Chapter-08
Town Life and Architecture
8.1 Rulers And Buildings:
8.1.1 Engineering Skills and Construction:
Monuments provide valuable insights into the technologies used for construction, particularly in
the development of architectural styles. The construction of large rooms with elaborate
superstructures required sophisticated skills, which were gradually developed over time.
Between the seventh and tenth centuries, architects began adding more rooms, doors, and
windows to buildings, using the trabeate or corbelled style, where horizontal beams were placed
across two vertical columns. This style was widely used in the construction of temples,
mosques, tombs, and buildings attached to large stepped wells (baolis) between the eighth and
thirteenth centuries, showcasing the evolution of architectural techniques during this period. The
trabeate style was a significant innovation, as it allowed for the creation of larger and more
complex buildings, while also providing a sense of grandeur and monumentality. However, this
style had its limitations, particularly when it came to building large, open spaces. The use of
arches and domes, which became more widespread in later centuries, would eventually replace
the trabeate style, allowing for even more ambitious and elaborate architectural projects.
Nevertheless, the trabeate style played an important role in the development of Indian
architecture, and its influence can still be seen in many of the monuments that survive from this
period.
Fig. 2a Screen in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque, Delhi (late twelfth century). Fig. 2b
Corbelled technique
used in the
construction of an arch.
Two technological and
stylistic developments are
noticeable from the twelfth
century. (1) The weight of
the superstructure above
the doors and windows
was sometimes carried by
arches. This architectural
form was called “arcuate”.
Compare Figures 2a and
2b with 5a and 5b.
(2) Limestone cement
was increasingly used in
construction. This was very
high-quality cement,
which, when mixed with
stone chips hardened
into concrete. This made
construction of large
structures easier and
Faster.
8.1.2 Building Temples, Mosques,and Tanks:
Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed not only as places of worship but also to
demonstrate the power, wealth, and devotion of the patron. Kings built the largest temples,
which were miniature models of the world ruled by the king and his allies, with the ruler and his
deities worshipped together. The temple was a symbol of the king's divine right to rule, and the
rituals performed within its walls were meant to reinforce the king's authority and legitimacy.
Similarly, Muslim Sultans and Padshahs constructed mosques to proclaim their close
relationship with God, emphasizing their moral right to rule. The mosque was a symbol of the
Sultan's piety and his role as the "Shadow of God" on earth. Constructing places of worship
provided rulers with the chance to showcase their piety and transform their capitals into great
cultural centers, attracting scholars, artists, and architects from all over the world. Additionally,
rulers built tanks and reservoirs to provide precious water to ordinary people, which was highly
praised and seen as a sign of a just king's rule, bringing plenty and prosperity to the land. These
constructions were often part of a temple, mosque, or gurudwara, and were meant to benefit the
people and bring fame to the ruler's reign. By building these structures, rulers were able to
demonstrate their commitment to the welfare of their subjects and reinforce their own legitimacy
and authority. The construction of these buildings also reflected the cultural and artistic values of
the time, showcasing the skills of local artisans and craftsmen. Overall, the construction of
temples, mosques, and tanks was an important aspect of royal patronage and a key way for
rulers to demonstrate their power, piety, and commitment to their subjects.
8.1.3 Why were Temples Destroyed?
Kings often targeted temples and places of worship when they attacked each other's kingdoms,
as these buildings were symbols of the defeated ruler's power and wealth. The Pandyan king
Shrimara Shrivallabha's invasion of Sri Lanka in the 9th century, for example, resulted in the
removal of valuable statues and images from Buddhist monasteries. Similarly, the Chola king
Rajendra I filled his Shiva temple with prized statues seized from defeated rulers, including the
Chalukyas, eastern Chalukyas, Kalingas, and Palas. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni also attacked
temples, including the one at Somnath, to demonstrate his military success and win credit as a
great hero of Islam. In the medieval political culture, attacking and looting the places of worship
of defeated rulers was a way for kings to display their political might and military success, and to
avenge past defeats.
8.1.4 Gardens, Tombs, and Forts:
Under the Mughals, architecture became more
complex and sophisticated, with emperors like Babur,
Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan taking a
personal interest in literature, art, and architecture.
The Mughals developed a unique architectural style,
characterized by the use of red sandstone, white
marble, and intricate pietra dura inlays. The chahar
bagh, a formal garden divided into four quarters by
artificial channels, was a distinctive feature of Mughal
architecture and was used in many of their buildings,
including the Taj Mahal. Shah Jahan's reign saw a
grand harmonious synthesis of different architectural
elements, with the construction of ceremonial halls,
audience chambers, and mosques.
The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan, was the grandest
architectural accomplishment of his reign and was
designed to control access to the river and to emphasize the king's power and authority. The
Mughal emperors also developed a new architectural form, the river-front garden, which was
used in the layout of the Taj Mahal and other buildings, and was designed to showcase the
emperor's wealth and power. The use of water features, such as fountains and canals, was also
a distinctive feature of Mughal architecture and was used to create a sense of tranquility and
beauty.
The Mughal emperors were also influenced by Persian and Islamic architectural styles, which
they incorporated into their own unique style. The result was a rich and diverse architectural
heritage, which continues to inspire wonder and awe today.
The Mughal emperors' love of architecture and their desire to leave a lasting legacy led to the
creation of some of the most beautiful and iconic buildings in Indian history, including the Red
Fort, the Jama Masjid, and the Taj Mahal. These buildings not only reflect the Mughal emperors'
wealth and power but also their cultural and artistic values, and continue to be an important part
of India's cultural heritage.
8.1.5 Region and Empire:
The period between the eighth and eighteenth centuries was marked by a significant increase in
construction activity, which led to the sharing of ideas across regions. The traditions of one
region were adopted by another, resulting in a cross-fertilization of artistic forms and
architectural styles. This phenomenon was not limited to the Mughal Empire but was a broader
trend that characterized the cultural and artistic landscape of the Indian subcontinent during this
time. The creation of large empires, such as the Mughal Empire, played a crucial role in this
process, as they brought different regions under their rule and facilitated the exchange of ideas.
The Mughal rulers, in particular, were skilled in adapting regional architectural styles in the
construction of their own buildings.
For example, they adopted the "Bangla dome" from Bengal, which was designed to resemble a
thatched hut, and incorporated it into their architecture. This style, which was originally
developed in Bengal, was characterized by a curved roof that was designed to resemble a
thatched hut. The Mughals were impressed by this style and adopted it in their own buildings,
including the mosques and temples that they constructed in Bengal. Similarly, the impact of
other regions, such as Gujarat and Malwa, was also evident in the buildings of Akbar's capital at
Fatehpur Sikri. The Mughals incorporated elements of these regional styles into their own
architecture, creating a unique blend of different traditions.
The Mughal Empire's patronage of architecture and art also played a significant role in the
development of regional styles. The Mughal rulers were generous patrons of the arts, and their
patronage helped to establish a number of regional styles that were characterized by their own
unique characteristics. For example, the Mughal style of architecture that developed in the
Deccan region of India was characterized by the use of arches, domes, and minarets, which
were influenced by the architectural styles of the Middle East and Central Asia. Similarly, the
Mughal style of architecture that developed in Bengal was characterized by the use of curved
roofs and intricate carvings, which were influenced by the architectural styles of Southeast Asia.
Even after the Mughal Empire's authority waned in the eighteenth century, the architectural
styles developed under their patronage continued to be used and adapted by other rulers. The
Mughal style of architecture, in particular, continued to be influential in the development of
regional styles, and many of the buildings that were constructed during this time period were
characterized by their use of Mughal architectural elements. The legacy of the Mughal Empire's
architectural patronage can still be seen in the many buildings that were constructed during this
time period, and their influence continues to be felt in the modern era.
8.2 TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS:
8.2.1 Administrative Centres:
Thanjavur, the capital of the Chola dynasty, a thousand years ago. The town is situated near the
perennial river Kaveri, and the sound of bells from the Rajarajeshvara temple, built by King
Rajaraja Chola, fills the air.
The temple's architect, Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan, has proudly carved his name
on the temple wall, showcasing his masterpiece. Inside the temple, a massive Shiva linga is the
centerpiece of worship. The town is also home to palaces with mandapas, or pavilions, where
kings hold court and issue orders to their subordinates. Barracks for the army are also present,
indicating the town's importance as a center of power.
The town is bustling with markets selling various goods, including grain, spices, cloth, and
jewelry. The water supply comes from wells and tanks, ensuring the town's inhabitants have
access to clean water. The Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and nearby Uraiyur are busy producing
cloth for various purposes, including flags for the temple festival, fine cottons for the king and
nobility, and coarse cotton for the masses. Nearby, at Svamimalai, sthapatis, or sculptors, are
creating exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal lamps, showcasing their
craftsmanship.
8.2.2 Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres:
Thanjavur is an example of a temple town, a pattern of urbanization where temples are central
to the economy and society. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion and endowed
them with land and money to carry out rituals, feed pilgrims and priests, and celebrate festivals.
Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking, attracting priests, workers,
artisans, traders, and pilgrims, who settled near the temple, leading to the growth of temple
towns. The temples became centers of economic activity, with the sale of goods and services
catering to the needs of the pilgrims and the temple authorities. The temple towns also became
centers of learning and culture, with the presence of scholars, poets, and musicians.
Other examples of temple towns include Bhilsa, Somnath, Kanchipuram, Madurai, and Tirupati.
These towns were not only centers of pilgrimage but also centers of trade and commerce. The
temples in these towns were often built with the patronage of the rulers, who saw the temples as
a way to demonstrate their power and wealth. The temples also played an important role in the
social and cultural life of the people, with the temple festivals and rituals being an integral part of
the social calendar.
Pilgrimage centers, such as Vrindavan and Tiruvannamalai, also developed into townships, with
the growth of temples and other religious institutions. These towns became centers of spiritual
and cultural activity, with the presence of sadhus, sants, and other religious leaders. The
pilgrimage centers also became centers of trade and commerce, with the sale of goods and
services catering to the needs of the pilgrims.
Ajmer, a capital of the Chauhan kings and later a Mughal suba headquarters, exemplifies
religious coexistence, with the Sufi saint Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti attracting devotees from all
creeds. The nearby lake Pushkar, which has attracted pilgrims from ancient times, is another
example of a pilgrimage center that has developed into a township. The town of Ajmer is a
testament to the rich cultural and spiritual heritage of India, with the presence of temples,
mosques, and other religious institutions. The town is also a center of trade and commerce, with
the sale of goods and services catering to the needs of the pilgrims and the local population.
8.2.3 Bronze, bell metal,
and the “lost wax”
technique:
The Chola bronze statues were created
using the "lost wax" technique, a
complex process that involved several
steps.
First, a wax image was made, which
was then covered with clay and allowed
to dry. The clay was then heated, and a
small hole was made to drain out the
molten wax.
Next, molten metal, typically an alloy of copper and tin, was poured into the clay mould through
the hole. Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was carefully removed, and the
image was cleaned and polished.
The use of bell metal, which contains a higher proportion of tin, produced a distinctive bell-like
sound.
This technique allowed for the creation of intricate and detailed bronze statues, showcasing the
skill and craftsmanship of the Chola artisans.
8.2.4 A Network of Small Towns:
From the eighth century onwards, the Indian subcontinent was dotted with several small towns,
which likely emerged from large villages. These towns had a mandapika or mandi, where
villagers sold their produce, and market streets called hatta or haat, lined with shops. The towns
also had streets for different artisans, such as potters, oil pressers, and smiths. Traders lived in
the towns or traveled from town to town, buying local articles and selling products from distant
places, including horses, salt, and spices. A samanta or zamindar often built a fortified palace in
or near the town, levying taxes on traders, artisans, and articles of trade, which were sometimes
donated to local temples, as recorded in surviving inscriptions.
8.2.5 Traders Big and Small:
There were various types of traders in India, including the Banjaras, who played a significant
role in the country's trade and commerce. Many traders, especially those dealing in horses,
formed associations with headmen who negotiated on their behalf with warriors who purchased
horses. Due to the need to travel through multiple kingdoms and forests, traders often journeyed
in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests. Several such guilds existed in south
India from the eighth century onwards, with the most notable being the Manigramam and
Nanadesi. These guilds engaged in extensive trade within the peninsula and with Southeast
Asia and China.
In addition to these guilds, there were communities like the Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal
who became prominent trading groups in the country. Gujarati traders, including Hindu Baniyas
and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with ports in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa,
Southeast Asia, and China. They sold textiles and spices in these ports and brought back gold,
ivory, spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery, and silver. The towns on the west coast were home to
Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish, and Syrian Christian traders.
Indian spices and cloth sold in the Red Sea ports were purchased by Italian traders and
eventually reached European markets, fetching high profits. Spices grown in tropical climates,
such as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, and dried ginger, became an essential part of European
cooking, and cotton cloth was highly sought after. This led to European traders being drawn to
India, which would eventually change the face of trading and towns in the country.
The presence of various trading communities and guilds in India facilitated the exchange of
goods and ideas between different regions and countries. The country's strategic location and
extensive trade networks made it an attractive destination for traders from all over the world.
The growth of trade and commerce in India during this period laid the foundation for the
country's emergence as a major economic power in the centuries that followed.
The impact of trade on Indian society was significant, with the growth of towns and cities, the
development of new industries, and the emergence of new social classes. The influx of foreign
traders and the exchange of goods and ideas also had a profound impact on Indian culture, with
the introduction of new technologies, customs, and beliefs. The period saw the rise of a new
class of merchants and traders who played a crucial role in shaping the country's economy and
society.
In conclusion, the period saw the growth of trade and commerce in India, with the emergence of
various trading communities and guilds. The country's strategic location and extensive trade
networks made it an attractive destination for traders from all over the world. The impact of trade
on Indian society was significant, with the growth of towns and cities, the development of new
industries, and the emergence of new social classes. The period laid the foundation for India's
emergence as a major economic power in the centuries that followed.
8.2.6 Crafts in Towns:
The craftspersons of Bidar were renowned for their exceptional inlay work in copper and silver,
which became known as Bidri. The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, comprising
goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons, and carpenters, played a vital role in the
construction of temples, palaces, big buildings, tanks, and reservoirs. Their expertise was
essential to the creation of these structures, and they were highly respected for their skills.
Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities,
making significant donations to temples. The craft of cloth making became increasingly
specialized, with different aspects such as cotton cleaning, spinning, and dyeing developing into
independent crafts. This specialization led to the growth of a thriving textile industry, with various
communities contributing their unique skills and expertise.
The growth of crafts in towns had a significant impact on the economy and society.
Craftspersons were able to develop their skills and create high-quality products, which were in
demand both locally and internationally. The specialization of crafts also led to the emergence of
new communities and the growth of existing ones, contributing to the social and cultural
diversity of the towns.
The development of crafts in towns also had a profound impact on the built environment. The
construction of temples, palaces, and other buildings required the expertise of skilled
craftspersons, who were able to create intricate and beautiful structures. The use of local
materials and techniques also helped to create a unique architectural style, which reflected the
cultural and artistic traditions of the region.
In addition to their economic and social impact, the crafts of the towns also played a significant
role in the cultural and artistic heritage of the region. The creation of beautiful textiles, intricate
metalwork, and other crafts helped to establish the towns as centers of artistic excellence,
attracting visitors and patrons from across the region.
Overall, the growth of crafts in towns was a key factor in the development of the region's
economy, society, and culture. The specialization of crafts, the emergence of new communities,
and the creation of beautiful and intricate products all contributed to the growth and prosperity of
the towns, establishing them as centers of artistic and cultural excellence.
8.2.7 A Closer Look: Hampi, Masulipatnam and Surat:
Hampi, located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, was the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire,
founded in 1336. The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city, with walls
constructed using a unique technique of interlocking stones without the use of mortar or
cementing agents. The architecture of Hampi was distinctive, characterized by splendid arches,
domes, and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures. The royal complex also featured
well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with sculptural motifs such as the lotus and
corbels.
In its heyday in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, Hampi was a bustling city with commercial and
cultural activities. Moors, Chettis, and agents of European traders, including the Portuguese,
thronged the markets of Hampi. Temples were the hub of cultural activities, with devadasis
(temple dancers) performing before the deity, royalty, and masses in the many-pillared halls of
the Virupaksha temple. The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south, was
one of the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi.
The Mahanavami platform, where the king received guests and accepted tribute from
subordinate chiefs, has been discovered by archaeologists. From this platform, the king also
watched dance and music performances, as well as wrestling bouts. The city's cultural and
commercial activities were not limited to the royal complex, with the markets and temples being
an integral part of the city's life.
Hampi's decline began after the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans, who
ruled over Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Bidar. The city fell into ruin, and its
once-magnificent buildings were left to decay. However, the legacy of Hampi's architectural
splendor and cultural richness continues to inspire wonder and awe in visitors today.
The architecture of Hampi is a testament to the city's rich cultural heritage, with its unique blend
of Hindu and Islamic styles. The use of local materials and techniques, combined with the
influence of different cultures, resulted in a distinctive architectural style that is still studied and
admired today. The city's ruins also provide a glimpse into the lives of its former inhabitants, with
the remains of temples, markets, and palaces offering a fascinating insight into the city's history
and culture.
In conclusion, Hampi's architectural splendor and cultural richness make it a unique and
fascinating destination. The city's history, architecture, and cultural heritage continue to inspire
wonder and awe in visitors today, and its legacy serves as a reminder of the importance of
preserving our cultural heritage for future generations.
8.2.8 A Gateway to the West: Surat
Fishing in Troubled Waters: Masulipatnam:
Surat, a city in Gujarat, was a major emporium of Western trade during the Mughal period, along
with Cambay and Ahmedabad. It was a cosmopolitan city, with people of all castes and creeds
living there, and was a gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz. The city was
famous for its cotton textiles, which had a market in West Asia, Africa, and Europe. The state
built numerous rest houses and magnificent buildings, and the Kathiawad seths or mahajans
had huge banking houses. However, Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth
century due to the decline of the Mughal Empire, control of the sea routes by the Portuguese,
and competition from Bombay, where the English East India Company shifted its headquarters
in 1668.
In contrast, Masulipatnam, a town on the delta of the Krishna River, was a center of intense
activity in the seventeenth century. The Dutch and English East India Companies attempted to
control the town, which was the most important port on the Andhra coast. The Qutb Shahi rulers
of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the sale of textiles, spices, and other items, leading
to fierce competition among various trading groups. However, when the Mughals annexed
Golconda in 1686-1687, the European Companies looked for alternatives, and Masulipatnam
lost its merchants and prosperity, declining in the course of the eighteenth century.
8.2.9 New Towns and Traders:
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw European countries, such as the English, Dutch,
and French, forming East India Companies to expand their commercial activities in the East.
Initially, great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora competed with them, but the
European Companies used their naval power to gain control of the sea trade and forced Indian
traders to work as their agents. The English eventually emerged as the most successful
commercial and political power in the subcontinent.
The increased demand for goods like textiles led to a significant expansion of the crafts of
spinning, weaving, bleaching, and dyeing, with more people taking them up. Indian textile
designs became increasingly refined, but this period also saw the decline of the independence
of craftspersons. They began to work on a system of advances, where they had to weave cloth
already promised to European agents, and were no longer free to sell their own cloth or weave
their own patterns.
The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, which are now major
cities. Crafts and commerce underwent significant changes as merchants and artisans, such as
weavers, were moved into the Black Towns established by the European companies within
these new cities. The native traders and craftspersons were confined to these areas, while the
European rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St George in Madras or Fort St
William in Calcutta.
