VCAT-II key points Page 3

The ‘key points’ are provided throughout the Category II course and give students a guide to what
topics are required to be known as per ISO 18436-2. They are an excellent resource for checking your
understanding as the course progresses and as a study guide for those taking the exam.

This document summarises the Key Points slides from all of the Category II lessons.

Principles of vibration
Amplitude
▪ Students should understand the concept of amplitude.
▪ Students should be able to recognize pk, pk-pk and RMS amplitudes on a waveform.
▪ Students should be able to calculate pk and pk-pk amplitudes from a waveform and RMS
amplitude from a sine wave.
▪ Students should be aware that:
▪ RMS = 0.707 x pk and
▪ Pk-pk = 2 x pk
…are only valid for pure sine waves
Period and frequency
▪ Students should understand the concepts of period and frequency and the relationship
between them
▪ Students should understand frequency units: Hz and CPM and RPM and should be able to
convert between them
▪ Students should be able to identify the period of a waveform and calculate the period from
the frequency
▪ Students should be able to calculate the frequency of a waveform
An introduction to phase
▪ Students should understand that one cycle of vibration is 360 degrees
▪ Understand the concept of phase
▪ Understand that phase is a relationship between
two signals
▪ Understand how phase is measured:
▪ Absolute phase with a tachometer as a reference
▪ Relative phase between two vibration sensors
▪ Using a strobe and a visual reference
▪ Understand how phase is documented using the bubble diagram (the circles)
▪ Students should be able to determine the phase by looking at a sine wave and a reference
signal
▪ Understand in a general way some of the applications for phase

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Principles of vibration…
Vibration units
▪ Students should understand that vibration can be described in terms of displacement (D),
velocity (V) and acceleration (A)
▪ Understand the definitions of A, V and D
▪ Understand the relationship between A, V and D and frequency
▪ At which frequencies should each unit be used?
▪ What happens at low frequencies when we integrate?
▪ Understand that there are sensors that can measure A, V or D directly
▪ Students should understand that it is possible to mathematically convert from one unit to
another.
▪ You might have to solve the formulas on the exam
▪ You might have to convert between imperial and metric units
▪ A formula sheet will be provided
▪ Students should be aware that units can be converted from one to another in software
▪ Students should be familiar with the term “Integration.” It is converting from A to V or
V to D
Overall level readings
▪ Understand the concept of the RMS overall value
▪ The RMS overall can be calculated in a variety of ways
▪ The RMS is only 0.707 x pk for a pure sine wave
▪ Be careful to be consistent in selecting one calculation option
▪ Understand the benefits of using the RMS overall value
▪ Understand the limitations of using the RMS overall value
▪ Understand that various alarm charts exist
▪ Understand the importance of trending
▪ Understand the crest factor, how it is calculated and how it is used.
▪ Later in the course students will be responsible for using one or more alarm charts based on
RMS values to determine the condition of a machine and to make recommendations.
Complex vibration
▪ When you add two simple sine waves together, the result becomes complex and you cannot
easily “separate” them visually.
▪ Real vibration from machines is very complex. All of the vibration from the various
components is added together in the time waveform.
▪ This makes the time waveform difficult to analyze.
▪ Therefore we need a better tool to separate the vibration coming from various components
in the machine.

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Principles of vibration…
Introducing the spectrum
▪ Students should understand what a vibration spectrum is.
▪ Students should understand the amplitude and frequency axes
▪ Frequency can be Hz or CPM
▪ Amplitude can be A,V or D
▪ Amplitude is pk, pk-pk or RMS
▪ Students should understand why we don’t simply analyze the time waveform.
▪ Students should understand the difference between the “time domain” and “frequency
domain”.
▪ Students should understand that the waveform is measured and that the spectrum is
calculated from the waveform using an algorithm called the FFT.
▪ The spectrum separates the vibration into frequencies.
▪ Different machine components will generate different frequencies
▪ This allows us to relate the vibration to the specific machine component
Understanding orders
▪ Students should understand the concept of Orders
▪ Students should know the term “Order normalization”
▪ Students should understand that their software needs to know which peak is 1X. They either
tell the software, use a tachometer, or their software may be smart enough to figure it out
itself.
▪ This is called “normalizing” the data
▪ Students should understand the benefits of using orders
▪ Easier to calculate forcing frequencies
▪ Easier to compare (line up) spectra measured on different dates
▪ Easier to understand how the vibration relates to the machine
▪ Understand that 4X and 4.2X mean very different things
▪ Students should know the terms: “synchronous”, “non synchronous” and “sub
synchronous”.
▪ Students should understand that one benefit of viewing order normalized plots is that it
helps us see which peaks are synchronous, non-synchronous and sub synchronous.

Understanding signals
Rule One: Sine wave
▪ Students should understand that a sine wave produces a single peak in the spectrum.
▪ Conversely, each peak in the spectrum describes a sine wave
▪ Two sine waves at the same frequency will add together
▪ How they add together depends on their phase relationship
▪ Students should be able to draw a sine wave and the corresponding spectrum
▪ Students should understand the X and Y axis of the time waveform and the spectrum

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Understanding signals…
Understanding beating
▪ Students should understand the concept of beating
▪ When two sine waves of slightly different frequencies go in and out of phase with
each other, they add and subtract from each other.
▪ Students should understand that a potential problem with beating is that the sum of the
amplitudes can cause high vibration levels that can cause damage.
▪ Students should be able to calculate the beat frequency and the beat period.
▪ Students should be able to identify beating in the time waveform and the spectrum.
▪ Students should be able to resolve a beating problem.
Rule Two: Harmonics
▪ Students should understand that a periodic (repetitive) wave, that is not a pure sine wave,
will produce harmonics in the spectrum.
▪ We presented several examples of this i.e. pulse train, repetitive impacts, clipped
wave, etc.
▪ Students should know that harmonics are normal.
▪ Most forcing frequencies can and will have harmonics.
▪ Students should be able to identify a forcing frequency and its harmonics on a spectrum.
▪ Students should realize that increases in the number and amplitude of the harmonics can
indicate a worsening of condition.
Rule Three Noise
▪ Students should understand the two general causes of noise in the spectrum.
▪ Students should understand that although we typically analyze the vibration spectrum, it
does not do so well in differentiating between single events and random vibration,
therefore the time waveform should also be analyzed.
▪ Students should be aware of some of the causes of random vibration or impacts in
machines.
Rule Four: Sidebands
▪ Amplitude modulation is common in gears, bearings and AC motors
▪ Students should be aware that amplitude modulation in the time waveform results in
sidebands in the spectrum.
▪ Students should be able to recognize sidebands in a vibration spectrum and amplitude
modulation in the time waveform.
▪ Students should understand the difference between amplitude modulation and beating.
Overall
▪ The spectrum is calculated from the time waveform via an algorithm called the FFT
▪ Different characteristics in the waveform will result in different spectra
▪ The more you understand the relationship between the waveform and the spectrum the
more you will be able to relate the data to what is happening in the machine
▪ Students should understand the 4 rules of vibration
▪ Throughout the course we will see how these four rules relate to common fault patterns

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Signal processing
Filters
▪ Filters are used in many places in vibration analysis.
▪ When you select certain settings on your data collector you are actually setting up different
filters.
▪ A Category II analyst needs to be able to recognize the three types of filters.
Integration
▪ Integration is a key part of the signal processing system.
▪ We integrate when converting from acceleration to velocity
▪ We also integrate when converting from velocity to displacement
▪ When integrating we amplify the low frequency vibration thus we need a high-pass filter to
remove or suppress the low frequency vibration.
▪ Some analyzers integrate the analog signal, thus the data collector processes a velocity
signal. Others integrate the signal digitally. Some give you the choice.
Sampling
▪ The analog time waveform from the sensor is “sampled,” “digitized” or broken up into a
series of N numbers.
▪ Anything that happens between the numbers in the waveform (i.e. between the samples) is
not measured.
▪ Fs is the sample rate or sample frequency, usually given in samples per second.
▪ Ts is the sample period or the time between two samples.
1 1
▪ 𝐹𝑠 = and 𝑇𝑠 =
𝑇𝑠 𝐹𝑠

Aliasing
▪ Students should understand the concept of aliasing and the solution to it.
▪ They should be familiar with the Nyquist Theorem
▪ Fs > 2 X Fmax to prevent aliasing
▪ Fs = 2.56 X Fmax in practice
▪ Anti-aliasing filers are used to filter out frequencies above Fmax to prevent them from being
aliased.
▪ Students should be aware of examples of aliasing.
Fast Fourier Transform
▪ The FFT is an algorithm that converts a time waveform into a spectrum.
▪ We begin with N values from the time waveform and we finish with N / 2.56 values of
amplitude and phase values at each frequency.
▪ When we normally view a vibration spectrum, the phase is not used because it is a single-
channel measurement without a tachometer reference signal.
▪ The phase calculated as part of the FFT process is used for other applications including
relative phase measurements.

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Signal processing…
Sampling and resolution
 Students should understand the relationship between the number of samples in the time
waveform (N) and the number of lines of resolution (LOR) in the spectrum.
 N = LOR x 2.56 or LOR = N/2.56
 They should understand the relationship between Fmax, LOR, spectrum resolution (R) and
time waveform length (T).
 When setting up a test one needs to balance the need for better resolution (a smaller (R))
against taking more time (T) to collect the data.
 The formula below will be included in your exam booklet.

Windowing
 Students should understand that there is a setting in their data collector for the type of
“Window” to be used.
 The most common window used for normal route monitoring is called the Hanning window.
 The Hanning window solves a problem called leakage.
 Students should also be familiar with the flat top and rectangular windows and their
applications.
 When a window is used it effects the spectral resolution (R) by an amount called the window
factor (WF)
 One then uses the term bandwidth (BW) instead of resolution
 BW = Fmax/LOR x WF
Averaging
 Students should be aware that there are settings in their data collector for:
 Average type
 Number of averages and
 Overlap %
 Students should understand that averaging does not filter out or remove noise but it does
reduce the effect of noise.
 Students should understand the different selections for average type, generally how they
work and when each is used.
 These techniques discussed average the spectra together (they do not average the time
waveforms).
Data collection settings
 Students should understand that there is not one setting that perfectly captures data for
every machine.
 Therefore it is not OK to just use the default settings in your data collector.
 Choices need to be made for setting Fmax and LOR based on a knowledge of the
forcing frequencies of the machine and the defects one is looking for.
 Sometimes more than one measurement will be required to capture what one
wishes to capture.
 Students need to understand that these are important decisions but they do not need to
memorize any particular strategy.
 Students do need to understand the relationship between Fmax, LOR, R and T.

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Signal processing…
Summary of settings
▪ Most vibration data collectors have similar configuration options
▪ If these settings are not set correctly, your data could be useless and you may never
know it.
▪ The “default” settings in your software are not adequate.
▪ A Category II analyst:
▪ Should be familiar with each of these settings.
▪ Should know what each setting is for.
▪ Should know the general recommendations for what settings to use for normal
route monitoring.
▪ Later in the course you will learn more about what settings to use for special tests such as
bump tests.

Time waveform analysis

▪ Students should understand that Fmax and LOR or Fs and N can be chosen to optimize the
time waveform for analysis.
▪ One must first understand what one is trying to detect.
▪ 4 – 10 revolutions of the shaft is often useful
▪ Students should be familiar with the value of analyzing the time waveform and when one
may wish to analyze the waveform instead of or in addition to the spectrum.
▪ Students should be familiar with various patterns in the time waveform such as amplitude
modulation, beating, impacts, randomness, etc.
▪ Students should be able to recognize the period of vibration and calculate the frequency.

Data acquisition
Displacement transducers
▪ The student should recognize the terms: “proximity probe”, “eddy current probe”,
“displacement probe”
▪ These probes measure displacement
▪ The student should understand how these probes work.
▪ Gap voltage
▪ AC dynamic voltage
▪ Students should understand that the probes must be calibrated
▪ Students should understand where these probes are typically used:
▪ In large journal bearings
▪ In protection systems
▪ As Keyphasors®
▪ Students do not need to understand how to analyze orbits but they should know what they
are and what they are used for.
▪ Students should be aware of the shaft centerline plot.

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Data acquisition…
Accelerometers
▪ Students should understand the basic workings of accelerometers:
▪ There are different designs
▪ Some require and some do not require external power
▪ There are different usable frequency ranges
▪ There are different acceptable input ranges
▪ Different sensors will be used for different applications
▪ Students should understand sensor sensitivity (mV/g)
▪ Sensor calibration needs to be verified
▪ Students should be familiar with the piezovelocity sensor
Accelerometer mounting
▪ Students should understand the concept of “frequency response”
▪ The method of mounting the sensor effects the frequency response.
▪ The more rigid the mounting, the higher the frequency response.
▪ Students should be able to choose an appropriate mounting method based on an
understanding of the forcing frequencies they are trying to measure.
▪ Target pads help maintain repeatability by assuring everyone mounts the sensor on the
same location
▪ Students should understand the importance of data quality and repeatability.
Measurement locations
▪ Students should understand the term “mechanical transmission path”.
▪ Students should be very aware of safety concerns.
▪ Sensors can be permanently mounted on the machine to address safety or
accessibility concerns.
▪ Students should be able to select measurement points.
▪ Students should understand the balance between the cost of taking measurements and the
need for enough data to detect faults.
Collecting data correctly
▪ Test instructions should be documented for each machine.
▪ Anyone should be able to pick up a test guide and
▪ Identify this is the correct machine
▪ Locate the test points
▪ Test the machine under the correct operating conditions
▪ Some instructions may call for operators to run the machines at particular speeds or loads or
to shut down other machines.
▪ Students should understand the importance of developing test guides and test instructions
to ensure data is repeatable and trends are meaningful.
▪ Automated point identification systems reduce errors
Recognizing bad data
▪ Students should be able to recognize the common causes and indications of bad data.
▪ Students should understand how to avoid collecting bad data.
▪ Students should be able to recognize the ski slope and describe its causes.
▪ Students should understand “settling time”.
▪ Students should know to re take the data if it is deemed “bad” or to look for other solutions
if this does not resolve the problem.

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Analysis process
Trending
▪ Trending is a key part of a condition monitoring program.
▪ Trending provides an indication of how the readings have changed, and a hint of how they
may change in the future.
▪ Students should understand that absolute values do not always provide the full picture.
▪ In additional to “simple readings” like RMS overall-level and shock pulse readings, data can
be extracted from vibration that provides useful trendable information:
▪ Crest factor
▪ Vibration (peak, RMS, etc.) from a band
▪ RMS of the displacement, velocity or acceleration
Data presentation
▪ Students should understand that data analysis is a process that begins a long time before
you collect any data.
▪ Software packages offer different options for visualizing data against alarms, baselines or
trends.
▪ These views can greatly aid or hamper the analysis process
▪ Orders, log or dB, fixed graph scales, visual alarms, trends, etc. can make analysis
much easier.
▪ Comparison between different test points is also necessary
▪ Students should be able to recognize common causes of bad data
▪ Students should develop “views” and a process in their software to conduct analysis.
A step-by-step approach
▪ Students should understand that analysis is a process that includes identifying forcing
frequencies and harmonics
▪ Once these frequencies are identified they can be entered in the software
▪ Students should understand the process of order normalizing the data
▪ Students should note the difference between the graphs that were 0-10x and 0-100x and
understand the issues related to Fmax, LOR and the resolution of the graph (R)
▪ Students should be aware that some forcing frequencies can be identified from the data
itself.
▪ This should be part of a process of setting up the program

Diagnosing unbalance
Understanding unbalance
▪ Unbalance is one of the “big four” faults that students should understand in detail.
▪ Students should know the definition of unbalance.
▪ Students should know the relationship between unbalance and rotational speed.
▪ Students should understand the causes of unbalance.
▪ Students should understand why it is important to be able to detect unbalance and to
balance machines.
Detecting unbalance
▪ Students should know the difference between static, couple and dynamic unbalance.
▪ Students should know the definition of residual unbalance.
▪ Students should understand in detail how unbalance presents itself in the vibration
spectrum and the time waveform.
▪ This includes phase relationships
▪ This includes amplitude relationships between axes

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Diagnosing unbalance…
Overhung machines
▪ Students should understand the importance of documenting whether or not shafts are
supported.
▪ Students should understand the patterns generated by unbalance in an overhung unit,
including amplitude and phase relationships between different measurement axes and
locations.

Balancing
Vectors and polar plots
▪ Students should understand the concept of using vectors to describe vibration amplitudes
and phase angles.
▪ Students should be familiar with polar plots.
▪ Students should understand how vectors are added and subtracted.
▪ That this can be done graphically using a ruler and a protractor.
▪ That this can be done mathematically.
▪ Student should understand that unbalance can be described in terms of a vector.
▪ Students will not have to add or subtract vectors on the exam.
Single plane balancing
▪ Students should understand single plane balancing of rigid rotors.
▪ Safety concerns
▪ The process for balancing
▪ The definition of the O, T and O+T vectors
▪ How to configure the sensor and tachometer
▪ The importance of understanding phase conventions
▪ The purpose of trim runs
▪ Students should be familiar with the trial weight estimation and the goals of using the trial
weight.
▪ Students should understand some of the reasons why they may not be successful in
balancing a rotor.
Adding and splitting weights
▪ Students should be aware of the issues related to splitting and combining weights.
▪ They should know that vectors math can be used to solve these problems.
▪ Students should be aware that many balance software packages contain features to solve
these problems.
▪ Students should be aware that balance weights may be installed at various radii and that
mass may be removed rather than added to the rotor.
▪ Students will not be required to calculate these solutions on the exam.
Four-run-no-phase balancing
▪ Students should be aware that some situations require a no-phase balance solution.
▪ Students should be aware of the reasons why the no-phase technique may be used.
▪ Students should be aware of the basic process used to perform this technique.
▪ Students will not be required to perform these calculations, or perform a no-phase balance
in the exam.

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Balancing…
Two plane balancing
▪ Students should be aware that some situations require two plane balance solutions.
▪ Students should be aware that ISO and other standards exist for balancing.
▪ Students should understand the relationship between static, dynamic and couple unbalance
and one or two plane balance solutions.
▪ Students are not required to understand the two plane balance procedure.
ISO and ANSI balance standards
▪ Students should be aware that ISO and other standards exist for balancing.
▪ Some are based on vibration amplitude
▪ Some are based on residual unbalance
▪ Students should understand the difference between these two types of standards
and why each are valid.
▪ Be able to use balance quality and permissible residual unbalance

Misalignment
Introduction to misalignment
▪ Students should understand that misalignment is a big contributor or root cause of early
machine failure.
▪ Students should be aware of the relationship between load and bearing or seal life.
▪ Students should understand the definition of misalignment and appreciate that it refers to
machines in operation, not cold machines.
▪ Students should be familiar with the common causes of misalignment.
▪ There are options for aligning machines using dial indicators or laser alignment systems.
Parallel and angular misalignment
▪ Misalignment is one of the “big four” faults and therefore, students are required to
understand it in detail.
▪ There are two types of misalignment, angular (gap) and parallel (offset)
▪ Misalignment is defined in terms of vertical and horizontal offsets and angles.
▪ Students should understand the spectral patterns, waveform patterns and phase
relationships associated with both types of misalignment.
▪ Students should know how to differentiate between misalignment and unbalance.
▪ In 2 pole motors, 2X and 2xLF may combine to create one peak if there is not enough
resolution in the spectrum.
▪ The vibration associated with misalignment may vary based on coupling type.
▪ Flexible couplings still need to be aligned!
▪ The best way to ensure that machines are aligned is to have a strong precision alignment
policy and to do acceptance testing on machines.
Soft foot
▪ Soft foot and pipe strain are related to and also cause misalignment.
▪ Soft foot and pipe strain conditions should be checked for and resolved as part of the shaft
alignment process.
▪ In AC Induction motors, soft foot results in an increase in the 2xLF peak.
Bent shaft
▪ Students should understand the motion associated with a bent shaft.
▪ Students should be able to recognize the fault condition based on changes in spectra and the
associated phase readings.

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Misalignment…
Cocked bearing
▪ Students should be familiar with the concept of a cocked bearing.
▪ Cocked bearings are the result of poor bearing mounting procedures.
▪ Bearings may be cocked on the inner or outer race.
▪ The life of the bearing will be greatly reduced if it is cocked.
▪ Students should be aware of the method for detecting a cocked bearing and the phase
relationships in the axial direction.

Shaft alignment
Introduction to shaft alignment
▪ Students should understand the importance of precision shaft alignment.
▪ Students should understand the importance of the following items related to shaft
alignment:
▪ Safety and lock out specs
▪ Clean shims
▪ Clean work environment
▪ Students should understand the terms “soft foot” and “pipe strain” and their relationship to
shaft alignment.
▪ Students should understand the concept of alignment targets
▪ One needs to know the target before beginning an alignment
Dial indicator alignment
▪ Students should be familiar with dial indicators and issues related to using dial indicators.
▪ Students should know what bar sag is and know that it must be compensated for.
▪ Students should be able to recognize the reverse dial and the rim face alignment
configurations.
Laser alignment
▪ Students should be aware the existence of laser alignment systems and generally how they
work.
▪ Students should be able to list some of the benefits of laser alignment Vs dial indicator
alignment
▪ Students should understand the terms “base bound” and “bolt bound”
▪ Students should be aware of issues related to thermal growth and dynamic movement.
▪ That some systems can measure the actual movement
▪ That thermal growth can be calculated
▪ Students should have a general grasp of the alignment process

Mechanical looseness
Rotating looseness
▪ Looseness is a “big four” fault and therefore students should be very familiar with all aspects
of this fault.
▪ Students should be familiar with the concept of looseness and should be aware that it is not
always clear exactly what is loose.
▪ Two patterns associated with rotating looseness are
▪ Increase in number and amplitude of shaft rate harmonics
▪ Sub harmonics
▪ Students should be able to recognize symptoms of rotating looseness in both the vibration
spectrum and the time waveform
▪ An unstable phase reading may also be attributable to this fault condition

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Mechanical looseness…
Structural looseness
▪ Students should understand the difference between structural looseness and structural
weakness.
▪ The two require different corrective actions
▪ Students should be able to recognize these faults in the vibration spectrum.
▪ Students should understand the relationship between structural weakness and unbalance.
▪ Students should understand the phase relationship between two loose parts.
Pillow block bearings
▪ Looseness in pillow block bearings is often treated as a separate case or type of looseness.
▪ Students should be aware of the spectral patterns created by looseness in pillow block
bearings.

Belt drive analysis

Forcing frequencies and speed ratios
▪ Students should be able to calculate the speed ratio based on the diameters of the two
pulleys/sheaves.
▪ Students should be able to compute forcing frequencies of components (e.g. a fan) on the
output pulley.
Belt damage
▪ Students should be able to calculate the Belt Rate (BR) frequency.
▪ Students should understand that the belt rate will be less than running speed.
▪ Students should be able to recognize belt damage from a spectrum that has a peak at BR
with harmonics.
Eccentricity
▪ Students should be familiar with the definition of eccentricity
▪ Students should be aware that eccentricity and unbalance can be easily confused with each
other.
▪ Note that there are differences in phase readings
▪ Students should understand the difference between resolving an eccentricity problem and
resolving an unbalance problem.
Belt misalignment
▪ Students should understand that belts should be installed properly and the pulleys/sheaves
should be correctly aligned.
▪ Students should be able to recognize spectral patterns that indicate that the belts are
misaligned.

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Rolling element bearings

▪ Students should know how to detect the most common fault conditions: damage on the
inner and outer race, and damage on the rolling elements.
▪ Students should know how to calculate the BPFO, BPFI, BS and FTF frequencies, and
understand that they are non-synchronous.
▪ Students should know why we observe harmonics and sidebands of the key forcing
frequencies.
▪ Students should understand when time waveforms can provide additional information
related to the nature and severity of the bearing fault.
▪ Students should understand the fundamentals of "enveloping", and the basics of the shock
pulse, spike energy, and PeakVue techniques.

Electric motors
AC induction motors
▪ Students should understand in general how an AC induction motor works.
▪ Students should be familiar with the key components of the Induction motor
▪ Stator (windings)
▪ Rotor (bars)
▪ Air gap
▪ Poles
▪ Students should understand the difference between an induction motor and a synchronous
motor.
▪ Students should know what the slip frequency is.
▪ Students should understand the source of the 2xLF vibration and should be able to identify
this in a vibration spectrum.
▪ Students should be aware that one method to determine if vibration is electrical or
mechanical is to turn off the power.
▪ Students should be aware that motors can suffer from unbalance, misalignment, looseness
and bearing wear in addition to other faults particular to them.
Variable frequency drives
▪ Students should understand the concept of the VFD
▪ That it varies the input electrical frequency to the motor
▪ Students should be aware that VFDs are typically used to
▪ Meet process needs for particular run speeds
▪ To save money on energy
▪ VFDs can create problems for vibration analysts:
▪ They can change speed during the measurement, thereby smearing the spectrum
and resulting in bad data.
▪ The analyst needs to know the actual run speed to identify 1X in the spectrum.
▪ It is important to try to test machines at the same speed and load
Stator related fault conditions
▪ Stator problems result in an increase in amplitude of the 2xLF peak.
▪ Stator problems include:
▪ Eccentric stator – also called a non-uniform air gap
▪ usually caused by soft foot
▪ Loose stator windings

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Electric motors…
Rotor related fault conditions
▪ Students should be able to calculate the following frequencies:
▪ Slip frequency
▪ Pole pass frequency
▪ Students should understand the pattern produced by motor rotor bars and be able to
identify this pattern in a vibration spectrum without knowing how many bars there are.
▪ Students should be aware that rotors may have the following faults:
▪ Eccentric rotor - variable rotating air gap
▪ Thermal rotor bow
▪ Broken or cracked bars
▪ Lamination problems
▪ Loose connectors
▪ Students do not need to memorize the patterns associated with each of these faults.
▪ Students should understand that amplitude modulation and sidebands are common in
motors.
▪ Students should be aware that other tests are available, such as motor current analysis, to
find many of the same faults in motors.

Gearbox analysis
Forcing frequencies
▪ Students should appreciate that gearboxes can have complicated designs and they can
generate a lot of different frequencies.
▪ Students should be able to compute the forcing frequencies for single and two stage
gearboxes.
▪ Shaft speeds
▪ Gearmesh frequencies
▪ Sideband frequencies
Time waveform analysis
▪ Students should understand the benefit of time waveform analysis over just using spectrum
analysis.
▪ Observing what happens as teeth mesh together
▪ Assessing the severity of the fault
▪ Based on this and the time waveform chapter, students should understand the need to
capture 4-10 shaft rotations, with a high enough sample rate to capture the detail as teeth
mesh together.
Diagnosing faults
▪ Students should be able to make a basic assessment of gear health based on changes in the
spectrum
▪ Changes in the amplitude of GMF
▪ The presence of GMF harmonics
▪ The presence and spacing of sidebands around GMF
▪ Students should understand the nature of the forces generated with excessive tooth load,
tooth wear, backlash, misalignment, eccentricity and cracked or broken teeth and how that
may affect the spectrum.

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Page 18 VCAT-II key points

Pumps, fans and compressors

▪ Students should be able to calculate the blade/lobe/vane pass frequency.
▪ Students should be able to identify the blade/lobe/vane pass frequency in a spectrum.
▪ Students should understand why the amplitude at the blade/lobe/vane pass frequency will
increase, and why we might observe harmonics and sidebands.
▪ Students should be able to identify cavitation, turbulence and loose impeller in a spectrum.

Natural frequencies and resonances

▪ Students should understand the terms “natural frequency” and “resonance”.
▪ Students should understand mass, stiffness and damping and their relationship to natural
frequencies.
▪ Students should be aware of the relationship between damping and amplification “Q”
▪ Students should understand the importance of avoiding resonance.
▪ Students should be aware of the tests used to find natural frequencies and the associated
data views or graphs.
▪ Students should have a feel for how modifications can be made to correct resonance
conditions.

Setting alarm limits

ISO standards
▪ Students should understand that the ISO standards exist and provide industry accepted
guidelines.
▪ Students should also understand the limitations of using overall levels as the primary criteria
for determining machine condition.
▪ Students should understand the difference between ISO 10816 and ISO 7919.
▪ Students should understand the purpose of ISO 14694.
▪ Students should be able to use ISO 10816-3.
Alarm types
▪ Students should understand why it is important to correctly set alarm limits on vibration
spectra.
▪ Students should understand the difference between mask alarms and band alarms.
▪ Students should understand that band alarms can be used for trending as well as alarming.
▪ Students should understand that alarms can be set manually, and they can be set by
automated calculation based on previous data.

Acceptance testing
▪ Students should understand the importance of performing acceptance testing in their plant
or facility.
▪ Students should understand that acceptance testing should be performed on new
equipment and equipment being repaired/overhauled by outside contractors.
▪ Students should understand that there are ISO standards that can provide guidance on how
to set vibration limits on new or overhauled equipment.
▪ Students should understand they should be able to follow a test plan to ensure that tests are
performed according to the acceptance testing specification.

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