Research Methodology & IPR

Module-4
Data Collection & Measurement and Scaling Techniques
Part-A- Data Collection
Introduction
Data collection is a critical phase in research. It requires proper identification of data sources
and accessing them through appropriate data collection formats or instruments. Data
collection methods are primarily classified into primary and secondary data sources. With
the emergence of internet, we have a new opportunity for primary data collection – on line
data collection.
Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods

I. Collection of Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises
secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In
this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the
collection of original data.
Secondary data are gathered and recorded by “someone else” prior to (and for purposes
other than) the current needs of the researcher. Secondary data are usually historical in
nature, have already been assembled, and do not require access to respondents or subjects.
Secondary data offer several advantages over primary data. Secondary data are easily
accessible, relatively inexpensive and quickly obtained. Some secondary data, such as those
provided by the National Censuses, are available on topics where it would not be feasible for
a firm to collect primary data. Although it is rare for secondary data to provide all the answers
to a non-routine research problem, such data can be useful in a variety of ways.
• Diagnose the research problem.
• Develop an approach to the problem.
• Develop a sampling plan.
• Formulate an appropriate research design (e.g., by identifying the key variables to
measure or understand).
• Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
• Interpret primary data with more insight.
• Validate qualitative research findings.

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Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

1) Specifications and research design: The specifications or the research design used to
collect the data should be critically examined to identify possible sources of bias. Such design
considerations include size and nature of the sample, response rate and quality,
questionnaire design and administration, procedures used for fieldwork, and data analysis
and reporting procedures.
1) Error and accuracy: The researcher must determine whether the data are accurate enough
for the purposes of the present study. Secondary data can have a number of sources of error
or inaccuracy, including errors in the approach, research design, sampling, data collection,
analysis, and reporting stages of the project
2) Currency: when the data were collected: Secondary data may not be current and the time
lag between data collection and publication may be long, as is the case with much census data
which may take up to two years from collection to publication.
3) Objective: the purpose for which the data were collected: Data are invariably collected
with some objective in mind, and a fundamental question to ask is why the data were
collected in the first place. The objective for collecting data will ultimately determine the
purpose for which that information is relevant and useful.
4) Nature: the content of the data: The nature, or content, of the data should be examined
with special attention to the definition of key variables, the units of measurement, the
categories used and the relationships examined.
5) Dependability: An overall indication of the dependability of data may be obtained by
examining the expertise, credibility, reputation and trustworthiness of the source. This
information can be obtained by checking with others who have used the information provided
by the source.
A Classification of Secondary Data
The sources of secondary data can be classified as internal or external.
1) Internal Data
Data that are internal to the organization refers to data created, recorded, or generated by
another entity. Most organizations routinely gather, record, and store internal data for solving
future problems. For example, sales departments continually gather data through their sales
representatives.
Aggregating or desegregating internal data is a frequent form of internal research. To collect
the internal data more efficiently and effectively, the researcher should know the company’s
operating procedures very clearly; then only he can establish very systematic methods for
gathering / recording the information required.
2) External Data
External data sources can be broadly classified into 1) Books and periodical, 2) Web sources
3) Media sources 4) Government Sources, and 5) Commercial Sources.
a) Books and periodicals - Books and periodicals provide a wealth of information. Libraries
stock many bibliographies, guides, directories, and indexes. Professional journals and
commercial business periodicals can be especially valuable sources of data. Original research
works, research abstracts, opinions and discussions are available for researcher. Besides this,
reports are found in library.
b) Web sources - The web has become a rich repository of information. Different search
engines like Google, Yahoo and others provide access to a variety of data sources.

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c) Government sources: Indian government provides census data, which can give important
information on demographics, manufacturers, retail trade agriculture, transportation, and so
on. Moreover, we know that the quality of census data is very high, making it a very reliable
and useful source.
d) Media sources: Information on a broad range of subjects is available from broadcast and
print media. Annual Industry surveys, periodical reports on Industry banking and finance and
reviews of stock markets, are common products in newspapers. Dedicated News channels
daily present some reviews and trends on business, markets and interviews with experts.
Besides this there are advertisements.
e) Commercial sources: Numerous firms specialize in selling information. They present
Demographic and census updates, Attitude and public opinion research, Stock market trends
and many compilations of data on other interesting aspects.
Classification of Secondary Data

Advantages of Secondary Data

• It is much more economical to use secondary data as we do not need to spend money
on printing data collection forms, and hiring large numbers of enumerators.
• Secondary data, if available, can be obtained more quickly compared to primary data.
Secondary data can be collected in a few days whereas it may take months to
complete field work for obtaining primary data. As such the investigation may be
accomplished in lesser time with the help of secondary data.
• Secondary data facilitates the work of individual investigator or research organization
when they find it impossible to collect primary data with regard to several subjects.
Census data, national income data, etc., cannot be collected by an individual but they
can be easily obtained from government publications.
• The worldwide data concerning diverse phenomena like world trade, industry,
population, health, etc., are usually obtainable through secondary sources published
by international agencies like United Nations Organisation, World Bank, International
Monetary Fund. etc.
• At time, there may be lots of usable information in the already available data which
can well be utilised by the investigator and he can even have new insights concerning
the problems he is studying.

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• Most statistical analysis in practice rest upon secondary data since they are readily
available in many cases in diverse fields. We use primary data only when secondary
data do not provide an adequate basis for analysis.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
• Secondary data is very risky and is to be used only when their reliability, suitability and
adequacy have been ensured. If this is not done, the results of the investigation may
not be fully correct.
• It is difficult to find secondary data which exactly fit the needs of your investigation.
• There is also the problem of finding secondary data which is sufficiently accurate. Due
to bias, inadequate size of sample, errors of definition, etc., the secondary data may
be erroneous.
• Many times, secondary data are not available and in such situations we have to
compulsorily collect primary data.
II Collection of Primary Data
While the secondary data is collected from various established sources, primary data are
originated by the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the research problems
faced by him /her. This primary data may be quantitative or qualitative in nature; it may be
collected using structured or unstructured format to interpret them. Many research problems
being unique in nature, the researchers have to collect primary data by asking respondents.
Sources of Primary Data

1) Qualitative Data
Qualitative research forms a major role in supporting marketing decision making, primarily as
an exploratory design but also as a descriptive design. Researchers may undertake qualitative
research to help define a research problem, to support quantitative, descriptive or causal
research designs or as a design in its own right. Qualitative research is often used to generate
hypotheses and identify variables that should be included in quantitative approaches.

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a) Indirect-Non-disguised Method
This method is found in qualitative research, where the data collected are of highly qualitative
in nature and scope of applying statistical techniques are almost impossible or not warranted.
i) Focus Groups
A focus group is a small group of people. A trained moderator conducts an interview in a non-
structured manner in a natural manner. The moderator’s role is to introduce a topic and to
encourage the group to discuss it among themselves. This is suitable for ‘Exploratory Research
Designs’.
• Step-1 Examine the objectives of the research project. It provides the rationale for
conducting the focus group.
• Step-2 Specify the objectives—outlines the goals of the study in order to guide the
interview.
• Step-3 State the questions to be answered from the focus group—a detailed set of
questions to be answered.
• Step-4 Develop a Moderator’s Outline. Based on the pertinent issues raised by the
objectives of qualitative research, a moderator’s outline can be devised. An effective
focus group moderator prepares a discussion guide to help ensure that the focus
group will cover all topics of interest.
• Step-5 Conduct the interview The moderator’s job is to develop a rapport with the
group and to promote interaction among its members. Moderator is responsible for
setting a tone in the focus group that makes the respondents feel comfortable enough
to discuss their thoughts. The sessions should be as relaxed and natural as possible.
• Step-6 Review tapes and analyze data—allows the researcher to uncover inconsistent
responses, missed remarks, nonverbal communication and new ideas.
• Step-7 Summarize findings and plan follow-up research—to probe further into the
issues and sample statistically significant populations. Finally, ideas for follow-up
action can be generated.
ii) Depth Interview Method
Depth interview method is also often applied in the case of ‘Exploratory Research designs’.
Concepts may be discussed with top executives and knowledgeable managers who have had
personal experience in the field being researched. This constitutes an informal experience
survey. Such a study may be conducted by the business manager rather than the research
department for the following purposes.

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• Detailed probing of the individual.

• Discussions on topics considered confidential, sensitive, or embarrassing.
• Situations where strong social norms exist and the individual may be easily swayed by
group response.
• Detailed understanding of complicated behaviour.
• Interviews with professional people.
• Interviews with competitors who are unlikely to reveal the information in a group
setting.
• Situations where the product consumption experience is sensory in nature affecting
mood states and emotions.
The following steps may be followed for conducting depth interview.
• Step-1 A depth interview is conducted on a one-on-one basis. Choose the expert to be
interviewed.
• Step-2 The respondent is probed in depth by a highly skilled interviewer to uncover
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings on a topic. The interviewer
attempts to get the subject to talk freely and the direction of the interview is
influenced heavily by the subject’s answers.
• Step-3 Summarise the findings and draw conclusions
b) Indirect (Disguised)
In this type of primary data collection method, the response generated from the study is
highly unstructured and the respondents may not know what purpose [disguised] the data
have been collected by the researchers.
Projective technique
A projective technique is an indirect means of questioning that enables respondents to
express emotions and opinions that would normally be hidden from others and even hidden
from themselves.
i) Word Association: In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one
at a time and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of
interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some
neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study.
ii) Completion Techniques: In Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or
phrase that comes to mind. In story completion, respondents are given part of a story –
enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are
required to give the conclusion in their own words.
iii) Construction Techniques: With a picture response, the respondents are asked to describe
a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of
the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality.
In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem.
The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to
the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than
picture response techniques.
iv) Expressive Techniques: In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal
or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the
situation.

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• Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of
someone else.
• Third-person technique: The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation
and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather
than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a
friend, neighbor, colleague, or a “typical” person
2) Quantitative Data Collection Methods
a) Survey Method
Surveys require asking people, respondents, for information using either written or verbal
questioning. Questionnaires or interviews collect data through the mail, on the telephone, or
face-to-face.
Interviews
Interview method can be employed in different ways.
• Personal in-home interview - In this method, the researcher or field data collection
executives visit residences of respondents and ask questions face-to-face in their
homes. This method requires more of field work and costlier and expensive.
• Mall-intercept personal interview - Respondents are intercepted while they are
shopping in a mall, and then a questionnaire is administered to them by the
interviewer. The method may result in poor quality responses. Since the sampling
method falls under the category of convenience, it is difficult to generalize the
findings.
• Computer-assisted personal interview - Respondents are requested to sit in front of
a computer terminal. She or he answers the questionnaire on the screen by using the
keyboard and/or mouse.
• Telephone interview - It involves phoning a sample of respondents and asking them
a series of questions. It is more appropriate, when the amount of information required
is limited and highly structured. It is one of the quickest methods and consumes less
time than other methods.
• Computer-assisted telephone interview - The computer dials a telephone number,
the interviewer asks the questions on the screen of the computer, and the interviewer
records the respondents’ answers directly into the computer. There are computer
softwares, which links the responses to a database directly.
• Mail interview - In this method, the researchers sends by postal/ mail the
questionnaires to pre-selected potential respondents. The respondents complete and
return the questionnaires by return mail. If an incentive is attached to the filled
responses, the respondents may be motivated to answer promptly. Poor response
rate and more time to collect the responses are some of the weakness with this
method.
• Mail panel - This method consists of a large and nationally representative sample of
households which have agreed to periodically participate in mail questionnaires,
product tests, and telephone surveys conducted by the specific marketing research
organization. For such panel enrolment, the firm has to pay a nominal amount as
participation fees.
• E-mail interview - The survey request and questionnaire is written within the body of
the e-mail message and send to the identified respondents [whose emails have been
collected]. The e-mails are sent out over the Internet.

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• Internet interview - Internet or Web surveys use ‘hypertext mark-up language’

(HTML), the language of the Web, and are posted on a Web site. Respondents may be
recruited over the Internet from potential respondent databases maintained by the
marketing research firm or they can be recruited by conventional methods (mail,
telephone).
b) Observation Method
Organisations trace huge amount of data through observation mode. Scientific observation is
the systematic process of recording behavioural patterns of people, objects, and occurrences
without questioning or communicating with them.
Types of observation
The researcher utilizes different observation methods.
• Structured Vs. Unstructured observation - Structured observation is appropriate
when the marketing research problem has been clearly defined and the information
needed has been specified. It requires that the researcher specify in detail what is to
be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. Unstructured
observation is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated precisely, and
flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to
develop hypotheses.
• Disguised Vs. undisguised observation - In disguised observation, the respondents are
not aware that they are being observed, whereas in undisguised observation the
respondents are aware that they are under observation. Disguised observation is used
when it is felt that the respondents would act differently under direct observation.
• Natural Vs. Contrived Observation - Natural observation involves observing
behaviour as it normally takes place in the environment. Contrived observation takes
place in an artificial environment that has been created by the researcher. Natural
observations allow the researcher to observe actual behaviour, but do not allow for
inferences on the causes of behaviour. Contrived observation enables the researcher
to control more of the variables that affect behaviour.
Classification of Observation Methods
• Personal observation - The researcher himself goes to the field and personally
observes actual behaviour as it occurs, and the observer merely records what takes
place. The researcher does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon
being observed. This method requires researcher’s efforts and time; if field forces are
employed, then the researcher has to train them on method of observing.
• Mechanical observation - These are devices used to continually record ongoing
behaviour for later analysis. Closed circuit camera, Toll Plaza Tracking system,
Customer Shopping Behaviour Tracing Equipments and many more to say, are some
of the equipments used in the recent times, to trace the consumer behaviour.
• Audit - This process involves collection of data by examining physical records or
performing inventory analysis. There are two distinguishing features of an audit: (1)
data are collected personally by the researcher or by representatives of the researcher
and (2) the data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects other than people.
• Content analysis - It is the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the
manifest content of a communication. Marketing research applications involve
observing and analyzing the content or message of advertisements, newspaper
articles, television and radio programs, can be considered as examples.

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• Trace analysis - It is an approach in which data collection is based on physical traces

of past behaviour where physical traces are evidence of some past event or
occurrence.
Relative Advantages of Observation
Following are the advantages of Observation:
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or
preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the
interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
Following are the disadvantages of Observation:
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known
about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to
observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing
people without their knowledge or consent.
Data Collection Instruments
1) Case Studies: A case study is usually an in-depth description of a process, experience, or
structure at a single institution. In order to answer a combination of ‘what’ and ‘why’
questions, case studies generally involve a mix of quantitative (i.e., surveys, usage statistics,
etc.) and qualitative (i.e., interviews, focus groups, extant document analysis, etc.) data
collection techniques. Most often, the researcher will analyze quantitative data first and then
use qualitative strategies to look deeper into the meaning of the trends identified in the
numerical data.
2) Checklists: Checklists structure a person’s observation or evaluation of a performance or
artifact. They can be simple lists of criteria that can be marked as present or absent, or can
provide space for observer comments. These tools can provide consistency over time or
between observers.
3) Interviews In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews (e.g., one-on-one) as well
as “group” interviews (including focus groups). The data can be recorded in a wide variety of
ways including stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes. In depth
interviews differ from direct observation primarily in the nature of the interaction. In
interviews it is assumed that there is a questioner and one or more interviewees. The purpose
of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest.
4) Observation: Sometimes, the best way to collect data through observation. This can be
done directly or indirectly with the subject knowing or unaware that someone is observing
them.
5) Surveys or Questionnaires: Surveys or questionnaires are instruments used for collecting
data in survey research. They usually include a set of standardized questions that explore a
specific topic and collect information about demographics, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.

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Questionnaire Design
Introduction
Designing a questionnaire is not as simple a job as it looks at first sight. A marketing researcher
intending to collect primary data has to be extremely careful in deciding what information is
to be collected, how many questions are to be formulated, what should be their sequence.
What should be the wording of each question, and what should be the layout of the
questionnaire. All these aspects need considerable time and effort of the marketing
researcher. If he is able to develop a questionnaire suitable for his field investigation, he will
find that his task to collecting the data has become much easier than otherwise.
What is Questionnaire?
Questionnaire is a structured technique for data collection consisting of a series of questions,
written or verbal, that a respondent answers.
A questionnaire, whether it is called a schedule, interview form or measuring instrument, is
a formalised set of questions for obtaining information from respondents. Typically, a
questionnaire is only one element of a data collection package that might also : include (1)
fieldwork procedures, such as instructions for selecting, approaching and questioning
respondents; (2) some reward, gift or payment offered to respondents; and (3)
communication aids, such as maps, pictures, advertisements and products and return
envelopes.
Questionnaire Objectives
Any questionnaire has three specific objectives.
• First, it must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the
respondents can and will answer. Developing questions that respondents can and will
answer and that will yield the desired information is difficult. Two apparently similar
ways of posing a question may yield different information. Hence, this objective is
most challenging.
• Second, a questionnaire must uplift, motivate and encourage the respondent to
become involved, to cooperate, and to complete the task.
• Third, a questionnaire should minimize response error. The potential sources of error
in research designs
Questionnaire design process
The great weakness of questionnaire design is a lack of theory. Because there are no scientific
principles that guarantee an optimal or ideal questionnaire, questionnaire design is a skill
acquired through experience. Similarly, the correct grammatical use of language does not
guarantee the optimal questionnaire. The design process is founded upon generating
information that will effectively support marketing decision-makers. Establishing the nature
of marketing problems and corresponding marketing research problems, i.e. defining the
nature of effective support.

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Questionnaire Design Process

1) Specify the information needed

The first step in questionnaire design is to specify the information needed. This is also the first
step in the research design process. Note that, as the research project progresses, the
information needed becomes more and more clearly defined. It is helpful to review the
components of the problem and the approach, particularly the research questions,
hypotheses and characteristics that influence the research design. To ensure further that the
information obtained fully addresses all the components of the problem, the researcher
should prepare a set of dummy tables. A dummy table is a blank table used to catalogue data.
It portrays how the analysis will be structured once the data have been collected.
2) Specify the type of interviewing method
An appreciation of how the type of interviewing method influences questionnaire design can
be obtained by considering how the questionnaire is administered under each method. In
personal interviews, respondents see the questionnaire and interact face to face with the
interviewer. Thus, lengthy, complex and varied questions can be asked. In telephone
interviews the respondents interact with the interviewer, but they do not see the
questionnaire. This limits the type of questions that can be asked to short and simple ones.
Mail and electronic questionnaires are self-administered, so the questions must be simple,
and detailed instructions must be provided. In Internet surveys and computer- assisted
interviewing (CAPI and CATI), complex skip patterns and randomization of questions to
eliminate order bias can be easily accommodated. Questionnaires designed for personal and
telephone interviews should be written in a conversational style.
3) Determine the content of individual questions
Once the information needed is specified and the type of interviewing method decided, the
next step is to determine individual question content: what to include in individual questions.
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a) Is the question necessary?

Every question in a questionnaire should contribute to the information needed or serve some
specific purpose. If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that
question should be eliminated.
In certain situations, however, questions may be asked that are not directly related to the
needed information. It is useful to ask some neutral questions at the beginning of the
questionnaire to establish involvement and rapport, particularly when the topic of the
questionnaire is sensitive or controversial.
b) Are several questions needed instead of one?
Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required information in an
unambiguous manner. Consider the question:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?”
(Incorrect – double barreled)
Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two or more questions are
combined into one. To obtain the required information, two distinct questions should be
asked:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?”
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?”
(Correct – single barreled)
Double-barrelled question: A single question that attempts to cover two issues. Such
questions can be confusing to respondents and result in ambiguous responses.
4) Overcoming the respondent’s inability and unwillingness to answer
Researchers should not assume that respondents can provide accurate or reasonable answers
to all questions. The researcher should attempt to overcome the respondents’ inability to
answer. Certain factors limit the respondents’ ability to provide the desired information. The
respondents may not be informed, may not remember, or may be unable to articulate certain
types of responses.
a) Is the Respondent Informed?
• Filter questions or skip pattern: a question(s) associated with a conditional response.
▪ Filter questions can be used to measure familiarity with a given topic and
should be asked before questions about the topics themselves.
▪ If the question does not pertain to the respondent, the question is skipped.
• A “don't know” option reduces uninformed responses without reducing the response
rate.
b) Can the respondent remember?
The inability to remember leads to errors of omission, telescoping and creation. Omission is
the inability to recall an event that actually took place.
Example:
c) Can the Respondent Remember?
How many of soft drinks did you consume during the last four weeks?
(Incorrect – difficult to remember)
How often do you consume soft drinks in a typical week? (Correct – limit the choices)
1. ___ Less than once a week
2. ___ 1 to 3 times per week
3. ___ 4 to 6 times per week
4. ___ 7 or more times per week

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d) Can the Respondent Articulate?

Respondents may be unable to articulate certain types of responses.
Example:
Describe the atmosphere of a department store. (Incorrect = difficult to articulate)
Respondents should be given aids, such as pictures, maps, and descriptions to help them
articulate their responses.
e) Effort Required of the Respondents
Most respondents are unwilling to devote a lot of effort to provide information. Make sure
your questionnaire is simple, straight-forward, and not too long. Also, you generally want to
start with easier question.
Context
Respondents are unwilling to respond to questions which they consider to be inappropriate
for the given context.
E.g. a restaurant asking about personal hygiene needs to put the focus on the restaurant, not
the customer!
Legitimate Purpose
Explaining why the data are needed can make the request for the information seem legitimate
and increase the respondents' willingness to answer.
Sensitive Information
Respondents are unwilling to disclose sensitive information because this may cause
embarrassment or threaten the respondent's prestige or self-image.
Increasing the willingness of respondents
• Place sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire.
• Preface the question with a statement that the behavior of interest is common.
• Ask the question using the third-person technique phrase the question as if it referred
to other people.
• Hide the question in a group of other questions which respondents are willing to
answer.
• Provide response categories rather than asking for specific figures.
5) Choose question structure
A question may be unstructured or structured.
a) Unstructured questions
Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their own
words. They are also referred to as free-response or free-answer questions. The following are
some examples:
• _ What is your occupation?
• _ What do you think of people who patronise secondhand clothes shops?
• _ Who is your favourite film personality?
Open-ended questions can be good first questions on a topic. They enable the respondents
to express general attitudes and opinions that can help the researcher interpret their
responses to structured questions. They can also be useful as a final question in a
questionnaire.
b) Structured questions
Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A
structured question may be multiple choice, dichotomous or a scale.

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• Multiple-choice questions: In multiple-choice questions, the researcher provides a

choice of answers and respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives
given.
• Dichotomous questions: A dichotomous question has only two response alternatives,
such as yes or no, or agree or disagree. Often, the two alternatives of interest are
supplemented by a neutral alternative, such as ‘no opinion’, ‘don’t know’, ‘both’ or
‘none’,
Scales (Please refer Chapter No.5)
• Primary
• Comparative
• Non-comparative
6) Choosing Question Wording
Question wording is the translation of the desired question content and structure into words
that respondents can clearly and easily understand. Deciding on question wording is perhaps
the most critical and difficult task in developing a questionnaire. If a question is worded
poorly, respondents may refuse to answer it or answer it incorrectly.
a) Define the issue
A question should clearly define the issue being addressed. Trainee journalists are cautioned
to define issues in terms of who, what, when, where, why and way (the six Ws).
Example:
Which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect – Not Defined)
Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the last
month?
In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply. (Correct - Defined)
b) Use ordinary words
Ordinary words should be used in a questionnaire, and they should match the vocabulary
level of the respondents. When choosing words, bear in mind the intellectual level of the
target group of respondents, and how comfortable they are with technical terms related to
any products or services we are measuring.
c) Use unambiguous words
The words used in a questionnaire should have a single meaning that is known to the
respondents. A number of words that appear to be unambiguous have different meanings for
different people. These include ‘usually’, ‘normally’, ‘frequently’, ‘often’, ‘regularly’,
‘occasionally’ and ‘sometimes’.
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Never
_____ Occasionally
_____ Sometimes
_____ Often
_____ Regularly
(Incorrect -Ambiguous)
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Less than once
_____ 1 or 2 times
_____ 3 or 4 times
_____ More than 4 times (Correct - Unambiguous)

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d) Avoid leading or biasing questions

Leading question: A question that gives the respondent a clue as to whatthe answer should
be. A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what the answer should be, as in
the following:
Do you think that patriotic Americans should buy imported automobiles when that would
put American labor out of work?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Incorrect - Leading)

Do you think that Americans should buy imported automobiles?

_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know (Correct – Not Leading)
e) Avoid Implicit Alternatives
An alternative that is not explicitly expressed in the options is an implicit alternative.
1. Do you prefer to fly when traveling short distances? (Incorrect - Implicit)
2. Do you prefer to drive, rather than fly, when travelling short distances?
(Correct - Explicit)
Questions should not be worded so that the answer is dependent upon implicit
assumptions about what will happen as a consequence.
1. Are you in favor of a balanced budget? (Incorrect - Implicit)
2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in an increase in the
personal income tax? (Correct - Explicit)
f) Dual Statements: Positive and Negative
Questions that are in the form of statements should be worded both positively and
negatively. Directionality of statements may influence responses; using both negative and
positive statements will negate this.
7) Determining the Order of Questions
The order of questions is of equal importance to the wording used in the questions. As noted
in the last section, questions communicate and set respondents in a particular frame of mind.
This frame of mind is set at the start of the questioning process and can change as each
question is posed and responded to. It affects how respondents perceive individual questions
and respond to those questions.
a) Opening questions
The opening questions can be crucial in gaining the confidence and cooperation of
respondents. These questions should be interesting, simple and non-threatening. Questions
that ask respondents for their opinions can be good opening questions, because most people
like to express their opinions. Sometimes such questions are asked although they are
unrelated to the research problem and their responses are not analysed.
b) Type of Information
Information gathered in a survey includes:
• Basic information: related to the research problem
• Classification information: demographics
• Identification information: name, email, etc.

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d) Difficult Questions
Difficult questions or questions which are sensitive, embarrassing, complex, or dull, should be
placed late in the sequence.
8) Identify the form and layout
The format, spacing and positioning of questions can have a significant effect on the results,
particularly in self-administered questionnaires. It is good practice to divide a questionnaire
into several parts. Several parts may be needed for questions pertaining to the basic
information.
The questions in each part should be numbered, particularly when branching questions are
used. Numbering of questions also makes the coding of responses easier. In addition, the
questionnaires should preferably be pre-coded. In pre-coding, the codes to enter in the
computer can be printed on the questionnaire.
9) Reproduction of the Questionnaire
Grids/matrices are useful when there are a number of related questions that use the same
set of response categories. The tendency to crowd questions together to make the
questionnaire look shorter should be avoided. Directions or instructions for individual
questions should be placed as close to the questions as possible.
10) Eliminate problems by pilot-testing
Pilot-testing refers to testing the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents to identify
and eliminate potential problems. Even the best questionnaire can be improved by pilot-
testing. As a general rule, a questionnaire should not be used in the field survey without
adequate pilot-testing. A pilot-test should be extensive. All aspects of the questionnaire
should be tested, including question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question
difficulty, and instructions. The respondents in the pilot-test should be similar to those who
will be included in the actual survey in terms of background characteristics, familiarity with
the topic, and attitudes and behaviours of interest. In other words, respondents for the pilot-
test and for the actual survey should be drawn from the same population.
Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
To draft a questionnaire or schedule is an art. The success of statistical investigation depends
on proper drafting of the questionnaire. It is a highly specialized job and following points
should be borne in mind:
1. Brief and Limited Questionnaire: The number of questions in a schedule should be brief
and limited as possible. Only relevant questions to the problem under investigation should be
added.
2. Simple and Clear: The questions should be simple, clear and precise. Its language should
be very simple so that informants may easily understand.
3. Unambiguous Questions": All unambiguous questions should be avoided at all,
complicated and long-worded questions irritate the respondents which results in careless;
replies.
4. No Personal Questions: No personal question should be asked from, respondents. Such
questions should be avoided.
5. Use of Proper Words: Questions should be framed with right words. This ensures the
validity.
6. Avoidance of Calculations: Questions should not be based on calculations. Only those
questions should be asked which the respondents may reply immediately. Moreover,
questions should avoid memories.

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7. Only Objective Questions: The questions should be objective. It should be based on

opinions of the individuals.
8. Sequence of the Questions: The arrangement of the questions should be such so that no
question may slip back. It must involve a logical flow of questions.
9. Pre-testing: Before sending the questionnaire to the respondents, it must be properly
tested.
10. Instructions: Precise and simple instructions of filling the questionnaire should be added
in the foot note.
11. Cross Examination: The questionnaire should be set in such a way that there may be cross
examination of the information supplied by the informants. In fact, it is a check on false or
inaccurate answers.
12. Secret Information: Every respondent should be ensured that information given by them
shall be kept secret.
13. Attractive Questionnaire: Proper care should be taken to make the questionnaire
attractive. A well set questionnaire will certainly impress the recipient.
Sections in a Questionnaire
There are normally five sections in a questionnaire:
1) The respondent’s identification data – such as their name, address, date of the interview,
name of the interviewer. The questionnaire would also have a unique number for purposes
of entering the data into the computer.
2) An introduction – this is the interviewer’s request for help. It is normally scripted and lays
out the credentials of the market research company, the purpose of the study and any aspects
of confidentiality.
3) Instructions – the interviewer and the respondent need to know how to move through the
questionnaire such as which questions to skip and where to move to if certain answers are
given.
4) Information – this is the main body of the document and is made up of the many questions
and response codes.
5) Classification data – these questions, sometimes at the front of the questionnaire,
sometimes at the end, establish the important characteristics of the respondent, particularly
related to their demographics.
Part-B-Measurement and Scaling Techniques
Measurement and scaling
Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain pre-specified rules. In marketing research, numbers are usually assigned
for one of two reasons. First, numbers permit statistical analysis of the resulting data. Second,
numbers facilitate universal communication of measurement rules and results. The most
important aspect of measurement is the specification of rules for assigning numbers to the
characteristics. The assignment process must be isomorphic, i.e. there must be one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured.
For example, the same euro (€) figures can be assigned to households with identical annual
incomes. Only then can the numbers be associated with specific characteristics of the
measured object, and vice versa. In addition, the rules for assigning numbers should be
standardized and applied uniformly. They must not change over objects or time.
Scaling may be considered an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a
continuum upon which measured objects are located. Scale may be defined as any series of
items that are progressively arranged according to value or magnitude into which an item can
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be placed according to its quantification. In other words, a scale is a continuous spectrum or

series of categories. The purpose of scaling is to represent, usually quantitatively, an item’s,
a person’s, or an event’s place in the spectrum.
Primary Scales of Measurement
There are four primary scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
1) Nominal Scale
The lowest measurement level one can use in marketing research projects from a statistical
point of view is the nominal scale. This is used only as a labeling scheme where numbers serve
only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects with a strict one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the objects. The numbers in a nominal scale do
not reflect the amount of a characteristic possessed by the objects; rather they are used only
for identification. For example, numbers on baseball players uniforms, street names, or social
security numbers.

2) Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales involve the ranking of individuals, attitudes or items, brands and firms based
on the selected attribute along the continuum of the characteristic being scaled. Ranks are
assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which some characteristic is possessed
by the individual or firms or brands; that is to determine whether an object /firm/brand has
more or less of a specific characteristic than some other object /firm/ brand.
Consider the following case. Please rank the following cola brands based on your
preference:

The respondent compares all the five brands and determines which is his first choice and
assign Rank-1; from the remaining list of 4 brands, he compares them with one another and
among the 4 brands, the next preferred will be given a rank of 2 and so on.
3) Interval Scale
When the marketing researcher is asking you to rate your perception of sugar content, on a
5 point scale [there are 5 choices – very high-high-normal-low-very low, so the name 5-point
scale], the researcher is using an interval scale.
It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equidistant points between each of the
scale elements. That is the distance between very high-high is same as the distance between
normal-low. This means that we can interpret differences in the distance along the scale.

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Numbers are used to rank objects such that numerically equal distances on the scale
represent equal distances in the characteristic being measured.
Example:

Thus, in the interval scale there is precise information about the interval between any two
brands based on the attribute chose. Hence, in an interval scale, the origin [zero point] is not
fixed, but arbitrarily chosen and unit of measurement is also arbitrary.
4) Ratio Scale
This is used to identify or classify objects, rank order the objects, and compare intervals,
differences, for example, height, age, and income. This scale contains all the properties such
as, assignment, order, distance and origin, thus possess all the properties of nominal, ordinal
and interval scales. Moreover, it contains an absolute zero, which makes any measurement
more meaningful.
This means that you can construct a meaningful fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable.
Example

In marketing research, however, application ratio scales are very limited; variables like sales
of a dealer, cost associated with sales person expenses per month, number of clients added
to the company during a year and so on. Given that sociological and management research
contexts, very rarely researchers attempt to go beyond the interval level of measurement;
but virtually all the statistical tools can be applied and data can be analysed.
Classification of Scaling Techniques
Scaling methods are classified into two types: comparative and non-comparative. They help
evaluate one brand /product/firm /personality by a respondent.

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1) Comparative scaling procedures

The scales help respondent compare one brand /product/ firm/personality with another
brand/product/firm/personality on the selected characteristics or attributes.
Comparative rating scales include the following: Rank order scaling, Paired comparison
scaling, constant sum and Q sort scaling.
a) Rank order Scaling
The most popular comparative scaling technique is rank order scaling. In rank order scaling,
respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank
them according to some criterion.
Rank order scaling as the name suggests is about ranking a specific set of stimuli on a pre-
defined criterion. It’s also quite popular among researchers when trying to understand a
specific rank order among various stimuli. The respondents are provided with various stimuli
objects and asked to rank the most preferred object, the second most preferred object and
so on.
Example:

b) Paired comparison scaling

In paired comparison scaling, respondents are asked to choose one among two alternatives
on a selected criterion. For example, a respondent may be asked to choose between two
well-known toothpaste brands on the criterion of quality. The data obtained from paired
comparison scaling is ordinal in nature. When there are more than two stimuli involved paired
comparison scaling can still be useful technique to compare various stimuli. Lets say, a
researcher is interested in knowing consumers preference among three different toothpaste

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brands, A, B and C. Using the paired comparison scaling researcher will create three
questions for respondents namely:
• Preference between toothpaste brand A and brand B
• Preference between toothpaste brand B and brand C
• Preference between toothpaste brand A and brand C.

c) Constant sum scaling

In constant sum scaling, respondents are asked to assign a constant sum of units (could
include points, currency, and so on) to a specific set of stimulus objects with respect to some
pre-defined criterion. For example, researcher may ask the respondents to assign a number
according to their perceptions of a specific stimuli object on the criteria chosen so as the total
becomes 100. The attributes are scaled by counting the points assigned to each criterion by
all the respondents and divided by the number of respondents.
Example

d) Q-sort
Q-sort can be called an extension to rank order scaling. It uses a rank order procedure in which
objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some pre-defined criteria. It
provides grouping according to the respondents’ preferences among a relative larger number
of objects quickly.
2) Non-comparative scaling
As the name suggests, in non-comparative scaling, researchers use whatever rating standard
seems appropriate to them. Respondents answering non-comparative scale based questions
do not compare the object being rated either to another object or to some specified
standard. They evaluate only one object at a time. Non-comparative scaling involves two
techniques namely: continuous and itemized rating scales. Itemized scales are further divided
in Likert, semantic differential and stapel scale. Each of these scales will be discussed in
details in this section.

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a) Continuous rating scale

Continuous rating scale is also known as graphic rating scale in which respondents rate the
objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme
criterion to the other. The respondent is provided with the freedom here to choose a point
anywhere along the line and is not restricted to ranking only. The figure 5.2 below illustrates
various types of continuous rating scale which can be used in getting responses from the
respondents.

Example

b) Itemized rating scale

Itemized rating scales involve selection of a specific category out of various categories pre-
defined by the researcher. A brief description is associated with each category and
respondents are asked to select the best fitting category with the stimuli object. Itemized
scales are widely used in marketing research. Likert, semantic differential and stapel scale are
among the most used itemized rating scale and we shall describe them in details in this
section.
B1) Likert scale
Likert scale is one of the highly used scales in marketing research which focuses on degree of
agreement or disagreement. The scale is named after Rensis Likert who developed the scale.
The respondent is presented with a series of statements about the stimulus objects and asked
to provide views on agreement or disagreement with each of the statement. A typical Likert
scale constitutes of five items ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. For the ease
of statistics, researchers also associated numbers with Likert scale.

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B2) Semantic differential scale

Semantic differential scale includes a seven-point bi-polar scale in comparison to Likert’s
five-point scale. While in Likert each item number of scale is defined in semantic differential
scale the endpoints are clearly defined. For example, ‘satisfaction’ and ‘dissatisfaction’ can be
used as the endpoints.

B3) Stapel scale

Stapel scale consists of a single criterion in the middle of an even-numbered range of values,
from -5 to +5, without a neutral point. The scale is generally presented vertically. The
respondents are asked to choose a specific number describing the stimuli object of concern
on the pre-defined criterion.

Other Scaling Techniques

1) Thurstone scale
Thurstone scale is defined as a unidimensional scale that is used to track respondent’s
behavior, attitude or feeling towards a subject. This scale consists of statements about a
particular issue or topic where each statement has a numerical value that indicates the
respondent’s attitude towards the topic as favorable or unfavorable. Respondents indicate
the statements that they agree with, and an average is computed. A mean score of the
agreements or disagreements is calculated as the attitude of the respondent towards the
topic.
This scale was developed by Robert Thurstone to approximate measurement in equal-
appearing interval levels. The Thurstone scale is built upon the fundamentals of the Likert

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scale, but this method of constructing an attitude scale not only takes value of each item of
into consideration while evaluating the final attitude score but also caters to neutral items.
A Thurstone scale survey is a series of related, dichotomous statements. Example:
I am inspired to meet my goals at work.
• Agree
• Disagree
2) Multidimensional Scaling
Multidimensional scaling refers to a family of mathematical (not statistical) models that can
be used to analyze distances between objects (e.g., health states). Information contained in
a set of data is represented by a set of points in space. These points are arranged in such a
way that the geometrical distance between them will reflect empirical relationships in the
data. The geometrical relationships can be situated in multidimensional space but can also
encompass the one-dimensional mode. They may be interval (metric) or rank distances
(nonmetric).
Example

Scale Evaluation
To avoid such errors and control the research process, after developing an appropriate scale,
researcher must assess the scale on three dynamic constructs: validity, reliability and
generalizability. Validity can be measured by examining content, criterion and construct
validity. Construct validity is divided into three parts namely, convergent, discriminant and
nomological validity. Reliability can be assessed by examining test/retest reliability,
alternative form’s reliability and internal consistency reliability. Figure 5.6 represents the
classification graphically.

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Other Scales
1) Validity
Validity of a scale is defined as the extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect
the true differences among objects on the characteristics being measured. In simple words,
by testing validity researcher can decide is the scale measuring what it is meant to measure.
A perfectly valid scale will have no measurement errors.
As the name suggests, content validity (or face validity as it is called some other times) refers
to the content of the scale. It involves a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the
content represents the task at hand. At times, researchers as well as some other experts in
the field are asked to look at the scale and provide their opinion as to whether the scale
measures the phenomenon. Being a subjective evaluation technique, it is not considered a
sufficient measure of the validity of a scale. Criterion validity refers to examining whether
the measurement scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected as
meaningful criteria. Construct validity is the bridge between theory and the scale. It explains
the questions of what construct or characteristic the scale is measuring and what deductions
can be made concerning the theory underlying the scale.
Construct validity is classified into three parts namely: convergent, discriminant and
nomological validity. Convergent validity focuses on how well the scale’s measurement
positively correlates with different measurements of the same scale. Discriminant validity
refers to the fact that the scale being investigated does not significantly correlate with other
constructs that are operationalized as being different. Nomological validity allows
researchers to evaluate how well one particular construct theoretically networks with other
established constructs that are related yet different.
2) Reliability
Reliability in research relates to consistency of results over a period of time. A scale is called
reliable if it produces consistent results when repeated measurements are made. Systematic
errors do not have an effect on reliability however random errors do. There are three ways
in which reliability is measured: test-retest reliability, alternative forms reliability and internal
consistency reliability.

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As the name suggests, in test-retest reliability measurement, same respondents are

administered identical sets of scale items at two different times (usually 2 – 4 weeks). The
degree of similarity between the measurements (measured through correlation between
both measurements) determines the reliability. The higher the correlation between the two
measurements, the higher the scale reliability. In measuring alternative forms reliability, two
equivalent forms of the scale are constructed and then the same respondents are measured
at two different times. Internal consistency reliability is used to assess the reliability of a
summated scale where several items are summated to form a total score.
3) Generalizability
Generalizability refers to the extent to which one can generalize from the observations at
hand to a universe of generalizations. For example, a researcher may wish to generalize a
scale developed for use in personal interviews to other modes of data collection, such as mall-
intercept and telephone interviews. Likewise, one may wish to generalize from a sample of
observers to a universe of observers, from a sample of times of measurement to the universe
of times of measurement, from a sample of items to the universe of items and so on. To
generalize to other universes, generalizability theory procedures must be employed.
Questions
3 Marks
1) What is Primary data?
2) What is Secondary Data?
3) What is Focus Group Interview?
4) What is Depth Interview?
5) What is Survey Method?
6) What is observation?
7) What is Questionnaire?
8) What are double-barrelled question?
9) What are unstructured questions?
10) What is structured question?
11) What is Multiple-choice question?
12) What is Dichotomous question?
13) What is Leading Question?
14) What is Measurement?
15) Define Scaling?
16) What is Nominal Scale?
17) Define Ordinal Scale?
18) Define Interval Scale?
19) Define Ratio Scale?
20) What is Rank order scaling?
21) What is Paired comparison scaling?
22) What is Constant sum scaling?
23) What is Continuous rating scale?
24) What is Likert Scale?
25) What is Semantic differential scale?
26) What is Stapel Scale?

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7 Marks
1) What are the Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data?
2) Explain external sources of secondary data?
3) Explain steps involved in focus group interview
4) What are the different types of Projective Techniques?
5) What are Relative Advantages and disadvantages of Observation?
6) What are the Questionnaire Objectives?
7) Explain different Sections in a Questionnaire
8) Explain Nominal Scale with example
9) Explain Ordinal Scale with example
10) Explain Interval Scale with example
11) Explain Ratio Scale with example
12) Explain with example different comparative scaling Techniques
13) Explain with Example different non-comparative scaling techniques.
14) What Itemized Scale? Explain types of Itemized scale.
10 Marks
1) Explain Data Collection Methods
2) What are the different sources of Secondary Data?
3) What are different Sources of Primary Data?
4) What are the different types of qualitative data?
5) Explain Quantitative Data collection methods of primary data
6) Explain types of survey interview.
7) Explain types of observation
8) What are the Steps involved in Questionnaire design process?
9) What are the Qualities of a Good Questionnaire?
10) What are the different Primary scales of Measurement? Explain with example.
11) What are the different advanced Scaling Techniques? Explain with example
12) Explain measurement and scaling evaluation techniques.

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