Network-layer functions

▪ Dr. Zulfiqar Ali

▪ Computer Science Department
▪ COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

Network Layer: 5-1

 Makes

Network-layer functions decisio

about ns
where
to sen
d
packet
s
▪ forwarding: move packets from router’s
input to appropriate router output data plane
c t u al
a
▪ routing: determine route taken by oves based

packets from source to destination

M ets
k
pac those control plane
on ions
is
dec

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

▪ per-router control (traditional)
▪ logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: 5-2

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane

Routing
Algorith control
m plane
data
plan
e

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-3

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) control
plane
Remote controller computes, installs forwarding tables in routers

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plan
e
C
A
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-4

Routing protocols mobile network
national or global ISP
Routing protocol goal: determine
“good” paths (equivalently, routes),
from sending hosts to receiving host, application
transport

through network of routers network

link
physical

▪ path: sequence of routers packets

network network
link link
physical physical

traverse from given initial source host

to final destination host network
link
physical
network
link

▪ “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least

physical network
link datacenter
physical network

congested”
▪ routing: a “top-10” networking
application
transport
network

challenge! enterprise
network
link
physical

Network Layer: 5-5

Graph abstraction: link costs
5
ca,b: cost of direct link connecting a and b
v 3 w e.g., cw,z = 5, cu,z = ∞
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

graph: G = (N,E)
N: set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E: set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: 5-6

 Routing algorithm classification
global: all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
• “link state” algorithms
How fast
dynamic: routes change
do routes static: routes change more quickly
change? slowly over time • periodic updates or in
response to link cost
changes
decentralized: iterative process of
computation, exchange of info with neighbors
• routers initially only know link costs to
attached neighbors
• “distance vector” algorithms
global or decentralized information? Network Layer: 5-7
Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector

Network Layer: 5-8

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
▪ centralized: network topology, link notation
costs known to all nodes
• accomplished via “link state
▪ cx,y: direct link cost from
node x to y; = ∞ if not direct
broadcast” neighbors
• all nodes have same info
▪ D(v): current estimate of cost
▪ computes least cost paths from one of least-cost-path from source
node (“source”) to all other nodes to destination v
• gives forwarding table for that node ▪ p(v): predecessor node along
path from source to v
▪ iterative: after k iterations, know
▪ N': set of nodes whose
least cost path to k destinations least-cost-path definitively
known

Network Layer: 5-9

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u} /* compute least cost path from u to all other nodes */
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u /* u initially knows direct-path-cost only to direct neighbors */
5 then D(v) = cu,v /* but may not be minimum cost! */
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min ( D(v), D(w) + cw,v )
13 /* new least-path-cost to v is either old least-cost-path to v or known
14 least-cost-path to w plus direct-cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: 5-10
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
Initialization (step 0): For all a: if a adjacent to then D(a) = cu,a
5
3 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v w 5 add a to N'
2
u 2 1 z update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
3 D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer: 5-11

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

resulting least-cost-path tree from u: resulting forwarding table in u:

destination outgoing link
v w
v (u,v) route from u to v directly
u z x (u,x)
y (u,x) route from u to all
x y w (u,x) other destinations
x (u,x) via x
Network Layer: 5-12
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
v w x y z
D(v), D(w), D(x), D(y), D(z), x
9
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)

0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ 5 7

4
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞ 8
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x 3 w z
u y
2
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
3
4 uwxvy 12,y 7 4

5 uwxvyz v

notes:
▪ construct least-cost-path tree by tracing predecessor nodes
▪ ties can exist (can be broken arbitrarily)
Network Layer: 5-13
Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector

Network Layer: 5-14

Distance vector algorithm
Based on Bellman-Ford (BF) equation (dynamic programming):
Bellman-Ford equation

Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

Then:
Dx(y) = minv { cx,v + Dv(y) }

v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

min taken over all neighbors v of x direct cost of link from x to v
Network Layer: 5-15
Bellman-Ford Example
Suppose that u’s neighboring nodes, x,v,w, know that for destination z:
Dv(z) = 5 Dw(z) = 3 Bellman-Ford equation says:
5
Du(z) = min { cu,v + Dv(z),
3 w
v 5 cu,x + Dx(z),
2
u 2 1 z cu,w + Dw(z) }
3
1 2
= min {2 + 5,
x 1
y 1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Dx(z) = 3
node achieving minimum (x) is
next hop on estimated
least-cost path to destination
(z) Network Layer: 5-16
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
▪ from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate
to neighbors
▪ when x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor, it updates its
own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{cx,v + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

▪ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: 5-17

 Distance vector: example
DV in a:
Da(a)=0
Da(b) = 8
Da(c) = ∞ a b c
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Da(e) = ∞
t=0 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
Da(h) = ∞
▪ All nodes have Da(i) = ∞
distance estimates
to nearest A few asymmetries:
d e f ▪ missing link
neighbors (only) 1 1
▪ larger cost
▪ All nodes send
their local
distance vector to 1 1 1
their neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-18

 Distance vector example: iteration

a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-19

 Distance vector example: iteration

a
compute compute
b compute
c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute e
compute compute
f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute h
compute i
compute
1 1

Network Layer: 5-20

 Distance vector example: iteration

a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-21

 Distance vector example: iteration

a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-22

 Distance vector example: iteration

compute
a compute
b compute
c
2 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute compute
h compute
i
8 1

Network Layer: 5-23

 Distance vector example: iteration

a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
▪ receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
▪ compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
▪ send their new 1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-24

Distance vector example: iteration

…. and so on

Let’s next take a look at the iterative computations at nodes

Network Layer: 5-25

 DV in b: DV in c:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(b) = 1
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
DV in a: Dc(d) = ∞
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ b receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1 De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-26

 DV in b: DV in c:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(b) = 1
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
DV in a: Dc(d) = ∞
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 compute 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ b receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e, Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
computes: e
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1
Db(a) = min{cb,a+Da(a), cb,c +Dc(a), cb,e+De(a)} = min{8,∞,∞} =8 1 De(d) = 1
Db(c) = min{cb,a+Da(c), cb,c +Dc(c), c b,e +De(c)} = min{∞,1,∞} = 1 De(e) = 0
Db(d) = min{cb,a+Da(d), cb,c +Dc(d), c b,e +De(d)} = min{9,2,∞} = 2 De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
Db(e) = min{cb,a+Da(e), cb,c +Dc(e), c b,e +De(e)} = min{∞,∞,1} = 1
De(h) = 1
Db(f) = min{cb,a+Da(f), cb,c +Dc(f), c b,e +De(f)} = min{∞,∞,2} = 2
DV in b:
De(i) = ∞
Db(g) = min{cb,a+Da(g), cb,c +Dc(g), c b,e+De(g)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(a) = 8 Db(f) =2
g h D (c) = 1 Db(g)
i =∞
1 ∞, 2} = 2
Db(h) = min{cb,a+Da(h), cb,c +Dc(h), c b,e+De(h)} = min{∞, 1Db(d) = 2
b
Db(h) = 2
Db(i) = min{cb,a+Da(i), cb,c +Dc(i), c b,e+De(i)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-27
 DV in b: DV in c:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(b) = 1
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
DV in a: Dc(d) = ∞
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Da(a)=0
Dc(e) = ∞
Da(b) = 8
Dc(f) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(g) = ∞
Da(d) = 1 8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Da(e) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 Da(f) = ∞
1 1
Da(g) = ∞
▪ c receives DVs Da(h) = ∞ DV in e:
from b Da(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1 De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1 De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-28

 DV in b: DV in c:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞ Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(b) = 1
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
Dc(f) = ∞
a b c
compute Dc(g) = ∞
8 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
t=1 1 1
▪ c receives DVs
from b computes:

d b(a}} = 1 + 8 = 9
Dc(a) = min{cc,b+D e f
DV in c:
Dc(b) = min{cc,b+Db(b)} = 1 + 0 = 1
Dc(a) = 9
Dc(d) = min{cc,b+Db(d)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Dc(e) = min{cc,b+Db(e)} = 1 + 1 = 2 Dc(c) = 0
Dc(d) = 2
Dc(f) = min{cc,b+Db(f)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
Dc(g) = min{cc,b+Db(g)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ * Check out the online interactive
Dc(f) = ∞ exercises for more examples:
Dc(h) = min{cbc,bg+Db(h)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ h Dc(g) = ∞ i http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
Dc(i) = min{cc,b+Db(i)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-29
 DV in b:
Distance vector example: computation Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ DV in e:
DV in d: Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
De(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = 1 De(b) = 1
Dc(b) = ∞ a De(c) = ∞
b c
Dc(c) = ∞ 8 1 De(d) = 1
Dc(d) = 0 De(e) = 0
t=1 Dc(e) = 1
Dc(f) = ∞ 1
Q: what is new DV computed in e at
1t=1?
De(f) = 1
De(g) = ∞
▪ e receives DVs Dc(g) = 1 De(h) = 1
from b, d, f, h Dc(h) = ∞ De(i) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
d compute
e f DV in f:
DV in h: 1 1
Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = ∞ Dc(b) = ∞
Dc(b) = ∞ Dc(c) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ 1 1 1 Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(d) = ∞ Dc(e) = 1
Dc(e) = 1 Dc(f) = 0
Dc(f) = ∞ Dc(g) = ∞
Dc(g) = 1 g h i Dc(h) = ∞
1 1
Dc(h) = 0 Dc(i) = 1
Dc(i) = 1 Network Layer: 5-30
Distance vector: state information diffusion
Iterative communication, computation steps diffuses information through network:
t=0 c’s state at t=0 is at c only
a b c
8 1
c’s state at t=0 has propagated to b, and
t=1 may influence distance vector computations
up to 1 hop away, i.e., at b 1 1 t=1
t=2
c’s state at t=0 may now influence distance
t=2 vector computations up to 2 hops away, i.e.,
d e f
at b and now at a, e as well 1 1
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector
t=3 computations up to 3 hops away, i.e., at b,a,e
1 1 1 t=3
and now at c,f,h as well
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector
t=4 computations up to 4 hops away, i.e., at b,a,e, g h i
1 1
c, f, h and now at g,i as well t=4
 Distance vector: link cost changes
1
link cost changes: y
4 1
▪ node detects local link cost change x z
▪ updates routing info, recalculates local DV 50

▪ if DV changes, notify neighbors

t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its neighbors.

“good news t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new least
travels fast” cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer: 5-32