FATS, OILS, AND RELATED PRODUCTS

Fats and oils, derived from both plants and animals, are primarily composed of fatty acid esters
of glycerol. They play key nutritional roles as sources of essential nutrients and carriers of fat-
soluble vitamins. Functionally, they contribute to texture through properties like shortening,
emulsifying, and lubricating. Their physical state at room temperature distinguishes them: solids
are called fats, and liquids are called oils.
EFFECT OF COMPOSITION ON FAT PROPERTIES

Triglycerides, the primary components of fats and oils, consist of three fatty acids esterified to
glycerol. The properties of fats—such as being solid or liquid at room temperature—depend on
the chain length and degree of unsaturation of these fatty acids.

 Short-chain and unsaturated fatty acids result in softer, lower-melting fats (oils).
 Saturated fats are firmer and more stable, while unsaturated fats are more reactive to
oxygen and prone to rancidity.

Hydrogenation is used to add hydrogen to unsaturated fats, converting them to solids (e.g.,
turning oils into shortenings) and increasing oxidative stability.
Fatty acids exhibit isomerism:

 Positional isomerism depends on double bond position.

 Geometric isomerism includes cis (natural) and trans (often formed during processing)
forms. Trans fats differ in melting point and health impact.

Natural fats are mixtures of various triglycerides, some solid and some liquid. These can be
separated into solid and liquid fractions by cooling, forming fat crystals.
Processors modify fats by hydrogenation, controlled crystallization, and blending, allowing
tailored fats for different food applications (e.g., cocoa butter vs. peanut oil).

SOURCES OF FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils come from vegetable, animal, and marine sources.

 Vegetable fats: cocoa butter (solid), oils like corn, sunflower, soybean, cottonseed,
peanut, olive, and canola.
 Animal fats: lard (hog), tallow (beef), butterfat (milk).
 Marine oils: cod liver oil, menhaden oil, whale oil.

Some fats are valued for their flavor (e.g., olive oil, butterfat, lard), while others are modified by
hydrogenation or crystallization to serve various purposes like in shortenings or margarines.
Modern processing allows fats to be interchangeable in texture and function, making
economics and availability key in their selection.

Due to the variation in fat prices and potential for substitution, regulations ensure product
authenticity:
  Products must be labeled properly (e.g., butter must contain only butterfat, olive oil
must be pure).
 Analytical tests help prevent adulteration.

Today, many products (margarine, frying fats, etc.) are made from varied plant-based sources
based on availability and cost.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FATS

Fats used in food serve various functional roles—shortening, tenderizing, lubricating, frying,
whipping, etc.—and each application has specific physical requirements.

 Butter/margarine must have a plastic texture, staying spreadable when cold and not
melting in heat.
 Salad oils must remain clear and pourable, avoiding solidification in refrigeration.
 Mayonnaise oils must resist crystallization to maintain a stable emulsion.
 Chocolate products should be solid at room temperature but melt in the mouth; cocoa
butter achieves this with its sharp melting range (30–36°C). Substitutes are designed to
mimic or exceed these properties.
 Whipped fats (e.g., for buttercream) perform best when partially solidified, offering
better structure than liquid oils.
 In baking, partially solid fats prevent oil separation, improving texture.

Natural fats rarely meet all these criteria alone. Blending and modifying fats (e.g.,
hydrogenation, crystallization) is often necessary, especially in industrial food production where
automated methods require specific fat properties (e.g., for continuous vs. batch bread-making).

PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING METHODS

Fats and oils from animal, marine, and vegetable sources are primarily obtained through three
basic methods:

1. Rendering
2. Pressure expelling
3. Solvent extraction

These are followed by refining and modification processes to improve quality and tailor
functionality.

1. Rendering – Heating meat scraps to melt fat, which is separated by skimming or

centrifugation. Variants include:
o Dry rendering (vacuum, no water),
o Wet rendering (steam or water),
o Low-temp rendering (lighter color; high-temp for more flavor).
2. Pressing/Expelling – Mechanical extraction of oil from cooked or ground seeds using
expellers or presses. Oils are clarified by filtration or centrifugation.
 3. Solvent Extraction – Oils extracted using a solvent like hexane, followed by distillation
to remove solvent. Combined with pressing for higher yield.

Refining and Modifying Processes

 Degumming: Removal of phospholipids and fat-protein complexes (e.g., lecithin) by

adding water.
 Refining: Treating oil with alkali to remove free fatty acids and impurities, forming
soaps that are removed.
 Bleaching: Removal of pigments (e.g., chlorophyll, carotene) using activated charcoal or
adsorbent clays.
 Deodorization: Removal of unwanted odors by steam distillation under vacuum or
adsorption (except when desirable, like in olive oil).
 Hydrogenation: Saturating fatty acids with hydrogen gas (using a nickel catalyst) to
increase hardness, stability, and melting point. Creates trans fats which alter nutritional
quality.

Advanced Modification Techniques

 Winterizing: Chilling oil to remove high-melting triglycerides, preventing crystallization

in refrigerated products like salad oils.
 Fractionation: Stepwise cooling and solvent use (e.g., acetone) to separate fat
components based on crystallization.
 Plasticizing: Controlled chilling with agitation to alter the crystalline structure of fats for
desired texture and functionality.
 Tempering: Holding freshly plasticized fat at a stable temperature (e.g., 27°C for 2–4
days) to stabilize its properties.
 Polymorphism: Fats can form different crystal structures, influencing consistency and
performance.

Functional Additives

 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides: Produced by heating triglycerides with glycerol

(glycerolysis). These have:
o Hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties,
o Act as emulsifiers in shortenings and other food products.

PRODUCTS MADE FROM FATS AND OILS

Food manufacturers use the many forms of fats and oils as ingredients in a wide variety offood
products, or further process the fats and oils into manufactured products, a few of which are
described in this section.
Butter

 Raw Material: Butter is made from cream containing 30–35% milk fat, separated from milk
and pasteurized at higher temperatures due to its fat content.
 Optional Additions:

 Vegetable coloring (e.g., annatto, carotene) for color.

 Lactic acid bacteria for enhanced butter flavor.
 Alkali neutralization for acidic cream.

 Churning:

 Reverses the natural emulsion of cream (fat-in-water) to butter (water-in-fat).

 Mechanical agitation breaks fat globule membranes, causing them to clump into butter
granules and release buttermilk.
 Performed at around 10°C; takes about 40 minutes in batch churns.

 Post-churning Steps:

 Buttermilk is drained, and the butter is washed with water.

 Salt (~2.5%) and optional water are added.
 Butter is "worked" to evenly disperse salt and subdivide water droplets—this prevents
leaky butter and improves shelf life.
 The high salt concentration in water droplets acts as a preservative.

 Packaging:

 Butter can be packed in bulk or shaped, cut, and wrapped using machines (butter
printers).

 Continuous Churning:

 High-speed, computer-controlled systems churn, drain buttermilk, inject salt solution, and
package butter in one streamlined process.

 Legal Standards (U.S.):

 Must contain ≥80% butterfat by weight.

 Only butterfat is allowed as the fat source.
 Color and salt are optional additions.

Margarine

 Definition: Margarine refers to both table spreads and shortenings, often used as a
butter alternative.
 Trends:
o Butter consumption has decreased, while margarine use has increased in the
U.S.
o This shift is driven by lower cost and perceived nutritional advantages of
margarine.
  Composition:
o Primarily made from hydrogenated or crystallized vegetable oils.
o May include small amounts of animal fats.
o Must contain ≥80% fat (like butter).
o Water is added to form a water-in-oil emulsion, mimicking butter.
o Additives include:
 Emulsifiers
 Salt
 Butter flavor
 Color
 Preservatives (e.g., sodium benzoate)
 Vitamins A & D
 Manufacturing Process:

1. Prepare two mixtures:

 Fat phase (oil + fat-soluble ingredients)
 Water phase (water + water-soluble ingredients)
2. Mix vigorously to emulsify.
3. Rapid cooling solidifies and stabilizes the emulsion.
4. Further chilling and crystallization develop plastic texture.
5. Continuous extrusion and packaging follow, similar to butter production.
 Variations:

o Some margarines contain 5–40% butter to improve flavor.

o Most are made entirely from vegetable fats.
 Calorie Reduction Innovations:

1. Whipping: Adds air to increase volume, reducing calories per volume.

2. Higher water content: With enhanced emulsifiers, allows up to 33% calorie
reduction.

Shortenings and Frying Oils

Types and Uses of Shortenings:

 Margarine:
o Preferred in baking when flavor from milk ingredients is desired.
 Bakery shortenings:
o Often made from vegetable oils.
o Can be flavorless or have added butter flavor.
o Lard-based shortenings are favored for pie crusts.
o Many contain blends of vegetable and animal fats.

Emulsified Shortenings:

 Contain monoglycerides and diglycerides.

  Allow:
o Higher water and sugar content in batters.
o More moist and tender cakes.

Consistency and Functionality:

 Shortenings vary from pourable to plastic (semisolid).

 Plastic shortenings:
o Better for holding air in batters and icings.
o Remain dispersed in baked goods.
 Liquid shortenings:
o Can leak and form pockets in baked goods.

Plastic Range and Solid Fat Index (SFI):

 Plastic range: Temperature range over which shortening stays semisolid.

 Solid Fat Index (SFI):
o Measures percent solid fat at various temperatures.
o Indicates melting behavior and performance of fat.
 Bakery shortenings:
o Need a long plastic range for versatility.
 Frying fats:
o Prefer short plastic range and low melting point to avoid mouth greasiness.

Frying Fats – Key Requirements:

 Must withstand high temperatures (160–190°C).

 Do not contain emulsifiers (mono/diglycerides) – they decompose and cause smoke.
 Must resist:
o Darkening
o Gum formation (pyrolysis)
o Oxidation
 Stability enhanced by hydrogenation.
 Foaming during frying minimized by methyl silicones.

Challenges and Trade-Offs:

 Ideal frying fat: Stable yet not greasy in mouth.

 Hydrogenation increases stability but can raise melting point.
 Alternative: Use fats with saturated short-chain fatty acids to balance low melting
point and stability.
 Compromise is often needed depending on food use.

Mayonnaise and Salad Dressings

Mayonnaise (in the U.S.) must contain:

  At least 65% vegetable oil
 2.5% acetic or citric acid
 Egg yolk (for emulsification and color)

Other ingredients can include salt, natural sweeteners, spices, and natural flavorings.
It is an oil-in-water emulsion, which is unusual and prone to instability, especially when frozen
or made with non-winterized oil.

Commercial mayonnaise typically contains:

 77–82% winterized salad oil

 5.3–5.8% liquid egg yolk
 2.8–4.5% vinegar
 Minor amounts of salt, sugar, spices, and water

Prepared by batch or continuous mixing, often using two-stage high-shear mixers. May also
be aerated with inert gas for texture. Its quality depends heavily on mixing conditions. Despite
acid-based microbial stability, it requires refrigeration after opening due to oxidative spoilage.

Salad dressings are similar to mayonnaise but:

 Contain less oil (35–50%)

 Use starch paste as a thickener
 Must avoid adding vinegar before starch is cooked, or it will thin the paste

Pourable salad dressings (e.g., French dressing):

 Contain oil, vinegar, and spices

 May be emulsified or separating
 U.S. standard for French dressing: minimum 35% oil

Emulsifiers may include gums or egg yolk. Some dressings are not emulsified before bottling
and are meant to be shaken before use.

TESTS ON FATS AND OILS

Purpose of Testing Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are tested to:

 Assess performance in food applications

 Evaluate deterioration (oxidation, rancidity)
 Check quality and stability
 Ensure compliance with purchase specs
 Detect adulteration or misrepresentation
Chemical Tests

1. Iodine Value
o Measures degree of unsaturation
o Higher value = more unsaturated fats
2. Peroxide Value
o Indicates oxidation level
o Higher value = more oxidative rancidity risk
3. Acid Value
o Measures free fatty acids (linked to hydrolytic rancidity)
o Higher value = more deterioration
4. Saponification Value
o Reflects average molecular weight of fatty acids
o Higher value = shorter-chain fatty acids
5. Modern methods like gas chromatography and infrared analysis are often used
instead of traditional chemical tests.

Physical Tests

1. Melting Point Tests

o Determine melting behavior over a temperature range (due to triglyceride mix)
2. Solid Fat Index (SFI)
o Measures % fat that is solid at various temperatures
o Indicates crystallinity using dilatometry
3. Advanced Instrumentation
o X-ray diffraction: Determines crystal structure
o Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC): Measures heat changes during
melting/crystallization
4. Consistency Tests
o Penetration tests using needle, ring, or cone

Performance Tests

 Simulate real food processing conditions

 Essential when chemical/physical tests don’t predict actual performance
 Vary depending on plant size, production method, and distribution demands