THE GAMBIA UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: CALCULUS 1 COURSE CODE: MATH 101

CREDIT UNIT: 3 UNITS LEVEL: 100

UNIT 1: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

The limit of a function at a point ‘a’ in its domain (domain refers to a set of input values for
which a function is defined) (if it exists) is defined as the value a function approaches as its
argument (input value) approaches a particular point ‘a’. The limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as x approaches ‘a’ is
written as: lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L, it means that as x gets arbitrarily close to a, 𝑓(𝑥) gets arbitrarily close to L, then
𝑥→𝑎
L is the limit of the function as x approaches ‘a’.

The concept of a limit or limiting process is essential to the understanding of calculus and has
been around for thousands of years.

We begin our quest to understand limits, by using an intuitive approach before we examine the
formal definition of a limit.

Let us begin our exploration of limits by looking at the graphs of the following functions:

𝑥 2 −4 |𝑥−2| 1
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑖𝑖) 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑖𝑖𝑖) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)2

which are shown in Figure 1. In particular, let’s focus our attention on the behavior of each
graph at and around x = 2.

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Figure 1 : These graphs show the behavior of three different functions around x = 2.

Each of the three functions is undefined at x = 2, but if we make this statement and no other,
we give a very incomplete picture of how each function behaves in the vicinity of x = 2. To
express the behavior of each graph in the vicinity of 2 more completely, we need to introduce
the concept of a limit.

INTUITIVE DEFINITION OF A LIMIT

𝑥 2 −4
Let us first take a closer look at how the function 𝑓(𝑥) = behaves around x = 2 in
𝑥−2
Figure 1. As the values of x approach 2 from either side of 2, the values of y = f(x) approach 4.
Mathematically, we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 4.

Symbolically, we express this limit as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4.

𝑥→2

Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing ‘a’, except for ‘a’ itself,
and let L be a real number. If all values of the function f(x) approach the real number L as the
values of x(≠a) approach the number ‘a’, then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L.
In order words, as x gets closer to a, f(x) gets closer and stays close to L. Symbolically, we
express this idea as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L
𝑥→𝑎

To evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L, we begin by completing a table of functional values. We should

𝑥→𝑎
choose two sets of x-values—one set of values approaching ‘a’ and less than ‘a’, and another
set of values approaching ‘a’ and greater than ‘a’.

Table 1 demonstrates what the table might look like.

Table 1: Table of functional values

If both columns approach a common y - value L, we state lim 𝑓(𝑥) = L. We can use the
𝑥→𝑎
following strategy to confirm the result obtained from the table or as an alternative method for
estimating a limit.

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Example 1

√𝑥−2
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

Solution

After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreasing
toward 0.25 whereas the functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward 0.25.
√𝑥−2
We conclude that lim = 0.25
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

Example 2
sin 𝑥
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

sin 𝑥
Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
Figure 2 : The graph of f(x) = 𝑥

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Example 3.
1
Evaluate lim sin ( 𝑥 ) using a table of functional values.
𝑥→0

Solution

After examining the table of functional values, we can see that the y - values do not seem to
1
approach any one single value. At this point we can conclude that lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥 ) does not exist.
𝑥→0
“Does not exist” is frequently as DNE.

ONE- SIDED LIMITS

Sometimes indicating that the limit of a function fails to exist at a point does not provide us
with enough information about the behavior of the function at that point. To see this, we now
|𝑥−2|
revisit the function 𝑔(𝑥) = introduced at the beginning of the section (see Figure 1 (b)).
𝑥−2

As we pick values of x close to 2, g(x) does not approach a single value, so the limit as x
approaches 2 does not exist, that is, lim 𝑔(𝑥) DNE.
𝑥→2

However, this statement alone does not give us a complete picture of the behavior of
the function around the x - value 2. To provide a more accurate description, we introduce the
idea of a one-sided limit. For all values to the left of 2 (or the negative side of 2), g(x) = −1. Thus,
as x approaches 2 from the left, g(x) approaches −1.

Mathematically, we say that the limit as x approaches 2 from the left is −1. Symbolically, we
express this idea as lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = −1.
𝑥→2

Similarly, as x approaches 2 from the right (or from the positive side), g(x) approaches 1.
Symbolically, we express this idea as lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = 1.
𝑥→2

We define two types of one-sided limits.

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Limit from the Left: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the
form (z,a), and let L be a real number. If the values of the function f(x) approach the real
number L as the values of x (where x < a) approach the number ‘a’, then we say that L is the

Limit of f(x) as x approaches ‘a’ from the left.

Symbolically, we express this idea as lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎

Limit from the Right: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the
form (a,c), and let L be a real number. If the values of the function f(x) approach the real
number L as the values of x (where x>a) approach the number ‘a’, then we say that L is the Limit
of f(x) as x approaches ‘a’ from the right.

Symbolically, we express this idea as lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.

𝑥→𝑎

Example 4

𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { , evaluate each of the following limits.
𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2

i. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2−
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2+

Solution

We can use tables of functional values again. Observe in Table 2 that for values of x less than 2,
we use f(x) = x+1 and for values of xx greater than 2, we use f(x) = 𝑥 2 − 4 .

Table 2.

Based on this table, we can conclude that

i. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
𝑥→2−
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→2+

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Therefore, the (two-sided) limit of f(x) does not exist at x = 2. Figure 3 shows a graph of f(x) and
reinforces our conclusion about these limits.

𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
Figure 3: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = { , has a break at x = 2.
𝑥 2 − 4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2

INFINITE LIMITS

Evaluating the limit of a function at a point or evaluating the limit of a function from the right
and left at a point helps us to characterize the behavior of a function around a given value. As
we shall see, we can also describe the behavior of functions that do not have finite limits.
1
Let us consider the function ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)2 , the third and final function introduced at the
beginning (see Figure 1 (c)). From its graph we see that as the values of x approach 2, the values
1
of ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)2

becomes larger and larger and, in fact, become infinite. Mathematically, we say that the limit

of h(x) as x approaches 2 is positive infinity. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥→2
+∞

More generally, we define infinite limits as follows:

Infinite limits from the left: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the
form (b,a).

i). If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x < a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ from the left is positive infinity and
we write lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞.
𝑥→𝑎

ii). If the values of f(x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x < a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ from the left is negative infinity and
we write lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞.
𝑥→𝑎

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Infinite limits from the right: Let f(x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the
form (a,c).

i). If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x > a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ from the right is positive infinity and
we write lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞.
𝑥→𝑎

ii). If the values of f(x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x > a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ from the right is negative infinity and
we write lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∞.
𝑥→𝑎

Two-sided infinite limit: Let f(x) be defined for all x≠a in an open interval containing ‘a’

i). If the values of f(x) increase without bound as the values of x (where x≠a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ is positive infinity and we write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞.

𝑥→𝑎

ii). If the values of f(x) decrease without bound as the values of x (where x≠a) approach the
number ‘a’, then we say that the limit as x approaches ‘a’ is negative infinity and we write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞.

𝑥→𝑎

It is important to understand that when we write statements such as

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, we are describing the behavior of the
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

function, as we have just defined it. We are not asserting that a limit exists. For the limit of a

function f(x) to exist at ‘a’, it must approach a real number L as x approaches ‘a’. That said, if,
for example, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞, we always write lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

rather than lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE.

𝑥→𝑎

Example 5

Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and graph f(x)
1
= 𝑥 to confirm your conclusion.

1
i. lim
𝑥→0− 𝑥
1
ii. lim
𝑥→0+ 𝑥

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 1
iii. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

1
The graph of f(x) = in Figure 2 confirms these conclusions.
𝑥

Figure 2: The graph of f(x)=1/x confirms that the limit as x approaches 0 does not exist.

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PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

i. The limit of a constant is the constant itself, that is,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 = 𝒌 where k is constant.

𝒙→𝒂

ii. The limit of a sum of a finite number of functions is the sum of their respective limits,
that is,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) + 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) + ⋯ 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) + 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙)+ ⋯ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

iii. The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits, that is,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) − 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) − 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙)

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

iv. The limit of the product of a finite number of functions is equal to the product of their
respective limits, that is,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) × 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) × … 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)] = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) × 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) × … 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

v. The limit of the quotient of two functions is the quotient of their respective limits, that
is,

𝒇 (𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙)

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒙→𝒂
, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙) ≠ 𝟎
𝒙→𝒂 𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 (𝒙) 𝒙→𝒂
𝒙→𝒂 𝟐

vi. The limit of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the
constant and the limit of the function, that is,
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
vii. Power law for limits:

𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒇(𝒙))𝒏 = (𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙))𝒏 = 𝑳𝒏 , for every positive integer n.

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

viii. Root law for limits:

𝒏 𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏√𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝑳 , for all L if n is odd and for L ≥ 𝟎 if n is even.
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

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LIMIT APPROACHING INFINITY

Infinity is a very special idea in mathematics. We know we cannot reach it, but we can still try to
1
work out the value of functions that have infinity in them. The limit of as x approaches
𝑥
infinity (∞) is 0.
1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

The limit of 𝑒 𝑥 as x approaches negative infinity is 0

lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→−∞

CONTINUITY OF FUNCTION

that is, the limit of the function as x approaches a is equal to the value of the function at x = a.

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if and only if the above conditions are satisfied:

The graphical interpretation of continuity of a function f(x) at a point x =a is that there is no

break in the graph of y = f(x) at x = a. Also, if a function f(x) is continuous in each interval, then
the graph of the curve y = f(x) is also continuous in that interval as there is no break in the
graph of the curve in that interval.

When a function f(x) is not continuous at x = a, it is said to be discontinuous at a point x = a. The

point x = a is called POINT OF DISCONTINUITY.

Example 1

Determine whether the function f(x) = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 is continuous at x= 1

Solution

A function is continuous only if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

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f(x)= 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2

f(1)= 4(1)3 + 3(1)2 + 5(1) − 2 = 10

Thus, f(x) is defined at x = 1 and its value is 10

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim(4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2) = lim 4𝑥 3 + lim 3𝑥 2 + lim 5𝑥 − lim 2

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

4(1)3 + 3(1)2 + 5(1) − 2 = 10

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = f (1)

𝑥→1

Hence, f (x)= 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 is continuous at x = 1.

Example 2

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5
Examine continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 3 at point x = 2.
𝑥+3

Solution

A function is continuous only if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

(2)2 + 2(2) + 5 13
𝑓(2) = =
2+3 5
13
The f(x) is defined at x = 2 and its value is 5

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5 lim (𝑥 2 )+lim (2𝑥)+lim (5) 4+4+5 13

𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim[ ]= = = .
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥+3 lim (𝑥)+lim (3) 2+3 5
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

13
Thus, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = f (2) =
𝑥→2 5

𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5
Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous at x = 2.
𝑥+3

SOLV EXAMPLES ON LIMIT

Example 1

𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate the lim( )
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

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Solution

𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
lim ( ) = lim = lim(𝑥 + 2 ) = 2 + 2 = 4
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2

Example 2
|𝑥−2|
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Solution
|𝑥−2|
Considering lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

−(𝑥−2)
We need to look at the limit from the left of 2, that is, lim− [ ]
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

(𝑥−2)
and from the right of 2, that is, lim+ [ ]
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

−(𝑥−2) − 1(𝑥−2)
lim− = lim− [ ] = −1 and
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

(𝑥−2) 1(𝑥−2)
lim = lim+[ ]=1
𝑥→2+ 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Since the limit from the left of 2 is not the same as the value from the right of 2, the two-sided
limit of the function does not exist at 2.

Example 3

√𝑥−2
Evaluate the lim ( )
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

Solution

√𝑥−2 √𝑥−2 1 1 1
lim ( ) = lim ( = lim ( =( =
𝑥→4 𝑥−4 𝑥→4 √𝑥−2)(√𝑥+2) 𝑥→4 √𝑥+2) √4+2) 4

Example 4

𝑥2− 9
Evaluate the lim ( )
𝑥→ −3 𝑥+3

Solution

𝑥2− 9 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
lim ( ) = lim = lim ( 𝑥 − 3) = - 6
𝑥→ −3 𝑥+3 𝑥→ −3 𝑥+3 𝑥→ −3

Example 5

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 𝑥 2 −25
Find the lim [ 𝑥 2 +𝑥−30 ]
𝑥→ 5

Solution

𝑥 2 −25 (𝑥−5)(𝑥+5) (𝑥+5) 10

lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→ 5 𝑥 2 +𝑥−30 𝑥→ 5 (𝑥−5)(𝑥+6) 𝑥→ 5 (𝑥+6) 11

Example 6
1
Evaluate the lim (𝑥−2)2
𝑥→2

Solution
1 1 1
1 1 𝑥2 4 4
lim (𝑥−2)2 = lim [ 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+4
] = lim[ 4 4 ]= 4 4 = 0
= ∞
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 1− + 1− +
𝑥 𝑥2 2 4

Example 7

3𝑥 2
Find the lim
𝑥→ ∞ 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1

Solution

3𝑥2
3𝑥 2 𝑥2 3
lim = lim [ 4𝑥2 2
] = lim [ 2 3
𝑥→ ∞ 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1 𝑥→ ∞ + − 2
3 𝑥→ ∞ 4+ − 2
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

As x takes large values (infinity), the term x/2 and 1/𝑥 2 approaches 0, hence the limit of the
3
function is 4

ADDITIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATION OF LIMIT: L’ HOSPITAL’S RULE

As we have seen, we may evaluate easily the limits of polynomials and limits of some (but not
all) rational functions by direct substitution. However, as we saw in the introductory section on
limits, it is certainly possible for lim 𝑓(𝑥) to exist when f (a) is undefined.
𝑥→𝑎

The L’ Hospital’s theorem allows us to replace a limit problem with another that may be simpler
to solve.

If Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and Lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 and

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 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝐿𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑔′(𝑥) ] has a finite value L or is of the form of +∞ or -∞, then

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝐿𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑔(𝑥) ] = 𝐿𝑖𝑚 [ 𝑔′(𝑥) ]

Example 8

𝑥 3 + 𝑥2 −𝑥−1
Find the lim
𝑥→1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥−3

Solution

Substituting x = 1 in the numerator and denominator gives an indeterminate value 0/0,

therefore

L’ Hospital theorem is applied thus.

𝑑
(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 −𝑥−1) 3𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1 3(1)2 +2(1)−1 4
lim 𝑑𝑥𝑑 = lim = = =1
𝑥→1 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥−3) 𝑥→1 2𝑥+2 2(1)+2 4
𝑑𝑥

Example 9
sin 𝑥
Find the lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 and lim 𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

L’ Hospital theorem is applied thus.

𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
lim 𝑑 = lim =1
𝑥→0 (𝑥) 𝑥→0 1
𝑑𝑥

Example 10
(𝑒 𝑥 −1)
Find the lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution

lim 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 = 0 and lim 𝑥 = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

L’ Hospital theorem is applied thus.

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 𝑑
(𝑒 𝑥 −1) 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
lim 𝑑 = lim ( 1 ) = 1
𝑥→0 (𝑥) 𝑥→0
𝑑𝑥

PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

Question 1

𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≤ 0
a) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 > 0

Find:

i. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0−

ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→0+

7𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 ≥ 2
b) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
3𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 < 2

Find:

i. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2−

ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→2+

Question 2

Find:

𝒙𝟒 − 𝟏
a) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐
b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ −𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒

√(𝒙𝟐 +𝟗) − 𝟓
c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ −𝟒 𝒙+𝟒

√(𝒙𝟐 +𝟏) − 𝟏
d) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ 𝟎 𝒙

15 | P a g e
 𝟏
e) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒙)
𝒙→ 𝟎

Question 3

Find:
𝟑𝒙+𝟑
a) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ ∞ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒

𝟒𝒙𝟓 − 𝟏
b) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ + ∞ 𝟑𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕

𝟓𝒙+𝟐
c) 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ − ∞ √ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏

Question 4

𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙 − 𝟏

Question 5
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟑
Let 𝒇(𝒙) = ,
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒

a) Find the arguments x at which f(x) is discontinuous.

b) For each number a at which f(x) is discontinuous, determine whether lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. If
𝑥→𝑎
it exists, find its value.
c) Write an equation for the vertical and horizontal asymptote of f(x).

UNIT 2: THE DERIVATIVE

In mathematics, the derivative is a fundamental tool that quantifies the sensitivity to change of
a function's output with respect to its input. The derivative of a function of a single variable at a
chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the
function at that point. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near

16 | P a g e
that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the instantaneous rate of
change, the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the
independent variable. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation.

DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE: AS A LIMIT

A function of a real variable f(x) is differentiable at a point a of its domain, if its domain
contains an open interval containing ⁠a⁠, and the limit
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝐿 = lim exists.
ℎ→0 ℎ

If the function f(x) is differentiable at ⁠a⁠, that is if the limit L exists, then this limit is called
the derivative of f(x) at a.
𝑑𝑓
One way to think of the derivative is as the ratio of an infinitesimal change in the output of
𝑑𝑥
the function to an infinitesimal change in its input. Differentiation is an incremental notation of
a function. It could be deduced by
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦2 −𝑦1
= lim = lim
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑥2 −𝑥1

𝑑𝑦
Which can be written as , F’(x), y’(x) or 𝑦̇ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

If f(x) is differentiable at ⁠a⁠, then f(x) must also be continuous at a.

17 | P a g e
This function does not have a derivative at the marked point, as the function is not continuous
there (specifically, it has a jump discontinuity).

The absolute value function is continuous but fails to be differentiable at x = 0 since the tangent
slopes do not approach the same value from the left as they do from the right.

In summary, a function that has a derivative is continuous, but there are continuous functions
that do not have a derivative.

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE

Example 1

Find the derivative of the function y = 2x from first principle

Solution

Let P be a fixed point (x,y) on the graph y =2x and Q be a neigbouring point with coordinate
(x+∆𝑥 ,

𝑦 + ∆𝑦) .

At point Q

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 2(x+∆𝑥)

𝑦 + ∆𝑦 = 2x + 2∆𝑥

18 | P a g e
∆𝑦 = 2x + 2∆𝑥 − y ; but y = 2x

= 2x + 2∆𝑥 – 2x = 2∆𝑥

∆𝑦 = 2∆𝑥

Dividing the expression through by ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 2∆𝑥
= =2
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
As ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= lim =2
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If y = 2x; =2
𝑑𝑥

Example 2

Differentiate y = 4 (a constant) using first principle.

Solution

y=4

y + ∆y = 4

∆y = 4 – 𝑦 = 4 – 4 = 0

∆y = 0

Dividing the expression through by ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 0
= =0
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
As ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= lim =0
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If y = 4 (any constant) ; =0
𝑑𝑥

Example 3

Differentiate y = 3x + 6, using first principle.

19 | P a g e
Solution

y = 3x + 6

y + ∆y = 3(x +∆𝑥) + 6

∆y = 3(x +∆𝑥) + 6 – y ; but y = 3x + 6

∆y = 3(x +∆𝑥) + 6 – (3x + 6)

∆y = 3x +3∆𝑥 + 6 – 3x - 6 = ∆y = 3∆𝑥

∆y = 3∆𝑥

Dividing the expression through by ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 3∆𝑥
= =3
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
As ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= lim =3
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If y = 3x + 6; =3
𝑑𝑥

Example 4

Differentiate 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3 using first principle.

Solution

𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3

y + ∆y = 2(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 + 3 = 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2 ) + 3 = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 + 2(∆𝑥)2 + 3

∆y = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 + 2(∆𝑥)2 + 3 − 𝑦 but 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3

∆y = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥∆𝑥 + 2(∆𝑥)2 + 3 − (2𝑥 2 + 3)

∆y = 4𝑥∆𝑥 + 2(∆𝑥)2

Dividing the expression through by ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 4𝑥∆𝑥+2(∆𝑋)2
= = 4X + 2∆𝑥
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

20 | P a g e
 ∆𝑦 𝑑𝑦
As ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
∆𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= lim = 4x
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 3 ; = 4x
𝑑𝑥

Example 5

Differentiate y = 2𝑥 3 - 7, using first principle.

Summary

A careful look at the above examples above shows that,

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 , then = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥

This is known as the Power rule

𝑑𝑦
Note. If y = a (any constant) , =0
𝑑𝑥

Example 6

Find the derivative of the polynomial, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 , using the power rule.

Solution
𝑑𝑦
= 4.2𝑥 3 − 3.5𝑥 2 + 2.3𝑥1 − 1.2𝑥 0 + 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 8𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥

DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS USING FIRST PRINCIPLE

(i). If y = sin x

y + ∆𝑦 = sin(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑦 = sin(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) - y , but y = sin x

∆𝑦 = sin(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
Note that sin A - sin B = 2 cos ( ) . sin ( )
2 2

21 | P a g e
Let A = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 and B = x
2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 =2 cos ( ). sin ( )
2 2

Dividing through by ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
Δ𝑦 2 cos(𝑥+ ).sin cos(𝑥+ ).sin
2 2 2 2
= = ∆𝑥
Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥
2

∆𝑥
Δ𝑦 ∆𝑥 . sin 2
= cos (𝑥 + )
Δ𝑥 2 ∆𝑥
2
Δ𝑦 𝑑𝑦
When ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
Δ𝑥

∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 .sin
2
= lim cos (𝑥 + ) ∆𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 2
2

𝑑𝑦
= cos 𝑥. 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Thus if y = sin x ; 𝑑𝑥 = cos x

(ii). Derivative of y = cos x

Solution

y = cos x

y + ∆𝑦 = cos(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑦 = cos(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) - y , but y = cos x

∆𝑦 = cos(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
Note that cos A − cos B = −2 sin ( ) . sin ( )
2 2

Let A = 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 and B = x
2𝑥 + ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 = −2 sin ( ). sin ( )
2 2

22 | P a g e
Dividing through by ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
Δ𝑦 −2 sin (𝑥+ ) . sin − sin (𝑥+ ) . sin
2 2 2 2
= = ∆𝑥
Δ𝑥 ∆𝑥
2

∆𝑥
Δ𝑦 ∆𝑥 . sin 2
= − sin (𝑥 + )
Δ𝑥 2 ∆𝑥
2
Δ𝑦 𝑑𝑦
When ∆𝑥 → 0, → 𝑑𝑥
Δ𝑥

∆𝑥
𝑑𝑦 ∆𝑥 sin
2
= lim − sin (𝑥 + ).( ∆𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 2
2

𝑑𝑦
= − sin 𝑥. 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Thus, if y = sin x; 𝑑𝑥 = − sin x

DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Derivative of Exponential function y = 𝑒 𝑥

Solution

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
y = 𝑒𝑥 = 1 + x + + + + ….
2! 3! 4!

If we differentiate each power of x on the right-hand side, we have

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 3𝑥 2 4𝑥 3
=0+1+ + + + ….
𝑑𝑥 2! 3! 4!

𝑑𝑦 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
=1+x+ + + + …. = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2! 3! 4!

𝑑𝑦
Thus, if y = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

23 | P a g e
DIFFERENTIATION OF PRODUCT OF FUNCTIONS

Let y = U V

where U and V are functions of x. If x → x + ∆𝒙 , U → u + ∆𝒖 , V → v + ∆𝒗 , and as a result

y → y + ∆𝒚. Then

y=UV

y + ∆𝒚 = (u + ∆𝒖 ) ( v + ∆𝒗 )

y + ∆𝒚 = uv + 𝒖∆𝒗 + 𝐯∆𝒖 + ∆𝒖 ∆𝒗

∆𝒚 = uv + 𝒖∆𝒗 + 𝐯∆𝒖 + ∆𝒖 ∆𝒗 - y , but y = uv

∆𝒚 = uv + 𝒖∆𝒗 + 𝐯∆𝒖 + ∆𝒖 ∆𝒗 − uv

∆𝒚 = 𝒖∆𝒗 + 𝐯∆𝒖 + ∆𝒖 ∆𝒗

Dividing through by ∆𝒙

∆𝒚 𝒖∆𝒗 𝐯∆𝒖 ∆𝒖 ∆𝒗
= + +
∆𝒙 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒙
𝚫𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝚫𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝚫𝒗 𝒅𝒗
If ∆𝒙 → 𝟎, ∆𝒖 → 𝟎, ∆𝒗 → 𝟎, = 𝒅𝒙, = , = 𝒅𝒙
𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝚫𝒙

𝒅𝒚 𝒖∆𝒗 𝐯∆𝒖 𝒅𝒗 𝐝𝐮
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( + ) = 𝒖 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗
𝒅𝒙 ∆𝒙→𝟎 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Thus, If y = U V
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝐝𝐮
= 𝑼 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑽 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Example 1

Differentiate the function 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Solution

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝐝𝐮 𝒅𝒗
Let 𝑼 = 𝒙𝟑 , = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 , 𝑽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙, = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒚 = 𝒖. 𝒗

24 | P a g e
 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝐝𝐮
By applying product rule = 𝑼 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑽 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒙𝟑 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝟑𝒙𝟐 )
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒙𝟑 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒙𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Example 2

Differentiate the function 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟓 𝒆𝒙

Solution

𝒚 = 𝒙 𝟓 𝒆𝒙
𝐝𝐮 𝒅𝒗
Let 𝑼 = 𝒙𝟓 , 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟓𝒙𝟒 , 𝑽 = 𝒆𝒙 , = 𝒆𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒚 = 𝒖. 𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝐝𝐮
By applying product rule = 𝑼 𝒅𝒙 + 𝑽 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒙𝟓 (𝒆𝒙 ) + 𝒆𝒙 (𝟓𝒙𝟒 )
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒙𝟓 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙𝟒 𝒆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟒 𝒆𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝟓 )
𝒅𝒙

DIFFERENTIATION OF A QUOTIENT OF TWO FUNCTIONS

𝑼
Let y = 𝑽

Where U and V are functions of x. If x → x + ∆𝒙 , U → u + ∆𝒖 , V → v + ∆𝒗 , and as a result y → y

+ ∆𝒚. Then
𝑼
y=𝑽

𝐮 + ∆𝒖
y + ∆𝒚 = 𝐯 + ∆𝒗

𝐮 + ∆𝒖 𝑼
∆𝒚 = − 𝒚 , but y = 𝑽
𝐯 + ∆𝒗

𝐮 + ∆𝒖 𝑼
∆𝒚 = −
𝐯 + ∆𝒗 𝑽

25 | P a g e
 𝒗( 𝐮 + ∆𝒖 ) – 𝒖 (𝐯 + ∆𝒗 ) 𝒖𝒗 + 𝒗∆𝒖 – 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒖∆𝒗
∆𝒚 = =
𝐯(𝐯 + ∆𝒗 ) 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒗∆𝒗

Dividing through by ∆𝒙

𝐯∆𝐮 − 𝐮∆𝐯
𝚫𝒚 𝟐
= 𝐯 + 𝐯∆𝐯
𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝐱
𝐯∆𝐮 𝐮∆𝐯
𝚫𝒚 𝐯∆𝐮 − 𝐮∆𝐯 𝟏 −
𝚫𝐱 𝚫𝐱
=( ) × 𝚫𝐱 =
𝚫𝒙 𝐯 𝟐 + 𝐯∆𝐯 𝐯 𝟐 + 𝐯∆𝐯

𝚫𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝚫𝒖 𝒅𝒖 𝚫𝒗 𝒅𝒗
If ∆𝒙 → 𝟎, ∆𝒖 → 𝟎, ∆𝒗 → 𝟎, = 𝒅𝒙, = , = 𝒅𝒙
𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝚫𝒙

𝐝𝐮 𝐝𝐯
𝒅𝒚 𝐕 − 𝐔
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
𝒅𝒙
= 𝐯𝟐

𝐝𝐮 𝐝𝐯
𝑼 𝒅𝒚 𝐕 − 𝐔
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
If y = 𝑽 , then =
𝒅𝒙 𝐯𝟐

Example 1
4𝑒 𝑥
Differentiate the function 𝑦 = sin 𝑥

Solution
𝐝𝐮 𝒅𝒗
Let 𝑼 = 4𝑒 𝑥 , = 4𝑒 𝑥 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 , = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑈
y= 𝑉

𝐝𝐮 𝐝𝐯
𝒅𝒚 𝐕 − 𝐔
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
𝒅𝒙
= 𝐯𝟐

𝒅𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙(𝟒𝒆𝒙 ) − 𝟒𝒆𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙) 𝟒𝒆𝒙 ( 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)

= =
𝒅𝒙 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙)𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

Example 2

𝟑𝒙𝟐
Differentiate the function 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Solution
𝐝𝐮 𝒅𝒗
Let 𝑼 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 , = 6𝑥 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 , = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑈
y= 𝑉

26 | P a g e
 𝐝𝐮 𝐝𝐯
𝒅𝒚 𝐕 − 𝐔
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
=
𝒅𝒙 𝐯𝟐

𝒅𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 (6𝑥) − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 (−𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙) 𝟑𝒙 (𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙)

= =
𝒅𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙)𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙

Example 3
𝒅𝒚
If y = tan x, show that = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥.
𝒅𝒙

Solution
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
y = tan x = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝒅𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙.𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙.(−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙) 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

= =
𝒅𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝟐 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝟐

Recall that 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = 1

𝒅𝒚 𝟏
=
𝒅𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝟐
𝟏
Recall that = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙, thus
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝒅𝒚
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝒅𝒙

Example 4
𝒅𝒚
If y = sec x, show that = sec x tan x
𝒅𝒙

Example 5
𝒅𝒚
If y = cosec x, show that = −𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTION OF FUNCTION

To differentiate the function of a function, we must first introduce the CHAIN RULE.

Example if y = sin x, y is a function of the angle of x since the value of y depends on the sine of
the given value of x.

27 | P a g e
If y = sin (2x – 3), y is now a function of the angle (2x - 3) which is itself a function of x.
Therefore, y is a function of function of x. If y = sin (2x - 3), we let u = 2x – 3, that is,

y = sin u where u = 2x – 3.

If x has an increase 𝜹𝒖 and then y will have an increase 𝜹𝒚 . Thus

x → 𝒙 + 𝜹𝒙, u → 𝒖 + 𝜹𝒖, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 y → 𝒚 + 𝜹𝒚.

𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒖
= ×
𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒖 𝜹𝒙
If 𝜹𝒙 → 𝟎, 𝜹𝒖 → 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜹𝒚 → 𝟎. Then
𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒖 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒖
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( × ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) × 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒖 𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒖 𝜹𝒙→𝟎 𝜹𝒙

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= ×
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙
This is known as CHAIN RULE.

Example 1

Differentiate the function y = (3𝑥 + 5)4

Solution

𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 5)4
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
Let u = 3x + 5, =3 and𝑦 = 𝑢4 , = 4u3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 = 4u3 (3) = 12u3
𝑑𝑥

But recall that u = 3x + 5 , thus

𝑑𝑦
= 12(3x + 5)3
𝑑𝑥
Example 2

Find the derivative of the function y = sin (2x – 3)

Solution

y = sin (2x – 3)

28 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
Let u = 2x - 3 , =2 and y = sin u , 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑢
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑢 (2) = 2 cos u
𝑑𝑥

But recall that u = 2x - 3, thus

𝑑𝑦
= 2 cos( 2𝑥 − 3)
𝑑𝑥

Example 3

Find the derivative of the function y = 𝑒 (5𝑥+2)

Solution

y = 𝑒 (5𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
Let u = 5x + 2 , =5 and y = 𝑒 𝑢 , 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑢 (5 ) = 5 𝑒 𝑢
𝑑𝑥

But recall that u = 5x + 2, thus

𝑑𝑦
= 5 𝑒 (5𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥

Example 4
1 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = , find .
√( 3+𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution

1 1
𝑦= = (3 + 𝑥 2 )− 2
√( 3 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑢
Let u = 3 + 𝑥 2 , = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1⁄ 𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 3
𝑦 = 𝑢− 2 , = − 2 𝑢−2 −1 = − 2 𝑢−2
𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 3 1 3 3 1
= 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 𝑢−2 × 2𝑥 = - 2x . 2 𝑢−2 = - x . 𝑢−2 = - x. 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 ⁄2

29 | P a g e
But u = 3 + 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
= − 3
𝑑𝑥 ( 3 + 𝑥 2 ) ⁄2

Example 5

Differentiate with respect to x

cos 2 𝑥
y = √(1+sin 𝑥 )

Solution

cos 2 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 1
y = √(1+sin 𝑥 ) = [(1+sin 𝑥 )]2

cos 2 𝑥 1
𝑦=[ ]2
(1 + sin 𝑥 )
cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 ((1+sin 𝑥 ).(−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)−cos 2𝑥.(cos 𝑥)
Let u = 1+sin 𝑥 , =
𝑑𝑥 (1+sin 𝑥 )2

1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
y = 𝑢2 , = 𝑢 −2
𝑑𝑢 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 1 ((1+sin 𝑥 ).(−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥)−cos 2𝑥.(cos 𝑥)

= 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 −2 ×
𝑑𝑥 2 (1+sin 𝑥 )2

cos 2 𝑥
But u = 1+sin 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 cos 2 𝑥 −1 ((1 + sin 𝑥 ). (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥) − cos 2𝑥. (cos 𝑥)

= ( ) 2×
𝑑𝑥 2 1 + sin 𝑥 (1 + sin 𝑥 )2

SUMMARY OF DERIVATIVES

(1) Standard Derivatives

y = f (x) 𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙

1 𝒙𝒏 n. 𝒙𝒏−𝟏

30 | P a g e
 2 C (Constant) 0

3 𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙

4 𝒆𝒌𝒙 K. 𝒆𝒌𝒙

5 sin x Cos x

6 cos x − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

7 tan x 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 x

8 cot x − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙

9 Sec x Sec x tan x

10 Cosec x − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙

11 Sinh x Cosh x

12 Cosh x Sinh x

13 ln x 𝟏
𝒙

14 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 𝟏
𝒙. 𝐥𝐧 𝒂

15 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒙 ln x

2. Rule of Derivative

• If y = uv ( Product Rule )
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖
=𝑼 + 𝑽 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑼
• If y = 𝑽 (Quotient Rule)

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝑽 – 𝑼 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑−𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒅𝒆𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
= = =
𝒅𝒙 𝑽𝟐 ( 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 )𝟐

31 | P a g e
Example 1

Find the derivative of the following functions

i. y = ln (3x - 4)
ii. y = tan (2x + 3)
iii. 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

solution

(a). y = ln (3x - 4)
𝒅𝒖
let u = 3x – 4 ; 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟑

𝒅𝒚 𝟏
y = ln u ; 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒖

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖 𝟏 𝟑
= 𝒅𝒖 × 𝒅𝒙 = ×𝟑 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒖 (𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒)

(b). y = tan (2x + 3)

𝒅𝒖
let u = 2x + 3 ; 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐

𝒅𝒚
y = tan u ; 𝒅𝒖 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= 𝒅𝒖 × 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 × 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 ( 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑)
𝒅𝒙

(c). y = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒙 = (𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙)𝟐

𝒅𝒖
let u = tan x ; 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙

𝒅𝒚
y = 𝒖𝟐 ; 𝒅𝒖 = 𝟐 𝒖

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= 𝒅𝒖 × 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝒖 × 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

32 | P a g e
Example 2

If 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 , determine:

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
i. and
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒚
ii. the values of x at which =𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
iii. at x= - 2
𝒅𝒙

solution

(i). 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓

𝒅𝒚
= 𝟑. 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
= 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
If = 𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
= 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒚
(ii). =𝟎
𝒅𝒙

𝟔𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎

Dividing through by 2

𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟔 = 𝟎

(3x - 2) (x - 3) = 0
𝟑
X = 𝟐 or 3

𝒅𝒚
(iii). at x = -2 = 𝟔(−𝟐)𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐(−𝟐) + 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎
𝒅𝒙

Example 3

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 , evaluate 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 6 𝑑𝑥 + 9𝑦

33 | P a g e
Solution

𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥. (−3𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + 𝑒 −3𝑥 (2) = −6𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 2𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
= [−6𝑥(−3𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + 𝑒 −3𝑥 (−6)] + (−6𝑒 −3𝑥 ) = 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 6𝑒 −3𝑥 − 6𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
= 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
Therefore

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+6 + 9𝑦 = 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥 + 6(−6𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 2𝑒 −3𝑥 ) + 9(2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 − 12𝑒 −3𝑥 − 36𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 12𝑒 −3𝑥 + 18𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 = 0

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 6 + 9𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Example 4

Find the constant a, b and c in the function 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 such that the slope of the
function at 𝑥 = 1 is 4 and the slope of the function at 𝑥 = −1 is – 8 and passes through the
point (2,5)

DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

Suppose that x and y are variables that are related in such a way that y cannot be expressed
explicitly in terms of x, if ∅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 is the equation which defines the relationship between x
and y then the function ∅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 is called an IMPLICIT FUNCTION.

If ∅(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 we differentiate both sides of the implicit function with respect to x noting that y
𝑑𝑦
is a function of x and we obtain a new equation involving 𝑑𝑥

Example 1

Differentiate the function 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟗 = 𝟎 with respect to x

34 | P a g e
Solution

Given 𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟗 = 𝟎 we differentiate each term with respect to x

𝒅𝒚
𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐. 𝟒 𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 . 𝟐𝒚 −𝟎=𝟎
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟖 𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 𝒚 −𝟎=𝟎
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
𝟖𝒙𝟐 𝒚 = −𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟖 𝒙𝒚𝟐
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚 −𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟖 𝒙𝒚𝟐 −(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟐 )

= =
𝒅𝒙 𝟖𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐𝒙𝒚

Example 2

Find the derivative of the implicit function 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟎 with respect to x.

Solution

Given 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟎 , we differentiate each term with respect to x

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐. 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙. + 𝟑𝒚𝟐 =𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚𝟐 = − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚𝟐 ) = − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙−𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝒚)
= =
𝒅𝒙 (𝟐𝒙+𝟑𝒚𝟐 ) 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚𝟐 )

𝒅𝒚 − 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝒚)
=
𝒅𝒙 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚𝟐 )

Example 3
𝒅𝒚
If xy + sin y = 2 , find 𝒅𝒙

Solution

Given xy + sin y = 2 , we differentiate each term with respect to x

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. 𝑦 + 𝑥. + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

35 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦+𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦) = −𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦)

DIFFERENTIATION OF PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

A parametric equation is a type of mathematical equation where the coordinates of the point
on a curve are expressed as functions of a separate variable, called the parameter. Instead of
describing a relationship directly between x and y (as in y = f(x)), parametric equations use one
or more parameters to define both x and y (or other variables) as functions of that parameter.

Suppose for a curve in two dimensions:

y = f(t) …………………………………………(1)

x = g(t) ………………………………………….(2)

In other words, both x and y are functions of a third variable t. Equations (1) and (2) are called
PARAMETRIC EQUATION.

Let a small increment in t be ∆𝑡.

Let ∆𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑦 be the corresponding increments in x and y respectively, such that when ∆𝑡 →
0,

∆𝑥 → 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑦 → 0.

𝚫𝒚
𝚫𝒚 𝚫𝒕
=
𝚫𝒙 𝚫𝒙
𝚫𝒕
as ∆𝑡 → 0, ∆𝑥 → 0, and ∆𝑦 → 0, hence by taking limits, we have
𝚫𝒚 𝚫𝒚
𝚫𝒚 lim
𝚫𝒕 ∆𝑡→0 𝚫𝒕
lim = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [ 𝚫𝒙 ] = 𝚫𝒙
∆𝑥→0 𝚫𝒙 ∆𝑡→0 lim
𝚫𝒕 ∆𝑡→0 𝚫𝒕

36 | P a g e
Thus
𝐝𝒚
𝐝𝒚 𝐝𝒕
=
𝐝𝒙 𝐝𝒙
𝐝𝒕
Hence, if y = f(t) and x = g(t), then

𝐝𝒚
𝐝𝒚 𝐝𝒕
=
𝐝𝒙 𝐝𝒙
𝐝𝒕

Example 1

𝟐𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟐𝒂 𝒅𝒚
If y = 𝟏+𝒕𝟐 , x = 𝟏+𝒕𝟐 , find 𝒅𝒙

Solution

𝟐𝒂𝒕𝟐
y = 𝟏+𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝒚 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐.𝟐𝒂𝒕−(𝟐𝒂𝒕𝟐 )(𝟐𝒕) 𝟒𝒂𝒕+𝟒𝒂𝒕𝟑 − 𝟒𝒂𝒕𝟑 𝟒𝒂𝒕

= = = (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐
𝒅𝒕 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐

𝟐𝒂
x = 𝟏+𝒕𝟐

𝒅𝒙 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 ).𝟎 − (𝟐𝒂)(𝟐𝒕) − 𝟒𝒂𝒕 𝟒𝒂𝒕

= = = −
𝒅𝒕 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐

𝐝𝒚 𝟒𝒂𝒕
𝐝𝒚 𝐝𝒕 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐
= 𝐝𝒙 = 𝟒𝒂𝒕 =-1
𝐝𝒙 −
𝐝𝒕 (𝟏+𝒕𝟐 )𝟐

𝐝𝒚
= −𝟏
𝐝𝒙

37 | P a g e
UNIT 3: APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
(i). TANGENTS AND NORMALS
𝑑𝑦
We can recall that for any curve represented by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), represents the gradient function.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
At the point x = x’ on the curve y = f(x), 𝑑𝑥 represents the gradient of the tangent. The
𝑑𝑦
derivative of y with respect to x at the point where x = x’ is denoted by 𝑑𝑥 |x = x’.

The equation of the tangent at the point (x’,y’) is given as:

𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
𝑑𝑦
where: m= |x = x’
𝑑𝑥

The normal is perpendicular to the tangent at the point x = x’, the product of the gradients of
the tangent and the normal must be −1 at the point x = x’. Thus, if m’ is the gradient of the
normal, then

m m’ = - 1

The equation of the normal at the point (x’,y’) is given as:

𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
1
where m’= − 𝑚

Example 1

Given the curve: 50𝑥 2 + 36𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 = −2;

𝑑𝑦
a) evaluate at the point (I, -2).
𝑑𝑥
b) find the equation of the tangent at the point (1,-2)
c) find the equation of the normal at the point (1,-2)

Solution

(a). Given 50𝑥 2 + 36𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2 = −2

We differentiate every term with respect to x.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
100𝑥 + 36𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 36𝑦 + 10𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑𝑦
(36𝑥 + 10𝑦) = −100𝑥 − 36𝑦
𝑑𝑥

38 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑦 −100𝑥−36𝑦
= (36𝑥+10𝑦)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −100(1)−36(−2) −100+72 −28 −7

At point (1,-2) , = (36(1)+10(−2))
= = =
𝑑𝑥 36−20 16 4

(b). The equation of the tangent at the point (1,-2) is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
−7
where m = , x’= 1 and y’= -2
4

−7 −7
𝑦 − (−2) = (𝑥 − 1), 𝑦+2= (𝑥 − 1), 4(y + 2) = - 7 (x - 1) , 4y + 8 = -7 x +7
4 4

7x + 4y + 1 = 0

is the equation of the tangent at the point (1,-2)

(c). The equation of the normal at the point (1,-2) is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
1 1
m’= − 𝑚 = − −7 = x’= 1 and y’= -2
( )
4

4
m’ = 7 , x’= 1 and y’= -2

4 4
𝑦 − (−2) = 7 (𝑥 − 1), 𝑦 + 2 = 7 (𝑥 − 1) , 7(𝑦 + 2) = 4 (𝑥 − 1), 7y + 14 = 4x - 4

7y – 4x + 18 = 0

is the equation of the normal at the point (1,-2)

Example 2

Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3 = 0 at the point (-2,1)

Solution

(a). Given 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3 = 0 we differentiate every term with respect to x

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 +6+4 +0=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥−6 𝑑𝑦 −2(−2 )−6 −1
(2𝑦 + 4) = −2𝑥 − 6 , = , at point (-2,1) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑦+4 𝑑𝑥 2(1)+4 3

39 | P a g e
𝑑𝑦 −1
at point (-2,1) =
𝑑𝑥 3

(b). the equation of the tangent is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )

−1
where m = , x’= -2 and y’= 1
3

−1 −1
𝑦−1= (𝑥 − (−2)), 𝑦−1= (𝑥 + 2), 3(𝑦 − 1) = −1(𝑥 + 2)
3 3

3𝑦 − 3 = −𝑥 − 2,

3𝑦 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0

is the equation of the tangent at the point (-2, 1)

(c). the equation of the normal is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )

where
1 1
m’= − 𝑚 = − −1 ,
( )
3

m’ = 3 , x’= -2 and y’= 1

𝑦 − 1 = 3 (𝑥 − (−2)), 𝑦 − 1 = 3 (𝑥 + 2) , 𝑦 − 1 = 3𝑥 + 6, y – 3x – 7 = 0

y – 3x – 7 = 0 is the equation of the normal at the point (1,-2)

Example 3

𝑥2 𝑦2
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the ellipse + = 1 at the point (1,1)
4 9

Solution

𝑥2 𝑦2
Given + = 1 , we differentiate each term with respect to x
4 9

2𝑥
2𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 −
4
+ =0; =− ; = 2𝑦
4 9 𝑑𝑥 9 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
9

𝑑𝑦 −9𝑥 𝑑𝑦 −9(1) −9)

= ; at point (1,1) = =
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦 𝑑𝑥 4(1) 4

𝑑𝑦 −9
𝑑𝑥
= 4

40 | P a g e
(a). the equation of the tangent is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )
−9
where m = , x’ = 1 and y’ = 1
4

−9 −9
𝑦−1= (𝑥 − 1), 𝑦−1= (𝑥 − 1), 4(𝑦 − 1) = −9(𝑥 − 1)
4 4

4𝑦 − 4 = − 9𝑥 − 9,

4𝑦 + 9𝑥 + 5 = 0

is the equation of the tangent at the point (-2, 1)

(b). the equation of the normal is given as 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 𝑚′(𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )

where
1 1
m’= − 𝑚 = − −9 ,
( )
4

4
m’ = 9 , x’= 1 and y’= 1

4
𝑦−1= (𝑥 − 1), 9(𝑦 − 1) = 4 (𝑥 − 1) ; 9𝑦 − 9 = 4𝑥 − 4; 9y – 4x – 9 + 4 = 0
9

9y – 4x – 5 = 0 is the equation of the normal at the point (1,-2)

(ii) KINEMATICS: VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

We shall consider the motion of a particle in a straight line which is known as RECTILINEAR
MOTION. If x is the distance of the particle from an initial position O and t is the time of motion,
then the equation of motion is given 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡). Displacement is distance considered with
direction. The rate of change of displacement with time is called VELOCITY.

If displacement is x and velocity is v, then

𝑑𝑥
• 𝑉= 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• If > 0, then the particle is moving away from the initial position.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• If < 0, then the particle is moving towards the initial position.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• If = 0, then the particle is momentarily at rest.
𝑑𝑡

The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration (a).

41 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Recall that 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
Therefore 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝑣
• If > 0, then the velocity increases, and the particle is said to be accelerating.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
• If < 0, then the velocity is decreasing, and the particle is said to be decelerating or
𝑑𝑡
retarding. Retardation is therefore negative acceleration.
𝑑𝑣
• If = 0, then the particle is said to be moving at a constant velocity.
𝑑𝑡

Example 1

The equation of motion of a particle along a straight line is specified by the equation

𝑥 = 5𝑡 6 − 3𝑡 4 + 6𝑡. Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds, if x is in
metres.

Solution

𝑥 = 5𝑡 6 − 3𝑡 4 + 6𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Velocity (v) = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 30𝑡 5 − 12𝑡 3 + 6 ;
𝑑𝑡

when t = 2
𝑣 = 30(2)5 − 12(2)3 + 6 , 30(32) − 12(8) + 6 = 870 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑣
Acceleration (a) = 𝑑𝑡

a = 150𝑡 4 − 36𝑡 2

when t = 2

a = 150(2)4 − 36(2)2 = 150(16) – 36(4) = 2256 𝑚𝑠 −2

42 | P a g e
Example 2

The distance x in metres covered by a particle at t seconds is 𝑥 = 2𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 2 − 5𝑡. Find:

i. Its speed in the 5th second.

ii. the acceleration of the particle in the 3rd second.
iii. The time the particle is momentarily at rest.

Solution

(i). 𝑥 = 2𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 2 − 5𝑡

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 6𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 − 5
𝑑𝑡
When x = 5
𝑣 = 6(5)2 − 6(5) − 5 = 115 m𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑣
(ii). Acceleration (a) = 𝑑𝑡

a = 12𝑡 − 6

when t = 3

a = 12(3) − 6 = 36 − 6 = 30𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑥
(iii). The particle is momentarily at rest when =0
𝑑𝑡

6𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 − 5 = 0

Solving the quadratic equation, we have

t = 1.54 or – 0.54

Since t cannot be negative, then we go for t = 1.54 seconds.

Hence the particle is momentarily at rest when t = 1.54 seconds

43 | P a g e
(iii) MAXIMA AND MINIMA

The points A, B, and C are called stationary points on the graph or stationary values of y. Points
A, which occur at 𝑥 = 𝑥1 is a maximum value of y. It is the point where y is maximum. Point B,
which occur at 𝑥 = 𝑥2 , is a minimum value of y. It is where y is minimum. Point C, which occur

44 | P a g e
at 𝑥 = 𝑥3 is known as the point of inflexion. A local maximum or a local minimum point may
sometimes be called a TURNING POINT. However, a point of inflexion is NOT a turning point.

HOW TO DISTINGUISH STATIONARY POINTS

𝑑𝑦
i. at stationary points A, B, and C, = 0.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
ii. for maximum value of y, the value of is negative.
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
iii. for minimum value of y, the value of is positive.
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
iv. at point of inflexion, the value of the is zero.
𝑑𝑥 2

From the results we can establish that:

i. The value of x at which stationary points occur can be determined by differentiating the
𝑑𝑦
function and then solving the equation = 0.
𝑑𝑥
ii. The corresponding values of y at these points can be determined by substituting the
values of x in the function y = f(x).
iii. The type of stationary point (maximum, minimum, or point of inflexion) can be
𝑑2 𝑦
determined by testing in the expression for 𝑑𝑥 2

Example 1

𝑥3 𝑥2
Given that 𝑦 = − − 2𝑥 + 5
3 2

Find the stationary point(s) on the graph of the function.

Distinguish between the points(s).

Find the corresponding value of y at each of the stationary points(s)

Solution
𝑑𝑦
(a). At stationary point, =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑦= − − 2𝑥 + 5
3 2
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 2𝑥
= − − 2 + 0 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 3 2
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥

45 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑦
At stationary point, =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ; (x - 2) (x + 1) = 0 ; x = 2 or – 1

The stationary point occurs at x = 2 and x = -1

𝑑2 𝑦
(b). To distinguish between the stationary points, we test at 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
= 2𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
At x = 2 ; = 2(2) − 1 = 3 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 2

The minimum value of the function 𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 occur at x = 2

𝑑2 𝑦
At x = -1 ; = 2(−1) − 1 = −3 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 2

The maximum value of the function 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 occur at x = -1

(c). The corresponding values of y at x = 2 and x = -1 are obtained by substituting the values of x
into the function y = f(x).

𝑥3 𝑥2 (2)3 (2)2 8 4 5
At x = 2; 𝑦 = − − 2𝑥 + 5 = − − 2(2) + 5 = −2−4+5 =3
3 2 3 2 3

5
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
3
𝑥3 𝑥2 (−1)3 (−1)2 −1 1 37
At x = - 1 ; 𝑦= − − 2𝑥 + 5 = − − 2(−1) + 5 = −2+2+5 =
3 2 3 2 3 6

37
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
6
Example 2

From the four corners of a rectangular sheet of metal 24cm by 9cm are cut squares of sides x
cm and the remaining piece is folded to make an open box.

a) Show that the volume of the box is given by 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 66𝑥 2 + 216𝑥

b) Find the value of x for which the volume of the box is a maximum.
c) Calculate the maximum volume of the box.

46 | P a g e
Solution

a) Let V be the volume of the box, then

V = (24 − 2x)(9 − 2x)x

= (216 − 48𝑥 − 18𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )𝑥 = (216 − 66𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )𝑥

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 66𝑥 2 + 216𝑥

b) Differentiating V with respect to x, we have

𝑑𝑉
= 12𝑥 2 − 132𝑥 + 216
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉
For maximum value =0
𝑑𝑥

12𝑥 2 − 132𝑥 + 216 = 0

𝑥 = 9 𝑜𝑟 2

X cannot be 9 since the breadth of the metal sheet is 9cm initially, therefore x = 2cm
𝑑𝑉
c) The second derivative of at x = 2 gives
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑉
= 24 𝑥 − 132
𝑑𝑥 2
At x = 2

𝑑2𝑉
= 24(2) − 132 = 48 − 132 = −84 ( 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 2
The maximum volume is obtained by substituting x = 2 in 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 66𝑥 2 + 216𝑥, then

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4(2)3 − 66(2)2 + 216(2) = 200𝑐𝑚3

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200𝑐𝑚3

47 | P a g e
(iv). RATE OF CHANGE
𝑑𝑦
Given that y = f(x), can be interpreted as the rate of change of y with respect to x. If y
𝑑𝑥
increases when x increases the rate of change of y with respect to x will be positive, but if y
𝑑𝑦
decreases when x increases then is negative.
𝑑𝑥

Consider a cylinder of radius r and height h as shown in the diagram below.

The volume of the cylinder is given by:

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

The volume of the cylinder depends on two variables r and h.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= 2𝜋𝑟ℎ and = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜕𝑟 𝜕ℎ

Since V is a function of r and h, we also know that

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∆𝑉 = . ∆𝑟 + . ∆ℎ
𝜕𝑟 𝜕ℎ
Dividing both sides by ∆𝑡, because of rate

∆𝑉 𝜕𝑉 ∆𝑟 𝜕𝑉 ∆ℎ
= . + .
∆𝑡 𝜕𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝜕ℎ ∆𝑡
Then if ∆𝑡 → 0
∆𝑉 𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ∆ℎ 𝑑ℎ
→ , ∆𝑡 → , ∆𝑡 →
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

But the partial derivative which do not contain ∆𝑡 will remain unchanged.

Thus, dividing through by ∆𝑡 and taking limit as ∆𝑡 → 0

∆𝑉 𝜕𝑉 ∆𝑟 𝜕𝑉 ∆ℎ
lim = lim [ . + . ]
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 𝜕𝑟 ∆𝑡 𝜕ℎ ∆𝑡

48 | P a g e
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= . + .
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜕ℎ 𝑑𝑡
This implies that, if we know the rate at which r and h are changing, we can find the
corresponding rate of change of V.

This result is a key to solving problems related to rate of change.

Example 1

The side of a square is increasing at the rate of 1 cm/s. Find the rate of change of its area when
the side is 10cm long.

Solution

Let A be the area of the square of the side x, then

A = 𝑥2

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
= ( 2𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
When x = 10 and =1
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
= 2(10). (1) = 20
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
= 20 𝑐𝑚2 /s
𝑑𝑡

Example 2

The radius of a cylinder increases at the rate of 0.2 cm/s while the height decreases at the rate
of 0.5 cm/s. Find the rate at which the volume is changing at the instant when r = 8cm and h =
12cm.

Solution

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∆𝑉 = . ∆𝑟 + . ∆ℎ
𝜕𝑟 𝜕ℎ
49 | P a g e
Dividing through by ∆𝑡 and taking limit as ∆𝑡 → 0

𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= . + .
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜕ℎ 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ ;
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= 2𝜋𝑟ℎ and = 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜕𝑟 𝜕ℎ

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑ℎ
= (2𝜋𝑟ℎ). + (𝜋𝑟 2 ).
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟 𝑑ℎ
At r = 8, h = 12 , = 0.2, = − 0.5 ( h is decreasing )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉
= (2𝜋(8)(12). (0.2) + (𝜋(8)2 ). (−0.5 ) = 20.1𝑐𝑚3 /s
𝑑𝑡

Example 3

In a right-angle triangle, the hypotenuse denoted as x is increasing at 2cm/s while one of the
two sides denoted as y is decreasing at 3cm/s. Calculate the rate at which the remaining side
denoted as z is changing when x = 5cm and y = 3cm.

Solution
1⁄
Z = √( 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 2

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
∆𝑧 = . ∆𝑥 + . ∆𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Dividing through by ∆𝑡 and taking limit as ∆𝑡 → 0

𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
= . + . .
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡
1⁄
Z = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 2

𝜕𝑧 1 1⁄ 1 1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑥
= 2 (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2. (2x) = 2x . (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2 = 𝑥. (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2 =
𝜕𝑥 2 √(𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )

1⁄
Z = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 2

𝜕𝑧 1 1⁄ 1 1⁄ 1⁄ −𝑦
= (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2. (- 2y ) = 2x . (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2 = −𝑦. (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )− 2 =
𝜕𝑦 2 2 √(𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )

50 | P a g e
𝑑𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= . + . .
𝑑𝑡 √(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 √(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
At x = 5, y = 3, = 2 and = −3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑧 5 −3 10 9
= . (2) + . (−3) = +
𝑑𝑡 √(52 − 32 ) √(52 − 32 ) 4 4

𝑑𝑧 19
= 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 4

Example 4

The side of an equilateral triangle increases at the rate of 1.5 cm/s. Find the rate of increase of
the area when its side is 10 cm.

Solution

From ∆𝑃𝑁𝑅
𝑥
( )2 + ℎ 2 = 𝑥 2
2
𝑥2 3𝑥 2
h2 = 𝑥 2 − =
4 4

√3 𝑥
h=
2
1
Area of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 = 2 × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

51 | P a g e
 1 √3 𝑥 √3 𝑥 2
𝐴= .𝑥 . =
2 2 4

𝑑𝐴 2. √3 𝑥 √3 𝑥
= =
𝑑𝑥 4 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
When x = 10 cm, = 1.5𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴 √3 𝑥 √3 (10) 3
= (1.5) = .
𝑑𝑡 2 2 2
𝑑𝐴 15√3
Ans. = 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2

(v ) SMALL INCREMENTS

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a given function. Supposed we wish to find an expression for an approximate
change in y due to small change ∆𝑥 in x. Thus

y = f(x)

y + ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑦 , but y = f(x)

∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

Dividing through by ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

lim = lim
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 ∆𝑦
It could be seen that if ∆𝑥 is very small, then ∆𝑥 be very close to f’(x), ie ≈ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥),
∆𝑥

If ∆𝑥 is very small.

52 | P a g e
Our expression can be written as

∆𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)∆𝑥

Example 1

If the radius of a circle increases by 0.1%, estimate the percentage increase in the area of the
circle.

Solution

Let A be the area of the circle

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝐴
∆𝐴 ≈ × ∆𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟 × ∆𝑟
𝑑𝑟
∆𝐴 2𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑟
= . ∆𝑟 = 2
𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟

∆𝑟 0.1 1
But = 100 = 1000
𝑟

∆𝐴 1 2
=2× =
𝐴 1000 1000
∆𝐴
Percentage increase in A = × 100% = 0.2%
𝐴

Example 2

If the sides of a cube decrease by 0.01%, estimate the percentage decrease in its volume.

Solution

Ans. – 0.03%

53 | P a g e
UNIT 4: INTEGRATION (ANTI-DERIVATIVE)
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. When we differentiate, we start with a
function and proceed to find its derivative. When we integrate, we start with the derivative and
then proceed to find the function from which it has been derived. The symbol ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
represents the integral of f(x) with respect to x.

INTEGRATION CONSTANT
𝑑
(𝑥 4 ) = 4𝑥 3 ; ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(𝑥 4 + 2) = 4𝑥 3 ; ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 ≠ 𝑥4 + 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(𝑥 4 − 5) = 4𝑥 3 ; ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 ≠ 𝑥4 − 5
𝑑𝑥

In the three examples above, we happen to know the function from which the derivation 4𝑥 3
was derived. But the constant term in the original function become zero in the derivative. The
presence of such a constant term is represented by adding the constant term C to the result of
the integration. Such an integral is called an Indefinite Integral since the value of C is not known
ie ∫ 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝐶.

C is known as the constant of integration and its value is found only if certain information the
integral is available.

f(x)
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶 , provided n≠ −1
𝑛+1
2 1 𝑥+𝐶
3 1 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
4 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝐶
5 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 𝑒 𝑘𝑥
+𝐶
𝑘
𝑥
6 𝑎𝑥 𝑎
+𝐶
𝑙𝑛𝑎
7 Sin x − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
8 Cos x 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
9 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
10 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶
11 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝐶
12 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥 2

54 | P a g e
13 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥 2
14 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥2 + 1
15 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 + 1
16 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√𝑥 2 − 1
17 1 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 − 𝑥2

INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

Example 1

Evaluate the following integral

a) ∫ 𝑥 6 𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
d) ∫ 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
e) ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥
f) ∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝑥 6+1 𝑥7
a) ∫ 𝑥 6 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 = +𝐶
6+1 7
b) ∫ 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
6 1
c) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶
d) ∫ 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 5 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 5(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) + 𝐶 = −5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 −3+1 𝑥 −2 𝑥 −2
e) ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 = +𝐶 = − +𝐶
−3+1 −2 2
4𝑥
f) ∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑙𝑛4

Example 2

Determine the integrand (I) =∫ 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, given that I =25 when x=3

Solution

55 | P a g e
 2
4 𝑥 2+1 2
4 𝑥3
𝐼 = ∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 = +𝐶
2+1 3
4 𝑥3
𝐼= + 𝐶, when I = 25 , x=3
3

4 (3)3
25 = +𝐶 ;
3

25 = 36 + 𝐶 ; C = -11

4 𝑥3
∫ 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = − 11
3

Example 3
𝜋
Determine the integrand (I) = ∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥, given that I =7 when 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2

Solution

𝐼 = ∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶

𝜋
When I = 7 ,𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 900
2

𝐼 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐶 ;

7 = 2 sin 900 + 𝐶 ; C=5

∫ 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 5

INTEGRATION OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

Polynomial functions are integrated term by term with the individual constants of integration
consolidated into one constant of integration C.

Example 4

Evaluate the integral ∫(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥

Solution

4𝑥 4 5𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 5𝑥 3
∫(4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = + − + 7𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑥 4 + − 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
4 3 2 3

56 | P a g e
 3 2
5𝑥 3 4
∫(4𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + − 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝐶
3

INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A LINEAR FUNCTION OF X

Consider the integration of the function 𝑦 = ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥 . To perform the integration of the
function, let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 2. Then ∫(3𝑥 + 2)4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑥 . We now must change the variable x
in dx before we can integrate. Thus:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 2 ; = 3; 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑢5 𝑢5
∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢4 . 3
= 3
∫ 𝑢4 𝑑𝑥 = 3 . 5
+𝐶 = 15
+ 𝐶 ; but 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 2

(3𝑥 + 2)5
+𝐶
15

Example 2

Find the integration of the following

a) ∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑒 (5𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥

Solution

a) ∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let u = 3x ; = 3; 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑𝑢 1 1
∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑢 . = ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
3 3 3

But u = 3x

1
∫ cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 3𝑥 + 𝐶
3

(𝑏) ∫ 𝑒 (5𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥

57 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let u = (5x + 2) ; = 5; 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 5

𝑑𝑢 1 1 1
∫ 𝑒 (5𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 . 5
= 5
∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 5 . 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶 = 5 𝑒 (5x + 2) + 𝐶

Example 3

Determine the following integral

a) ∫ √(3 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥
b) ∫ 2(3𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥
7
c) ∫ 2𝑥−5 𝑑𝑥

Solution
1
b) ∫ √(3 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3 − 4𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let u = 3 - 4x ; 𝑑𝑥 = −4 ; 𝑑𝑥 = −4

3
1 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1 1 𝑢2 −1 3
∫(3 − 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢) .
2 = 2 ∫(𝑢)2 = . 3 +𝐶 = . 𝑢2 + 𝐶
−4 −4 −4 2 6

−1 3
= . (3 − 4x)2 + 𝐶
6

−√(3 − 4𝑥)3
∫ √(3 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
6

(𝑏) ∫ 2(3𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let u = 3x - 1 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 3

𝑑𝑢 1 1 2𝑢 1 2(3x − 1)
∫ 2(3𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑢 . 3
= 3
∫ 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = [ ]+𝑐 =
3 𝑙𝑛2 3
[ 𝑙𝑛2
]+𝑐

2(3x − 1)
∫ 2(3𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 3 𝑙𝑛2
]+𝑐

7 1
(𝑐) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 7 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 − 5 2𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let u = 2x – 5 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 2

58 | P a g e
 1 1 𝑑𝑢 7 1 7 7
7∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 7 ∫ . = ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛𝑢 + 𝐶 = ln (2x – 5) + 𝐶
2𝑥 − 5 𝑢 2 2 𝑢 2 2
7 7
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln (2x – 5) + 𝐶
2𝑥 − 5 2

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
INTEGRAL OF THE FORM ∫ 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
i. Consider integral of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥 form.
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 2𝑥+3
Consider the integral of the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥 example ∫ 𝑥 2+3𝑥−5 𝑑𝑥 . We notice that the
𝑓(𝑥)
derivative of the denominator will give the expression in the numerator. So let u represent the
denominator, ie
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5, = 2𝑥 + 3 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥+3
𝑑𝑥

2𝑥+3 2𝑥+3 𝑑𝑢 1
∫ 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ . 2𝑥+3 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln(|𝑢|) + 𝑐 , but 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5
𝑢

ln(|𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5|) + 𝑐

2𝑥 + 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln(|𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5|) + 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5

Therefore

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)

Example 1

3𝑥 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥

Solution

𝑑 3
(𝑥 − 4 ) = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 2
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ln(|𝑥 3 − 4| ) + 𝑐
𝑥 −4

59 | P a g e
Example 2

6𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 4

Solution

6𝑥 2 3𝑥 2
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −4 𝑥 −4
𝑑 3
(𝑥 − 4 ) = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 2
2∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln(|𝑥 3 − 4 |) + 𝑐
𝑥3 − 4

Example 3

2𝑥 2
Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 3 −4 𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑑 3
(𝑥 − 4 ) = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 2 3𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ ]𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 4 3 𝑥3 − 4

2𝑥 2 2
∴ ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ln(|𝑥 3 − 4 |) + 𝑐
𝑥 −4 3

Example 4

Evaluate ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

cos 𝑥
∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥
∴ ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln (|sin 𝑥 |) + 𝑐
sin 𝑥

60 | P a g e
 ii. Consider integral of the form ∫ 𝒇(𝒙). 𝒇′(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

Example 1

Evaluate ∫(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4; = 2𝑥 + 7 ; 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥+7
𝑑𝑥

2
𝑑𝑢 𝑢2
∫(𝑥 + 7𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 (2𝑥 + 7) = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐
2𝑥 + 7 2

But 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4

2
(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4)2 1
∫(𝑥 + 7𝑥 − 4)(2𝑥 + 7) 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 = (𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4)2 + 𝐶
2 2

Therefore

𝑈2
∫ 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2
+𝐶

Example 2

Evaluate ∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 ; = cos 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑢2
∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2
+𝐶 ; but 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

(sin 𝑥)2 1
∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 = (sin 𝑥)2 + C
2 2

Example 3
ln 𝑥
Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

Solution

ln 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 [ ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
61 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑢 ; = ; 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑥

1 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑢2
∫ ln 𝑥 [𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 (𝑥) 1 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 2
+𝐶 ; but 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑥

(𝑙𝑛𝑥)2 1
+𝐶 = (𝑙𝑛𝑥)2 + 𝐶
2 2

INTEGRATION BY PARTS ( INTEGRATION OF PRODUCTS )

If U and V are functions of x, then we know that using product rule

𝑑 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑈
(𝑈𝑉) = 𝑈 +𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides of the above equation with respect to x

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑈
𝑈𝑉 = ∫ 𝑈 . 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑉 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Rearranging the terms

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑈
∫ 𝑈 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑈𝑉 − ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥

For convenience, the expression can be written as

∫ 𝑈𝑑𝑉 = 𝑈𝑉 − ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑈 (Integration by part)

NOTE: Integration by part is applied where either function is not the derivative of the other
function.

Example 1

Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

The integration is of the form ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥; = 1; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

62 | P a g e
𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

Therefore

∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

Example 2

Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

The integration is of the form ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 ; = 2𝑥; 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑒 3𝑥

1 3𝑥
𝑣= 𝑒
3

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑒 3𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 . 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3
𝑥2 2
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑒 3𝑥 − 3
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 …………………………………………………(i)

The integral ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can only be integrated by part again. Thus, for the integral of
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥; = 1; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

63 | P a g e
 1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑒 3𝑥

1 3𝑥
𝑣= 𝑒
3

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

1 3𝑥 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 − ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 3
𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1
= 𝑒 3𝑥 − . 𝑒 3𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 − 𝑒 3𝑥
3 3 3 3 9

𝑥 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3
𝑒 3𝑥 − 9
𝑒 3𝑥 …………………………………………………………(ii)

Substituting equation (ii) in equation (i)

2 3𝑥
𝑥 2 3𝑥 2 𝑥 1 3𝑥
∫𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 − [ 𝑒 3𝑥 − 𝑒 ]+𝐶
3 3 3 9

𝑥 2 3𝑥 2𝑥 3𝑥 2 3𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝑒 +𝐶
3 9 27

Example 3

Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

The integration is of the form ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢 1 1
Let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥; = 𝑥; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑥3
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3

𝑥3
𝑣=
3

2
𝑥3 𝑥3 1 𝑥3 1
∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 [ ] − ∫ . 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 [ ] − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3 3 𝑥 3 3

𝑥3 1 𝑥3 𝑥3 𝑥3
= ln 𝑥 [ ]− [ ]+𝐶 = ln 𝑥 − +𝐶
3 3 3 3 9

64 | P a g e
 2
𝑥3 𝑥3
∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 − + 𝐶
3 9

Example 4

Evaluate ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

The integration is of the form ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ; = 3𝑒 3𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥

𝑣 = − cos 𝑥

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 [− cos 𝑥] − ∫ − cos 𝑥 . 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 3𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 …………………………………(i)

The integral ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be further integrated by part. Thus, for the integration of
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is of the form

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ; = 3𝑒 3𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥

𝑣 = sin 𝑥

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥 . 3𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 3𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 3𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Substituting the above expression in equation (i), we have

65 | P a g e
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3[ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 3𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 9 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ………………………(ii)

The integral in equation (ii) can further be integrated by part again but it is the same as the
integral at the beginning of the integration.

∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +9 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥

10 ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥

Therefore

1
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑒 3𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑒 3𝑥 sin 𝑥] + 𝐶
10

3𝑥
𝑒 3𝑥
∫𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [3 sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥] + 𝐶
10

INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

𝑥+1
Suppose we are faced with the integral of the form ∫ 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 which is not among the
standard integral treated previously. In this form the numerator is not the derivative of the
denominator. In this case the algebraic expression must first be resolved into partial fractions.
Thus

𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2

𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 1+1 2
𝐴 = (𝑥 − 1) [(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)] |(𝑥 = +1) = (𝑥−2)
|(𝑥 = +1) = (1−2)
= −1 = −2

𝐴 = −2
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 2+1 3
𝐵 = (𝑥 − 2) [(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)] |(𝑥 = 2) = (𝑥−1)
|(𝑥 = 2) = (2−1)
=1= 3

𝑩=3

66 | P a g e
 𝑥+1 −2 3
= +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2

Therefore,

𝑥+1 −2 3 3 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ + ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ − ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−1
1 1
3 ∫ 𝑥−2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln(|𝑥 − 2|) − 2 ln(|𝑥 − 1|) + 𝐶

Example 2

Solution

67 | P a g e
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
𝑏
An integral with limits is called a definite integral denoted as ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

𝑏
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎 𝑎

Where F(x) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Example 1

Evaluate the following definite integrals

2 3 1
(a) ∫1 (2𝑥 − 3)4 𝑑𝑥 (𝑏) ∫0 (𝑥+5)
𝑑𝑥

1 6 1
(𝑐) ∫0 √(5𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 (d) ∫0 𝑡 √[ 2 ]2 + [2𝑡]2 𝑑𝑡

𝜋 𝜋
(𝑒) ∫02 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (f) ∫02 x cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution
2

(𝑎) ∫(2𝑥 − 3)4 𝑑𝑥

1

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3, = 2, 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2

68 | P a g e
 2 2
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢5 𝑥 = 2
∫(2𝑥 − 3)4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢)4 = [ ] 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3
2 2 5 𝑥=1
1 1

1 (2𝑥−3)5 𝑥=2 1 1 1
= [ ] = [ (2(2) − 3)5 − (2(1) − 3)5 ] = [ 1 − (−1)] =
2 5 𝑥=1 10 10 5

2 1
∫1 (2𝑥 − 3)4 𝑑𝑥 = 5

Alternatively
2 2
4 4
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢5 𝑥 = 2
∫(2𝑥 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢) = [ ]
2 2 5 𝑥=1
1 1

𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 3, when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = 2(1) − 3 = −1

when 𝑥 = 2, 𝑢 = 2(2) − 3 = 1 (This is known as change of variable)

1 𝑢5 1 1 5 1 1 1
[ ] = [𝑢 ] = [ 15 − (−1)5 ] =
2 5 −1 10 −1 10 5

3 1
(b) ∫0 (𝑥+5)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 5, = 1, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
3 3
1 1 𝑥=3 𝑥=3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln(|𝑢|) = ln(|𝑥 + 5|)
(𝑥 + 5) 𝑢 𝑥=0 𝑥=0
0 0

ln(|3 + 5|) − ln(|0 + 5|) = ln 8 − ln 5 = 0.47

1
1 1
(𝑐) ∫0 √(5𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 (5𝑥 + 4)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = (5𝑥 + 4); = 5; 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 5

1 1 3
1 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1 𝑢2 1 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
∫(𝑢)2 = ∫(𝑢)2 = [ ] = . [𝑢2 ] = [(5𝑥 + 4)2 ]
5 5 5 3 𝑥=0 5 3 𝑥 = 0 15 𝑥=0
0 0 2
3 3
2 2 38
= 15 [(5(1) + 4)2 − (5(0) + 4)2 ] = 15 [ 27 − 8] = 15

69 | P a g e
 1
38
∫ √(5𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 =
15
0

1
6 1 6 1
(d) ∫0 𝑡 √(2)2 + (2𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑡 ( 4 + 4𝑡 2 )2 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = + 4𝑡 2 ; = 8𝑡; 𝑑𝑡 =
4 𝑑𝑡 8𝑡

6 6 3
1 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1 𝑢2 6 1 2 1 3
6
∫ 𝑡( 𝑢)2 = ∫ ( 𝑢)2 𝑑𝑢 = [ ] = . [( + 4𝑡 2 )2 ]
8𝑡 8 8 3 𝑥=0 8 3 4 𝑥=0
0 0 2
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 3
= [( + 4(6)2 )2 − ( + 4(0)2 )2 ] = [( + 4(6)2 )2 − ( + 4(0)2 )2 ]
12 4 4 12 4 4
1
= [1732.501952 − 0.125] = 144.36
12

𝜋
2

(𝑒) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

0

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 ; = cos 𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
𝑑𝑢 𝑢2 (sin 𝑥)2 1 𝜋 2
∫ cos 𝑥. 𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = [ ] 2 = [ ] 2 = [(sin ) − (sin 0)2 ]
cos 𝑥 2 𝑥=0 2 𝑥=0 2 2
0 0

1 𝜋 2 1 1
= [(sin ) − (sin 0)2 ] = [(1)2 − (0)2 ] =
2 2 2 2
𝜋
2
1
∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0

𝜋
(f) ∫02 x cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

70 | P a g e
The integrand is of the form

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢
Let u = x ; =1 ; 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑣 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥

𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥= 𝑥=
∫ x cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑥. sin 𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ] 2 = [ 𝑥. sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ] 2
0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
[( 2 sin 2 + cos 2 ) − (0. sin 0 + cos 0)] = [( 2 (1) + 0 ) − (0(0) + 1)] = −1
2

𝜋
𝜋
∫02 x cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ 2 − 1] = 0.5708

MULTPLE INTEGRATION:
i. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
𝑦 𝑥
The expression ∫𝑦 2 ∫𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 is called a double integral, and that indicates that:
1 1

a) f(x,y) is first integrated with respect to x ( regarding y as being constant) between the
limits 𝑥 = 𝑥1 and 𝑥 = 𝑥2 .
b) the result is then integrated with respect to y between the limits 𝑦 = 𝑦1 and 𝑦 = 𝑦2 .

Example 1
2 4
Evaluate the integrand 𝐼 = ∫1 ∫2 (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

Solution

First 𝑥 + 2𝑦 is integrated with respect to x between x = 2 and x = 4, with y regarded as

constant for the time being.
2 4 2
𝑥2 4
𝐼=∫ [∫ (𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [ + 2𝑦𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑦
1 2 1 2 𝑥=2

2(4)2 (2)2
∫ [( + 2𝑦(4)) − ( + 2𝑦(2))] 𝑑𝑦
1 2 2

71 | P a g e
 2 2
4𝑦 2 2
∫ [ ( 8 + 8𝑦) − (2 + 4𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [ 6 + 4𝑦] 𝑑𝑦 = [6𝑦 + ]
1 1 2 1

= [(6(2) + 2(2)2 ) − (6(1) + 2(1)2 )] = 20 − 8 = 12

2 4
∫ ∫ (𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 12
1 2

Example 2
2 3
Evaluate the double integral ∫1 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

Solution

First 𝑥 2 𝑦 is integrated with respect to x between x = 0 and x =3, with y regarded as constant
for the time being.
2 3 2
2 (3)3
2
𝑥3 3 (0)3
I = ∫ [∫ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [ 𝑦 ] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ [ 𝑦 − 𝑦 ] 𝑑𝑦
1 0 1 3 𝑥=0 1 3 3

2 9 𝑦2 2 9 (2)2 9 (1)2 9 27
= ∫1 9𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = [ ] = [ 2 − ] = 18 − 2 =
2 𝑦=1 2 2

2 3
27
∫ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
1 0 2

Example 3
2 𝜋
Evaluate the double integral ∫1 ∫0 (3 + sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟

Solution

First 3 + sin 𝜃 is integrated with respect to 𝜃 between 𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝜋, with r regarded as

constant for the time being.
2 𝜋 2
𝜋
∫ [∫ (3 + sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃] 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ [(3𝜃 − cos 𝜃)] ]𝑑𝑟
1 0 1
𝜃=0

2 2 2
∫ [(3𝜋 − cos 𝜋) − (3(0) − cos 0)] ]𝑑𝑟 = ∫ [(3𝜋 + 1) − (0 − 1)] ]𝑑𝑟 = ∫ (3𝜋 + 2) 𝑑𝑟
1 1 1

2
2
= ∫ (3𝜋 + 2) 𝑑𝑟 = [3𝜋𝑟 + 2𝑟] = [(3𝜋(2) + 2(2) − (3𝜋(1) + 2(1)]
1 𝑟=1

= [(6𝜋 + 4) − (3𝜋 + 2) = 3𝜋 + 2
72 | P a g e
 2 𝜋
∫ ∫ (3 + sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟 = 3𝜋 + 2
1 0

ii. TRIPLE INTEGRALS

𝑏 𝑑 𝑓
Triple integral is express as ∫𝑎 ∫𝑐 ∫𝑒 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 , but the rules are as before. Start
with the innermost integral and work outward.

Example 1
3 1 2
Evaluate the triple integral ∫1 ∫−1 ∫0 (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Solution

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 is first integrated with respect to x between x = 0 and x = 2, with y and z regarded

as constants for the time being.

2 𝑥2 2 (2)2 (0)2
∫0 (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧) = [ + 2𝑦𝑥 − 𝑧𝑥 ] = [ ( 2 + 2𝑦(2) − 𝑧(2)) − ( 2 + 2𝑦(0) − 𝑧(0)) ]
2 0

= ( 2 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧) − (0)

2 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 is further integrated with respect to y between y = -1 and y = 1, with z regarded

as constant for the time being
1
4 𝑦2 1
= ∫ (2 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑦 = (2𝑦 + − 2𝑧𝑦)
−1 2 𝑦 = −1

= ( 2(1) + 2(1)2 − 2𝑧(1)) − ( 2(−1) + 2(−1)2 − 2𝑧(−1)) = (4 − 2𝑧) − (0 + 2𝑧)

= 4 − 4z

4 − 4𝑧 is lastly integrated with respect to z between z = 1 and z = 3.

3
𝑧2 3 3
∫ (4 − 4𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = (4𝑧 − 4 ) = (4𝑧 − 2 𝑧 2 )
1 2 𝑧=1 𝑧=1

= (4(3) − 2 (3)2 ) − ((4(1) − 2 (1)2 )) = (12 − 18) − (4 − 2) = −8

3 1 2
∫1 ∫−1 ∫0 (𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = − 8

73 | P a g e
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

1. LENGTH OF CURVE

Let P be the point (x,y) and Q a point on the curve near to P. Let 𝛿𝑠 be length of the small arc
PQ. Then using Pythagoras theorem,

(𝛿𝑠)2 ≈ (𝛿𝑥)2 + (𝛿𝑦)2

Dividing through by (𝛿𝑥)2 , we have

(𝛿𝑠)2 (𝛿𝑥)2 (𝛿𝑦)2

= +
(𝛿𝑥)2 (𝛿𝑥)2 (𝛿𝑥)2

𝛿𝑠 2 𝛿𝑦
[ ] = 1 + [ ]2
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥

𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑦
= √[1 + [ ]2 ]
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥

As 𝛿𝑥 → 0

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
= √[1 + [ ]2 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆 = ∫𝑎 √[1 + [𝑑𝑥 ] ] 𝑑𝑥

74 | P a g e
Example 1

Find the length of the curve 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 between x = 0 and x = 4.

Solution

𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆 = ∫𝑎 √[1 + [𝑑𝑥 ] ] 𝑑𝑥

3 1
𝑑𝑦 3
𝑦2 = 𝑥3 ; 𝑦 = 𝑥2 ; = 2 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

1 2
4 3
𝑆 = ∫0 √[1 + [2 𝑥 2 ] ] 𝑑𝑥

4 9𝑥 4 9𝑥 1
𝑆 = ∫0 √[1 + ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 [ 1 + ]2 𝑑𝑥
4 4

3
9𝑥 3
[1+
4
]2 4 8 9𝑥 4
= 3 9 | = [1 + ]2 |
.
2 4
𝑥=0 27 4 𝑥=0
3 3
8 9 (4) 9 (0) 8
= {[1 + ]2−[1 + ]2}= { 31.6228 − 1 }
27 4 4 27

S = 9.073 units

Example 2

Find the length of the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 from x = 0 to x = 2

Solution

𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆 = ∫𝑎 √[1 + [𝑑𝑥 ] ] 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 ; =3
𝑑𝑥

1
2 2
𝑆 = ∫0 √[1 + [3]2 ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 102 𝑑𝑥

2 2
𝑆 = ∫0 3.1623 𝑑𝑥 = 3.1623 𝑥 | = 3.1623 [2 − 0]
𝑥=0
S = 6.32 units

75 | P a g e
 2. AREA UNDER CURVE

To find the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x - axis and the ordinates at x = a and x = b,
where a is the lower limit and b is the upper limit. There is of course no mensuration formula
for finding this kind of area, since its shape depends on the function y = f(x).

Thus, area A is given by

𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

It becomes complicated when part of the area to be calculated lies above the x – axis and part
below. In this case, integration from x = a to x = b is the algebraic sum of the two parts.

It is always wise, therefore, to sketch the graph of the function before carrying out the
integration and, if necessary, to calculate the positive and negative parts separately and to add
the values of each part to obtain the physical area between the limits given.

Example 1

Find the area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1

(a) between x = 1 and x = 2

(b) between x = - 2 and x = 2

76 | P a g e
 (c) between x = - 4 and x = 3

Solution

To sketch the curve, we need to know the roots of the function, the stationary points of the
curve and determine whether it is a maximum or the minimum.

1. Roots: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0
−𝑏 ±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 = where a = 1, b = 2, c = - 1
2𝑎

−2 ± √22 − 4(1)(−1) −2 ± √8 −2 ± 2√2

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 = = = = −1 ± √2
2(1) 2 2
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 = −1 ± √2
𝑥1 = −1 + √2 = 0.4142, 𝑥2 = −1 − √2 = −2.4142
2. Find the Stationary points
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑦
At stationary points =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 2 = 0 , 𝑥 = −1
3. Determine whether the stationary point is maximum or minimum
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −1 gives
𝑑𝑥2

𝑑2 𝑦
= 2 ( 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒); minimum point (value)
𝑑𝑥2

Hence the graph

77 | P a g e
 𝑏
(a) 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
1 3 2 𝑥 = 1

(2)3 2
(1)3 14 1 13
=[ + (2) − 2 ] − [ + (1)2 − 1] = − =
3 3 3 3 3

13
𝐴= 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

(b) If we want to find the area under the curve from x = - 2 to x = 2

2
𝐴 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 )𝑑𝑥
−2
−1+√2 2
= ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
−2 −1+√2

−1+√2
2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 𝑥 = 0.4142
𝐴1 = ∫ ( 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
−2 3 2 𝑥 = −2

(0.4142)3 (−2)3
=[ + (0.4142)2 − 0.4142 ] − [ + (−2)2 − (−2) ]
3 3

= (− 0.21895) − (3.3333) = −3.55225

𝐴1 = −3.55225

2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 𝑥=2
𝐴2 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
−1+√2 3 2 𝑥 = 0.4142

(2)3 (0.4142)3
=[ + (2)2 − 2 ] − [ + (0.4142)2 − (0.4142) ]
3 3

78 | P a g e
 = (4.6666) − (−0.21895) = 4.88561
𝐴2 = 4.88561
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2

𝐴 = −3.55225 + 4.88561 = 1.33336 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

(c) If we want to find the area under the curve from x = - 4 to x = 3

3
𝐴 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 )𝑑𝑥
−4
−1−√2 −1+√2 3
2 2
= ∫ ( 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥
−4 −1−√2 −1+√2

−1−√2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 𝑥 = −2.4142
𝐴1 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
−4 3 2 𝑥 = −4

(−2.4142)3 2
(−4)3
=[ + (−2.4142) − (−2.4142) ] − [ + (−4)2 − (−4) ]
3 3

= (3.552285) − (−1.3333) = 4.885585

𝐴1 = 4.885585

−1+√2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 𝑥 = 0.4142
𝐴2 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
−1−√2 3 2 𝑥 = −2.4142

(0.4142)3 2
(−2.4142)3
=[ + (0.4142) − 0.4142 ] − [ + (−2.4142)2 − (−2.4142) ]
3 3

= (−0.2189551) − (3.552285) = −3.771236

𝐴2 = −3.771236

79 | P a g e
 3
2
𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 𝑥=3
𝐴3 = ∫ ( 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑑𝑥 = [ + −𝑥]|
−1+√2 3 2 𝑥 = 0.4142
(3)3 2
(0.4142)3
=[ + (3) − 3 ] − [ + (0.4142)2 − (0.4142) ]
3 3

= (15) − (−0.370349) = 15.370349

𝐴3 = 15.370349

𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3

𝐴 = 4.885585 + (−3.771236) + 15.370349 = 16.484698 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝐴 = 16.484698 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

3. AREA BETWEEN CURVES

The area formed between two curves is given as

𝑏 𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑓1 (𝑥) − 𝑓2 (𝑥))𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Where 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are functions of x and x , y are the values of x at the points of intersections

Example 1

𝑥2
Find the area enclosed by the curves 𝑦 2 = 9𝑥 and 𝑦 = 9

Solution

Before finding the area enclosed by the two curves, we need to find the point of intersection of
the two curves

𝑦 2 = 9𝑥
1
𝑦 = 3√𝑥 = 3𝑥 2

At point of intersection the two functions are equal, thus

1 𝑥2
3𝑥 =
2
9

80 | P a g e
 1
27𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2
1 3
𝑥 (2 − 2 ) = 27 ; 𝑥 2 = 27

𝑥=9

The points of intersection of the two curves are x = 0 and x = 9

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫𝑎 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )𝑑𝑥

9
1 𝑥2
𝐴 = ∫ (3𝑥 2 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 9
3
3𝑥 2 𝑥3 𝑥=9
=( 3 − )|
2
9(3) 𝑥=0

2 3 𝑥3 𝑥=9 3 𝑥3 𝑥 = 9
= ( . 3𝑥 2 − )| = (2𝑥 2 − )|
3 9(3) 𝑥 = 0 27 𝑥 = 0

3 (9)3
= (2(9)2 − ) − 0 = 27
27

𝐴 = 27 𝑠𝑞 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

4. SURFACE OF REVOLUTION

If an arc of a curve is rotated about an axis, it will generate a surface.

The area of the surface generated when the arc of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and

𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated about the x – axis through a complete revolution.

81 | P a g e
If we rotate a small element of an arc 𝛿𝑠 , it will generate a thin band of area 𝛿𝐴, thus

𝛿𝐴 ≈ 2𝜋𝑦 𝛿𝑠

Dividing through by 𝛿𝑥 gives

𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝑠
=2𝜋𝑦
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
And if 𝛿𝑥 → 0

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠
=2𝜋𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
Previously we found out that = √[1 + [ ]2 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦
= 2 𝜋 𝑦√[1 + [𝑑𝑥 ]2 ]
𝑑𝑥

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 𝜋 𝑦√[1 + [ ] ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

Example 1

Find the surface area generated when the arc of the parabolic curve 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 between x = 0
and x = 2, rotates about the x – axis

Solution

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 𝜋 𝑦√[1 + [ ] ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 𝜋 𝑦√[1 + [ ] ] 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 ; 𝑦 = √8𝑥 ; 𝑦 = √8 𝑥 2
1
𝑦 = 2√2 . 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 1 −1 1
= 2√2 . 𝑥 2 = √2 . 𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑥 2

82 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑦 2 1
[ ] = [ √2 . 𝑥 − 2 ]2 = 2 𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 2
[ ] = 2 𝑥− 1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑏
𝑑𝑦 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 𝜋 𝑦√[1 + [ ] ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑑𝑥

1
2 2
12 1 2 2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 𝜋 (2√2 . 𝑥 )√[1 + ] 𝑑𝑥
2 = ∫ 2 𝜋 (2√2 . 𝑥 ). [ 1 + ] 𝑑𝑥
2
0 𝑥 0 𝑥

1 1
2 2
1 𝑥+2 2 1 [ 𝑥 + 2 ]2
= ∫ 2 𝜋 (2√2 . 𝑥 ). [
2 ] = ∫ 2 𝜋 (2√2 . 𝑥 2 ) . 1 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 0 𝑥2
2 1 2 1
= ∫ 2 𝜋 (2√2 ). [ 𝑥 + 2 ] 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝜋 (2√2 ). ∫ [ 𝑥 + 2 ] 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0

3
(𝑥+2)2 2 2 3 2
= 2 𝜋 (2√2 ). [ ]| = 2 𝜋 (2√2 ). [( 𝑥 + 2 ) 2 ] |
3 0 3 0
(1)
2

8𝜋 √2 3 3 8𝜋 √2 8𝜋 √2
= [( 2 + 2 ) 2 − ( 0 + 2 ) 2 ] = [8 − 2.8284] = [5.171572]
3 3 3
𝐴 = 61.27 sq units

5. VOLUME OF SOLID OF REVOLUTION (ABOUT X – AXIS )

If the plane figure bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x – axis and the ordinates at x = a and x = b
is rotated through a complete revolution about the x – axis, it will generate a solid symmetrical
about the x - axis

83 | P a g e
Let V be the volume of solid of revolution generated
𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Example 1

Find the volume of the solid generated when the plane figure bounded by the curve y = 2x , the
x – axis and the ordinates x = 2 and x = 4 is rotated about the x – axis.

Solution
𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

4 4
𝑥3 4
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 (2𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝜋 .[ ]|
2 2 3 2

(4)3 (2)3 64 8 56
= 4𝜋 .[ − ] = 4 𝜋 .[ − ] = 4 𝜋 .[ ]
3 3 3 3 3

224 𝜋
𝑉= 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3

Example 2

Find the volume of the solid generated when the plane figure bounded by the function
𝜋
𝑦 = 5 cos 𝑥, the x – axis and the ordinates x = 0 and x = 4 , rotates about the x – axis through a
complete revolution.

Solution
𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 4
𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 (5 cos 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋∫ 25 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 25𝜋 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = [ 1 + cos 2𝑥]
2

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 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 1 25𝜋 4
= 25𝜋 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 25𝜋 ∫ [ 1 + cos 2𝑥] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [ 1 + cos 2𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2 2 0
𝜋
25𝜋 sin 2𝑥
= .[𝑥 + ] |4
2 2 0
𝜋
25𝜋 𝜋 sin 2 ( 4 ) sin 2(0)
= . [( + )−(0+ )] =
2 4 2 2

25𝜋 𝜋 1 0 25𝜋 𝜋 1
= . [( + ) − ( 0 + )] = . [( + )] = 50.477
2 4 2 2 2 4 2

𝑉 = 50.48 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

END.
GOODLUCK IN MATH 101 EXAMINATION.

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