CHAPTER ONE

and vertical positions

establish precise horizontal
Control surveys or
1.0 INTRODUCTION: surveys are checked
which subordinate
monuments from
of network of
reference
property
and hydrographic mapping;
originated for such projects as topographic
planning; design; and layout.
route and construction
boundary delineation;

and vertical. Horizontal

control surveys, horizontal
types of
There are two general coordinates or the geodetic
either plane rectangular
control surveys establish
If the longitude
and latitude of a station are
latitudesand longitudes of stations.
computed.
known, its plane coordinates are readily

of the following,or
horizontal control surveying include either
Field procedures used in
combination of these basic methods:
the
Precise Traversing
i.
Triangulation
ii
ii. Trilateration

equipment and relative economy

requirements, available
Terrain in the area, project

normally dictate the

method (system) selected.
datum for a network of
elevations abovea selected
Vertical control surveys establish
vertical control surveys
Depending upon accuracy,
monuments called benchmarks.
or diferrential
leveling. The most accurate
may be done by barometric, trigonometric
leveling.
method is precise differential
and widely applied

CONTROL
1.1 THE NEED FOR SURVEY
a network of
surveys are based on
taken for engineering and other
All measurements control
control points. The horizontal
reference points called
horizontal and vertical [Link]
coordinates or polar
as plane rectangular
points are either specified
for the following:
control points are used

Preparation of maps and plans

i.
work
ii. For setting out and other dimensional

deformation monitoring
iii. They are essential in

COORDINATES
1,2 RECTANGULAR AND POLAR

adopted for most survey

Plane rectangular coordinates:
The coordinate system
[Link]
two axes called north axis and the east
purposes is a rectangular system using
system
figure below represents the rectangularcoordinate
 +

m +E
origo ot ten

1.2.1 CALCULATION OF RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

On a coordinate grid, the direction of a line between two points is known as its

(WCB) of measured in a clockwise direction

bearing. The whole circle bearing a line is

in the range of 0° to 360°

Where = whole circle bearing.

and B on rectangular grid. If the

The following figures show the plan of two points A a

known, the coordinate of B are obtained as follows:

coordinates of A are

T
A
Eg=Eat AEAB =E t DASinAB

Ng= N t ANAB= NA ± DABCosAD

Where:

AEAB = the easting difference from A to B

ANAB =the northing difference from A to B

DAB = the horizontal distance from A to B

ee= the whole circle bearing from A to B

1.3

is
POLAR COORDINATES

Another coordinate system used

located with reference to point
in

A
surveying is

by a polar coordinate D and .

the polar coordinate system. Here, a point B

oB

Potar Corolinates.

D is the horizontal distance from A to B ande is whole circle bearing of the line A to B. Polar

coordinates are used in surveying for defining the relative positíon of one point with respect

to another.

1.4 ACCURACY STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONTROLSURVEYS

The required accuracy for a control survey dependsprimarily upon its purpose. Sone major

condition of equipment used, field procedure

factors which affect accuracy are typeand

adopted, and the experience and capabilities of available personnel.

For a horizontal control survey, the following are the orders of accuracy, given descending
in

order:

3
 Order & class Accuracy required between directly connected adjacent points

First-order 1 part in 100,000

Second-order

Class I 1 part in 50,000

Class I 1 part in 20,000

Third-order

Class 1 part in 10,000

I
Class Il 1 part in 5,000

Table 1.1

Order& class Accuracy required between directly connected benchmarks

First-order

Class 0.5mmVK
I
Class I
0.7mmvK

Second-order

Class 1.0mmVK
I
Class I|
1.3mmVK

Third-order
2.0mmvK

Where Kis the distance in kilometers.

Table1,2

1.5 HIERARCHY OF THE NATIONAL HORIZONTAL NETWORK

control network, from highest to lowest

The hierarchy of control within the national horizontal

order, follows:

control: This consists principally of east-west arcs of triangulation spaced at about

Primary
In addition to triangulation, traversing
100km, crossed by north-south arcs having similar spacing.
and trilateration have been employed. Primary control is estabished using first-order.
 control: This densifies the network within areas surrounded by primnary control,
Secondary
control surveys are executed to second-order, class
especially in high-value land areas. Secondary
and are adjusted simultaneously
I standards; employs triangulationtraversing and trilateration,

with, and thus strengthen, the primary network.

Supplemental control: Serves in general to densify control between the primary network in lightly

developed areas. It is also placed along coastlines and on extensive mapping or construction
and are
projects. They can originate at stations of both primary and secondary networks,

executed to second-order, class-ll standards.

Local control: Provides reference points for local construction projects and small-scaletopographic

Depending upon accuracy requirements, local control may be executed to third-order,

mapping.
class-I or class-ll.

Discuss the hierarchy of national vertical control network.

Assignment:

1.6 CONTROL POINT DESCRIPTION

are placed
To obtain maximum benefit from control surveys, horizontal stations and benchmarks

in locations favourable to thier subsequent use. The should be permanently monumented to

National control network monuments placed by
ensure easy recovery by future potential users.
surveyors alongside location diagrams and
NGS are published and made available to local
general placement in relation to nearby towns,
complete descriptions of all their control, giving

means of distances and directions to several nearby reference

and specific positions by
monuments.

1.6.1 HORIZONTAL CONTROL DESCRIPTION

The station's geodetic latitude and longitude

1.
Plane rectangular coordinates
II.
IlI. Approximate elevation and

and plane azimuth to a nearby station or stations

IV. Geodetic
 CHAPTER TWO

PRECISE TRAVERSE

Employment of precise traversing is common among local surveyors for horizontal control

extension, especially for projects of limited size. Field work consists of two basic parts- reading

horizontal angles and measuring distances between stations. Angles can be secured with either a

repeating or directional instrument, and distances with EDM equipmentor by taping. Precise

traverse are always the closed type.

There has beendefined standards and specificationsfor four orders of accuracy for traverse. Zero

order and first-order classes supplementthe national horizontal control network, particularly

than that afforded by triangulation. Second-order

where a greater density of control is needed
and third-order traverse arerun extensively to solidify controlin metropolitan areas for
photogrammetric surveys, and
engineering and construction projects, property surveys, aerial

numerous other projects.

and placed on highest ridges

Unlike triangulationsin which stations are normally widely separated

an area, traverse route generally folow the cleared rights-of-way of high

ways and
and peaks in

railroads with stations located relatively closed together. Beside easing fieldwork, this provides a

of the Traverse lacks the automatic checks inherent in

secondary benefit in accessibility stations.

avoid blunders.
and extreme observational caution must therefore be applied
to
trianulation,

Also, since traverse generally run along single lines, they are not as good as triangulation for

establishing controlover large areas.

Procedure for traverse computation varies, depending upon wether geodetic or plane procedure

have been followed. In either case, it is necessary first to adjust angles and distances for

azimuths or angles, (2) latitudes, and

observational errors. Closure conditions are enforced for (1)

square method, simultaneously satisfied three

departures. The strictest process, the least
al
(3)

having the greatest likelihood according to the theory of

conditions and gives residuals

precise system such as compass (Bowditch) rule method generally

yield
probability. Other less

satisfactory results for small simple networks.

necessary to reduce observed horizontal distances to

In calculatingstate plane coordinates, it is

taught in basic principle in surveying.

their lengths before making calculations,as

to their SUG 101 and SUG 102 notes for the foliowing:
Students should refer

Meaning and classes of traverse

Fieldwork required for traversing:

Recce

Station marking

6
 Angle and distance measurements

TRAVERSE CALCULATIONS

Question 1.A link traverse was run between stations A and X a shown in the traverse diagram

below. The coordinates of the existing control stations at the ends of the traverse are:

Points mE Mn
A 375.369 S43.008

B 264.507 CO4.938

X 601.624 404.041

698.076 334.945

'
Y
stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 and the linear misclosure for the
Calculate and adjust the coordinates of

traverse. 28 40

130
68fm
24iss'sq"

660m

123

closed-loop traverse ABCDEA of part of

Question 2: The followings are the extracts from
a

Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti:

 Station Observed angle Distance
ABC 290 S1'49" 64.006
BCD 184° 15 14" 60.413

245* 02'20* 43.544

DEA 256* 51'23"* 117.397

EAB 10259

If the coordinates of stations A and B are:

A=367.026mE, 134.757 mN

B=480.849mE, [Link] and compute the corrected ce inatesof points C, D, and E.

What is the linear accuracy?

Renth atch of closu-leop tavuj

 CHAPTER THREE

TRIANGULATION AND TRILATERATION

3.0 Prior to the emergence of electronic distance measuring equipment, triangulation was the

preferred and principal method for horizontal control surveys, especially if extensive areas were

to be covered. Angles could be reaily determined as compared to distances, particularly where

long lines over ruggged and forested terrain were involved. The method possesses a large number

of inherent checks and closure conditions which help detect blunders and errors in field data, and

increase the possibility of satisfying a high standard ofaccuracy.

As implied by its name, triangulation utilizes geometric figures comprised of triangles. Horizontal

angles and a limited number of sides called base lines are measured. Using the angles and base

line lengths, triangles are solved trigonometrically and positions of stations(vertices)calculated.

Triangulation networkconsists of series of single or overlapping triangles in which an occasional

side is measured and the vertices angles, values can be derived for other points of the triangle.

The occasional side is known as base line and the vertices are the triangulation stations.

Figure 3.1 Triangulation network

3.1 TRIANGULATION RECONNAISSANCE

4
 One of the most important aspects of any triangulation survey is the reconnaissance and selection

of station locations. The following are factors to be considered:

. strength of figure

i. station intervisibility

ii. overall project efficiency

iv. station accessibility for the original [Link] attention must be paid or given to

each factor in planning and designing the optimum triangulation networkfor a given project.

3.1.1 STRENGTH OF FIGURE: This deal with the relative accuracies of computed station positions

that result from use of angles of various sizes in calculation. Triangulation calculation or

computations are based upon the trigonometric law of sines (sine rule). Since the sine function

changes significantly for angles near 0 and 180°, a cmall observational error in an angle near

these values produces a comparatively large difference in position [Link] of angles

near 90 change slowly; thus a small observational error in that region causes little change in the

computed position. In general, angles near 90° are optirnum, and if no angle smaller than 30° or

larger than 150 are included in calculations, the figure should have sufficient strength. Locations

of triangulation stations fix the angle sizes so they must be planned carefully for maximum

strength of figure. If local terrain or other conditions proclude the use of figures having strong

angles, more frequent base-line measurement are nccessary.

3.1.1 STATION INTERVISIBILITY: This is vital in triangulation because lines of sight to all stations

within 'each figure must be clear for measuring [Link] decisions on station placement

can be resolved from available topographic maps. Intervening ridges that might obstruct sight

lines are checked by plotting the profile of the lines between stations. Trees or electric poles on

line of sight, and, for long lengths, the combined effectsof curvature and refraction, are

additional factors affecting station intervisibility. Stations should be placed normally on highest

points in an area.

3.2 FIELD MEASUREMENTS FOR TRIANGULATION: As proviously stated, the basic field
 measurementsfor triangulation are horizontal angles and base-line lengths. Angles can be

measured by using a directional theodolite such as Kern DKM-3 or WildT-3. Both theodolite

are suitable for first-order work and enable angles to be read to the nearest O.1". Base lines are

now preferably measured by electronicmethods which produce excellent accuracies.

3.3 TRIANGULATION ADJUSTMENT: Errors that orrur in angle measurement require that an

adjustment be carried out prior to computing controt-point [Link] most rigorous method

utilizes leastsquare in the procedure., all angle mensturements plus distance or azimuth

observations can be simultaneously included in the aiustment,and any configuration of

quadrilateralsor more complicated figures handled to net station position having maximum

probability. Thetheoy is beyond the scopeof this tevt. Other approximate methods for

triangulationadjustment easily applied to standard finures such as quadrilaterals,also give

satisfactory results and are described in advance survnving books. After the angles have been

adjusted, azimuths of the triangle sides are computed from the corrected angles and their lengths

determined by the law of sines. with the azimuths nnd lengths known,coordinates of the stations

are calculated using two independent sets of triann'ns as a computational check.

3.4 TRILATERATION

Trilateration, a method for horizontal control survous hased exclusively on measured horizontal

distances, has gained acceptance because of EDM inetrumentation. Both triangulation and

traversing require horizontal angle measurement;hence trilateration surveys can often be

executed faster and produce equally acceptable arcurncies.

The geometric figures used in trilateration, altho:nh rot es standardized, are similar to those

employed in [Link] shoutd be intervizle and therefore placed on highest peaks.

Strength of figure in trilateration is less quantify thnn for triangulation;however, slender figures

are weakest in the direction traverse to their Ionnsions. Hence networks covering

essentially square areas are better since they guo ger overall uniform accuracy. Preliminary

analyses indicate that a hexagon with five mensura"engths would approach the strength of a
 Combination of triangulation and trilateration will probably
standard triangulation quadrilateral.

be the way of the future.

of having essentially square network,

Because of intervisibility requirement, and the desirability

suited to densify control in metropolitan areas and in large engineering

trilateration is ideally

or other conditions require elongated narrow

[Link] special situations where topography

by reading some horizontal angles. Also, for long

figures, the network can be strengthened

observations prevent the network from deforming in

trilateration arcs, astronomic-azimuth

direction.

surveys by trilateration can be extended from one or more monuments of

As in triangulation,

is fixed, at least one azimuth must be known or observed.

known positions. If only a single station

measured slope distances to horizontal lengths;

computations consist of reducing
Trilateration

lengths the calculations are being done in

then to mean sea level eguivalents; and finally to grid if

errors in trilateration network must be adjusted,

state plane coordinate systems. Observational

[Link] process is relatively simple compared with other

preferably by least square

the control
produces adjusted coordinates of
methods, especialy for larger networks, and it

stations directly.

were rlondd from a tonlatn

The folanngs

10 o1 os nd oistne Ae 30-02m
barms AC =

ot post = 300Smy 50DmN.

Tle CoGrdinats

cauat!

|2
 CHAPTER FOUR

INTERSECTION AND RESECTION

method of locating a control point without occupying it. On

4.1 INTERSECTION: This is a

church spires, and othe

prominent marks around a site, such as tall buildings,
construction sites,

not possible to
as control points during construction. It is
clearly defined features may be useful

obtain their coordinates by using intersection.

set up an instrument at these but it is possible to

coordinates (EA NA) and (E Ng).

Figure 4.1 shows control points A and B in a network with known

A and Horizontal angles a

at the intersection of the lines from
B.
Cis an unknown point which lies

by using a total station or theodolite. Coordinates ofC can be

and Bare obtained on the field

calculated from any of these methods:

(a) intersection by solution of triangle

(b) intersection from two baselines

angles. Only method (a) and (b) will be treated in this text.
(c)intersection using the observed

triangle
4.1.1 (a) Intersection by solution
of

AB are obtained from their coordinates and

In triangle ABC, the length and bearing of the baseline
are given as:

AB/= VANA+ AEAS

AB = tan (AEAB/ ANAs)

Where AEAg= EA and E- ANA = Ng-NA
distances AC and BC can be calculated thus:
And by using sine rule,
AC/ sin B= AB/ sin (a + B)
JAC/ = Ab sinß / sin (a +)
BC/ sina = AB/ sin (a +B)
/BC/ = AB sina/ sin (a + p)
as follows:
Bearing of line AC can be calculated

AB+a= AC

BC+ B= BA

Nc = Na +ANAC

Eç=EAt AEAC

The calculations are checked along BC using

Eç= Es + AEsc

Nc= Ng t ANgc

4.1.2 Intersection fromtwo baselines

C, the
erors in the coordinates of
observed angles and hence
Inorder to detect errors in the
is used. The coordinates
of C is determined by solving
method of intersection from two baselines obtained are
If the difference
betweenthe sets of coordinates
two or more separate triangles.
are taken as the
and the mean coordinates
no gross errors have occurred
small, it is assumed that
final value.

obtained depends
to
that the accuracy of the coordinates
For intersections,it must be realised
the intersection angle between
all

triangle in particular,
some extent on the shapeof the intersection
only well-Gonditioned intersection
any serious error from thgis,
the lines of sight. To avoid °
angle is not less than
in which the intersection
triangles should be used

Classwork

points S, A and L are as follows:

The coordinates of three control

mE mN
Station
170.503
309.652
S
073.806
395.454
A
 S

34°34'6
A
 268.855 028.419

Calculate the coordinates of point

B which has been located by observing the following clockwise
angles:

AB 122° 21'43" BSA

BAS 29° 34' 50"

LHB 39° 01' 16" BA

A 105°20' 36"

4.2 RESECTION
to other known control points in
point by taking observation from
it

This is a method of locating a

of resection:
a network. There are possible two types

horizontal angles are measured.

{a) angular resections in which

measured.
(b) distance resections in which horizontal distances are

4.2.1 Angular resections

A
from it to existing control points.
a point bybking observations
These are used to coordinate to at least three
in an angular resection
by observing angles fromit
point can be coordinated
in a three-point resection, as shown below:
existing control points

y=360° -(a+ B)

Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2

were observed to three

Question 1: At a resection point P, the following horizontal angles

control points L, M, and N.

15
LPN = 112° 15' 03"

NPM = 126° 42' 41"

MPL = 121° 02' 16"

The coordinates of L, M and N are

mE mN
Station
684.528
571.895
439.187
613.076
644.132
N 780.004

Calculate the coordinates of point P.

4.2.2 Distance resection

a point by measuring distance from it to at least

a method of locating or coordinating
This is by
is also measured. This can be achieved
two existing control points. The angle subtended

using total station instrument.

A A B

P
Figure 4.4

points, a is the horizontal angle between the

P= unknown point, A and B are the existing

and they must sum up to

If

By cosine the other angles are computed

rule,
two directions. can
of AP and BP can thus be calculated.P
180°. By computing the bearing of AB, thebearing

from any of the directions (AP or BP).

be determined

two control points A and B.

out at point P to
Question 2: A distance resection is carried

of P using the data given below:

Calculate thge coordinates

PB = 208.272 m, APB = 60° 05 00"

PA = 158.635m,

mE mN
Point
379.588 758.723

411.800 572.850
B
 CHAPTER FIVE

LEVELING

of levelling and some other

102 notes for the
Studenis should refer to their SUG
definition

important terms in levelling

Uses of levelling

it helps in knowing the topography of an area

L.
canals, sewers, e.t.c
Il. heipsin the design of highwavs, railways,

of an area
the gradient for drainage
characteristics
I1. locating

IV. laying out construction projects

earth work, reservoir, e tc

calculating volum: of
V.
Different method of levelling

direct levelling
i,
trigonometrical levelling
ii.
ii. barometric levelling

Levellinr reductien

and fail method or height o instrurnent method.

can be reduccd by esner
rise
Levelling

were taken along a roadwayAB

meters on a levelling staff
Ql. The under noted readings
in
point A and then at 20m
being neld in the 1st case at a starting
with a dumpy level, the staff
was then shiited to another position
The
1.064, 0.616, 1.835, 1524.
levei
0.765,
intervats: at B. 2.356,
the last readrg being
readings were taken. These were as folows;
further
and and comnplete and
A is 41.819m. Set out the rading
1.37S. 2.063, 0 677, 2.027. The levelof
level of each staff station.
Calculate the reduced
compiete the Lookirgs
 mt
39
256-0
S
S86-L