2,1 .

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 1.4 Application of Vector in Geometry

LEARNING OUTCOME
By end of this topic, students must be able
to:
 Find the equation of straight line in:
◦ Vector equation form
◦ Parametric equation form
◦ Cartesian equation form
 Find the equation of a plane in
◦ Vector equation form
◦ Parametric equation form
◦ Cartesian equation form
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 1.4 Application of Vector in Geometry

LEARNING OUTCOME
By end of this topic, students must be able to:
 Find angle between two straight lines.
 Find the angle between two planes.
 Find angle between a line and a plane.
 Find the point of intersection between a
line and a plane.
 Find the point of intersection between two
line.

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 1.4.1 The vector equation of a straight line
1. If a line L is parallel to a vector b, a point A on the line L has
position vector a and any other point R on the line L has
position vector r, then b
R
A
AR  b...(1) where  is a scalar.
AR  r  a...(2) a r
Combining (1) and (2)

r  a  b or r  a  b
O
 r  a  b is called the vector equation of line L
Vector a is position vector of a point on the line L;
 is a scalar;
Vector b is called direction vector of the line , which same
direction as the line.

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 2) Find a vector equation of the line that passes
through the point with position vector 2i + j – k
and is parallel to the vector - 5i ‒ 2j – k.

3) Find a vector equation of the line that passes

through the points A (1,2,1) and B (2, ‒1, ‒1).
Show that the point C(0, 5, 3) also lies on the
line.

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 4. Let A having coordinates 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 and b
< 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 >, writing 𝒓 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌 and
equating components on two sides of vector
equation, we have
r = a+λb
𝒙 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝝀 𝒃𝟐
𝒛 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑
 𝒙 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝝀𝒃𝟏
 𝒚 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝝀𝒃𝟐 Parametric equation
 𝒛 = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝝀𝒃𝟑
of a straight line

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 5. From the parametric equations,
solving for 𝜆, we get
𝑥−𝑎1 𝑦−𝑎2 𝑧−𝑎3
𝜆= = = , which can be
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
written without 𝜆 as
𝑥−𝑎1 𝑦−𝑎2 𝑧−𝑎3 Symmetric /
= = ൠ Cartesian Equation of
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
the line

6. Note that the equation of a line in three

dimensions is not unique. Choosing different
point and a multiple of vector will yield a
different equation
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 7. A line L passes through point A (1, -4, 2) and is
parallel to 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 3𝒌. Find

a. The vector equation

b. The parametric equation
c. The Cartesian equations for line L.

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 Pairs of lines
8. The location of two lines in space may be such
that
a) The lines are parallel
b) The lines are not parallel and intersect
c) The lines are not parallel and do not intersect.
Such lines are called skew.

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 9) Parallel lines
Parallel lines will have equal direction ratios
This property can be observed from their
equations.

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 10) Non parallel lines
Consider two lines whose vector equations are
r1=a1+λb1 and r2=a2+μb2
In order that these lines shall intersect there must
be unique values of λ and µ such that
a1+λb1= a2+μb2
If no such values can be found, the lines do not
intersect.

11)Skew lines
The lines are not parallel and do not intersect.

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 12) Find out whether the following pairs of lines
are parallel, non-parallel and intersecting, or non-
parallel and non-intersecting:

r1 = i + 2j+2k+ λ ( 3i ‒ 2j+4k)
r2 = 2i ‒ j+3k+ μ (‒ 6i +4 j‒8k)

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 13) Referred to a fixed origin O, and the lines L1
and L2 are given by the equations

L1 : r  i  2 j  4k   (i  j  k )
L2 : r  4i  j  k   (i  j  2k )

where λ and μ are scalar parameters. Show

that L1 and L2 meet and find the position
vector of their point of intersection

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 1.4.2 The Equation of Plane
Equation of plane in the form of
r = a+λb+µc
1. In the diagram at the right,
A, B and P are three points
on the plane π.
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝑃 are parallel to the
vector b and c respectively.

𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑃
r = a+λb+µc
where λ and µ are parameters.

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 2. The equation of a plane which passes through a
point with position vector a and contains two
nonparallel vector b and c in the plane is in the
form of r = a+λb+µc.

r = a+λb+µc
𝒙 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝝀 𝒃𝟐 +𝝁 𝒄𝟐
𝒛 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑

Where (a1 , a2 , a3) are components of the position vector of

a specific point in the plane; (b1 , b2 , b3) and (c1 , c2 , c3) are
component of the direction vector b and c for the plane,
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 3. Equating components at two sides of the
equation, we have
The parametric equations of a plane have the
form
𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 + 𝜆𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝜆𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝜆𝑏3 𝑘
+𝜇𝑐1 𝑖 + 𝜇𝑐2 𝑗 + 𝜇𝑐3 𝑘

x = a1 + λb1 +µc1
y = a2 + λb2 +µc2 Parametric equation
of a plane
z = a3 + λb3 +µc3
4. Note that the equation on the form of
r = a+λb+µc and parametric equations are not
unique.
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 5. Find the equation of plane in the form of
r = a+λb+µc and the parametric equations of the
plane that contains the three points A(1, 0, -3),
B(2, -3, 1) and C(3, 5, -3)

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 Vector Equation and Scalar /
Cartesian Equation of a plane
6. Any vector that is perpendicular to a plane is a normal
vector or simple a normal to
the plane.

Since every vector in

the plane can
be represented
as a linear
combination of
the direction vectors, the normal is perpendicular to every
vector in the plane.

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 7.Vector equation:
r.n = a.n where a is any position vector on the plane,
and n is normal vector to the plane and
Note: a.n =d , where d is constant which determines the
position of the plane.

8. Substituting r  xi  y j  zk and n  ai  b j  ck
into the vector equation, the scalar or Cartesian equation of a
plane in space is
𝑥 𝑎
𝑦 ∙ 𝑏 =𝑑 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑
𝑧 𝑐
Cartesian / Scalar Equation of a plane

For example, the vector equation of the plane r  i  2 j  3k   4

is x+2y+3z =4.
Note: Unlike parametric equation, the scalar equation of a plane is unique
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 9.

Hence, find the Scalar/Cartesian Equation

for the planes

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 10. A plane passes through the points A(1, 1, 4), B(3,
0, -1) and C(2, -2,0). Find the Cartesian equation
of the planes

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 11. Consider the plane defined by the scalar
equation x+2y-z-8=0
a) Determine if the point A (1,3,-1), B (3,5,1),
C(1,6,5) is on the plane.
b) Determine the x, y and z intercepts of the
plane.
c) Determine the coordinates of another point
on the plane.

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 12. The point (x, y, z) that satisfy the equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 form a plane
perpendicular to 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 .
Thus, given a vector 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 we know that all
planes perpendicular to this vector have the
form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 , and any surface of
this form is a plane perpendicular to 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 .

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 13. Find an equation for the plane
perpendicular to 1, 2,3 and containing
the point (5, 0, 7).

14. Find a vector normal to the plane

2x-3y+z=15 .

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 15) Prove that the planes 2x-3y-z-5=0 and
6x-9y-3z-2=0 are parallel.

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 16) Find the Cartesian equation for the plane
𝜋1 through A(2, 1, 0) and parallel to the plane 2x-
y+z=5

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 17)Find the Cartesian equation for the plane 𝜋2
through B(1,5,0) and perpendicular to both the
planes x+y-z=1 and 3x-y+2z=5.

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 18) Find the Cartesian equation for plane 𝜋3 :
The plane P3 through C(-3,5,5) and
𝑥−1 𝑦+5 𝑧+1
perpendicular to the line = =
2 −3 5

𝑥−1 𝑦+5 𝑧+1

= =
2 −3 5

𝜋3

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 1.4.3 The Intersection Of A Line
And A Plane
1. Diagram below give the illustration of relationship of a
line with a plane.

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 2.To find the intersection of line and a plane,
method below can be used.

Consider a line l and a plan 𝝅 with equations

𝒍: 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀𝒃 … 𝟏
and 𝝅: 𝒓 ∙ 𝒏 = 𝒅 … (𝟐) where d is a constant

The value of λ found by substituting 𝒓 in equation (1)

into equation (2) will give position vector of point
of intersection of l and 𝝅.

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 Step by Step
Step 1: Find parametric representation for
line.
Step 2: Sub into the scalar equation of
plane
Step 3: Solve for the λ
Step 4: Sub λ into parametric equation for
line. Find point of intersection

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 3. Find the position vector of the point of
intersection of the line

r  3i  2 j  3k   i  2 j  3k 
and the plane
 
r 2i  2 j  3k  7

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 4.

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 1.4.4 Angles between lines and
Planes
Angle between two lines
 We define the angle between 2 lines to be
the angle between their direction vectors
placed tail to tail.

 Notice that this definition works equally

well if the lines don't actually cut each
other since we then just slide the 2
direction vectors together until their tails
meet.
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88 by CAROLYNA SILA
 3. The two lines have the equations
r = a + tb and r = c + sd , using the scalar
product of two vectors, 𝑏 ∙ 𝑑 = 𝑏 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐛∙𝐝
𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝐛 𝐝
where b and d are direction vector.

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 4. Calculate the acute angle between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 for each of
the following:
a) 𝐿1 : 𝑟Ԧ = 3𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 + 𝑡 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌
𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧+1
𝐿2 : = =
2 −3 4

𝑦−1 𝑧−3
b) 𝐿1 : 𝑥 = =
−2 4
𝐿2 is the y-axis.

5. Show that the line 𝐿1 , with vector equation

𝑟Ԧ = 2𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝑡 2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌 is perpendicular to 𝐿2 with
𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧
symmetric equations = = .
3 −2 4

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 1.4.5 Angle between Two planes
6. Angles between two planes is defined as the angle
between 2 lines, one in each plane, so that they are
at right angles to the line of intersection of the 2
planes (like the angle between the tops of the pages
of an open book).

7.It is important to choose the correct angle here.

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 8. Given that 𝒏 and 𝒎 are the normal vector
for Plane 1 and Plane 2 respectively. Hence the
angle of two planes is

−1
𝒏∙𝒎
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝒏 𝒎

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 9. Find the angle between plane 1: x+3y+z=5 and
plane 2: 2x-y+5z=10.

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 1.4.6 Angle between a line and
a plane

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 a. We slide the normal vector n until its
tail is at the point of intersection with
the line L with the plane P.
b. Then n and L together define a plane
which is perpendicular to plane P.
c. The angle which line L makes with plane
P is defined to be the red angle A in this
plane.

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 d. Dot product of n and the direction
vector b of line L to first find cos B.
e. Since ∡𝐴 and ∡𝐵 make a right angle, ∡𝐵
= 90 − ∡𝐴
f. cos B = cos (90 - A)
= cos 90 cos A + sin 90 sin A
=sin A
−1 n.b
g. Hence, 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
|n||b|

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 11. Determine the angle between the line
𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧
= = and the plane x + y -1 = 0
2 1 2

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 THE END OF CHAPTER 1

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