GROUP 5:

VARIABLE

A variable is a
characteristic that can be
measured and that can
assume different values.
 Qualitative Variables
Qualitative variables are those that express a qualitative
attribute such as hair color, eye color, religion, favorite
movie, gender, and so on. The values of a qualitative
variable do not imply a numerical ordering.

Quantitative Variables
Qualitative variables are sometimes referred to as
categorical variables. Quantitative variables are those
variables that are measured in terms of numbers. Some
examples of quantitative variables are height, weight, and
shoe size.
 Discrete Variablesd
continuous
Discrete variablesvariables
are variables that can take on only a finite
or countable number of distinct values. These values are
usually whole numbers and cannot be broken down into
fractions or decimals within the context of the measurement.

Continuous Variables
Continuous variables are numerical variables that can take
an infinite number of values within a given range. These
variables are measured rather than counted and can have
decimal or fractional values.
 Independent Variables
continuous
Independent variables
variable is a variable that is manipulated or
categorized to observe its effect on a dependent variable. It
is the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Dependent Variables
Dependent variable is the variable that is being measured
or tested in an experiment. It is the outcome or response
that depends on the changes in one or more independent
variables.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

refers to a classification system in statistics

that describes how precisely a variable can
be measured, categorized into four main
types: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale

It is the simplest type of measurement scale used

for categorizing data without any quantitative
value or order. It consists of labels or names that
classify data into distinct groups.
Ordinal Scale

It is a type of measurement scale that represents

data in a specific order or rank, but the differences
between the ranks are not necessarily equal.
Interval Scale

It is a type of measurement scale in statistics that

has equal intervals between values but no true
zero point. This means that while you can measure
the difference between values, you cannot make
meaningful ratio comparisons.
Ratio Scale
It is the highest level of measurement in statistics,
offering a true zero point, equal intervals, and the
ability to perform meaningful mathematical
operations. It is used to measure variables where
comparisons like multiplication and division make
sense.
DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of

gathering, measuring, and
analyzing information from
various sources to gain insights,
make decisions, or test
hypotheses
Observation and Measurement

Observation and measurement are data collection

methods where researchers systematically watch,
record, and quantify behaviors or phenomena.
Observation gathers qualitative insights, while
measurement assigns numerical values for precise
analysis.
Interview

It is a data collection method involving direct

communication between an interviewer and a
respondent to gather information, opinions, or
experiences through structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured questioning.
Questionnaires

It is a data collection method that consists of a set

of structured or unstructured questions designed to
gather information from respondents. It can be
administered through surveys, interviews, or online
forms.
 Database

It is an organized collection of data stored

electronically, enabling easy access, management,
and retrieval. One data collection method is surveys,
where structured questionnaires gather quantitative
or qualitative data from respondents for research,
analysis, or decision-making purposes.
Tallies

refer to marks or counts used to

record frequencies of data values
in a dataset. They are often used
in tally charts or frequency tables
to help organize and summarize
data.
Frequency Table
A frequency table in statistics is a table
that organizes data into categories and
shows the number of times (or frequency)
each category or value appears in a
dataset. It helps summarize large datasets
and makes it easier to analyze patterns.
Tabular Form

A Tabular form refers to presenting data

in a structured table format, where
information is organized in rows and
columns. This format makes it easy to
compare, analyze, and interpret data.
Line Graphs

A line graph in statistics is a type of chart

used to display data points connected by
a continuous line. It is useful for showing
trends, patterns, and changes over time.
Pie Charts

A pie chart in statistics is a circular graph

used to represent data as proportional
slices of a whole. Each slice of the pie
represents a category, and the size of
each slice is proportional to its
percentage of the total.
Bar Graphs

A bar graph (or bar chart) in statistics is a

graphical representation of data using
rectangular bars. The length or height of
each bar is proportional to the value it
represents. Bar graphs are commonly used
to compare categories of data.
Histograms

A histogram in statistics is a graphical

representation of the distribution of
numerical data. It looks similar to a
bar graph but is used to show the
frequency distribution of continuous
data by dividing it into intervals,
called bins or classes.
Histograms

A histogram in statistics is a graphical

representation of the distribution of
numerical data. It looks similar to a
bar graph but is used to show the
frequency distribution of continuous
data by dividing it into intervals,
called bins or classes.
Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a method

where every individual in a
population has a known, equal
chance of being selected. It
reduces bias, ensures fairness,
and allows results to be
generalized.
Simple Random Sampling
- is a method where individuals are chosen
randomly, giving everyone an equal chance of
selection. It ensures fairness and eliminates bias.
This method is often used in research to get a
representative sample from a large population.
Stratified Sampling
- divides a population into distinct groups (strata)
based on characteristics like age or gender. A
random sample is taken from each group, ensuring
representation. This method improves accuracy by
reflecting the diversity of the entire population in
the sample.
Systematic Sampling
- selects individuals at regular intervals from a list,
starting from a random point. For example,
choosing every 5th person from a list. This method
is simple, organized, and ensures a well-spread
sample across the population.
Cluster Sampling
- divides a population into groups (clusters), then
randomly selects entire clusters instead of
individuals. This method is useful for large, spread-
out populations, making data collection more
practical and cost-effective while still maintaining a
representative sample.
Non-Probability Sampling

It is a method where individuals are

selected based on convenience or
researcher judgment rather than random
selection. It is useful for quick, exploratory
studies but may introduce bias, limiting the
ability to generalize findings to the entire
population.
Convenience Sampling
- selects participants based on ease of access, such
as choosing people nearby or available. It is quick
and cost-effective but may lead to biased results
since the sample may not accurately represent the
entire population.
Purposive Sampling
- involves selecting participants based on specific
criteria or researcher judgment. It is used when
studying a particular group with unique
characteristics, ensuring relevant data collection.
However, it may introduce bias and limit
generalizability to the broader population.
Quota Sampling
- ensures specific groups in a population are
represented by setting a target number for each
category (e.g., gender, age). Participants are
selected non-randomly until quotas are filled,
making it useful but prone to selection bias.
Snowball Sampling
- recruits participants through referrals from
existing participants, useful for studying hard-to-
reach groups like drug users or refugees. It
expands the sample progressively but may
introduce bias since participants may share similar
characteristics or backgrounds.
Thank
You!!!