Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

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Waste plastic bottles an alternate material for synthesis of metal organic

frameworks (MOFs) with potential applications
Jasleen Kaur a , Jonty Kathuria a , J. Nagendra Babu b, Meenu Arora a,*
a
Department of Chemistry, Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University, Bathinda, Punjab 151001, India
b
Department of Chemistry, Central University of Punjab, Ghudda, Punjab 151401, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste, especially originating from post-consumer bottles, represents a signif­
Metal-organic frameworks icant environmental hazard owing to its widespread utilization and inadequate biodegradability. Addressing the
Waste material growing environmental issues associated with plastic waste, the development of sustainable strategies for
Environmental pollution
recycling and utilization is of paramount importance. This study explores the potential of employing waste
Polyethylene terephthalate
Depolymerization
plastic bottles, specifically PET, as a precursor in the synthesis of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). The
Recycling synthesis procedure encompasses the depolymerization of PET to yield terephthalic acid, serving as an organic
Terephthalic acid linker in the formation of MOFs. An analysis of the potential applications of PET-derived MOFs, including
catalysis, adsorption, and gas separation, is conducted. The review also highlights prospects and challenges
within the field, underscoring the necessity for further refinement, scalability, and commercialization of PET-
sourced MOFs. The overarching aim is to foster the advancement of ecologically responsible methods for
waste plastic management and the creation of valuable materials through MOF synthesis.

1. Introduction cost-effective pathway for MOFs environmentally responsible synthesis.

A comprehensive understanding of the waste material’s nature is
Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) constitute a class of crystalline imperative before investigating the potential application of waste plastic
materials that have ignited considerable research interest over recent bottles in MOF synthesis. Synthetically produced plastics pervade daily
decades. Defined by metal ions or clusters connected by organic ligands, life, extending from commercial applications to avant-garde research
MOFs exhibit substantial porosity and expansive surface area. These [6–9]. Increased global population correlates with augmented produc­
properties render MOFs suitable for a wide array of applications, such as tion and consumption of plastics [10,11]. However, the disposal of these
gas storage and separation, sensors, catalysis, heat transformation, non-biodegradable substances poses a considerable dilemma [12,13].
electrochemical applications, biomass conversion, drug delivery, and Over recent years, microplastics have surfaced as an environmental
adsorption [1–5]. Nonetheless, the synthesis of MOFs often necessitates concern, with remnants discovered in diverse natural water bodies
costly and environmentally detrimental precursors, presenting obstacles [14–17]. Sources of microplastics include cosmetic microbeads, deteri­
to their broad production and utilization. An emerging focus is directed orated fishing ropes, and plastic-infused paints [18]. Microplastics,
towards identifying alternative, eco-conscious, and economically viable defined as plastic fragments or particles less than 5 mm, emerge during
materials for MOF synthesis. The planet faces the escalating issue of the degradation process [19–23]. PET, a prevalent plastic globally,
plastic waste, with polyethylene terephthalate (PET) derived from predominantly serves in the manufacture of single-use bottles. Attri­
plastic bottles being a substantial contributor. The ever increasing butes such as durability, lightness, and liquid impermeability render
plastic content has an ability to alter the natural processes that can affect PET suitable for packaging a myriad of products [24]. Conversely, these
the ecosystem leading to climatic disasters. The concept of utilizing traits impede PET waste management, as its resilience prevents envi­
waste plastic bottles as alternative precursors for MOFs presents an ronmental degradation, leading to persistent waste accumulation. This
innovative solution to multiple environmental problems. This strategy situation is compounded by soaring PET production and often insuffi­
not merely addresses the challenge of plastic waste but also furnishes a cient waste management infrastructure globally. Studies indicate that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chemmeenu@[Link] (M. Arora).

[Link]
Received 13 November 2023; Received in revised form 16 August 2024; Accepted 17 August 2024
Available online 2 September 2024
2949-8236/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Kaur et al. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

global annual PET production has doubled every decade, reaching ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, which can be used to synthesize
approximately 6300 million metric tons in 2015. Within this volume, an raw PET and other value-added materials [31].
estimated 79 % of plastic waste is relegated to landfills, 12 % inciner­ In 2023, [32] demonstrated the use of fine recycled PET aggregates
ated, and a mere 9 % recycled [25,26]. Primary fossil reserves supply the in common screeds in building and construction, focusing on their me­
raw materials for PET manufacturing [27]. The large-scale production chanical and thermal properties. The addition of PET aggregates make
coupled with deficient recycling of PET exerts adverse effects on both screed lighter and more thermally insulating. Foti and Lerna explored
natural resources and the environment, underscoring the necessity for the use of chemically depolymerized waste PET aggregates in mortar
efficient PET recycling methodologies [28]. mixes. The chemical depolymerization process alters the surface char­
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on plastic acteristics of PET aggregates, improving their interaction with the
waste management, including PET plastic waste [29]. With the cement matrix resulting into improved performance in specific appli­
increased use of personal protective equipment (PPE), such as face cations, potentially extending the life span and sustainability of
masks and gloves, and the surge in online shopping and home deliveries, mortar-based structures [33]. In another research in 2019, Foti observed
the amount of plastic waste generated has increased drastically. The that PET fibers in concrete can enhance tensile strength, ductility, and
improper disposal of PPE, including single-use masks, has also become a cracking resistance, making the concrete more resilient to various types
major issue, as they are often found littered in public places, contrib­ of mechanical stresses [34].
uting to environmental pollution. The pandemic had disrupted global In the face of this growing environmental issue, there is a clear need
recycling supply chains, leading to a backlog of plastic waste in many for innovative approaches to PET waste management as it comprises
countries. Some recycling facilities had reduced their operations or 85 wt% terephthalic acid and can serve as a precursor for the prepara­
closed down completely, while others were facing challenges in trans­ tion of MOFs [35]. The conversion of waste PET into valuable entities,
porting waste due to restrictions on movement and border closures. This such as MOFs, offers a compelling opportunity to address this vital need.
led to an increase in landfilling and incineration of plastic waste, which
can have negative environmental impacts [30]. 2. Depolymerization of waste PET bottles
Recycling of PET can mitigate plastic waste accumulation in the
environment and reduce reliance on petroleum-derived organic linkers The life cycle of PET bottles, depicted in Fig. 1, provides a basic
in industrial production. As 70 % of produced plastic materials are not outline of the various stages involved in the lifespan of these bottles.
efficiently recycled, this puts additional strain on natural resources. Initially, raw materials are processed using different methods to produce
Recycling of PET allows for the regeneration of its basic constituents, monomers. Subsequently, these monomers undergo polymerization in a

Fig. 1. PET life cycle.

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dedicated production unit, resulting in the formation of packaging ma­ 20–40 atm resulting into ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate
terial, which is ultimately molded into PET bottles. Following the filling used for synthesizing new PET products. However, this process is rela­
and distribution process, these bottles enter the consumer phase, tively expensive due to the low boiling point of methanol posing safety
marking the commencement of the PET bottle’s life cycle. Once the concerns during the process [56].
bottles are used and no longer needed, they are disposed of and enter The molar yield for monomers was calculated by the following
various recycling processes. At the end of their lifespan, the bottles can relationship:
either be recycled, incinerated or sent to landfill sites. However depo­
moles of monomer produced
lymerizing waste PET bottles enables their use in the production of Yield of monomer(mol%) = ∗ 100
moles of PET units
value-added products [36].
PET recycling can be categorized into four main approaches: primary Hydrolysis is one of the main methods used for the degradation of
recycling, secondary recycling (mechanical), tertiary recycling (chemi­ PET plastic. Different hydrolysis methods have been developed with
cal), and quaternary recycling (energy recovery) [37–39]. Primary varying advantages and disadvantages. Hydrolysis of PET bottles in­
recycling, also known as closed-loop recycling, involves converting volves reacting with water in acidic, alkaline, or neutral media, resulting
uncontaminated recovered material from post-consumer bottles into in the production of its basic constituents, terephthalic acid and ethylene
new bottles without loss of properties. Secondary recycling, or me­ glycol [57,58]. Acid hydrolysis make use of sulfuric, hydrochloric acid,
chanical recycling, entails the collection, sorting, washing, grinding, and nitric, or phosphoric acid [59]. This process reduces energy consump­
conversion of recovered material into products with different properties tion by lowering temperature and pressure conditions with the use of
than the original application. This process typically uses post-consumer concentrated acid. However, acid hydrolysis is not widely accepted
waste that is not suitable for direct reprocessing due to contamination because it requires large amounts of acid and high purification costs for
[40]. Tertiary recycling, or chemical recycling, involves using plastic ethylene glycol. Alkaline hydrolysis involves the use of a strong base
waste as feedstock to generate raw unprocessed monomers and other such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide and is a popular
value-added materials. Quaternary recycling refers to recovering energy depolymerization method at temperatures between 210 and 250◦ C and
content through incineration in a furnace. pressures of 1.4–2 MPa for 3–5 hours. High yield of terephthalic acid is
Chemical recycling is a widely accepted technique which breaks produced by neutralizing the reaction mixture with a strong mineral
down PET into constituent terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol, to be acid. Alkaline hydrolysis is a relatively fast process and can be per­
utilized for making plastic and other materials [41]. Various chemical formed at moderate temperatures, but it requires large amounts of
recycling processes include glycolysis, methanolysis, hydrolysis, ami­ chemicals and generates a high amount of waste. Neutral hydrolysis
nolysis, and ammonolysis, depending on the depolymerizing agent used involves reacting PET with hot water in an autoclave at high tempera­
[42]. However, these methods require higher temperatures and pres­ tures (200–300◦ C) and pressures (1–4 MPa) to produce terephthalic acid
sures, which may lead to increased energy consumption and production and ethylene glycol. The disadvantage of neutral hydrolysis is that it
costs. The products obtained from these reactions can be repurposed for requires longer reaction time and resulting in lower yields of desired
repolymerization after purification. Table 1 summarizes the depoly­ products. The most commonly used depolymerization techniques for
merization techniques employed for degradation of waste PET bottles. waste PET bottles are illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. PET life cycle. Aminolysis involves reaction of PET with aqueous solutions of
The glycolysis process make use of ethylene glycol as a depolyme­ various amines for syntheses of corresponding diamides at temperatures
rizing agent under pressure and temperature ranging from 180 to 240◦ C range 20–100◦ C for 0.5 hours [60,61]. It offers an alternative method
yielding bis(hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET) as the main product. for PET depolymerization, generating new products like polyamides and
BHET serves as a precursor for the synthesis of virgin PET [54]. Yang polyurethanes and can be performed under milder conditions than some
et al. used metal azolate framework-6 (MAF-6) as a catalyst in the other methods. However, it requires specialized equipment and exper­
presence of ethylene glycol for the efficient conversion of PET to BHET tise, which may not be readily available and limited to specific appli­
at 180◦ C for 4 hours in 2021 [44]. T. Wang et al. reported the use of cations, making it less versatile compared to other methods.
ionic liquid [C6TMG]Cl/2ZnCl2 as a catalyst for the formation of BHET Ammonolysis, another depolymerization method, involves reacting
from PET in 2021 [55]. The disadvantage of this method is that the anhydrous ammonia with PET in the presence of ethylene glycol to
depolymerizing agent, ethylene glycol is required in large amounts, produce terephthalamide at temperatures range 120–180◦ C and pres­
which may not be environmentally friendly and longer reaction times sures of 2 MPa within 1–7 hours [62]. The main disadvantage of this
(150 min) compared to some other methods. method is that ammonia, the depolymerizing agent, can be hazardous to
Methanol is the depolymerizing agent in methanolysis depolymer­ handle and may pose environmental concerns.
ization process at temperature from 180 to 280◦ C and pressures PET-derived ligands may contain various functional groups

Table 1
PET degradation literature overview.
Sr. No. Depolymerization technique Catalyst Yield (%) Reaction conditions Catalyst amount (%) Reference
0
Temperature ( C) Time

1. Glycolysis ZnMn2O4 92.2 260 1h 1 Imran et al. [28]

ZnO/SBA− 15 91 197 1h 5 Yao et al. [43]
MAF− 6 81.7 180 4h 5 Yang et al. [44]
ZnAc2 86.82 195 150 min. 0.2 Aguado et al. [45]
[deim][Zn(OAc)3] 70.94 180 2.5 h 16.6 Zhou et al. [46]
ZnAc2 85 208 150 min. 0.2 Aguado et al. [47]
2. Alkaline hydrolysis - 90 150 240 min. - Aguado et al. [47]
- 95 80 20 min. 5 Ügdüler et al. [48]
- 82.4 58 2.9 h - Moges [49]
Cyclo hexylamine 85.2 90 90 min 34.4 Mishra, Goje [50]
Sodium hydroxide- methanol solution 69 50 1h 10 Bhogle, Pandit [51]
3. Methanolysis Aluminium triisopropoxide (AIP) 88.5 200 2h 10 Kurokawa et al. [52]
MgO/NaY 91 200 30 min 4% Tang et al. [53]

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J. Kaur et al. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

Fig. 2. Depolymerization techniques used for PET.

depending on the depolymerization process. These can include hy­ dependency on traditional raw materials, such as terephthalic acid,
droxyl, ester, or other groups, which are not normally present in con­ which are obtained from fossil fuels [65].
ventional MOF linkers. PET-derived MOFs have also shown comparable or even improved
properties compared to MOFs synthesized by traditional methods, such
as higher surface area, better selectivity, and enhanced catalytic activity.
2.1. Challenges and considerations in PET degradation These properties are due to the unique structure and composition of the
PET-derived MOFs, which can be tailored by adjusting the synthesis
A primary consideration in the degradation of PET is the purity of the conditions and the type of metal ion used. The choice of synthesis
resulting terephthalic acid. The degradation process may yield a mixture method for MOFs using terephthalic acid from PET would depend on
of products, with terephthalic acid being one of several possible out­ various factors, including the properties of the desired MOF, the scale of
comes. The separation and purification of terephthalic acid from this the operation, and environmental considerations. If the goal is to pro­
mixture are crucial for its subsequent use in the synthesis of MOFs. duce an MOF with high crystallinity and porosity, solvothermal or
However, this process could introduce additional costs and complexity. microwave-assisted synthesis might be suitable. Conversely, if the goal
Different degradation methods may also yield different by-products, is to minimize energy consumption and solvent use, mechanochemical
which could affect the ease and cost of terephthalic acid purification. synthesis might be a better option. In addition to the choice of synthesis
For example, thermal degradation could potentially produce a range of method, other factors that could be optimized include the reaction
volatile organic compounds that would need to be separated from the conditions, such as the temperature and the reaction time, as well as the
terephthalic acid. Another consideration is the energy efficiency of the ratio of the metal ions to the terephthalic acid linker. The choice of metal
degradation process. While methods such as thermal degradation can be ion could also affect the properties of the resulting MOF. For example,
relatively quick, they may also require high energy inputs. Conversely, different metal ions could give rise to MOFs with different pore sizes,
methods like photocatalytic degradation and hydrolysis might be more potentially affecting their performance in various applications. Metals
energy-efficient but could also be slower and less efficient in terms of commonly used in MOF synthesis, such as chromium, copper, iron, zinc,
terephthalic acid production. cadmium, zirconium, calcium, aluminium, and cobalt, exhibit varied
coordination geometries and bonding preferences [66]. Zinc-based
3. Synthetic strategies of PET-derived MOFs MOFs, like ZIF-8, often form tetrahedral or octahedral geometries,
interacting with the carboxylate groups of terephthalate ligands through
Utilizing waste plastic bottles as a substrate for MOF synthesis fur­ coordination bonding. The synthesis might involve solvothermal or
nishes a means to repurpose plastic waste that would otherwise be mechanochemical methods, where the control of temperature and sol­
relegated to landfills or marine environments and diminishes depen­ vent choice is crucial for rational designing of desired MOF structure
dence on conventional feedstocks, like solvents, which may incur both [67].
financial and environmental costs. Also, the use of plastic as a precursor Copper, with its propensity to adopt square planar or tetrahedral
may imbue MOFs with particular attributes, according to the functional geometries, can result in different MOF architectures [68]. The synthesis
groups present on the plastic surface. Employing waste PET in MOF often employs conditions that favor the coordination of copper ions with
production aligns with the principles of a circular economy, in which carboxylate groups, and the solvent used can play a significant role in
waste materials are repurposed to create valuable new products [63]. directing the structure. The presence of water or specific organic sol­
This approach can reduce the demand for virgin materials and promote vents can influence the formation of Cu-based MOFs.
sustainable industrial practices. The synthesis of MOFs using waste Iron and cobalt, known for their variable oxidation states, can lead to
plastic bottles as an alternative material offers a more environmentally MOFs with unique redox properties. The synthetic conditions including
friendly, resource-efficient, and value-added approach to recycling PET the presence of reducing or oxidizing agents, pH, and temperature, are
waste compared to traditional recycling methods [64]. The use of waste set for rational designing of MOF with desired oxidation state and co­
PET plastic as a starting material for the synthesis of MOFs not only ordination environment [69]. Fe-based MOFs may require an inert
provides a solution for the disposal of plastic waste, but also reduces the

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atmosphere to prevent oxidation, while Co-based MOFs can be synthe­ 3.4. Microwave synthesis
sized under ambient conditions with specific pH requirements.
The synthesis of MOFs generally involves the reaction of a metal ion In the microwave synthesis method, energy is supplied in the form of
or cluster with an organic linker under suitable conditions. Various microwave radiation, and the synthesis depends on the interaction be­
methods have been developed for the synthesis of MOFs, including tween electromagnetic radiation and mobile ions in the solution.
solvothermal, sonochemical method, electrochemical synthesis, Microwave-assisted synthesis of MOFs is typically conducted at tem­
microwave-assisted, and mechanochemical methods. Table 2 provides peratures above 100◦ C and requires reaction times exceeding 1 hour
comparison of synthesis methods of MOFs. [73.] This method can be significantly faster than solvothermal syn­
thesis and can often be conducted at lower temperatures. However, it
may require specialized equipment and may not be suitable for all types
3.1. Conventional method of MOFs. For example, Deleu et al. reported one-pot synthesis of MIL-53
(Al) derived from waste PET using a microwave-assisted technique,
Conventional method is described by the scheme in Fig. 3. Conven­ resulting in an MOF with a BET surface area of 1481 m2/g [77]. The
tional synthesis includes reaction of metal ion and organic linker at room one-pot synthesis method facilitates the direct conversion of PET waste
temperature. With water as solvent it is termed as hydrothermal syn­ into MOFs in a single reaction vessel. This approach not only simplifies
thesis method [75]. In solvothermal synthesis, the metal ion and organic the synthetic procedure but also reduces the environmental footprint
linker are dissolved in a suitable solvent and heated in a sealed vessel. and overall cost of MOF production. Table 3 provides an overview of
This method allows for precise control over the reaction conditions and various techniques employed for the synthesis of PET-derived MOFs.
often yields high-quality MOFs. However, it can be relatively slow and
may require high temperatures. Accelerating waste management re­ 3.5. Mechanochemical synthesis
quires the conversion of polymer waste to valuable materials using
sustainable methods. Depolymerised PET has been used as raw material Mechanochemical synthesis involves the grinding or milling of the
for generating MOFs, the first report of the successful one-pot hydro­ metal ion and organic linker, facilitating their reaction through me­
thermal synthesis of rationally designed UiO-66 topology through the chanical force. This method can be conducted at room temperature and
careful selection of reactants, modulators and reaction conditions [76]. does not require the use of solvents, making it a more environmentally
friendly option. However, it may not be suitable for all types of MOFs
3.2. Sonochemical method and may yield materials with lower crystallinity [74].
In the sustainable synthesis of MOFs, Crickmore et al. [87] employed
The sonochemical method employs high-energy ultrasonic radiation benign and green precursors, including waste PET bottles, for the syn­
within the frequency range of 20 kHz to 1 MHz to facilitate bond for­ thesis of calcium-based MOFs using water-based and mechanochemical
mation and bond cleavage processes, thereby influencing the chemical synthesis techniques highlighting the potential for environmentally
reaction pathway [71]. friendly and scalable production methods.

3.6. Plasma method

3.3. Electrochemical synthesis
Plasma method, involves the introduction of precursor molecules
In this method, PET waste is dissolved in a suitable electrolyte so­ containing metal ions and organic linkers in a reaction chamber. These
lution and subjected to electrochemical treatment. Metal ions are then precursors undergo dissociation and ionization when subjected to the
introduced into the solution, which undergoes a redox reaction to form energy of the plasma, leading to the formation of highly reactive species.
MOF crystals. One major advantage of this method is its sustainability The high-energy environment provided by the plasma enables the cre­
and eco-friendliness, as it does not require high temperatures or pres­ ation of MOF structures in a shorter time compared to traditional
sures, and it does not generate toxic byproducts. Additionally, it can be methods [96,97]. The unique conditions generated by the plasma can
easily scaled up for industrial production. However, careful selection of lead to the formation of MOFs with distinct morphologies and enhanced
the electrolyte solution and electrode materials is necessary to ensure performance characteristics [98]. Wang et al. introduced a novel
compatibility with the PET-derived building blocks and metal ions/ approach for synthesis of Fe-MOFs@Fe2O3 composites using dielectric
clusters [72]. barrier discharge (DBD) plasma incorporating the recycled PET waste
and the composite exhibited a high specific surface area and mesopores,
Table 2 enhancing its photocatalytic capacity [99].
Comparative table for advantages and disadvantages of synthetic methods for
MOFs. 4. Applications of PET-derived MOFs
Method Advantages Disadvantages Reference
MOFs exhibit a diverse range of applications due to their versatile
Conventional Precise control Slow and may require [70]
Methods over reaction high temperatures structures, high surface areas, and large pore volume [100]. Waste
conditions plastic-based MOFs have several potential applications shown in Fig. 4,
Sonochemical Fast synthesis due Requires specialized [71] including gas storage, separation, adsorption, and catalysis. The use of
Methods to ultrasonic equipment PET-derived MOFs in different applications has the potential to address
radiation
Electrochemical Sustainable and Requires careful [72]
various environmental and societal challenges, such as pollution con­
Synthesis eco-friendly selection of electrolyte trol, energy storage, and drug delivery. For example, PET-derived MOFs
and electrode have shown high adsorption capacity and selectivity towards organic
materials pollutants and heavy metals in water, making them promising materials
Microwave Faster and May require [73]
for water treatment applications. They also have high potential for use in
Synthesis conducted at specialized equipment
lower energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors, due to their high sur­
temperatures face area and unique electronic properties. The use of PET-derived MOFs
Mechanochemical Energy-efficient Less control over [74] has the potential to lead to more sustainable and cost-effective solutions
Synthesis use of mechanical product morphology for various applications compared to traditional MOFs. Waste
force
plastic-based MOFs have also been shown to be effective in the

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Fig. 3. Scheme for conventional method.

Table 3
PET-derived MOFs.
Sr. Method MOF Reference Adsorption
No.

1. Hydrothermal MIL− 47, MIL− 53(Cr), MIL− 53 Lo et al. [78]

(Al), MIL− 53(Ga), MIL− 101(Cr) Catalysis
Cu-(BDC) Rahmani et al.
Biomedical
[79]
application
UiO− 66(Zr) Zhou et al. [80]
MIL− 53 (Al) Panda et al. [81] Applications of
Cu-MOF Kaur et al. [82] PET dervied
MIL− 53 (Al) Karam et al. MOFs
[35]
BHET-Al UiO− 66 Cabrera et al.
[83] Separation and
Ribadeneyra Storage
et al. [76] Sensing
2. Solvothermal Sn-(II) MOF [84]
Ni-MOF [85]
CMERI− 1 and CMERI− 2 [86]
Ca(BDC)(H2O)3 Crickmore et al. Supercapacitiors
[87]
MIL− 53(Fe) Jung et al. [88]
Al- MOF Lagae-Capelle
et al. [89]
[M2(BDC)2(DABCO)] Raja et al., [90]
Fig. 4. Applications of PET derived MOFs.
3. Conventional Al-MOF [91]
Tb-BDC Zhang et al. [17] reactions, including oxidation, hydrogenation, carbon dioxide capture
Co-MOF Trukawka et al.
and conversion, extraction of organic pollutants, heavy metal ions, and
[92]
UiO− 66(Zr) Singh et al. [93] radionuclides [101]. Their porosity and surface area provide abundant
4. Ultrasonication UiO− 66(Zr) Dyosiba et al. active sites, enhancing catalytic efficiency. MOFs can be designed with
[94] specific functionalities and selectivity by incorporating different metal
Cr-MOF Ren et al. [95] ions and organic ligands. They can also exhibit cooperative catalytic
5. Microwave MIL− 53(Al) & UiO− 66 Deleu et al. [77]
behaviour, where both metal centers and ligands participate in the
catalytic process. MOFs can immobilize active species, stabilize them,
separation of gases such as CO2 and N2, as well as in catalytic reactions and improve their selectivity. The versatility of MOFs allows for selec­
such as the degradation of organic dyes. The capacity for adjusting pore tive catalysis, and their post-synthetic modification enables the intro­
dimensions and the prospect of functionalization render MOFs propi­ duction of additional catalytic functionalities [102,103]. Ongoing
tious constituents for drug delivery systems. By encapsulating drugs into research aims to further explore the catalytic capabilities of MOFs,
their pores, MOFs can potentially provide controlled and targeted drug improve their stability and recyclability, and develop efficient synthetic
delivery, enhancing the effectiveness of the treatment and reducing side strategies for large-scale production.
effects. In a study focusing on the dry reforming of methane (DRM) reaction,
Karam et al. [35] reported good catalytic performance of PET-derived
Ni0-MIL-53(Al) for the conversion of CH4 and CO2 and highlighted the
4.1. Catalysis potential of using recycled PET as an organic linker source. The
PET-based MOF exhibited comparable physico-chemical properties and
MOFs are highly porous materials with adjustable structures and a synthesis yield to those made from commercial benzene dicarboxylic
large surface area, making them excellent catalysts for various chemical

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acid (BDC). The resulting Ni0–Al2O3 catalyst derived from PET demon­ exhibiting adsorptivity of benzene and cyclohexane [106]. In another
strated exemplary performance in the Dry Reforming of Methane (DRM) study a magnetic porous carbon composite (α-Fe/Fe3C) was synthesized
reaction. Its efficacy was not only comparable to catalysts crafted from from iron-based MOF MIL-53(Fe). The resulting composite possessed a
commercial BDC but also exceeded those produced through conven­ mesoporous graphitic structure and exhibited super paramagnetism,
tional methods. The author highlighted that MOFs synthesized from enabling efficient adsorption of tetracycline and easy magnetic separa­
recycled organic precursors can yield materials with properties on par tion. A correlation was observed, particularly in highly acidic and
with those from commercial sources, compensating for the loss of BDC alkaline conditions by investigating the adsorbed quantity of tetracy­
while offering environmental benefits through PET waste remediation cline on the α-Fe/Fe3C composite under different solution pH levels. This
and reduced reliance on petroleum-derived molecules [35]. In a recent correlation can be attributed to the presence of multiple functional
study, the authors reported an efficient method for upcycling electro­ groups, such as carbonyl, amino, and hydroxyl groups, within the
plating sludge (EPS) and waste PET into Ni-MOF nanocrystals for the tetracycline molecule. These functional groups interact with the com­
effective photoreduction of CO2. The green synthesis of Ni-MOF nano­ posite and influence the adsorption process. When the solution pH falls
crystals was achieved by simultaneously using EPS and PET waste as below 3.3 or rises above 7.7, both the α-Fe/Fe3C composite surface and
precursors without any precedent. Despite the presence of Fe3+/Cu2+ tetracycline species acquire similar charges. This results in electrostatic
ions coexisting with Ni2+ ions, the desired Ni-MOFs were successfully repulsion between them, which hinders effective adsorption. However,
fabricated. The Ni-MOF nanocatalysts exhibited excellent activity to­ within the pH range of 4–7, the composite surface charge approaches
wards the photoreduction of CO2, giving 9.68 × 103 μmol h− 1 g− 1 of CO neutrality, causing the predominant presence of tetracycline as neutral
with 96.7 % selectivity over H2 evolution [84]. Rahmani et al. reported zwitterions. This decrease in repulsive interactions facilitates relatively
the successful synthesis of a Cu(BDC) MOF catalyst, which was stable adsorption capacities, with values of 156.1 mg/g, 158.9 mg/g,
employed as a reduction catalyst for effectively removing methyl orange and 155.4 mg/g observed at solution pH levels of 5, 6, and 7, respec­
dye from aqueous solutions [79]. tively. The adsorption mechanism of tetracycline on the α-Fe/Fe3C
composite involved various interactions, including π-π electron
4.2. Adsorption donor-acceptor interaction, cation-π bonding, hydrogen bonding, and
pore-filling effect. The α-Fe/Fe3C composite demonstrated significant
Wastewater treatment is need of the hour because of depleting potential as a reusable adsorbent for the removal of antibiotic tetracy­
sources globally [104]. Metal organic frameworks due to their internal cline from water, offering promising prospects for its application in
porosity and tunable cavity size make them suitable for adsorption of water remediation processes [88].
different contaminates. Adsorption is low-cost, eco-friendly and highly Ghosh et al. reported a Sn(II)-based MOF with a 292 m2/g BET sur­
feasible technique for water purification without generating any face area, a total pore volume of 1.08 cm3/g, and an average pore size of
by-products. Different interactions including electrostatic interaction, 4.3 nm for the removal of arsenate and phosphate ions from aqueous
hydrogen bonding, ℼ-ℼ interactions make MOFs appropriate for solutions [84]. The adsorption capacities were 90.90 mg/g and
adsorption [105,106]. 126.58 mg/g, respectively. Calcination of the Sn(II)-MOF yielded SnO2
An innovative example of repurposing PET waste was recently nanoparticles used for the removal of Mn2+ ions from aqueous solutions
showcased in the adsorptive removal of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory with an adsorption capacity of 52.63 mg/g. This aligns with industrial
drugs (NSAIDs). UiO-66, a well-known MOF, was synthesized from PET needs for scalable and efficient materials for environmental remedia­
waste for this purpose. The author reported UiO-66 as an adsorbent for tion. The author reported PET_MIL-101(Cr) MOF derived from waste
NSAID at different pH describing the role of surface charge at different PET bottles for dye removal from wastewater using sono-assisted
pH. The isoelectronic point pH for UIO-66 is 5. Below isoelectronic point adsorption. Traditional adsorption processes using organic solvents
pH the adsorbent becomes positive with zeta potential +50.4 mV due to like DMF can lead to secondary pollution, thus motivating the need for
protonation reaction making it best suitable for adsorption at pH 3 greener alternatives. The authors successfully developed a process for
where ketorolac tromethamine (KTC) has zeta potential − 21.3 mV [93]. synthesizing PET_MIL-101(Cr) from waste PET bottles, achieving a
Similarly, Doan et al. [107] prepared a Cu-BDC MOF for the adsorption conversion rate of 70.89 % and specific surface area of 3055.5 m2/g.
of methylene blue with a maximum adsorption capacity of 41.01 mg/g Functionalization of PET_MIL-101(Cr) with -NO2 and -NH2 groups
involving the electrostatic interactions between methylene blue cations enhanced adsorption through electrostatic forces and hydrogen
and the negatively charged Cu-BDC surface, emphasizing the impor­ bonding. The Langmuir isotherm model revealed increased adsorption
tance of surface charge properties. This process involves weak van der capacity for functionalized PET_MIL-101(Cr), attributed to additional
Waals forces and hydrogen bonding, leading to the formation of a interactions, including π-π stacking with the terephthalate acid ligand.
monolayer of MB on the Cu-BDC surface [107]. In the study conducted Ultrasonication significantly accelerated the adsorption process,
by Trukawka et al. [92], a cobalt organic framework (CoOF) with a reducing saturation time from 120 to 1 minute. Sono-assisted adsorption
flake-like structure composed of carbon layers with trapped cobalt demonstrated an 18-fold increase in adsorption rate compared to
nanoparticles has demonstrated high efficiency in removing Acid Red traditional methods, with an 88.7 % increase in adsorption capacity
18, a commonly used anionic dye in the textile industry. The adsorption [108]. In the recent study, the authors conducted a comparative eval­
mechanism primarily involves π-π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and uation of Fe-, Zr-, and La-based MOFs derived from recycled PET plastic
Van der Waals forces, enhanced by the encapsulated cobalt nano­ bottles for arsenate removal with specific surface areas of 128.3 m2/g,
particles. Adsorption is favoured at lower temperatures and pH levels, 290.4 m2/g, and 61.8 m2/g, respectively. The maximum adsorption
with the material showing excellent reusability. The unique capacities of these MOFs were 70.02 mg/g, 85.72 mg/g, and
sandwich-like structure prevents cobalt nanoparticle leaching, reducing 114.28 mg/g, respectively at pH 7. Among them, La-MOF demonstrated
environmental toxicity. Toxicity tests conducted on human cells and exceptional adsorption capacity for arsenate species. Compared to
microorganisms demonstrated that the cobalt nanoparticles within the Fe-MOF and Zr-MOF, La-MOF outperformed other adsorbents reported
carbon flakes exhibited reduced toxicity compared to free metal nano­ in the literature, making it a highly effective option for arsenate removal
particles. The CoOF, synthesized using recycled dimethylformamide and [109]. In a study by Bool et al. [110], the authors explored the synthesis
waste PET-derived terephthalic acid, maintains comparable properties of a MOF-based adsorbent derived from recycled PET bottles. The MOF
to materials from non-recycled sources [92]. In 2019, [81] reported demonstrated substantial effectiveness, achieving a maximum (Erio­
direct synthesis of tetravalent Zr-based MOF UiO-66 using waste PET, chrome Black T) EBT removal of approximately 77 % within 90 minutes.
with a BET surface area of 995 m2/g, larger than previously reported The Langmuir model exhibited the best fit for the adsorption data,
UiO-66 MOFs derived from commercially available terephthalic acid indicating a maximum monolayer capacity of 82.5 mg/g. Kinetic studies

7
J. Kaur et al. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

supported a pseudo-second-order adsorption process, revealing a 500

two-stage intraparticle diffusion mechanism. The study also highlighted Detection limit
450
potential interactions, such as ionic, hydrogen bonding, and ℼ-ℼ
stacking, between the adsorbent and adsorbate, confirming the MOF’s 400
efficient performance [110]. The adsorption capacity of different

Detection limit (10-6M)

350 344
organic pollutants is shown in Fig. 5.
300

4.3. Sensor for organic pollutants 250

200
The MOFs are luminescent materials due to the presence of an aro­
matic organic linker that could be excited by absorbing UV–visible light 150
[111]. The application of MOFs in sensing organic pollutants holds great
100
potential for environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and public
health. Their unique properties and versatility make them attractive 50
candidates for developing highly efficient and reliable sensing platforms 10
0.62
for the detection and quantification of organic pollutants in various 0
Tb-MOF Cu-MOF Cd-MOF
environmental samples. Fig. 6 describes the detection limit of organic
pollutants. MOF
In their study, Zhang et al. [64] presented a lanthanide-based MOF Fig. 6. Detection of organic pollutants.
known as Tb-BDC, which displayed remarkable selectivity and sensi­
tivity towards picric acid, an organic pollutant of concern. The absorp­
displayed remarkable photocatalytic properties, making it highly suit­
tion range of picric acid exhibits significant overlap with the absorption
able for sensing and degradation of various small molecules and haz­
peak of the ligand, indicating a competition for the absorption of light
ardous organic pollutants. Specifically, the MOF demonstrated notable
energy between picric acid molecules and the ligand. Notably, picric
sensitivity towards acetone at concentrations as low as nearly 20 ppm,
acid predominantly absorbs the energy, leaving only a small fraction to
with a detection limit achieved within a short time span of 45 minutes.
be transferred to the Tb3+ ions through the ligand. This observation was
The detection mechanism relied on the absorbance-quenching phe­
further supported by the significant decrease or even complete
nomenon, whereby the presence of acetone led to a decrease in absor­
quenching of the luminescence intensity of Tb-BDC upon the addition of
bance. Interestingly, in the absence of a photocatalyst, it was observed
picric acid. These findings highlight the pronounced influence of picric
that the absorbance of acetone under UV light remained largely unaf­
acid on the luminescent properties of Tb-BDC, confirming the earlier
fected, suggesting minimal degradation of the compound. These find­
observation of energy competition. Remarkably, the Tb-BDC MOF
ings highlight the promising potential of the Cu-MOF as an effective
exhibited an exceptional detection limit for picric acid, reaching as low
photocatalyst for sensing and addressing the presence of hazardous
as 10–5 M. These compelling results underscore the potential of Tb-BDC
organic pollutants, particularly in the case of acetone detection [82].
as a highly promising candidate for the sensitive detection of organic
Similarly, Bej et al. [85] presented the development of two Cd(II)-based
pollutants in environmental applications [17].
MOFs, namely CMERI-1 and CMERI-2, for the selective detection of
In their study, the authors presented a Cu-MOF material that

Fig. 5. Adsorption of organic pollutant.

8
J. Kaur et al. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

formaldehyde in aqueous media. The MOFs CMERI-1 and CMERI-2 through IR spectra. The disappearance of IR peaks assigned to dyes after
exhibited impressive detection limits of 0.62 µM and 1.39 µM, respec­ long storage (120 days) supports the degradation of dye present in the
tively, for formaldehyde. The detection mechanism relies on a fluores­ MOFs [94]. Panda et al. [81] reported MIL-53(Al) MOF with a high BET
cence "turn-on" effect, where the presence of formaldehyde inhibits surface area and utilized it for carbon capture and storage applications
photoinduced electron transfer within the MOF structure. This occurs as [81]. In a recent study by Wang et al. [118], waste PET plastics were
formaldehyde interacts with the MOF, converting amine subunits to innovatively recycled to synthesize CoNi-based MOFs, demonstrating an
imine subunits and facilitating electron transfer to the MOF’s conduc­ environmentally friendly approach to material synthesis. The
tion band. CMERI-1 demonstrated superior performance with a faster CoNi-based MOF was further explored as an anode for lithium-ion bat­
response time of 1 minute compared to CMERI-2’s 5 minutes as form­ teries, highlighting a promising application in the field of energy stor­
aldehyde possesses molecular orbital energy states that closely resemble age. This approach not only contributes to pollution reduction but also
those of CMERI-1helping in smooth electronic transitions from the exemplifies the potential of MOFs in advancing sustainable technolo­
highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to the lowest unoccupied gies, thus extending the applicability of MOFs in contemporary research
molecular orbital (LUMO). These studies emphasize the immense po­ [118].
tential of MOFs derived from PET waste in the field of sensing applica­
tions, particularly in the detection of hazardous organic pollutants 4.5. Supercapacitor
within the environment [85].
The unique combination of high surface area, tunable properties,
redox activity, and potential for hybrid composites make MOFs an
4.4. Storage and separation exciting avenue for the development of next-generation supercapacitors
[119].
MOFs derived from PET waste offer great potential in the field of gas In recent studies, a solvent-free and sustainable approach was
storage and separation applications due to their high porosity and employed to synthesize Zn and Co-based MOFs using waste PET bottles.
selectivity [112–114]. The ability to adjust the pore sizes and surface These MOFs were utilized to construct ZnO and Co3O4 nanoparticles
chemistry of MOFs allows for the selective adsorption of certain gases embedded in mesoporous carbon (ZnO@MC and Co3O4@MC compos­
over others [115–117]. This selectivity can be exploited for the efficient ites) through a one-step solvothermal process. The ZnO@MC and
separation of gas mixtures. For instance, MOFs could be used to separate Co3O4@MC composites exhibited unprecedentedly high specific surface
carbon dioxide from natural gas, a process of great importance in the areas of 2183 and 2503 m2/g, respectively. When utilized as electrode
natural gas industry. Similarly, they could be used to separate nitrogen materials in symmetric supercapacitors, the ZnO@MC and Co3O4@MC
from air, a key process in various industrial applications. In terms of gas composites demonstrated excellent capacitive performance, achieving
storage, MOFs can store gases at high densities within their pores, the highest specific capacitance of 97 F/g and 180 F/g, respectively, at a
making them potential candidates for the storage of alternative fuels like scan rate of 5 mV/s. These findings highlight the novelty of the
hydrogen and methane. The high storage capacities of MOFs could ZnO@MC and Co3O4@MC composites, which not only provide high-
potentially enable the practical use of these gases as fuels in various performance electrode materials for symmetric supercapacitors but
applications, including fuel cell vehicles. also pave the way for next-generation energy storage devices [120].
Ren et al. [95] proposed a cost-effective strategy for synthesizing Additionally, a bimetallic NiCo2O4@nitrogen-doped carbon (NiC­
Cr-MOF using waste PET as a source of organic linker through a one-pot o2O4@NC) nanocomposite was prepared through the utilization of a
synthesis technique and demonstrated better textural properties than nickel/cobalt MOF. The NiCo2O4@NC nanocomposite exhibited excep­
those formed from commercial terephthalic acid. The synthesized tional characteristics, including an impressive specific surface area of
Cr-MOF had a BET surface area of 3233 m2/g, a pore volume of 813 m2/g and mesoporosity with an average pore size of approximately
1.3 cm3/g, and pore sizes between 50 and 80 nm exhibiting higher 15 nm. Electrochemical investigations further demonstrated the
hydrogen storage and adsorption levels than the Cr-MOF derived from outstanding supercapacitive performance and capacitance retention
commercially available terephthalic acid and suggested the feasibility of capacity of the NiCo2O4@NC nanocomposite in a three-electrode sys­
upscaling this process for industrial purposes. Further, in 2016, Lo et al. tem. Specifically, a high specific capacitance of 890 F/g was achieved
synthesized five nanoporous trivalent MOFs: MIL-47, MIL-53(Cr), through cyclic voltammetry (CV) at a scan rate of 5 mV/s, while a
MIL-53(Al), MIL-53(Ga), and MIL-101(Cr). Among these, MOF MIL-53 specific capacitance of 913 F/g was obtained through galvanostatic
(Cr) and MIL-101(Cr) displayed impressive gas sorption and storage charge-discharge (GCD) at a current density of 1 A/g in a 6 M KOH
properties, with BET surface areas of 1022 m2/g and 2939 m2/g, electrolyte. The economic viability, impressive electrochemical
respectively, and pore volumes of 328 cm3/g and 1440 cm3/g, respec­ response, and excellent redox activity of the NiCo2O4@NC nano­
tively. Table 4 summarizes CO2 gas sorption by the MOFs at different composite position it as a promising candidate for energy storage de­
temperatures. These studies demonstrate the potential of PET-derived vices, demonstrating its potential for practical applications [121].
MOFs for gas storage and separation applications, contributing to the
development of alternative fuels and addressing climate change-related 4.6. Biomedical application
issues [78].
Dyosiba et al. [94] synthesized UiO-66(Zr) MOF using waste PET as a The tunable pore size and the possibility of functionalization make
source of acid linker and demonstrated high hydrogen uptake capacity. MOFs promising candidates for drug delivery systems. By encapsulating
The efficiency of PET derived MOF was decreased in comparison to MOF drugs into their pores, MOFs can potentially provide controlled and
obtained with commercial ligand due to presence of dye confirmed targeted drug delivery, enhancing the effectiveness of the treatment and
reducing side effects [122]. MOFs can efficiently deliver drugs, act as
Table 4 imaging probes, detect biomolecules, provide scaffolds for tissue
CO2 gas sorption by MOFs. regeneration, and enable simultaneous imaging and therapy.
Sr. MOF Adsorption at 273 K Adsorption at 293 K Pressure A sustainable, organic solvent-free method was utilized to synthesize
No. (mmol/g) (mmol/g) (atm) a novel BHET-Al MOF, incorporating BHET organic ligands and
1 MIL− 53 3.64 2.84 1 aluminum ions. This BHET-Al MOF demonstrated enhanced thermal
(Cr) stability in comparison to MIL 53-Al. The superior thermal stability can
2 MIL− 101 4.88 3.11 1 be attributed to a higher concentration of coordination bonds estab­
(Cr)
lished between the aluminum ion and BHET ligand, surpassing those

9
J. Kaur et al. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100068

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table salts from China, Environ. Sci. Technol. 49 (22) (2015) 13622–13627,
[Link]
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interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence pollution in deep-sea sediments and organisms of the Western Pacific Ocean,
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