Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 2024; 46(3): 176–183

Original Study Open Access

Adam Agatowski*, Mariusz Młynarczuk

Practical Aspects of Using Modern Laser Scanning

Techniques for Measuring Mine Excavations
https://doi.org/10.2478/sgem-2024-0011
received March 30, 2024; accepted May 10, 2024.
measurement techniques adapted to other types of
excavations were used to create maps of the excavations.
Abstract: For more than a dozen or so years now, there As work progressed, these methods were systematically
has been growing interest in the use of modern laser modernised. In addition, the mine’s analogue mining
scanning measurement methods in numerous mining map was gradually converted into its digital equivalent.
operations engaged in underground excavation. However, The transition to the digital version was fully completed
the simple possession of a scanner does not guarantee in 2012. In 2015–2017, an attempt was made to create
satisfactory measurement results. This study sets out the a comprehensive 3D geological model of the rock salt
results of scanning mine excavations in an active mine and deposit. Additionally, a simplified three-dimensional
describes the current guidelines on various aspects of the model of the mine excavations was created.
measurement process. These guidelines were developed Recent years have seen an increase in the use of
on the basis of several hundred measurements carried out laser measurement methods in mining (Chen et al., 2018)
over the last dozen or so years. (Lipecki et al., 2015). This article looks at the various
This study also outlines the typical measurements practical aspects of these methods in the mapping of mine
errors observed over the course of many years. These excavations in a rock salt mine.
errors, resulting partly from hardware limitations and Properly performed laser scanning with appropriate
partly from human error when planning or actually georeferencing is the starting point for various analyses.
performing measurements, were an important factor Most often, these data are used to calculate the volume
behind the introduction of standards regulating of excavations, the mass roughness or its discontinuities
underground measurements. (Singh et al, 2023; Lai & Samson, 2016; Chena at al., 2018,
This study discusses in detail not only scanning that Humair et al., 2015; Ge et al, 2018; Mah et al, 2013). These
utilises traditional stationary laser scanners but also measurements are often carried out to check the design
scanning based on mobile scanners. It also presents objectives of new structures or for research purposes (e.g.
possible areas of future technological development in line convergence) (Mukupa et al., 2017; Kukutsch et al, 2015).
with global trends. It is possible to perform inventory of the infrastructure or
reverse engineering (Moon at al., 2019; Liu el al, 2024). In
Keywords: laser Scanning; excavation geometry; mine excavations serving ventilation functions, a quick analysis
survey. can be performed of the actual cross-sections of the
excavation, which ensures greater accuracy and reliability
of the air flow analysis (Janas & Krawczyk, 2021; Watson &
1 Introduction Marshall, 2018). It often happens that the data obtained on
one occasion are used many times for completely different
The excavations covered by the research are located purposes than those originally intended (Krawczyk, 2023).
in an active rock salt mine located in LGOM in west-
central Poland. At the beginning of the mine’s operation,
2 Measurement conditions
One important factor affecting the measuring process
*Corresponding author: Mariusz Młynarczuk, AGH University
is the occurrence of unfavourable atmospheric factors,
of Krakow, Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental
Protection, E-mail: [email protected]
such as air temperature. Many devices used for geodetic
Adam Agatowski, AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Geology, measurements have not been adapted to function in
Geophysics and Environmental Protection mining conditions, especially when temperatures exceed

Open Access. © 2024 Adam Agatowski, Mariusz Młynarczuk, published by Sciendo. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution alone 4.0 License.
 Practical Aspects of Using Modern Laser Scanning Techniques for Measuring Mine Excavations 177

43°C (Technical specification sheet for Faro FOCUS S 350,

2024) (Technical specification sheet for LeicaFlexLine
TS09plus Total Station, 2024) (Zeb Horizon - User manual,
2020). As a consequence, one common problem that
occurs is the malfunctioning of measuring devices caused
by their overheating.
Another factor hindering the measuring process is the
presence of dust, which limits visibility to approximately
1 metre in the immediate vicinity of the operating mining
machine or to several metres in the salt processing site
(Figure 1). Visibility is only good in the ventilation shafts,
where there is little mining machinery traffic. In dusty
conditions, laser beams are unable to operate over long
distances (Kajzar, Kukutsch & Heroldova, 2015). Moreover,
the devices must meet high dustproof standards. Another
major factor disturbing the measuring process is the
presence of harmful gases such as hydrogen sulphide.
The unfavourable geometry of excavations stands as
another major factor affecting laser measurements (Figures
7, 8, 10 and 11). The excavations are designed as long
straight sections (up to 100 metres) ending with crosscuts
several or several dozen metres in length. In relatively Figure 1: View of dust generated by a cutting machine during its
small sections, there may also be a significant difference operation.
in the height of the seam floor due to considerable folding
of the salt layers (Piestrzyński, Banaszak & Zalewska-
Kuczmierczyk, 2007). In the salt mine in question, two types of scanners are
It is important to note that if a mine excavation is used: stationary and mobile. The basic stationary scanner
located at a considerable depth, the clamping process is the Faro Focus S 350. It has a range of up to 350 metres.
is quite dynamic (Bieniasz et al. 2010). It should also be According to the manufacturer, the device has a speed
borne in mind that during the measuring process, many of up to 976,000 points per second. The measurement
excavations fulfil important functions in the mine’s accuracy is 3.5 mm at 25 metres, and the field of view
operations: ventilation, transport, communication, is 360°x300°. The laser used for measurements is not
functional (e.g. electrical switchboards) and safety (escape harmful to the eyes, and the device has an IP54 dust and
routes). As a consequence, mining services prioritise waterproof rating. The scanner’s operating temperature
restoring these excavations at the expense of possible range is from +5°C to +40°C. The device can operate for
problems when carrying out geodetic measurements. up to 4 hours on a single battery (Technical specification
sheet for Faro FOCUS S 350, 2024).
The second type of device used is a mobile scanner
3 Measuring tools from the Zeb family. The model primarily designed for
measurements in salt mines is the Zeb Horizon. It has a
The primary instrument for measuring mine excavations range of up to 40 metres. The speed of the device is 300,000
in rock salt mines is the electronic mirrorless tachymeter. points per second. The measurement accuracy declared
The range of such a device does not exceed 150 metres. by the manufacturer ranges from 1 to 3 cm, and the field
For mine measurements, instruments with both medium of view is 360°x270°. The device has the same waterproof
(seven- and nine-second total station with a distance and dustproof standard as that of the stationary scanner
measurement accuracy of 2 mm + 2 ppm) and higher and is also not harmful to the eyes. The manufacturer did
levels of precision (one-second tachymeters with a not provide the temperature range for the proper operation
distance measurement accuracy of 1 mm + 1 ppm) are of this device. The maximum measurement time allows
used (Technical specification sheet for LeicaFlexLine for up to 3.5 hours of continuous operation (Zeb Horizon -
TS09plus Total Station, 2024) (Leica TS16 Total Station User manual, 2020).
User manual, 2024).
178 Adam Agatowski, Mariusz Młynarczuk

Figure 2: Measurement site with a laser scanner in a mining excavation. A stationary scanner is visible in the central part of the photo. In the
lower right corner, there is a mobile scanner intended to perform the measurement. In the background, three measuring spheres are marked
with red arrows – two spheres placed on tripods under the geodetic network points and one additional sphere attached to the side of the
excavation.

4 Measurement technique the difference in the height measured between the highest
point of the sphere and the geodetic point (Figures 3 and
Laser measurements using stationary scanners require 4). If there are not enough points to ensure georeferencing
placing measuring spheres on geodetic points and or their arrangement is unfavourable, additional control
performing appropriate scans (Figure 2). To ensure that points should be established. The spatial coordinates are
measurements are carried out correctly, compliance is most often determined by means of tachymeters, which
required with several guidelines, which are the result of measure classic polygon lines. Each time the station
experience gained over many years of working with such with a scanner attached is set up, the visibility of all the
devices. positioned spheres is assessed (Figures 2 and 3). Empirical
The measurement should be preceded by preparatory testing has shown that the distance of the scanner from the
work, during which the location of individual measurement farthest sphere used should not be more than 40 metres,
stations should be planned and the degree of overlap and the recommended maximum distance is 30 metres
between adjacent scans should be considered. Experience (Nghia, Long, Cuc & Bui, 2019). For a single measurement,
shows that this overlap should be equal to approximately at least 4 spheres with known coordinates must be visible
30% of the common area of ​​both scans. Information such from the measuring station (Lipecki & Jaśkowski, 2009).
as the location of electrical switchboards, the route of If a larger number of scans are performed, to ensure the
the conveyor belts, the movement of the machines, the optimal arrangement of the spheres, they must be spaced
location of the fans and ventilation dams should also as far apart as possible (Figure 5). If a geodetic point can
be taken into account. Attention should also be paid be scanned in a crosscut up to the measured points, such
to the location of any sources of strong electromagnetic a geometrical improvement should be used at the expense
radiation, which may cause the compasses built into the of performing redundant scans (Figure 6). Scanner-based
measuring devices to fail. The next part of the preparatory measurements should, if possible, be made in the absence
work consists in analysing the possible use of individual of machine traffic and with minimal pedestrian traffic.
points in the geodetic control network. When taking measurements using mobile scanners,
After the planning stage, the measurement team the measurement team arranges the spheres in a similar
carries out the measurement itself. Each geodetic point pattern to stationary scanning. However, a mobile scanner
is marked by a tripod setup together with a measuring operates in a completely different way from stationary
sphere attached directly under this point (Figure 2). It is scanners. In the initial phase, the scanner should be
assumed that the XY coordinates of the centre of the sphere placed on a stable, flat surface (Figure 2), which must be
are the same as the coordinates of the point where it was marked appropriately so that the scanner can be put back
placed, and the height coordinate will be calculated as in the same place (accurate to within a few centimetres).
 Practical Aspects of Using Modern Laser Scanning Techniques for Measuring Mine Excavations 179

Figure 5: Diagram showing the distribution of points used for

georeferencing purposes. Points with an unfavourable distribution
are marked in red. Correctly distributed points are marked in blue
for further use in calculations.

Figure 3: Example of spheres placed on tripods in a mining

excavation. Red arrows mark the scanned spheres, and the green
arrow indicates the location of the stationary scanner.

Figure 6: Sample scan showing undesirable arrangement of

measurement points (blue circles). The yellow circle marks an
additional point on the crosscuts, which have also been measured
to correct the unfavourable geometry of the reference points.

Figure 4: View of filtered point cloud with visible measuring spheres wait several dozen seconds for the measurement starting
(on the left) and a stationary scanner (on the right). The red lines
point to be re-scanned.
mark the place where the height of a given sphere is measured.
Preparing a measurement using mobile scanners
mainly involves analysing possible obstacles encountered
This point should be at least one metre away from any along the route. Similar to stationary scanners, the
elements in the excavation. The movements of the feasibility of utilising all points within the geodetic
scanner head should be smooth and take place on every control network is assessed. Additionally, the geometry
plane. Passage through narrow sections should proceed of excavations is analysed to maximise the frequency
at a slow pace. Passage through doors and dams should of revisiting previously measured locations (Figures 7
proceed with an appropriate pause in the measurement so and 8). The final stage in the planning process involves
that the scanner can simultaneously record the space in estimating the time needed to cover individual distances
front of and behind the obstacle. The pause itself should during the measurement.
last for several seconds. Avoid sudden head movements
as this may result in incorrect data processing (Figure
10) (Jones, 2020). After the measurement has been made
correctly, place the scanner back at the starting point and
180 Adam Agatowski, Mariusz Młynarczuk

Figure 7: Preparatory mine excavation with an unfavourable geometry. Both the starting and finishing points of the scan (green circle) and
the incorrectly planned scanning route (red arrows) are marked.

Figure 8: Preparatory mine excavation with unfavourable geometry but measured correctly. The starting and finishing points of the scan are
marked (green circle). The forward measurement route is marked with green arrows and the return route with yellow arrows.

5 Measurement results phenomenon. The first is the fact that points located in
salt excavations undergo a process of convergence, which
Applicable law currently stipulates that every occurs at different rates in various areas of the mine.
measurement made of a mine excavation should be linked Using points with coordinates determined at different
to the state geodetic coordinate system. Georeferencing times also leads to the emergence of the mentioned
software requires the presence of additional elements in errors. The inaccuracies during pointing out points with
the excavation (spheres, targeting shields) with known known coordinates on the scan in the software (Figure 4)
spatial coordinates (Fan, Smethurst, Atkinson & Powrie, contribute to the errors as well. The accuracy of correctly
2015). By indicating a specific point on a given element, indicating points used for transformation depends on the
it is possible to manually or semi-automatically set experience of the operator.
parameters for the transition of a particular scan to the A major improvement in georeferencing accuracy was
appropriate coordinate system. This approach gives achieved by introducing the option of combining point
rise to a few complications. The first problem is how to clouds by means of the cloud-to-cloud method (Diaz et
provide enough geodetic control network points – at least al., 2024). The use of this technique significantly reduced
3 points with known XYZ coordinates are required. At plane duplication. It also meant less work was required
least 1 additional point is also needed to verify whether to correctly combine individual data. If a measurement is
the transition has been carried out correctly. These points taken correctly, the average margin of error when it comes
should not be located on one plane (for example, on the to fitting adjacent clouds to each other can be up to 1 cm.
axis of the excavation) (Figure 5 and 6). Ensuring enough The use of this method also changes the way in which
control points for several measurements is a very difficult. the points used for the transformation are arranged. The
Consequently, ad hoc methods are often employed to mark distribution of the points is based on their spatial location
additional points on the side walls solely for the needs of a in relation to all the scans (Figure 5).
given scanner measurement (the central sphere attached The results of measurements using a mobile scanner
to the side wall is shown in Figure 2). depend largely on the accuracy of the measurement
Another drawback is the appearance of duplicate itself. Employees with extensive experience perform
planes from two adjacent scans (Figure 9). Most often, measurements with much greater precision than less
these occur at a considerable distance from the geometric experienced operators. The key to the measurement
centre of the scan. There are several reasons for this process is how the scanner head is moved. If these
 Practical Aspects of Using Modern Laser Scanning Techniques for Measuring Mine Excavations 181

along the mine did not produce satisfactory results. The

next factor is the speed of movement in the working. If the
movement is too fast, the scan cannot be processed in the
manufacturer’s software. In turn, too slow a walking pace
results in the formation of a point cloud that is too dense,
which makes subsequent processing too time consuming.
Experience indicates that the optimal distance travelled by
the scanner operator should be approximately 300–400
metres back and forth or approximately 600 metres when
performing a loop scan. An experienced operator can plan
a single measurement route in such a way as to return
to those places they have already scanned as often as
Figure 9: Overlay of two scans with each scan independently
possible (Figure 8). The more previously scanned places
georeferenced. Places where there is a perfect fit for the scan are
visible (blue scan is not visible) as are those places where the there are on the measurement route, the better the results
surfaces of the side walls are duplicated (blue scan points visible). of the excavations modelling will be. A major obstacle to
the measurement process occurs when the space directly
behind them changes dramatically. Any passages that
limit the view (closed doors, rubber barriers in passages)
result in a deterioration in the scan quality. Experience
shows that removing or reducing an obstacle quickly
enough (opening a door or removing a rubber barrier) can
significantly minimise potential problems. Consequently,
it is recommended that each measurement be performed
in teams of two. Very narrow spaces pose a similar problem
Figure 10: Example of a measurement performed by an for the algorithm processing the measurement data. By
inexperienced operator. As a result of the operator tripping, the default, the scanner software filters and excludes from
scanner head moved too rapidly, which completely deformed the processing all points located within 50 cm of the head. The
scan visible in the right part of the drawing.
place and method of initialisation and final initialisation
of the scanner affect the accuracy of the measurement to a
slightly lesser extent.

6 Conclusions and
Figure 11: An example of the phenomenon of inertial system drift. recommendations
The course of the scanned excavation is straight (this was confirmed
by an independent measuring method), and the visible curvatures
As further advances are made in the technology available
of the course of the excavation are due to the improper movement of
the scanner head by the operator.
in scanning devices, so too will the methods of carrying
out measurements and processing subsequent data
evolve. A dozen or so years ago, the measurement range,
movements are made too quickly or suddenly, they will accuracy, and operating time of devices were greatly
have a negative effect on the accuracy of any reading limited. Only stationary devices were available on the
of accelerations by the built-in inertial system. It often market, using targeting marks for orientation in space
happens that if an employee makes a simple trip or slip and subsequent georeferencing. However, progress in
when taking a measurement, the results can no longer scanning accuracy and laser speed as well as the more
be processed with the manufacturer’s software (Figure simplified operation of such devices has made the use
10). In turn, if movement of the scanner in one plane is of laser scanning measurements in underground mines
too monotonous, the inertial system will drift, and the a reality and has established a new level of quality
longitudinal shape of the excavation will be measured in when it comes to gathering geometry data. The very act
the form of an unnatural arc (Figure 11). For these reasons, of obtaining sufficiently accurate and reliable data is
all attempts to mount the scanner on machines moving still largely dependent on the experience of the team
182 Adam Agatowski, Mariusz Młynarczuk

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