TRANSISTORS

INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is
analogues to vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used i amplifier and
oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers,
satellites and other modern communication systems.

CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two.
These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the
Collector ( C ) respectively. There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP
and NPN, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that
can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor's ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions:
"switching" (digital electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

• 1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic =β.Ib

• 2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic =I(saturation)
• 3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic =0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting
like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and
NPN, is exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power
supply for each type(fig 1).
Bipolar Transistor Construction

• Fig:1
The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are
given above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of
"conventional current flow" between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The
direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-
type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol

Transistor Operation:
Working of a n-p-n transistor:

The n-p-n transistor with base to emitter junction forward biased and collector base junction
reverse biased is as shown in figure.
 As the base to emitter junction is forward biased the majority carriers emitted by the n-type
emitter i.e., electrons have a tendency to flow towards the base which constitutes the emitter current IE.

As the base is p-type there is chance of recombination of electrons emitted by the emitter with
the holes in the p-type base. But as the base is very thin and lightly doped only few electrons emitted
by the n-type emitter less than 5% combines with the holes in the p-type base, theRemaining more
than 95% electrons emitted by the n-type emitter cross over into the collector region constitute
the collectorcurrent.

IE = IB + IC

Working of a p-n-p transistor:

The p-n-p transistor with base to emitter junction is forward biased and collector to base
junction reverse biased is as show in figure.

As the base to emitter junction is forward biased the majority carriers emitted by the p-type
emitter i.e., holes have a tendency to flow towards the base which constitutes the emitter current IE.

As the base is n-type there is a chance of recombination of holes emitted by the emitter with
the electrons in the n-type base. But as the base us very thin and lightly doped only few electrons less
than 5% combine with the holes emitted by the p-type emitter, the remaining 95% charge carriers cross
over into the collector region to constitute thecollectorcurrent.

IE = IB + IC
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TRANSISTOR CURRENTCOMPONENTS:

FIG 2

The above fig 2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased
emitter junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current IEconsists of hole
current IPE (holes crossing from emitter into base) and electron current I nE(electrons crossing
from base into emitter).The ratio of hole to electron currents, I pE/ InE , crossing the emitter
junction is proportional to the ratio of the conductivity of the p material to that of the n
material. In a transistor, the doping of that of the emitter is made much larger than the doping
of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p transistor) that the emitter current consists an
almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since the current which results from
electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter does not contribute carriers,
which can reach thecollector.

Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction JE reach the the collector junction JC
Because some of them combine with the electrons in n-type base. If IpC is hole current at junction JC
there must be a bulk recombination current ( IPE- IpC ) leaving the base.

Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have
been lost by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J [Link] the emitter were open
circuited so that IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector
current IC would equal the reverse saturation current ICO. If IE≠0then
IC= ICO- IpC
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For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across JCfrom left to right (base to collector) and
electrons crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for ICO i.e. from right to left,
then for a p-n-p transistor, ICOis negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is [Link] basic operation
will be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the
roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged.

One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

Forward-biased junction of a pnptransistor

Reverse-biased junction of a pnptransistor

Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and minority
carrier flows indicated.

Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material.
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A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting
IB is typically in order of microamperes.

The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-
type material connected to the collector terminal

Applying KCL to the transistor :

IE = IC + IB

The comprises of two components – the majority and minority carriers

IC = ICmajority + ICOminority

ICO – ICcurrent with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current

Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:

currentofinjectedcar riersatJ E
=
totalemitt ercurrent

IPE IpE
= =
I pE +InE I nE

Transport Factor:

injectedca rriercurrentreachingJC
* =
injectedca rrierncurrentatJ E
IpC
 =
*

In E

Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-
off)to IE the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.

− (IC −ICO )
=
IE

Since ICand IE have opposite signs, then α, as defined, is always positive. Typically numerical
values of α lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995
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I pC I pC I pE
= = *
IE InE IE =*

The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This
statement assumes that the collector multiplication ratio  is unity.  is the ratio of total current
* *

crossing JC to hole arriving at thejunction.

Bipolar TransistorConfigurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways
to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input
and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a
circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

• 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no CurrentGain.

• 2 Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and VoltageGain.
• 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no VoltageGain.

COMMON-BASECONFIGURATION

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the : base is common to both input
and output of t configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
Majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers
will appear as minority carriers in the n-type material. All current directions will refer to
conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic symbols have a direction defined by
this convention.

Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction
indicated for each branch.
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To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving pointcharacteristics.

2. Output or collector characteristics

The output characteristics has 3 basicregions:

• Active region –defined by the biasingarrangements

• Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
• Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB =0V
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The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship
between IE and IC in the active region is given by

IC ≈IE

Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to beVBE = 0.7V

In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha
= αdc

IC = IE + ICBO

It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)

For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha defined
by αac
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Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent
from current flow from emitter to collector. The value of  is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.

Biasing:Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation IC IE (IB 0 uA)

COMMON-EMITTERCONFIGURATION

It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input

and output [Link] is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.

Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.

Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and
output (collector terminal) parameters.

Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

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IB is microamperes compared to miliamperes of IC.

IB will flow when VBE> 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium

Before this value IB is very small and no IB.

Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

Output characteristics for acommon-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE< VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE
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VCE> VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE→ constant IC

IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC

IB=0 A → ICEO occur.

Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows.

Beta () or amplification factor

The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is dc beta (dc ) which is dc
current gain where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point (quiescent
point). It’s define by the following equation:

30 <dc < 300 → 2N3904

On data sheet, dc=hfe with h is derived from ac hybrid equivalent cct. FE are derived from
forward-current amplification and common-emitter configuration respectively.
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For ac conditions, an ac beta has been defined as the changes of collector current (IC) compared to
the changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are determined at operating point. On data sheet,
ac=hfe It can defined by the following equation:

From output characteristics of commonemitter configuration, find ac and dc with an

Operating point at IB=25 A and VCE =7.5V

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Relationship analysis between α and β

COMMON – COLLECTORCONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both

the signal

source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection [Link] output
voltage is obtained at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector
configuration is similar with common-emitter. [Link]-collector circuit
configuration is provided with the load resistor connected from emitter to [Link] is used
primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high input impedance and low output
impedance.
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For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I E vs VCE for a
range of values of IB.

Limits of opearation

Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of [Link]
least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.

There are:
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a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmaxor PD

b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO)

orVCEO.

c) Maximum collector current: ICmax

There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
transistor need to be operate in active region!

IC < ICmax

PC < PCmax

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO)inthe cutoff region. ICis

at maximum and VCEis at minimum (VCEmax = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The
transistor operates in the active region between saturation andcutoff.
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Refer to the fig. Example; A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is reduced
2mW each degree centigrade increase of temperature.

Step1:

The maximum collector powerdissipation,

PD=ICMAX x VCEmax= 18m x 20 = 360mW

Step 2:

At any point on the characteristics the product of and must be equal to 360 mW.

Ex. 1. If choose ICmax= 5 mA, substitute into the (1), we get

VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

VCEmax(5 m)=360/5=7.2 V

Ex.2. If choose VCEmax=18 V, substitute into (1), we get

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VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

(10) ICMAX=360m/18=20 mA

Derating PDmax

PDMAX is usually specified at 25°C.

The higher temperature goes, the less is PDMAX

Example;A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is reduced 2mW each
degree centigrade increase of temperature.

THE TRANSISTOR AS ANAMPLIFIER

Consider the circuit fragment shown at right, which includes an NPN transistor connected
between two power supply “rails” VCC and VEE (with, naturally, VCC >VEE ). Assume that
some method has been used to bias the transistor’s base terminal at the voltage VB >VEE
so that the transistor’s base-emitter junction is forward-biased and conductingcurrent
IB as shown (we’ll discuss ways of biasing the transistor in a subsequent section). What
we want to determine are the relationships between the various voltages and currents, the
resistor values RC and RE , and the transistor’s β
We start the analysis by connecting the base and emitter voltages using the forward
bias diode drop

VBE ≈ 0.6V across the base-emitter PN junction. As we know from our previous studyof
the semiconductor diode, this voltage will be a very weak function of the base current IB ,
sowewillusetheworkingassumptionthatitisafixed,[Link],if
we know VB , then we also know VE , and vice versa. Given VE , we now know the
voltage drop across the resistor RE , so we also know the current through it: I E = (VE −
VEE) RE.

Knowing IE and the transistor’s current gain β immediately tells us the other two
transistor currents IB and IC , since the currents are related through β as shown in below
Figure The value of RC then gives us the collector voltage VC ,since I C = (VCC −VC) RC
.Thuswehavesucceededinrelatingthecircuit’sstatevariables(currentsandvoltages),as
we set out to do. Note that there are some conditions that must be met for our solution to be
realistic: all the currents must flow in the directions shown by the arrows in Figure , and it
must be the case that VEE <VE <VB ≤ VC <VCC . If one or more of these conditions is violated
by our solution, then our solution fails, and the transistor circuit is operating as a switch
rather than as an amplifier (we’ll discuss transistor switch circuits in the nextsection).
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Transistor as switch
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