Multiplexer (MUX) Selects one of many inputs and forwards it to a single output Many inputs — One output Combines multiple data lines into one line Used to select which input to connect to the output Data selector in communication systems, input channel selection Usually represented as a triangle with multiple input lines 8-to-1 MUX: 8 inputs, 1 output, 3 selection lines De-multiplexer (DEMUX) oO Takes single input and routes it to one of many outputs One input — Many outputs Distributes data from one line to multiple lines Used to select which output line receives the input Data distributor in communication systems, memory addressing Usually represented as a triangle with multiple output lines 1-to-8 DEMUX: 1 input, 8 outputs, 3 selection linesAnalog Signal A continuous signal that varies smoothly over time. Infinite possible values within a range. Sine waves (continuous waveform). Sound waves, light intensity, temperature readings. Prone to noise and distortion. Difficult to store and process. Usually low bandwidth. Simple equipment (amplifiers, filters). Analog radio, old telephones, vinyl records. Digital Signal A discrete signal that has only two levels: 0 and 1. Finite set of values (usually two: 0 and 1). Square waves (pulses or steps). Computer data, binary code, digital audio. Less affected by noise; more accurate over distances. Easy to store, process, and compress. Requires more bandwidth for high- speed transmission. More complex (AD converters, processors). Computers, smartphones, CDs, digital TV.Combinational Circuit Output depends only on present inputs. No memory element; does not store past information. Instantaneous response to input changes (no clock needed). Adders, subtractors, multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders, decoders. No feedback between output and input. Generally simpler design. Designed using Boolean algebra or logic gates. Sequential Logic Circuit Output depends on present inputs and past states (memory). Has memory elements (flip-flops, latches) to store state. Output changes depend on clock pulses (synchronous) or input changes (asynchronous). Flip-flops, counters, shift registers, finite state machines. Has feedback path from output to input. More complex due to memory and timing elements. Designed using state diagrams, tables, and memory elements.Synchronous Counter All flip-flops are triggered simultaneously by the same clock signal. Faster operation because there's no ripple delay. No accumulated delay; outputs change together. More complex wiring (all flip- flops get the clock signal). Suitable for high-frequency applications. Synchronous decade counter, synchronous up/down counter. Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) Flip-flops are triggered one after another (ripple effect). Slower due to propagation delay from flip-flop to flip-flop. Accumulated propagation delay may cause timing problems. Simpler wiring (clock drives only first flip-flop). Not suitable for high-frequency operations. Asynchronous binary counter, ripple up counter.Aspect Data bus width Address bus width Instruction set Clock speed Memory segmentation Number of registers Pipelining Type Architecture Co-processor support Year introduced 8085 Microprocessor 8-bit 16-bit — can address 64 KB memory 8-bit instruction set Typically 3 MHz No memory segmentation Fewer registers (e.g., accumulator, B, C, D, E, H, L) No pipelining 8-bit microprocessor Von Neumann architecture (shared data & program bus) No coprocessor support 1976 8086 Microprocessor oO 16-bit 20-bit — can address 1 MB memory 16-bit instruction set with more powerful instructions Typically 5, 8, or 10 MHz Supports memory segmentation (code, data, stack, extra segments) More registers (AX, BX, CX, DX, Si, DI, BP SP, segment registers) Uses pipelining (instruction prefetch queue of 6 bytes) 16-bit microprocessor Modified Harvard architecture (separate instruction & data buses internally) Supports coprocessor (e.g,, 8087 math coprocessor) 19788-bit Microprocessor 8 bits (processes 8 bits ata time) Typically 16-bit (64 KB memory) Intel 8085, Zilog Z80 Slower 8-bit ALU 8-bit registers 8-bit instructions 64 KB Simple devices (calculators, small controllers) Simple architecture 16-bit Microprocessor 16 bits (processes 16 bits at a time) 20-bit or more (1 MB or more memory) Intel 8086, Intel 80286 Faster than 8-bit 16-bit ALU 16-bit registers 16-bit instructions 1 MB or more PCs, industrial controllers Moderate complexity 32-bit Microprocessor oe 32 bits (processes 32 bits at atime) 32-bit or more (4 GB or more memory) Intel 80386, Motorola 68000 series Much faster 32-bit ALU 32-bit registers 32-bit instructions 4 GB or more High-performance systems, modern PCs, servers Complex architecture with advanced featuresWrite short note on Error Detecting and Correcting Codes. -Error Detection Codes These codes help in identifying the presence of an error in the transmitted data but do not correct it. *Parity Bit: Adds a single bit (0 or 1) to make the number of 1’s either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). *Checksum: A calculated value based on the sum of data bits, sent along with the message to detect errors. *Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A more powerful method that uses polynomial division to detect multiple errors. -Error Correcting Codes These codes not only detect errors but also correct them without the need for retransmission. *Hamming Code: Adds redundant bits at specific positions to detect and correct single-bit errors. *Reed-Solomon Code: Used in CDs, DVDs, and QR codes; it can correct multiple random symbol errors. *Convolutional Codes: Used in real-time error correction such as satellite communication.Explain the working of Multiplexer and De-Multiplexer -A multiplexer (MUX) is a combinational circuit that selects one of many input signals and forwards it to a single output line. It acts like a multi- input switch controlled by selection lines. Working For example, a 4-to-1 MUX has 4 inputs, 2 selection lines, and 1 output. Depending on the binary value of the selection lines, one input is connected to the output. If the selection lines are 10, input I2 is connected to the output. Multiplexers are used in data routing, communication systems, and to implement logical fun. -A de-multiplexer (DEMUX) performs the reverse operation of a MUX. It takes a single input and routes it to one of several output lines based on selection inputs. Working For example, a 1-to-4 DEMUX has 1 input, 2 selection lines, and 4 outputs. Depending on the selection line value, the input is sent to only one output line. If selection is 11, the input goes to output line Y3. De-multiplexers are used in data distribution and memory addressing.Write and explain any two applications of flip-flop. -Data Storage (1-bit Memory Cell): A flip-flop can store one bit of data (either 0 or 1). It is used as the basic building block of memory devices, such as registers, caches, and RAM. The stored value remains until it is changed by a clock pulse or control signal. Example: In a register, multiple flip-flops are connected in parallel to store multiple bits of data simultaneously (e.g., 8 flip-flops for 8-bit data). -Frequency Division: Flip-flops can be connected in series to divide the frequency of a clock signal. Each flip-flop toggles on the edge of the clock, effectively dividing the input frequency by 2. Example If a clock signal of 8 Hz is given to a flip-flop, the output toggles at 4 Hz. This is useful in digital clocks, timing circuits, and counters.Write a short note on Parity Generator/ Checker. -Parity Generator : A parity generator is a digital circuit used to add a parity bit to a binary message to detect errors in data transmission. 1)Even Parity: Parity bit is added to make the total number of 1’s even. 2)Odd Parity: Parity bit is added to make the total number of 1’s odd. Example (Even Parity): Data = 1011 (three 1’s — odd) Add parity bit = 1 — 10111 (four 1’s > even) -Parity Checker: A parity checker is a circuit that verifies the correctness of the received data using the parity bit. It checks whether the number of 1’s in the received word (including parity bit) is even (for even parity) or odd (for odd parity). If the parity doesn’t match, an error is detected. Applications: Error detection in data transmission (e.g., in communication systems, memory systems) Used in network protocols, modems, microprocessorsWhat is meant by programmable counter? Mention its application -A programmable counter is a digital counter circuit whose counting range or starting value can be set (programmed) as per the requirement using input lines. -Unlike a regular counter that starts from O and counts up or down to a fixed value, a programmable counter can: Application | -Digital Timers Used in washing machines, microwave ovens, and traffic lights to count specific time intervals. -Event Counting and Sequencing In industrial automation, it triggers actions after a fixed number of cycles -Frequency Division Used in digital clocks, waveform generators, and communication systems. -Programmable Delay Generation Creates accurate delays in microprocessor systems.Comparison of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors. -8-bit Microprocessor An 8-bit microprocessor like Intel 8085 processes 8 bits of data at a time. It has an 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to address 64 KB of memory. It is mainly used in simple applications like calculators, basic control systems, and early personal computers. -16-bit Microprocessor A 16-bit microprocessor like Intel 8086 can process 16 bits of data simultaneously. It has a 20-bit address bus, allowing access to 1 MB of memory. It supports pipelining and segmentation for better performance. Used in more advanced computing like early PCs and industrial controllers. -32-bit Microprocessor A 32-bit microprocessor like Intel 80386 can process 32 bits of data at a time. It has a 32-bit data bus and 32-bit address bus, allowing up to 4 GB of addressable memory. It supports multitasking, virtual memory, and advanced operating systems. Used in modern PCs and servers]Explain classification of instruction set. ANS: The instruction set of a microprocessor is classified into different groups based on functionality. 1. Data Transfer Instructions Move data between registers, memory, and I/O ports. Example: MOV, PUSH, POP, IN, OUT. 2. Arithmetic Instructions Perform arithmetic operations. Example: ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, MUL, DIV. 3. Logical Instructions Perform logical operations like AND, OR, XOR, NOT. Example: AND, OR, XOR, CMP, TEST. 4. Control Transfer Instructions Change the sequence of execution. Example: JMP, CALL, RET, JZ, JNZ. 5. String Manipulation Instructions Used for operations on strings. Example: MOVS, CMPS, SCAS. 6. Processor Control Instructions Control processor operations. Example: NOP, HLT, WAIT, STC, CLC.What is Signal? Write Characteristics of Digital Signals. A signal is a function that conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon. In electronics and communication systems, a signal typically refers to a time-varying quantity such as voltage, current, or electromagnetic waves that carries data. Discrete Values: Digital signals have finite levels, usually two: high (1) and low (0). Noise Resistance: Digital signals are less affected by noise and interference compared to analog signals, making them more reliable. Easy Processing and Storage: Digital signals can be easily processed, compressed, encrypted, and stored using digital systems like computers and digital memory. High Security: They can be encrypted for secure transmission. Synchronization: Digital signals require synchronization between transmitter and receiver for accurate data interpretation.Instruction Stream Byte Queue Arithmetic Logic Unit pp ee a ae eee nee ene eee ee nn ne nner ne cece ene Fig. 6.2 8086 Internal block diagramB) Draw the pin diagram of 8086 and explain in brief. (6 Marks) ANS: 8086 Microprocessor Pin Diagram The 8086 has 40 pins divided into two modes: Minimum mode and Maximum mode. Some important pins are: ADO0-AD15; Multiplexed address/data bus lines. A16-A19/S3-S6: Higher address bus bits and status signals. CLK: Clock input. RESET: Resets the microprocessor. RD, WR: Read and write control signals. ALE: Address latch enable to separate address/data. INTR, INTA: Interrupt request and interrupt acknowledge. MN/MxX: Decides minimum or maximum mode. Vee and GND: Power supply pins.GND AD14 AD13 AD12 AD11 AD10 NMI INTR CLK GND 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MODE Uce AD1S Al6/S3 ALT/S4 Als/Ss ALO/SE BHE/S7 MINIM MIN MODE (HOLD) (HLDA) (WR) (M10) (OT/R) (DEN) (ALE) (INTA)