54 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(c) If all the three components are - 10%, compute 3.6 GROSS ERRORS
the expected resonant frequency and the This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes
percentage error when compared to the results of in reading instruments and recording and calculating
part (a). measurement results. The responsibility of the
Solution, (a) When all the components have zero mistake normally lies with the experimenter. The
error, experimenter may grossly misread the scale. For
L = 160 pH = 160xl0-6H example, he may, due to an oversight, read the
and C = 160 pF = 160 x ICT12 F. temperature as 31.5°C while the actual reading may be
21.5°C. He may transpose the reading while recording.
.'. Resonant frequency For example, he may read 25.8%^ and record 28.5°C

f =— P-=— r
r 2nvLC
1
160x10~6x160x10"12
instead. But as long as human beings are involved,
some gross errors will definitely be committed.
Although complete elimination of gross errors is
= 1 MHz. probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and
(b) When the components are +10%, correct them. Some gross errors are easily detected
C= 160+0.1x160 =176 pF, while others may be very difficult to detect.
L = 160+ 0.1x160 =176 pH Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore
their mathematical analysis is impossible. However,
r 1 I 1
fr =T-J----------- A-------------- T5- =0.9 MHz they can be avoided by adopting two means. They are :
27i \ 176xlO~6xl76xlO“K
1. Great care should be taken in reading and
„ 0.9-1.0 ino/ recording the data.
Hence, error =---------- = -10 %
1.0 2. Two, three or even more readings should be
This is a case of known errors and can be solved taken for the quantity under measurement.
by using Eqn. 3.15. These readings should be taken preferably
. 1 L-V2C-,/2 by different experimenters and the readings
Jr 2tt should be taken at a different reading point
to avoid re-reading with the same error. It
Relative error in fr is,
should be understood that no reliance be
^=Ll£L_16Ck_l(O.i + o.i) placed on a single reading. It is always advi­
fr [2L 2C) 2 sable to take a large number of readings as a
close agreement between readings assures
= -0.1 = -10%.
that no gross error has been committed.
(c) When the components are - 10%.
C= 160-0.1x160 =144 pF, 3.7 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
L = 160-0.1x160 =144 pH These types of errors are divided into three
categories :
f =— I 1 ___ =1.1 MHz
1. Instrumental Errors.
r 2 k v 144x 10-6 x 144x 10~12
2. Environmental Errors.
Error = 11 L° x 100 = +10% 3. Observational Errors.
1.0
3.7.1 Instrumental Errors
3.5 TYPES OF ERRORS These errors arise due to three main reasons :
No measurement can be made with perfect (i) Due to inherent shortcomings in the
accuracy but it is important to find out what accuracy instrument,
actually is and how different errors have entered into
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
the measurement. A study of errors is a first step in
(iii) Due to loading effects of instruments.
finding ways to reduce them. Errors may arise from
different sources and are usually classified as under : 1. Inherent shortcomings of instruments. These

A Gross Errors. errors are inherent in instruments because of their

A Systematic Errors. mechanical structure. They may be due to con­
struction, calibration or operation of the instruments
A Random Errors.
or measuring devices. These errors may cause the
Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis 55

instrument to read too low or too high. For example, if When the milli-ammeter reads 5 mA, calculate :
the spring (used for producing controlling torque) of a (a) apparent resistance of the unknown resistor,
permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the (b) actual resistance of the unknown resistor, and
instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused
(c) error due to the loading effect of voltmeter.
because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash.
Solution. Total circuit resistance
While making precision measurements, we must
recognize the possibility of such errors as it is often 20kn.
possible to eliminate them, or at least reduce them to a IT 5xl0-3
great extent by using the following methods : Neglecting the resistance of milli-ammeter, the
(z) The procedure of measurement must be value of unknown resistor Rx = 20 kQ.
carefully planned. Substitution methods or (b) Resistance of voltmeter
calibration against standards may be used Rv = 1000 x 150 Q = 150kQ.
for the purpose.
As the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown
(zz) Correction factors should be applied after
resistance, we have
determining the instrumental errors.
RxRV
(zzz) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
Rv + Rx
2. Misuse of instruments. There is an old saying
or unknown resistance
that instruments are better than the people who use
20x150 = 23 077kn
them. Too often, the errors caused in measurements
are due to the fault of the operator than that of the x Ry-Rj. 150 -20
instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelli­ (c) Percentage error
gent way may give erroneous results. Examples which measured value - true value ,
=-------------------------------------- x 100
may be cited for this misuse of instrument may be true value
failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial 20 -23 077
= ZJ-U// x 100 = - 13.33 %.
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance etc. 23.077
No doubt the above improper practices may not
Example 3.13 Repeat example 3.12 if the milli-ammeter
cause a permanent damage to the instrument but all
reads 800 mA and the voltmeter reads 40 V on its 150 V
the same they cause errors. However, there are certain
scale.
ill practices like using the instrument contrary to
manufacturer's instructions and specifications which Solution, (zz) = — = ——- = 50 Q
1 lT 800 xlO’3
in addition to producing errors cause permanent
damage to the instruments as a result of overloading (b) Rv = 1000 x 150 Q =150 Q
and overheating that may ultimately result in failure = _^RV,
of the instrument and sometimes the system itself. X Ky-Rr
3. Loading effects. One of the most common errors
= 50xl50xl03 = 50 017Q
committed by beginners, is the improper use of an
instrument for measurement work. For example, a 150xl03-50
well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading (c) Percentage error
voltage reading when connected across a high _ 50.0-50.017
x 100 = -0.034%
resistance circuit (See Example 3.12). The same 50.017
voltmeter, when connected in a low resistance circuit, Therefore errors caused by loading effects of the
may give a more dependable reading (See meters can be avoided by using them intelligently. For
Example 3.13). These examples illustrate that the example, when measuring a low resistance by ammeter­
voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering voltmeter method a voltmeter having a very high
the actual circuit conditions by the measurement value of resistance should be used.
process. A detailed analysis of loading effects of
In planning any measurement, the loading effect
instruments has been given in Chapter 2 (See Arts.
of instruments should be considered and corrections
2.24, 2.25, 2.26 and 2.27 on pages nos. 33 to 39).
for these effects should be made, if needed, or more
Example [Link] A voltmeter having a sensitivity of suitable instruments should be used. Preferably those
1000Q/V reads 100 V on its 150 V scale when connected methods should be used which result in negligible or
across an unknown resistor in series with a multi-ammeter. no loading effects.
 56 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

3.7.2 Environmental Errors

These errors are due to conditions external to the
measuring device including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of
temperature pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of
external magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective
measures employed to eliminate or to reduce these
undesirable effects are :
1. Arrangements should be made to keep the
conditions as nearly as constant as possible.
For example, temperature can be kept
constant by keeping the equipment in a
temperature controlled enclosure.
2. Using equipment which is immune to these
effects. For example, variations in resistance
with temperature can be minimized by using
resistance materials which have a very low
resistance temperature co-efficient.
3. Employing techniques which eliminate the
effects of these disturbances. For example,
the effect of humidity dust etc. can be
entirely eliminated by hermetically sealing
the equipment.
4. In case it is suspected that external magnetic Fig. 3.1 Errors due to Parallax.
or electrostatic fields can affect the readings There are human factors involved in measure­
of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic ment. The sensing capabilities of individual observers
shields may be provided. affect the accuracy of measurement. No two persons
5. Applying computed corrections : Efforts are observe the same situation in exactly the same way
normally made to avoid the use of application where small details are concerned. For example, there
of computed corrections, but where these are observational errors in measurements involving
corrections are needed and are necessary, timing of an event. One observer may tend to anti­
they are incorporated for the computations cipate the signal and read too soon. Different experi­
of the results. menters may produce different results, especially
when sound and light measurements are involved since
3.7.3 Observational Errors
no two observers possess the same physical responses.
There are many sources of observational errors.
Modem electrical instruments have digital
As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly
display of output which completely eliminates the
above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account
errors on account of human observational or sensing
of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of
powers as the output is in the form of digits.
vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To
minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are
provided with mirrored scales, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
When the pointer's image appears hidden by the
pointer, observer's eye is directly in line with the
pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax
error, an error is necessarily present though it may be
very small.
Since the parallax errors arise on account of
pointer and the scale not being in the same plane, we
can eliminate this error by having the pointer and the Fig. 3.2 Arrangements showing scale and pointer
scale in the same plane as shown in Fig. 3.2. in the same plane.
Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis 57

3.8 RANDOM (RESIDUAL) ERRORS In order to get the exact value of the quantity
It has been consistently found that experimental under measurement, tests should be done using as
results show variation from one reading to another, many different procedures, techniques and experi­
even after all systematic errors have been accounted menters as practicable. It should be borne in mind that
for. These errors are due to a multitude of small factors the statistical means which help us to arrive at correct
which change or fluctuate from one measurement to results are only valid for multisample tests.
another and are due surely to chance. The quantity
3.10.1 Histogram
being measured is affected by many happenings
throughout the universe. We are aware of and account When a number of multisample observations are
for some of the factors influencing the measurement, taken experimentally there is a scatter of the data
but about the rest we are unaware. The happenings or about some central value. One method presenting test
disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped results in the form of a Histogram. The technique is
together and called "Random" or "Residual". Hence the illustrated in Fig. 3.3 representing the data given in
errors caused by these happenings are called Random Table 3.1. This table shows a set of fifty readings of a
(or Residual) Errors. Since these errors remain even length measurement. The most probable or central
after the systematic errors have been taken care of, we value of length is 100 mm and the data are taken and
call these errors as Residual (Random) Errors. recorded to the nearest 0.1 mm.
Table 3.1
3.9 CENTRAL VALUE Length (mm) Number of Readings
As stated above, the random errors are caused by 99.7 1
a large number of small effects, each one being a
99.8 4
variable. These variables may be additive in some cases
and subtractive in some, in their effect on the quantity 99.9 12
being measured. In many measurements the positive 100.0 19
and negative effects are nearly equal, so that the 100.1 10
resultant error is small. If we make a large number of 100.2 3
measurements and if the plus effects are equal to the 100.3 1
minus effects, they would cancel each other and we
would obtain the scatter round a Central Value. Since Total number of readings = 50.
this condition is frequently met in practice, we are This histogram of Fig. 3.3 represents these data
justified in using this concept as a basis of our study of where the ordinate indicates the number of observed
errors which are unknown to us. Thus mathematical readings (frequency or occurrence) of a particular
laws or "Probability" can be applied for the study of value. A histogram is also called a frequency distri­
random errors. There is no other way as the random bution curve. At the central value of 100 mm is a large
errors are unknown and only statistical study can lead number of readings, 19 in this case, with other values
us to the best approximation of the true value of the placed almost symmetrically on either side. If smaller
quantity under study. incremental steps, say 100 readings at 0.05 mm
intervals are taken, the general form of the histogram
3.10 STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
will be almost the same but since the steps have
The experimental data is obtained in two forms of smaller increments and we get a smoother curve.
tests :
(i) Multisample test and (ii) Single-sample test.
Multisample test. In this test, repeated measure­
ment of a given quantity are done using different test
conditions such as employing different instruments,
different ways of measurement and by employing
different observers. Simply making measurements
with the same equipment, procedure, technique and
same observer do not provide multisample results.
Single-sample test. A single measurement (or
succession of measurements) done under identical condi­
tions excepting for time is known as single-sample test. Fig. 3.3 Histogram.
 58 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

With more and more data taken at smaller and A large dispersion indicates that some factors
smaller increments the histogram would finally involved in the measurement process are not under
change into a smooth curve, as indicated by the close control and therefore it becomes difficult to
dashed line in Fig. 3.3. estimate the measured quantity with confidence and
The smooth curve is symmetrical with respect to definiteness. For example, if we compare two sets of
the central value. Many physical cases have been data and find that one set has less dispersion that the
found which give experimental data agreeing fairly other set, we can certainly place more reliance on it
well with the smooth symmetrical curve. and can definitely regard it as a superior set as regards
random errors.
3.10.2 Arithmetic Mean
There are certain terms which must be defined as
The most probable value of measured variable they form the basis of defining the measure of
(variate) is the arithmetic mean of the number of dispersion of data.
readings taken. The best approximation is made when
the number of readings of the same quantity are very 3.10.4 Range
large. Theoretically, an infinite number of readings The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the
would give the best result, although in practice, only a range which is the difference between greatest and
finite number of measurements can be made. least values of data. For example, in Fig. 3.4 the range
The arithmetic mean is given by : of curve 1 is (x2 -x^ and that of curve 2 is (x4 -
* 3).
-_x1+x2 + x3 + x4+...+x„ Lx 3.10.5 Deviation
A —---------------------------------------------------------- —-------- —------------ ...(□. 1O)
n n Deviation is departure of the observed reading
where, X = arithmetic mean. from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. Let
x1,x2,...,xn = readings or variates or samples, the deviation of reading x} be d^ and that of reading x2
be d2, etc.
and n = number of readings.
Then d^ = x] -X
3.10.3 Measure of Dispersion from the Mean = x2 -X
Dispersion. The property which denotes the
extent to which the values are dispersed about the dn=Xn~^ -(3.17)
central value is termed as dispersion. The other names
used for dispersion are spread or scatter. and X= dn ...(3.18)
n
Figure 3.4 shows two sets of data. In one case
(curve 1) the values vary from x} to x2 and in other Algebraic sum of deviations
case (curve 2) the values vary from x3 to x4. Though = d1+d2 + d3+...+dn
their central value is the same, clearly set of data
= (Xi-X) + (x2-X) + (x3-X)+...+(x„-X)
represented by curve 1 has a smaller dispersion than
= (x1+x2 + x3+...+xn)-«X =0
that of the data represented by curve 2.
+ x, + x,3 +...+Xn = nX
as x.12
It is very important to have a measure of the
dispersion from the central value as it is an indication Therefore the algebraic sum of deviations is zero.
of the degree of consistency (precision) and regularity
3.10.6 Average Deviation
of the data.
The average deviation is an indication of the
precision of the instruments used in making the
measurements. Highly precise instruments yield a low
average deviation between readings.
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the
absolute values of deviations divided by the number
of readings. The absolute value of deviation is the
value without respect to its sign. Average deviation
may be expressed as :
p_ l~rfll + l~^H~d3l+-+l~rfH| _S|^|

Fig. 3.4 Curves showing different ranges and n n

precision indices. ...(3.19)
Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis 59

3.10.7 Standard Deviation (S.D.) d4 = x4 - X = 535 -539.25 = -4.25 kHz

Another important term in the analysis of random 3 - X = 546 - 539.25 = +6.75 kHz
d.3 = x.
errors is the standard deviation or the root mean d,o = x,o - X = 531 - 539.25 = -8.25 kHz
square deviation. The Standard Deviation of an
d7 = x7 - X = 543 - 539.25 = +3.75 kHz
infinite number of data is defined as the square root of
the sum of the individual deviations squared, divided doR = xoR - X = 536 - 539.25 = -3.25 kHz
by the number of readings. (c) From Eqn. 3.19, average deviation is :
Thus standard deviation is :
\d2 + d7 +...+ d2 Ixd2 D=^l
S.D. = a = J —----- ?--------- n = (3 20) n
V n V n _ 7.25 + 8.75 + 3.75 + 4.25 + 6.75 + 8.25 + 3.75 + 3.25
In practice, however, the number of observations 8
is finite. When the number of observations is greater = 5.75 kHz
than 20, S.D. is denoted by symbol o while if the (Note that for calculation of average deviations, the
number of observations is less than 20, the symbol signs of deviations are disregarded).
used is s. The Standard Deviation of a finite number of
(d) Since the number of readings is 8 which is less
data is given by :
than 20, therefore Eqn. 3.24 is used for calculation of
d.2+d2+d2+...+d2 Ixd2 standard deviation.
...(3.21)
n-1 \n-l
Standard deviation s = J-----
V n-1
3.10.8 Variance
The variance is the mean square deviation, which (-7.25 )2 + (+8.75 )2 + (+3.75) + (~4.25)2 + (+6.75)2
is the same as S.D., except that square root is not + (-8.25)2 + (+ 3.75)2 + (-3.25)2
extracted. J (8-1)
2
Variance V = (Standard Deviation)
= 6.54 kHz.
2 di+d2 + d2+...+d2
= (S.D.)2 =o2 = —----- 2-----3--------- n ...(3.22) Variance V = s2 =42.77 (kHz)2.
n
y j2 3.10.9 Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors
=— ...(3.23)
n The Normal or Gaussian law of errors is the basis
But when the number of observations is less for the major part of study of random effects. This type
than 20 of distribution is most frequently met in practice.
The law of probability states the normal
Variance V=s2=----- ...(3.24)
n-1 occurrence of deviations from average value of an
infinite number of measurements or observations can
Example 3.14 A circuit was tuned for resonance by
be expressed by :
eight different students, and the values of resonant frequency
in kHz were recorded as 532, 548, 543, 535, 546, 531, 543 y- exp (-/i2x2) ...(3.25)
■VTC
and 536. Calculate (a) the arithmetic mean, (b) deviations
from mean, (c) the average deviation, (d) the standard
deviation, and (e) variance. HtflS The reader here is cautioned not to confuse
x with magnitude of a quantity. Here x
Solution, (a) From Eqn. 3.16, the arithmetic mean
of readings is, means deviation.

y _ Zx _ 532 + 548 + 543 + 535 + 546 + 531 + 543 + 536 where x = magnitude of deviation from mean,
n 8 y = number of readings at any deviation x,
= 539.25 kHz. (the probability of occurrence of deviation x).
and h = a constant called precision index.
(ft) From Eqn. 3.17, the deviations are,
d} = xt - X = 532 -539.25 = -7.25 kHz Equation 3.25 leads to curve of type shown in
d2 = x2 - X7 = 548 -539.25 = +8.75 kHz Fig. 3.5 and this curve showing y plotted against x is
= x3 - X = 543 - 539.25 = +3.75 kHz called "Normal or Gaussian Probability Curve".