Unit 1

1.What is Automata, Electric Switch? Construct FAN REGULATOR Automation.

1. What is Automata?

Automata refers to a self-operating machine or system that performs tasks automatically

based on a set of predefined rules or instructions. In computer science, automata theory studies
abstract machines and how they solve computational problems.

Types of Automata:

●​ Finite Automata (FA): It has a limited number of states and transitions between these
states based on input.
●​ Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA): For every input and state, there is only one
transition.
●​ Non-Deterministic Finite Automata (NFA): Multiple transitions are possible for a single
input.

✅ Real-Life Example:​
A vending machine works like an automaton. It moves from one state to another based on the
money inserted and the selected item.

2. What is an Electric Switch?

An electric switch is a device that opens or closes an electrical circuit. When the switch is
turned ON, it allows the current to flow, and when it is turned OFF, it stops the flow of current.

✅ Real-Life Example:​
A light switch controls whether a light bulb turns ON or OFF. Similarly, a fan switch controls the
fan’s rotation and speed.

3. Fan Regulator Automation

A fan regulator is a device that controls the speed of a ceiling fan by regulating the voltage or
current supplied to it. Modern fan regulators are often automated using microcontrollers or
embedded systems.

✅ Working of a Fan Regulator:

●​ A switch is used to turn ON/OFF the fan.
 ●​ A rotary dial or digital interface allows the user to set the desired speed.
●​ The regulator reduces or increases the voltage supplied to the fan, which controls the
speed.

🤖 Real-Life Example:
Smart Home Fan Automation:​
In a smart home system, the fan speed can be controlled via a mobile app. Based on
temperature sensors and user preferences, the fan adjusts its speed automatically.

✅ How It Works:
●​ When the temperature rises above 28°C, the fan automatically switches to speed 3.
●​ During cooler hours, the speed drops to 1 or 2 for energy efficiency.

🎯 Conclusion:
Fan regulator automation combines automata and electric switch concepts to create a system
where fan speed is adjusted automatically or manually. This improves convenience, energy
efficiency, and user comfort.

2. What is Moore’s Machine.

✅ Definition:
A Moore Machine is a type of Finite State Machine (FSM) where the output depends only on
the current state and not on the input. It produces an output whenever it transitions to a state,
and the output remains constant until the next state is reached.

⚡️ Key Characteristics:
1.​ State-Dependent Output:
○​ The output is associated with the state, not the input.
2.​ Synchronous Operation:
○​ Output changes only after the state transition.
3.​ Deterministic Nature:
○​ Given a state and input, the next state is uniquely determined.
📚 Formal Definition:
A Moore Machine is defined by a 6-tuple:

M=(Q,Σ,Δ,δ,λ,q0)M = (Q, Σ, Δ, δ, λ, q_0)M=(Q,Σ,Δ,δ,λ,q0​)

Where:

●​ Q – Finite set of states.

●​ Σ – Input alphabet (finite set of symbols).
●​ Δ – Output alphabet (finite set of symbols).
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→Qδ: Q \times Σ → Qδ:Q×Σ→Q (maps state and input to
next state).
●​ λ – Output function: λ:Q→Δλ: Q → Δλ:Q→Δ (maps state to output).
●​ q₀ – Initial state (starting point).

🎯 Working of Moore Machine:

●​ Input Symbol Processed: The machine processes one symbol of input and transitions
to the next state.
●​ State Change: After the transition, the machine moves to a new state.
●​ Output Generation: The output is generated based on the current state, not the input.

🤖 Example:
Problem:

Design a Moore Machine that detects whether a binary string has even or odd number of 1s.

⚙️ Steps:
✅ 1. States:
●​ q₀: Even number of 1s (initial state, output 0)
●​ q₁: Odd number of 1s (output 1)

✅ 2. Input Alphabet:
●​ Σ = {0, 1}

✅ 3. Output Alphabet:
●​ Δ = {0, 1}

✅ 4. Transition Table:
 Current State Input Next State Output

q₀ 0 q₀ 0

q₀ 1 q₁ 0

q₁ 0 q₁ 1

q₁ 1 q₀ 1

✅ 5. Output Logic:
●​ q₀ → Output 0 (even number of 1s)
●​ q₁ → Output 1 (odd number of 1s)

📡 Real-Life Example:
✅ Automatic Traffic Light System:
●​ The traffic light follows a sequence of states (Green → Yellow → Red).
●​ The output (light color) depends only on the current state and not on how many cars are
waiting.
●​ The light transitions automatically after a fixed time, just like a Moore Machine.

✅ How It Works:
●​ State 1: Green Light → Output “Go”
●​ State 2: Yellow Light → Output “Slow”
●​ State 3: Red Light → Output “Stop”

🎯 Advantages of Moore Machine:

1.​ Simplicity: Easier to implement and debug.
2.​ Predictable Timing: Output changes only after state transitions.
3.​ Useful for Sequential Systems: Ideal for circuits that require stable output.

🔥 Conclusion:
A Moore Machine is a simple yet powerful model in TOC used for applications where the output
depends solely on the current state. It finds practical applications in traffic systems, vending
machines, and digital circuits, making it a crucial concept in automata theory.
3. What is Mealey Machine? (IN Notes Also)

✅ Definition:
A Mealy Machine is a type of Finite State Machine (FSM) where the output depends on both
the current state and the input. The output is generated immediately after processing the
input.

⚡️ Key Characteristics:
1.​ Input-Dependent Output:
○​ The output changes based on the current state and input.
2.​ Faster Response:
○​ Output is generated immediately after the input is processed, without waiting for
a state transition.
3.​ Compact Representation:
○​ Fewer states may be required compared to a Moore Machine.

📚 Formal Definition:
A Mealy Machine is defined by a 6-tuple:

M=(Q,Σ,Δ,δ,λ,q0)M = (Q, Σ, Δ, δ, λ, q_0)M=(Q,Σ,Δ,δ,λ,q0​)

Where:

●​ Q – Finite set of states.

●​ Σ – Input alphabet (finite set of symbols).
●​ Δ – Output alphabet (finite set of symbols).
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→Qδ: Q \times Σ → Qδ:Q×Σ→Q (maps state and input to
the next state).
●​ λ – Output function: λ:Q×Σ→Δλ: Q \times Σ → Δλ:Q×Σ→Δ (maps state and input to
output).
●​ q₀ – Initial state (starting point).

🎯 Working of Mealy Machine:

●​ Input Symbol Processed: The machine reads an input symbol.
 ●​ State Transition: It moves to a new state based on the current state and input.
●​ Output Generation: The output is generated immediately based on the current state
and input.

🔥 Difference Between Mealy and Moore Machine:

Feature Mealy Machine Moore Machine

Output On current state and input Only on the current

Depends state

Timing Immediate after input After state transition

change

Complexity Compact, fewer states May require more states

Output Change Can change during state Changes only after state

🤖 Example:
Problem:

Design a Mealy Machine to detect if a binary string ends with “01”.

⚙️ Steps:
✅ 1. States:
●​ q₀: Initial state (No match yet)
●​ q₁: 1 detected (waiting for 0)
●​ q₂: 01 detected → Output 1

✅ 2. Input Alphabet:
●​ Σ = {0, 1}

✅ 3. Output Alphabet:
●​ Δ = {0, 1}

✅ 4. Transition Table:
 Current State Input Next State Output

q₀ 0 q₀ 0

q₀ 1 q₁ 0

q₁ 0 q₂ 0

q₁ 1 q₁ 0

q₂ 0 q₀ 0

q₂ 1 q₁ 1

✅ 5. Output Logic:
●​ q₂ + Input 1 → Output 1 (when “01” is detected)
●​ All other transitions produce output 0.

📡 Real-Life Example:
✅ Vending Machine:
●​ The vending machine dispenses a product immediately after inserting the correct
amount.
●​ Output (dispense) happens when the correct input (amount + selection) is received.

✅ How It Works:
●​ State 1: Wait for coin → No output.
●​ State 2: Coin inserted → Check for product selection.
●​ State 3: Correct selection → Product dispensed (output 1).

🎯 Advantages of Mealy Machine:

1.​ Faster Output Generation: Immediate response after input change.
2.​ Compact Design: Requires fewer states.
3.​ Efficient for Real-Time Systems: Suitable where immediate action is needed.

🔥 Conclusion:
A Mealy Machine is more efficient in real-time systems where output needs to change quickly
based on input. Its ability to generate immediate output makes it ideal for applications like
vending machines, network protocols, and signal processing systems.

4. What is DFA, Write short Notation on DFA?

🔍 DFS (Depth-First Search):

✅ Definition:
DFS is a graph traversal algorithm that explores as far as possible along one branch before
backtracking.

⚡️ Key Characteristics:
1.​ Stack-Based Approach:
○​ Can be implemented using recursion (implicit stack) or an explicit stack.
2.​ Backtracking:
○​ Returns to the previous node when a dead-end is reached.
3.​ Time Complexity:
○​ O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E), where V is the number of vertices and E is the number
of edges.

🎯 Applications of DFS:
●​ Detecting cycles in a graph.
●​ Finding connected components.
●​ Solving maze problems.

✨ Short Notation Used in DFA:

A Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) is defined by a 5-tuple:

DFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0,F)DFA = (Q, Σ, δ, q₀, F)DFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0​,F)

Where:

●​ Q – Finite set of states.

 ●​ Σ – Input alphabet (finite set of symbols).
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→Qδ: Q \times Σ → Qδ:Q×Σ→Q (maps state and input to
the next state).
●​ q₀ – Initial state.
●​ F – Set of final/accepting states.

Unit 2

1.​ write a note on operation of language. (IN Notes Also)

✅ Definition:
In Formal Language Theory, operations on languages modify or combine languages to
generate new languages. A language is a set of strings over a given alphabet.

⚡️ Basic Operations on Languages:

1. Union (L₁ ∪ L₂)

●​ The union of two languages includes all strings that belong to either language.
●​ Notation:

L1∪L2={w∣w∈L1 or w∈L2}L₁ ∪ L₂ = \{w \mid w \in L₁ \text{ or } w \in

L₂\}L1​∪L2​={w∣w∈L1​or w∈L2​}

✅ Example:
●​ L₁ = {ab, ba}, L₂ = {aa, bb}
●​ L₁ ∪ L₂ = {ab, ba, aa, bb}

2. Intersection (L₁ ∩ L₂)

●​ The intersection contains strings that are present in both languages.

●​ Notation:

L1∩L2={w∣w∈L1 and w∈L2}L₁ ∩ L₂ = \{w \mid w \in L₁ \text{ and } w \in

L₂\}L1​∩L2​={w∣w∈L1​and w∈L2​}
✅ Example:
●​ L₁ = {ab, ba, aa}, L₂ = {aa, ba}
●​ L₁ ∩ L₂ = {aa, ba}

3. Concatenation (L₁ · L₂ or L₁L₂)

●​ Concatenation combines strings from one language with strings from another.
●​ Notation:

L1L2={xy∣x∈L1,y∈L2}L₁L₂ = \{xy \mid x \in L₁, y \in L₂\}L1​L2​={xy∣x∈L1​,y∈L2​}

✅ Example:
●​ L₁ = {a, b}, L₂ = {ba, aa}
●​ L₁L₂ = {aba, aaa, bba, baa}

4. Kleene Star (L)*

●​ The Kleene Star generates all possible strings formed by concatenating zero or more
strings from a language.
●​ Notation:

L∗={w1w2…wk∣wi∈L,k≥0}L^* = \{w_1 w_2 \ldots w_k \mid w_i \in L, k \geq

0\}L∗={w1​w2​…wk​∣wi​∈L,k≥0}

✅ Example:
●​ L = {ab}
●​ L* = {ε, ab, abab, ababab, ...}

5. Complement (L̅ or Σ \ L)*

●​ The complement contains all strings not in the language.

●​ Notation:

L̅ = \{w \in Σ^* \mid w \notin L\}

✅ Example:
●​ L = {ab, ba} over Σ = {a, b}
 ●​ L̅ = {ε, a, b, aa, bb, ...} (all strings except “ab” and “ba”)

6. Difference (L₁ - L₂)

●​ The difference contains strings in L₁ but not in L₂.

●​ Notation:

L1−L2={w∣w∈L1,w∉L2}L₁ - L₂ = \{w \mid w \in L₁, w \notin L₂\}L1​−L2​={w∣w∈L1​,w∈/L2​}

✅ Example:
●​ L₁ = {ab, ba, aa}, L₂ = {aa, ba}
●​ L₁ - L₂ = {ab}

🎯 Applications of Language Operations:

●​ Regular Expressions: Pattern matching and string recognition.
●​ Compiler Design: Lexical analysis and parsing.
●​ Automata Theory: Defining accepted languages of finite automata.

🔥 Conclusion:
Operations on languages help in constructing and modifying languages, which is essential in
automata theory, pattern recognition, and formal language processing. Understanding these
operations is key to designing automata and solving computational problems efficiently.

2.write a note on subset construction OR Convert NFA to DFA.

✅ Definition:
Subset Construction (also known as Powerset Construction) is a method used to convert a
Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton (NFA) into an equivalent Deterministic Finite
Automaton (DFA).

⚡️ Purpose:
●​ To eliminate nondeterminism in an NFA.
●​ DFA is easier to implement as it has only one possible move for each input symbol.
🎯 Steps to Construct DFA from NFA:
✅ Step 1: Initial State
●​ The initial state of the DFA is the ε-closure (set of all states reachable from the start
state by ε-transitions) of the NFA's start state.

✅ Step 2: Transition Function

●​ For each state in the DFA and each input symbol:
○​ Determine all possible states reachable from that state in the NFA.
○​ Take the ε-closure of these states.
○​ This forms the next state in the DFA.

✅ Step 3: Final States

●​ Any DFA state that contains one or more of the NFA’s final states is marked as a final
state.

📊 Formal Definition:
Given an NFA:

N=(Q,Σ,δ,q0,F)N = (Q, Σ, δ, q₀, F)N=(Q,Σ,δ,q0​,F)

Where:

●​ Q – Set of states.
●​ Σ – Input alphabet.
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→2Qδ: Q \times Σ \rightarrow 2^Qδ:Q×Σ→2Q
●​ q₀ – Initial state.
●​ F – Set of final states.

The corresponding DFA:

D=(Q′,Σ,δ′,q0′,F′)D = (Q', Σ, δ', q_0', F')D=(Q′,Σ,δ′,q0′​,F′)

Where:
 ●​ Q' – Subsets of states in Q.
●​ δ' – Transition function for DFA.
●​ q_0' – ε-closure of q₀.
●​ F' – Set of DFA states containing any state from F.

🤖 Example:
NFA:

●​ States: Q = {q₀, q₁, q₂}

●​ Alphabet: Σ = {a, b}
●​ Transitions:
○​ δ(q₀, a) = {q₀, q₁}
○​ δ(q₀, b) = {q₂}
○​ δ(q₁, a) = {q₂}
○​ δ(q₂, b) = {q₁}
●​ Start State: q₀
●​ Final State: F = {q₂}

⚙️ DFA Construction:
1.​ Initial State:​
ε-closure({q₀}) = {q₀} → DFA state A​

2.​ Transitions:​

○​ δ(A, a) → ε-closure({q₀, q₁}) = {q₀, q₁} → DFA state B

○​ δ(A, b) → ε-closure({q₂}) = {q₂} → DFA state C
3.​ Final States:​
Any DFA state containing q₂ is a final state. So, C is a final state.​

🔥 Resulting DFA:
●​ States: {A, B, C}
●​ Start State: A
●​ Final State: C
📡 Applications of Subset Construction:
●​ Lexical Analysis: Tokenizing programming languages.
●​ Pattern Matching: Regular expression engines.
●​ Protocol Design: Converting nondeterministic models to deterministic systems.

🎯 Advantages:
1.​ Removes Nondeterminism: Converts NFA to DFA, simplifying the model.
2.​ Deterministic Transitions: Makes automata more predictable and easier to implement.

⚡️ Disadvantage:
●​ The number of DFA states may grow exponentially due to the power set of states.

🔥 Conclusion:
Subset construction is a powerful method to convert NFAs into equivalent DFAs, making
automata easier to analyze and implement. However, it can lead to state explosion in large
NFAs.

3. NFA VS DFA

📚 Definition:
●​ DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton):​

○​ Each input symbol leads to exactly one transition for each state.
○​ No ambiguity in state transitions.
●​ NFA (Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton):​

○​ For an input symbol, multiple transitions are possible.

○​ Can move to multiple states or even stay in the same state.

🎯 Key Differences:
 Feature DFA (Deterministic) NFA (Non-Deterministic)

Definition Single transition for each Multiple transitions possible

input

Transition δ:Q×Σ→Qδ: Q × Σ → δ:Q×Σ→2Qδ: Q × Σ → 2^Qδ:Q×Σ→2Q

Function Qδ:Q×Σ→Q

State of Execution Single state at a time Multiple states simultaneously

ε-Transitions Not allowed Allowed (moves without input)

Complexity Easier to implement May be easier to define

Number of States May be large Fewer states, but more complex

Acceptance Accepts if the final state is Accepts if any possible path reaches a
Condition reached final state

Conversion Direct and deterministic Can be converted to DFA using subset

construction

Speed of Faster (single path) Slower (explores multiple paths)

Execution

⚡️ Formal Definition:
✅ DFA:
DFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0,F)DFA = (Q, Σ, δ, q_0, F)DFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0​,F)

●​ Q – Set of states.
●​ Σ – Input alphabet.
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→Qδ: Q × Σ → Qδ:Q×Σ→Q
●​ q₀ – Initial state.
●​ F – Set of final states.

✅ NFA:
NFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0,F)NFA = (Q, Σ, δ, q_0, F)NFA=(Q,Σ,δ,q0​,F)

●​ Q – Set of states.
●​ Σ – Input alphabet.
●​ δ – Transition function: δ:Q×Σ→2Qδ: Q × Σ → 2^Qδ:Q×Σ→2Q
●​ q₀ – Initial state.
●​ F – Set of final states.

📡 Example:
✅ DFA Example:
●​ Recognize strings ending with ‘ab’ over Σ = {a, b}
●​ States: {q₀, q₁, q₂}
●​ Transition Table:

State a b

q₀ q₁ q₀

q₁ q₁ q₂

q₂ q₁ q₀

●​ Final State: q₂

✅ NFA Example:
 ●​ Recognize strings ending with ‘ab’ using NFA.
●​ States: {q₀, q₁, q₂}
●​ Transition Table:

State a b

q₀ {q₀, q₁} {q₀}

q₁ ∅ {q₂}

q₂ ∅ ∅

●​ Final State: q₂

🎯 Advantages and Disadvantages:

✅ DFA:
●​ Advantages:
○​ Easier to implement.
○​ Faster execution due to deterministic behavior.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ May require more states for complex patterns.

✅ NFA:
●​ Advantages:
○​ Easier to design for complex languages.
○​ Fewer states needed.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Slower execution due to multiple transitions.
○​ Conversion to DFA may lead to state explosion.

🔥 Conversion of NFA to DFA:

 ●​ Using Subset Construction (Powerset Construction), an NFA can be converted into an
equivalent DFA.

📊 Summary:
●​ DFA: Deterministic, single path, faster but larger.
●​ NFA: Non-deterministic, multiple paths, smaller but slower.
●​ Both recognize the same class of languages (Regular Languages).

4.write the properties of regular expression.

✅ Definition:
A Regular Expression (RE) is a sequence of symbols and operators that defines a set of
strings over a given alphabet. It is used to describe regular languages.

🎯 Key Properties of Regular Expressions:

1. Closure Property

●​ Regular languages are closed under the following operations, meaning the result is
always a regular language.

✅ a. Union (L₁ ∪ L₂)

●​ Combines two languages by including all strings from both.

L1∪L2={w∣w∈L1 or w∈L2}L₁ ∪ L₂ = \{w \mid w \in L₁ \text{ or } w \in L₂\}L1​∪L2​={w∣w∈L1​or

w∈L2​}

●​ Example:
○​ L₁ = {ab, ba}, L₂ = {aa, bb}
○​ L₁ ∪ L₂ = {ab, ba, aa, bb}
✅ b. Concatenation (L₁ · L₂ or L₁L₂)
●​ Combines strings from two languages by joining them.

L1L2={xy∣x∈L1,y∈L2}L₁L₂ = \{xy \mid x \in L₁, y \in L₂\}L1​L2​={xy∣x∈L1​,y∈L2​}

●​ Example:
○​ L₁ = {a, b}, L₂ = {ab, ba}
○​ L₁L₂ = {aab, aba, bab, bba}

✅ c. Kleene Star (L)*

●​ Generates all possible strings formed by concatenating zero or more strings from a
language.

L∗={w1w2…wk∣wi∈L,k≥0}L^* = \{w_1 w_2 \ldots w_k \mid w_i \in L, k \geq

0\}L∗={w1​w2​…wk​∣wi​∈L,k≥0}

●​ Example:
○​ L = {ab}
○​ L* = {ε, ab, abab, ababab, ...}

✅ d. Intersection (L₁ ∩ L₂)

●​ Returns all strings common to both languages.

L1∩L2={w∣w∈L1 and w∈L2}L₁ ∩ L₂ = \{w \mid w \in L₁ \text{ and } w \in L₂\}L1​∩L2​={w∣w∈L1​
and w∈L2​}

●​ Example:
○​ L₁ = {ab, ba, aa}, L₂ = {aa, ba}
○​ L₁ ∩ L₂ = {aa, ba}

✅ e. Complement (L̅ or Σ \ L)*

●​ Returns all strings not in the language.

L̅ = \{w \in Σ^* \mid w \notin L\}

●​ Example:
○​ L = {ab, ba} over Σ = {a, b}
 ○​ L̅ = {ε, a, b, aa, bb, ...}

2. Associativity

●​ Regular expressions follow associativity for union and concatenation:

L1∪(L2∪L3)=(L1∪L2)∪L3L_1 \cup (L_2 \cup L_3) = (L_1 \cup L_2) \cup

L_3L1​∪(L2​∪L3​)=(L1​∪L2​)∪L3​L1(L2L3)=(L1L2)L3L_1 (L_2 L_3) = (L_1 L_2)
L_3L1​(L2​L3​)=(L1​L2​)L3​

3. Distributive Property

●​ Concatenation and union follow the distributive law:

L1(L2∪L3)=L1L2∪L1L3L_1 (L_2 \cup L_3) = L_1 L_2 \cup L_1 L_3L1​(L2​∪L3​)=L1​L2​∪L1​L3​

(L1∪L2)L3=L1L3∪L2L3(L_1 \cup L_2) L_3 = L_1 L_3 \cup L_2 L_3(L1​∪L2​)L3​=L1​L3​∪L2​L3​

4. Identity Property

●​ Concatenation with an empty string (ε) leaves the string unchanged:

L⋅ε=ε⋅L=LL \cdot \varepsilon = \varepsilon \cdot L = LL⋅ε=ε⋅L=L

●​ Union with an empty set gives the original language:

L∪∅=LL \cup \emptyset = LL∪∅=L

5. Idempotent Property

●​ Repeating a union does not change the language:

L∪L=LL \cup L = LL∪L=L

●​ Applying Kleene star twice does not change the language:

L∗∗=L∗L^{**} = L^*L∗∗=L∗

6. Null and Empty String Properties

●​ Kleene Star of Null Language:

∅∗={ε}\emptyset^* = \{\varepsilon\}∅∗={ε}

●​ Concatenation with Null Language:

L⋅∅=∅⋅L=∅L \cdot \emptyset = \emptyset \cdot L = \emptysetL⋅∅=∅⋅L=∅

7. Inverse or Complement Property

●​ Complement of the complement returns the original language:

L‾‾=L\overline{\overline{L}} = LL=L

📡 Applications of Regular Expressions:

●​ Pattern matching in text processing.
●​ Lexical analysis in compilers.
●​ Validation of user inputs.

🎯 Conclusion:
Regular expressions define and manipulate regular languages with predictable behavior.
Understanding their properties helps in designing efficient algorithms for pattern matching and
language recognition.