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Power Supplies for Electronic Equipment

2229

NRI Schools
A Division of The McGraw Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
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 Power Supplies For
Electronic Equipment
POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 1

Transformers 1
Basic Transformer Action 1
Transformer Losses 4
Transformer Efficiency 7
Power Distribution 7
Autotransformers 8
Summary 9
Self-Test Questions 10

Rectifier Circuits 11
I1111 f- Wave Rectifiers 11
Full-Wave Rectifiers 13
Voltage Doublers 14
Summary 15
Self-Test Questions 15

Filter Circuits 16
Simple Capacitor Filters 16
RC Filters 17
LC Filters 19
Factors Affecting the Output Voltage 20
Summary 21
Self-Test Questions 21
Typical Power Supplies 22
Universal AC-DC Power Supplies 22
Typical Full-Wave Power Supplies 23
Summary 26
Self-Test Questions 26

Voltage Regulators 27
Shunt Voltage Regulators 27
Series Voltage Regulators 28
Feedback Voltage Regulators 29
Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulators 32
Voltage Regulator Performance 33
Summary 35
Self-Test Questions 35

Circuit Protection 36
Fuses 36
Circuit Breakers 37
Electronic Protection Circuits 37
Summary 40
Self-Test Quest ions 40

Answers to Self-Test Questions 41

Lesson Questions 43

Copyright 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN LT2229

02
 1

One of the most important sections in any piece of electronic equipment is the power
supply. It is the part that furnishes the operating voltages and currents required by the rest
of the circuitry. If the power supply is not operating correctly, the equipment cannot do the
job it is supposed to do.
You have already studied the basic components used in power supplies. In this lesson, you
will learn more about these parts and how they are used together in power supplies. You
will be introduced to some new circuits and will learn the purpose of each part in the power
supply. Once you know how the various parts are used and understand what each is supposed
to do, you will be able to service any power supply defect you encounter.
A power supply may or may not have a power transformer. A power transformer is a
convenient device that can be used either to increase or decrease the line voltage to the value
needed by the equipment. In addition, apower transformer isolates the equipment from the
power line, making the equipment safer to operate and repair. You will begin this lesson by
learning about transformers.
After you have studied transformers, you will study the different rectifiers used in modern
power supplies. The power supplied by utility companies for home and industrial use is ac
power, whereas the transistors and integrated circuits used in electronic equipment require
dc operating voltages. The device that changes the current from ac to dc is called arectifier.
Once the ac is changed to dc, we have what is called apulsating dc at the output of the
rectifier. This is actually dc with ac superimposed on it. The power supply must therefore
have some means of filtering or smoothing the pulsating dc to get pure dc. This is accom-
plished by means of a filter network, which separates the ac and dc components of the
pulsating de at the rectifier output so that only the dc appears at the output of the filter
network.
Many power supplies have some type of voltage-divider network. Such a network is de-
signed to provide several different operating voltages from one power supply. The various
transistors and integrated circuits in a piece of electronic equipment may require several
different operating voltages. It is more economical in most cases to use asingle power supply
and avoltage divider instead of aseparate power supply for each voltage needed.
Often, if an electronic circuit is to work correctly, the voltage applied to it must be very
carefully regulated. You've already seen how azener diode and forward-biased diode can be
used for voltage regulation. These options are satisfactory where only small amounts of
power are needed. In higher current applications, more elaborate voltage regulators are
needed. Your study of power supplies will include voltage regulator circuits.

TRANSFORMERS Basic Transformer Action

Our modern industrial society consumes Transformers are particularly useful be-
large amounts of electricity. The transformer cause they can increase or decrease the avail-
contributes greatly in the economical trans- able voltage. For example, atransformer can
mission of this power. We'll describe this later, be plugged into apower line that has anom-
but first let's learn more about transformers. inal voltage of 120 volts, and it can step that
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

voltage down to any value we may require, mary winding produces 10 volts in the sec-
providing the transformer has the correct turns ondary. Notice also that the ratio of the
ratio. primary voltage to the secondary voltage is
In Fig.1, we've shown the schematic symbol the same as the ratio of the primary turns to
for two transformers. The transformer in the secondary turns. Since the voltage is
Fig.1(A) has 100 turns on the winding con- stepped down, that is, it is lower in the sec-
nected between terminals 1and 2and 10 turns ondary than it is in the primary, we call the
on the winding between terminals 3 and 4. transformer at (A) astep-down transformer.
The transformer shown at (B) also has 100 Now if we apply 100 volts ac to the primary
turns on the winding between terminals 1 winding of the transformer shown in Fig.1(B),
and 2, but it has 1000 turns on the winding we'll get 1000 volts between terminals 3and
connected between terminals 3and 4. 4. Once again, remember that we said the
If we apply 100 volts ac to terminals 1and primary winding has 100 turns and the sec-
2of the transformer shown at (A), assuming ondary has 1000 turns. Here we have apri-
no losses in the transformer, the voltage be- mary-to-secondary ratio of 100 to 1000, which
tween terminals 3and 4will be 10 volts. No- is 1to 10. The ratio between the voltage in
tice that in this transformer we have 100 turns the primary and the voltage in the secondary
on the winding_between terminals 1and 2, will be the same as the turns ratio; therefore,
which is called the primary winding, and 10 we'll have 10 times as much voltage across
turns on the winding between terminals 3 the secondary as we have across the primary.
and 4, which is called the secondary winding. Thus, if we apply 100 volts to the primary
The turns ratio is 100 to 10 or simply 10 to winding, we'll have 1000 volts across the sec-
1. Notice that applying 100 volts to the pri- ondary winding. Because it steps up the volt-
age, we call it astep-up transformer.
Transformers are self-regulating. By this
we mean that they will draw sufficient cur-
rent in the primary to supply the load con-
nected across the secondary. Looking at
Fig.2(A), we have the same transformer that
we had in Fig.1(A), but now we've connected
(A) a 1ohm resistor across the secondary wind-
ing. We can find the current that will flow
through the resistor by using Ohm's law.

E
I=

(B) By substituting 10 volts for E and 1ohm for

R, we get:
10
= —1 = 10 amperes
Figure 1. (A) A step-down transformer with 100 turns on
the primary winding and 10 turns on the secondary. (B) A
step-up transformer with 100 turns on the primary and Now let's consider the power that the re-
1000 turns on the secondary. sistor is dissipating. We know that the
 3

is the same transformer shown in Fig.1(B).

The turns ratio is 1to 10, so that with 100
volts supplied to the primary of the trans-
former, we know that the voltage across the
secondary must be 1000 volts. If we apply
1000 volts to a1000 ohm resistor, the current
through the resistor will be 1ampere. The
(A)
power dissipated by the resistor will be equal
to the voltage across it times the current
3
through it, so in this case it is equal to 1000
watts. The primary winding must supply this
100 V
100 I 1000
1000 power, and to supply 1000 watts, it will have
TURNS TURNS
2 to draw a current of 10 amperes. Thus, we
o have 1000 watts consumed by the 100 volt
4 power line and inductively coupled to the sec-
(B)
ondary. The secondary is supplying the 1000
watts dissipated by the 1000 ohm resistor.
Notice that in the step-up transformer we have
Figure 2. The transformers of Fig .1 with (A) a 1ohm load
across the secondary and (B) a 1000 ohm load the voltage stepped up at a ratio of 1to 10
and the current stepped down at a ratio of
10 to 1.
voltage across the resistor is 10 volts and Notice that in each case the current did the
the current through it is 10 amps; therefore, opposite of what the voltage did. If the voltage
the power must be: is stepped up, the current is stepped down;
and if the voltage is stepped down, the current
P=E x I= 10 x 10 = 100 watts is stepped up. This occurs because the trans-
former is self-regulating. Thus, if the second-
If the resistor is dissipating 100 watts, it must ary is supplying the power at alower voltage
be getting 100 watts from the secondary of than that applied to the primary, the primary
the power transformer. This in turn has to current will be lower than the secondary cur-
come from the primary winding. Therefore, rent. On the other hand, if the secondary is
assuming no losses in the transformer, since supplying the power at ahigher voltage than
the voltage across the primary is 100 volts, the primary, then the primary current will
the current in the primary must be 1ampere. be greater than the secondary current.
Notice what has happened in the step-down Transformers frequently have more than
transformer. The voltage has been stepped one secondary winding. One winding might
down at aratio of 10 to 1, whereas the current be astep-down winding, where the voltage is
has been stepped up at aratio of 1to 10. The lower than that applied to the primary, while
power consumed by the primary is exactly the other might be astep-up winding, where
equal to the power the secondary is supplying the voltage will be higher than that applied
to the resistor. to the primary. An example of such atrans-
Now let's look at the transformer shown in former is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.2(B). The resistor connected across the In the transformer shown in Fig.3, we have
secondary winding is a1000 ohm resistor. This 100 turns on the primary winding connected
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

between terminals 1and 2. We are going to ampere. The power supplied by this winding
apply a voltage of 100 volts between these will then be 1000 x 1 = 1000 watts. Thus,
two terminals. The secondary winding con- the two secondary windings together are sup-
nected between terminals 3and 4has 10 turns plying apower of 1100 watts. This power must
on it, and we are going to connect a 1ohm be taken from the power line by the primary
resistor between terminals 3and 4. The sec- winding.
ondary winding connected between terminals To supply 1100 watts to the secondary
5and 6has 1000 turns on it, and we are going windings, the primary must draw acurrent
to connect a 1000 ohm resistor across it. of 11 amperes. Then the power consumed by
As before, the turns ratio between the pri- the primary winding will be 1100 watts. Of
mary winding and the secondary winding this 1100 watts, 100 watts will be used to
connected between terminals 3and 4is 10 to supply the 10-turn winding connected be-
1. The voltage will be stepped down from 100 tween terminals 3and 4, with the 100 watts
volts to 10 volts, and 10 volts across a1ohm being supplied to the 1ohm resistor. The re-
resistor will cause acurrent of 10 amperes to maining 1000 watts will be supplied to the
flow. The power supplied to the resistor by 1000-turn winding connected between ter-
the winding connected between terminals 3 minals 5 and 6 to supply 1000 watts to the
and 4will be equal to 100 watts. 1000 ohm resistor. Notice that the trans-
The winding connected between terminals former in Fig.3 is supplying the same amount
5 and 6 has 10 times as many turns as the of power to the loads as the two transformers
primary, so the voltage will be stepped up in Fig.2.
from 100 volts to 1000 volts. With a1000 ohm There is no limit to the number of second-
resistor connected between terminals 5 and ary windings that we can have on a trans-
6, the current through the resistor will be 1 former. The voltage that we'll have across a
given secondary winding will depend upon
the turns ratio between it and the primary
winding. When several widely different op-
erating voltages are needed, separate wind-
ings for each voltage are usually the most
convenient way to get them.

Transformer Losses

In the example shown in Fig.3, we said that

the primary would draw 1100 watts from the
100 volt line to supply the 1100 watts to the
two secondary windings. If the transformer
had no losses this would be true, but atrans-
former does have losses. These losses can be
divided into two general groups called copper
and core losses.
Figure 3. A transformer with a secondary step-down Copper Losses. Copper losses in atrans-
winding and a secondary step-up winding. former occur because the wire used to wind
 5

each winding has resistance. For example, the up for the losses in the windings. Therefore,
10-turn winding connected between termi- the primary current will be slightly greater
nals 3and 4would probably have avery low than 11 amperes. Indeed, the 100-turn pri-
resistance because it has to supply such ahigh mary winding also has resistance, so even more
current that it would be wound with alarge current must be drawn from the power line
wire. But even if the resistance were only to make up for the loss in this winding.
1/10 of an ohm, with such ahigh current the All these losses mean that the transformer
loss due to the resistance of the wire could be will draw more than 1100 watts from the power
appreciable. For example, we know that: line. The transformer will draw the power it
needs to supply the power delivered to the
P=I
2R two resistors plus the power being dissipated
or wasted in the transformer itself due to the
and since the current in this winding is 10 resistance of the wire used for the various
amperes, the power lost in the winding would windings on the transformer.
be: All the losses in the transformer due to the
resistance of the wire used in the various
windings are called copper losses. Remember
P = 10 x 10 x —1 = 10 watts
that the power lost in the winding is equal
10
to:

The current flowing through the 10-turn

P=I
2R
winding will result in avoltage drop across
that winding. This means that the voltage
between terminals 3 and 4 will actually be The loss in the winding is equal to the current
slightly less than 10 volts. In the case of 10 squared times the resistance of the winding.
amperes flowing through 1/10 of an ohm re- Thus the copper losses are frequently called
sistance, we have avoltage drop of 1volt so Isquare R losses.
that the voltage applied to the 1ohm resistor Core Losses. In addition to the copper
will only be 9 volts. This in turn will cause losses in the transformer, there are other losses
the current flowing in the circuit to fall slightly called core losses. There are three types of
below 10 amperes, but it will still be close to core losses: eddy current losses, hysteresis
10 amperes and there will be power lost in losses, and flux leakage losses.
the transformer itself. Similarly, there will If we placed the windings of atransformer
be aloss in the secondary winding connected on asolid core, the core itself would act like
between terminals 5and 6due to the resis- asingle turn of avery large wire. A voltage
tance of the wire used for the 1000-turn wind- would be induced in this turn causing acur-
ing. This will also cause the actual voltage rent to flow, which would result in losses in
across the 1000 ohm resistor to be slightly the core of the transformer. This type of loss
less than 1000 volts, but the current flowing is called an eddy current loss. To keep eddy
through the 1000 turns will result in power current losses as low as possible, the core of
being dissipated in the transformer itself. atransformer is made of thin sheets of metal
Thus, the primary winding not only has to called laminations. The laminations are
supply the power being supplied by the two stacked as shown in Fig.4. Figure 4(A) shows
secondary windings, but it also has to make what the individual laminations look like and
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

Fig.4(B) shows how the laminations are as- primary winding in the opposite direction to
sembled. In building the transformer, the magnetize the core with the opposite polarity,
various windings are wound on some type of the current has built up to some value before
nonmagnetic form and then the core is in- the magnetism has dropped to zero com-
serted in the form after the windings have pletely and begins to build up with the op-
been completed. With this type of construc- posite polarity. This inertia in the magnetism
tion, eddy current losses in the transformer is called hysteresis. It means that power is
can be kept quite low. lost each half-cycle, bringing the magnetism
Another important core loss is known as back to zero before it can begin to magnetize
hysteresis loss. If we apply a voltage to the the coil with the opposite polarity. The hys-
primary winding of the transformer and cause teresis loss in the core of atransformer will
acurrent to flow through the winding to mag- depend upon the type of material used in the
netize the core, and then remove the voltage, core. Usually silicon steel is used because it
the current will stop flowing but there will has arelatively low hysteresis loss.
be some residual magnetism left in the core. Another type of core loss is flux leakage
In other words, the magnetism does not drop loss. This loss occurs when all the turns of
back completely to zero. Thus on the first half- magnetic flux produced by the primary wind-
cycle of ac, as the core is magnetized with one ing do not cut all the turns of each secondary
polarity and then the ac drops back to zero, winding on the transformer. As a matter of
the magnetism has not completely disap- fact, some of the flux is lost from the core
peared. As current begins flowing through the entirely. Flux leakage loss is kept at amin-
imum by shaping the core as shown in Fig.5.
The core itself provides alow reluctance path
for the magnetic lines of force. Thus the lines
of force follow the core, but some will be lost
as shown in Fig.5.
(A)

LEAKAGE FLUX

(B)

4MIIMMME».

Figure 4. (A) Transformer cores are made of sheets of

steel called laminations. (B) They are put together as shown
here. In the next layer. the M-shaped lamination is turned Figure 5. The transformer winding is placed on the cen-
over like aWand put on the bottom with the straight piece ter leg of the core. Flux will flow around the core, but
on top. Each layer is alternated in this way. some will be lost as shown.
 7

Transformer Efficiency Power Distribution

In spite of the copper and core losses, a Earlier we mentioned that the transformer
transformer is an extremely efficient device. made the distribution .of large amounts of
The efficiency of a transformer tells us how electrical power possible. You may be inter-
much of the power taken by the primary ested in knowing how power is generated and
winding from the power line is actually de- transmitted.
livered to loads connected across the second- At the power generating plant, electricity
ary. If apower transformer draws 100 watts is produced by large generators that are called
from the power line and supplies 90 watts to alternators. In an alternator, the windings
the loads connected across its secondary, the into which the voltage is to be induced are
efficiency of the transformer is: stationary and the rotating device is the mag-
net. The magnet cutting the turns of wire on
90 the stationary coils induces avoltage in these
Efficiency = —
100 x 100 = 90%
coils. Alternators are usually designed to pro-
duce avoltage of about 12,000 volts. The volt-
Large transformers used by the power com- age from the alternator is then fed to astep-
panies in the distribution of electric power up transformer as shown in Fig.6. The trans-
are very efficient, having an efficiency as high former will step the voltage up to avery high
as 98%. Smaller transformers used in elec- voltage for transmission from the alternator
tronic equipment are not as efficient, having to the main power station. The reason for
an efficiency somewhere between 80% and stepping up the voltage to ahigh value is that
90%. for agiven amount of power, the higher the
The power lost in a transformer is con- voltage the lower the current. Since the cur-
verted into heat in the transformer. When rent must flow through wires, there will be
you first turn on a piece of electrical equip- some loss in the wires. The loss depends on
ment using a transformer, the transformer the current squared times the resistance of
will be at the temperature of the surrounding the wire. Therefore, the lower we can keep
air. As the transformer is used, the losses will the current, the less the loss. Usually, volt-
cause the transformer to heat. It will continue ages of 110,000 volts or 220,000 volts are used
to heat until a balance is reached whereby to transmit electricity from the power plant
the surrounding air carries away the heat as to the main power station. At the main power
fast as the transformer produces it. Trans- station, asecond transformer is used to step
formers designed for use in eletronic equip- the voltage down to about 13,200 volts, and
ment usually have amaximum temperature it is fed from there to substations. At the sub-
rating of 85°C. This means that the trans- stations, another transformer is used to step
former is designed so that it will not get any the voltage down to about 4400 volts.
hotter than 85°C. It usually does not get that The 4400 volts is then fed along high power
hot in use because before it reaches that tem- lines to transformers mounted on poles or be-
perature, abalance is reached where the heat neath ground. These transformers step the
being produced is being carried away by the voltage down to 440 volts. Many factories have
surrounding air as fast as the transformer machines that operate on 440 volts that is fed
produces it. When this balance is reached, the directly to them. For the home user, another
transformer will not get any hotter. transformer is used on the power pole to step
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

/ck
ALTERNATOR 110,000 VOLTS 13,200 VOLTS 4,400 VOLTS 440 VOLTS
12,000 VOLTS

POWER
SUB STATION POWER POLE
STEP UP STATION
STEP DOWN STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER

240 VOL TS

120 VOLTS
POWER POLE
TO YOUR
240 VOLTS STEP DOWN
HOUSE
TRANSFORMER
120 VOLTS

2
FACTORY

Figure 6. A typical power distribution system

the voltage down still further. Usually the autotransformers, have only a single wind-
voltage fed to aresidence is about 240 volts. ing. Two examples of an autotransformer are
Three wires are used to transmit this voltage shown in Fig.7.
as shown in Fig.6. The voltage between ter- Notice that in Fig.7(A), there are three con-
minals 1and 2is 240 volts, which is used in nections to the transformer. The input volt-
electric ranges, ovens, clothes dryers, and large age is applied across the entire winding, and
air conditioners. The voltage between either the output is taken off from just part of the
terminals 1or 2and the center wire, which winding. This type of autotransformer is a
is called the neutral wire, is 120 volts. This step-down transformer. It works in essen-
voltage is used for lighting and for operating tially the same way as a transformer with
radio and TV receivers and other small ap- two windings in that the input voltage is ap-
pliances. plied across the entire winding and the out-
Notice that the neutral wire is grounded. put is taken off only part of the winding. Thus
This is done for anumber of reasons, the most we have, in effect, astep-down in the trans-
important of which is safety. But it also points former.
out why it is dangerous to work on electrical In the transformer shown in Fig.7(B), the
equipment while standing on a damp base- input is applied across only part of the wind-
ment floor or touching a water pipe or any ing. It sets up aflux that cuts the remaining
other grounded object. If you happen to touch turns of the winding, inducing a voltage in
the hot line and agrounded object at the same these turns so that the output voltage, which
time, you could easily be electrocuted. is taken off across the entire winding, is
stepped up. The ratio of the input voltage to
Autotransformers the output voltage in both examples will be
equal to the ratio of the turns across which
Transformers do not have to have two sep- the input voltage is applied to the turns across
arate windings. Some transformers, called which the output voltage is taken.
 9

(A) (B)

Figure 7. (A) A step-down autotransformer and (B) a step-up autotransformer.

Autotransformers are used in some special the line voltage and the output voltage. So
applications. They are more economical to electronic equipment using an autotrans-
manufacture than transformers with two sep- former as apower transformer is not isolated
arate windings. But in power-line applica- from the power line as is a conventional
tions, they do not provide any isolation between transformer with two separate windings.

Summary

A step-up transformer is atransformer copper loss in each winding equals the

that has more turns on the secondary current squared in that winding times
winding than on the primary. The ratio the resistance of the winding. These are
of the secondary voltage to the primary often called the I 2R losses. Core losses
voltage is equal to the ratio of the num- are made up of eddy current losses, hys-
ber of turns on the secondary to the num- teresis losses, and flux leakage losses.
ber of turns on the primary. A step-down The transformer core is made up of lam-
transformer has fewer turns on the sec- inated stampings rather than a single
ondary winding than on the primary, so piece of iron to keep the eddy current
the secondary voltage is lower than the losses low. The core material is usually
primary voltage. The transformer may silicon steel, which has low hysteresis
have more than one secondary winding; losses. Flux leakage losses are kept low
one secondary winding would have more by providing acomplete magnetic path
turns than the primary to produce avolt- for the magnetic lines of flux.
age higher than the primary voltage, and Large power transformers can have an
the other would have fewer turns than efficiency as high as 98%. Smaller trans-
the primary winding to produce avolt- formers usually have an efficiency be-
age lower than the primary voltage. tween 80% and 90%. The transformer is
The transformer is very efficient, but self-regulating. The power it takes from
it does have some losses. Copper losses the primary power line equals the power
are due to the resistance of the wire used drawn from the secondary windings plus
to wind the coils on the transformer. The the transformer losses.
POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

Self-Test Questions

Please check your answers on page 41. former, which winding will have the ,
higher current?
1 Which winding on astep-down trans- 5 What is it that we mean when we say
former has the greater number of that a transformer has an efficiency
turns? of 95(7c?
2 Which winding on a step-up trans- 6 What are copper losses due to?
former has the greater number of 7 Why are transformer cores made of
turns? laminations rather than asolid piece
3 When a load is connected across the of steel?
secondary winding of a step-down 9 Name the three core losses.
transformer, which winding will have 9 What is the disadvantage of an auto-
the higher current? transformer when compared with a
4 When a load is connected across the transformer having two separate
secondary winding of astep-up trans- windings?

a
 11

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS Half-Wave Rectifiers

Any device that will pass current in one We have shown a typical half-wave recti-
direction but not in the other direction can fier circuit in Fig.9(B). Figure 9(A) shows one
be used as a rectifier. Modern electronic ac cycle. This may be the ac that is coming
equipment uses silicon rectifiers, which are from the power line or the secondary of apower
simply silicon diodes with an n-type region transformer. Since current can pass through
for the cathode and a p-type region for the the rectifier in only one direction, the current
anode. Two typical silicon diodes are shown will flow through the load in the direction
in Fig.8, along with adime so you can get an shown producing the current waveform shown
idea of their relative size. in Fig.9(C).
Silicon diodes are used as rectifiers because
they are very inexpensive to manufacture and
they will last indefinitely as long as the
ratings of the rectifier are not exceeded. In
addition, the silicon diode has avery low for-
ward resistance. This means that when it is
passing current there will be very little power
lost due to the resistance of the diode. This
loss of power turns up in the form of heat,
which serves no useful purpose.
In electronic equipment, you will run into
half-wave rectifiers, which rectify only one-
half of the ac cycle, and full-wave rectifiers,
which rectify both halves of the ac cycle. Let's
start our study of rectifiers with the half-wave
rectifier.

Figure 8. Two typical silicon rectifiers with a dime be-

tween them to show their relative size Figure 9. A half-wave rectifier
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

12

During the first half-cycle of the input volt- point 2 and then will decrease to point 3as
age waveform, if terminal A is positive and the ac input decreases. During the next half-
terminal B is negative, electrons will flow from cycle, when terminal A is negative and ter-
terminal B through the load, through the rec- minal B is positive, there will be no current
tifier, and back to terminal A of the power through the rectifier. Therefore, no current
source. As the input wave goes through the will flow through the load, as shown from
first half-cycle from point 1to point 2 and point 3to 5in Fig.9(C).
then to point 3, current will flow through the While the half-wave rectifier is a simple
load and rectifier as shown in Fig.9(C). The device, it does have the disadvantage that it
current will increase as the voltage applied takes considerable filtering to smooth its pul-
between terminals A and B increases up to sating dc output to apure dc.

Figure 10. A ui,-wave rectifier.

 13

Full-Wave Rectifiers Compare the output for the full-wave rec-

tifier shown in Fig.10(C) with the output of
A typical full-wave rectifier circuit is shown the half-wave rectifier shown in Fig.9(C). As-
in Fig.10(A). Notice that the circuit uses two sliming that both rectifiers are operating from
diodes, D1 and D2, and also that there are a60 Hz power line, notice that with the half-
three connections to the secondary of the power wave rectifier we get 60 pulses per second and
transformer. Terminal B is acenter tap con- the current is only flowing during the one-
nection, which means that the voltage be- half cycle. In the full-wave rectifier circuit we
tween terminals A and B will be equal to the get 120 pulses per second, and there is current
voltage between terminals B and C. When flow during each half-cycle. You can see that
terminal A is positive, terminal Bwill be neg- it will be much easier to smooth the pulsating
ative and terminal C will be even more neg- output from afull-wave rectifier than it is to
ative. This means that terminal C will also smooth the output from the half-wave recti-
be negative with respect to terminal B. fier.
When terminal A is positive and terminal Another full-wave rectifier circuit is shown
B is negative, electrons will flow from ter- in Fig.11. This is called abridge rectifier. Since
minal B to ground through the load and then a center-tap transformer winding is not re-
through D1 to terminal A. Electrons 'will not quired, it has the advantage of requiring only
flow through D2 to terminal C because ter- half as many turns on the secondary winding
minal C is negative with respect to terminal for a given output voltage, compared to the
B. During the next half-cycle, terminal B will transformer used in Fig.10. In the full-wave
be positive with respect to terminal A and rectifier shown in Fig.10, we use one half of
terminal C will be even more positive. This the secondary winding during one half-cycle
means that terminal C will be positive with and the other half during the other half-cycle.
respect to terminal B or, in other words, ter- Therefore, for a given output voltage, the
minal B is negative with respect to terminal voltage between terminals A and C of the
C. During this half-cycle, electrons will flow transformer shown in Fig.10 must be twice
from terminal B to ground, through the load, the voltage across the secondary of the trans-
and then through D2 to terminal C. Electrons former shown in Fig.11. However, the circuit
will not flow through D1 to terminal A be-
cause terminal A is negative with respect to
terminal B.
With an ac cycle like the one in Fig.10(B),
we'll have apulsating dc through the load as
shown in Fig.10(C). Notice that for the first
half-cycle of the input voltage, we get acur-
rent pulse through the load as shown by 1-2-
3in Fig.10(C). During the next half-cycle of
the input voltage in Fig.10(B), we also get a
current pulse as shown in 3-4-5 of Fig.10(C).
In other words, for each half-cycle we get a
current pulse through the load with the cur-
rent flowing through D1 during the first half-
cycle and D2 during the next half-cycle. Figure 11. A bridge rectifier circuit.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

14

shown in Fig.11 does have the disadvantage

that it requires four rectifiers instead of two.
But silicon rectifiers are so inexpensive that
the cost of the two extra rectifiers is usually
more than offset by the savings in the power
transformer.
The operation of the circuit is compara-
tively simple. When terminal B is negative
with respect to terminal A, electrons will flow
from terminal B, through the diode marked Figure 12. A half-wave voltage-doubler circuit.
2, and then through the load and diode 4to
terminal A of the transformer. During the aminus sign and out of the side marked with
next half-cycle, terminal A is negative and aplus sign, through Dl, and back to terminal
terminal B is positive, so electrons will flow B. This will charge capacitor Cl with the po-
from terminal A, through diode 1, through larity shown.
the load, and then through diode 3 back to In the next half-cycle, when terminal A is
terminal B. Thus, during one half-cycle, cur- positive and terminal B is negative, the volt-
rent will flow through diodes 1and 3, and age between terminals A and B will be in
during the other half-cycle, it will flow through series with the voltage across Cl. Thus, we'll
diodes 2and 4. Current cannot flow through have avoltage approximately equal to twice
diodes 2and 4during the half-cycle when it the input voltage applied across D2 and the
is flowing through diodes 1 and 3 because load. During this half-cycle, current flows from
diodes 2and 4 will be reverse biased. Simi- terminal B, through the load and D2 into the
larly, during the next half-cycle, diodes 1and positive side of Cl, and out the negative side
3 will be reverse biased and current cannot to terminal A. Current cannot flow through
flow through them. Dl because current cannot flow through the
diode from the anode to the cathode.
Later, after you've studied filters, you will
Voltage Doublers see that with large filter capacitors and asmall
load, it is possible to get a voltage equal to
In some applications, we need a voltage almost twice the peak line voltage with this
higher than the voltage that is readily avail- type of circuit without using apower trans-
able. This is frequently the case in low-cost, former.
transformerless electronic equipment. With- The circuit shown in Fig.12 is called ahalf-
out apower transformer, the maximum volt- wave voltage doubler because current flows
age available would be the 120 volt ac line through the load only when terminal A is
voltage. But by using a voltage doubler cir- positive and terminal B is negative. In other
cuit, you can obtain ahigher operating volt- words, we have a current flow through the
age. load only during one half-cycle. The circuit
Figure 12 shows a half-wave doubler cir- shown in Fig.13 is afull-wave voltage doub-
cuit. Let's see how it works. During the first ler. Here we have acurrent through the load
half-cycle, when terminal A is negative and during both half-cycles.
terminal B is positive, electrons will flow from In the circuit shown in Fig.13, when ter-
terminal A into the side of Cl marked with minal B is negative and terminal A is
 15

D1
cycle, when terminal A is negative and ter-
minal B is positive, electrons will flow from
terminal A through D2 into the negative plate
of C2, out of the positive plate, and back to
terminal B. This will charge C2 with the po-
larity shown. Notice that now Cl and C2 are
LOAD
connected in series; these two capacities sup-
ply the current through the load. Since they
supply the current to the load continuously,
the rectifier is afull-wave rectifier.
During the half-cycle when diode D1 is con-
ducting, diode D2 cannot conduct because the
voltage applied to its cathode will be positive.
During the other half-cycle when D2 is con-
Figure 13. A full-wave voltage-doubler circuii
ducting, D1 cannot conduct because the volt-
age applied to its anode will be negative. As
in the case of ahalf-wave voltage doubler, the
positive, electrons will leave terminal B and full-wave doubler shown in Fig.13 gives us
flow into the negative plate of Cl, out of the an output voltage across C1and C2 in series
positive plate of Cl, through D1, and back to that is equal to twice the peak line input volt-
terminal A. The capacitor Cl will be charged age. In the case of an input voltage of 120
with the polarity shown. During the next half- volts ac, this would be approximately 340 volts.

Summary Self-Test Questions

The rectifier circuits that we have dis- 10 In a half-wave rectifier circuit like
cussed in this section of the lesson are the one shown in Fig.9, how many
extremely important because you will find current pulses per second will there
one or more of them in every piece of be through the load when the power
electronic equipment designed to oper- line frequency is 60 Hz?
ate from an ac power line. 11 What is the disadvantage of a half-
The half-wave rectifier circuit is im- wave rectifier circuit?
portant because it is widely used where 12 What advantage does the bridge rec-
the current drain is relatively low. Full- tifier circuit in Fig.11 have over the
wave rectifiers are used in applications full-wave rectifier in Fig.10?
where the current requirement is some- 13 What is the disadvantage of the bridge
what higher and where very pure dc is rectifier circuit shown in Fig.11?
needed. Voltage doublers are important 14 What is the advantage of the full-
because they are widely used in high- wave voltage doubler shown in Fig.13
voltage circuits used to operate cathode- over the half-wave voltage doubler
ray tubes in all types of video displays. shown in Fig.12?
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

16

FILTER CIRCUITS

The output from the rectifiers we discussed

in apreceding section is not pure dc. Instead,
it is pulsating dc — direct because it flows in
only one direction, pulsating because it varies
in amplitude rather than flowing steadily. You
will remember that the half-wave rectifier
shown in Fig.9 produces one pulse for each
cycle. With a60 Hz power line, there will be Figure 14. A half-wave rectifier circuit with a simple
60 pulses per second. Also, remember that capacitor-type filter.
these pulses are produced during one-half of
the cycle while the output from the rectifier During the first half-cycle, as the ac input
is zero during the other half-cycle. The full- voltage goes from 1to 2, the voltage across
wave rectifier produces 120 pulses per second, the filter capacitor charges from 1 to 2 as
one pulse for each half-cycle. The output from shown in Fig.15(B ). As the ac line voltage
the full-wave rectifier was shown in Fig.10(C). begins to drop from 2to 3, the capacitor be-
Neither the output from the half-wave rec- gins to discharge. The amount it will dis-
tifier nor the output from the full-wave rec- charge depends upon the size of the load
tifier can be used directly to operate electronic resistor. If the resistance is high and the load
equipment. The output from these rectifiers draws very little current, the capacitor will
must be filtered until it is essentially pure not discharge a great deal. If the resistance
dc. This is done by means of a filter circuit. is low and the load is drawing considerable
There are many different filter circuits, the current, the capacitor will discharge appre-
simplest of them being the simple capacitor ciably.
filter. We'll discuss this circuit first. In any case, as the voltage begins to drop
from 2to 3, the capacitor voltage will begin

Simple Capacitor Filters

The simplest filter is the capacitor filter

shown in Fig.14. When terminal A is positive
and terminal B is negative, electrons will flow
from terminal B to the load and through the
rectifier to terminal A. They will also flow
from terminal B into the negative plate of the
filter capacitor C and out of the positive plate,
through the rectifier to terminal A. The ca-
pacitor will charge to the peak line voltage
less any small voltage drop there may be across
the rectifier.
Figure 15(A) shows three ac cycles and
Fig.15(B) shows what the voltage across the Figure 15. Voltage waveshapes for a simple
load in the circuit of Fig.14 will look like. filter. (A) Input voltage; (B) output voltage.
 17

to drop from 2, as shown in Fig.15(B), until age. The rectifier must be able to withstand
the next cycle. Then, when terminal A is pos- this voltage without breaking down. This im-
itive and terminal B is negative, and the volt- portant characteristic by which rectifiers are
age builds up from 5 to 6, a point will be rated is usually referred to as the peak reverse
reached where the ac input voltage is equal voltage, which is abbreviated pry. It may also
to the capacitor voltage. This is point 5 in be called peak inverse voltage, which is ab-
Fig.15(B). Now the capacitor will begin to breviated piv. The two simply mean the max-
charge again to point 6. Once at point 6, the imum reverse or inverse voltages that can be
ac voltage begins to drop to point 7as shown applied across the rectifier without breaking
in Fig.15(A), so the capacitor begins to dis- it down. In the circuit shown in Fig.14, op-
charge to 9 as shown in Fig.15(B). At this erating from the 120 volt ac power line, the
point, the ac line voltage is once again built pry will be about 340 volts. The rating of the
up to a value equal to the voltage to which rectifier should be at least 400 volts pry to
the capacitor has discharged, so that it again allow areasonable safety factor.
charges it back to point 10. You will run into this filter circuit shown
This action continues indefinitely as long in Fig.14 only in applications where the cur-
as the equipment is turned on. During each rent requirements are very low. If any sizable
portion of the cycle when the line voltage ex- current is drawn from this type of circuit, the
ceeds the voltage to which the capacitor is capacitor will discharge appreciably and there
charged, there is aburst of current through will be 60 Hz hum in the circuit. For appli-
the rectifier to charge the capacitor back to cations where higher current is present, ad-
the peak line voltage. Thus, with afilter cir- ditional filtering is required to eliminate this
cuit, the current flows through the rectifier hum.
during only asmall portion of the cycle. How-
ever, it takes afairly large current to charge
the capacitor back to the peak line voltage to RC Filters
replace the charge that was lost.
One of the important characteristics of a An improved filter, which is called api fil-
rectifier is the maximum peak reverse volt- ter because it looks like the Greek letter (7r),
age that can be placed across the rectifier be- is shown in Fig.16. You will notice that this
fore it breaks down. In the circuit shown in
Fig.14, the capacitor will be charged as shown
and the charge can equal the peak line volt-
A R1
age. During the next half-cycle, when the po-
larity of the input voltage reverses, terminal
A will be negative and terminal B will be
positive. When this voltage reaches its peak,
the peak reverse voltage across the rectifier
will be equal to the capacitor voltage plus the
line voltage because the two are, in effect, in
series. This voltage will be equal to twice the
peak line voltage less the voltage that the
capacitor has discharged. For safety, we as-
sume the voltage is twice the peak line volt- Figure 16.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

18

filter consists of two capacitors, Cl and C2, exist across it, but applying dc to the plates
and afilter resistor, Rl. of the capacitor does not cause a current to
The operation of the half-wave rectifier and flow through it. Although electrons cannot
capacitor Cl, which is called the input filter cross the dielectric of the capacitor, applying
capacitor, is exactly the same as in the simple ac to the dielectric of the capacitor produces
capacitor filter shown in Fig.14. The rectifier the effect of acurrent flowing through it. This
passes current to charge capacitor C1with is because electrons will first flow into one
the polarity indicated on the diagram. The plate and then into the other as the polarity
capacitor is charged by a series of pulses as of the ac reverses.
shown in Fig.15. However, if the load resis- You will remember from your study of ca-
tance RL is low enough to draw appreciable pacitors that acapacitor offers what is called
current from the supply, the voltage across capacitive reactance or opposition to the flow
C1will discharge appreciably during the por- of ac through it. The exact reactance that any
tion of the cycle when the rectifier is not capacitor will offer to the flow of ac through
conducting. Thus, we have dc with ac super- it is given by the formula:
imposed on it across C. 1
To see the action of R1 and C2, let's first Xc =
6.28 xfxC
consider how capacitor C2 reacts to ac and to
dc. Remember that acapacitor will not pass You can see from this formula that the
dc. It can be charged so that dc voltage will higher the capacity of the capacitor, the lower

R1

\ LOW DC //
PULSATING VOLTAGE HIGH DC
DC INPUT HIGH R C2 RI- VOLTAGE

(A)

R1

\ HIGH AC
VOLTAGE LOW AC
PULSATING
DC INPUT LOW R AC2 RL VOLTAGE

(B)

Figure 17. Equivalent circuits showing the reaction of an RC filter (A) to dc, and (B) to ac.
 19

the capacitive reactance will be to an ac volt- available to the load. This problem can be
age of aparticular frequency. As amatter of overcome by the use of an LC filter.
fact, a50 ¡IF capacitor, commonly used for C2
in filter circuits, has areactance of about 50
ohms at 60 Hz. LC Filters
In Fig.17(A), we have shown how the filter
The disadvantage of the resistor-capacitor
consisting of R1 and C2 reacts to dc; in
type of filter shown in Fig.16 soon becomes
Fig.17(B), we have shown how it reacts to ac.
apparent if you consider what happens be-
As you know, a perfect capacitor would not
pass any dc, but there is no such thing as a cause of the resistance of the filter resistor
and the dc current flowing through it. If the
perfect capacitor because there is always a
dc current in the load is 100 mA, which is 0.1
small dc current called a leakage current.
ampere, the voltage drop across the 500 ohm
However, as far as dc is concerned, capacitor
filter resistor referred to in the previous sec-
C2 acts like a very high resistance and the
tion would be 50 volts. In the case of apower
resistance of R1 will be whatever you have
supply operating directly from the ac power
selected. In both cases, it is kept low enough
line, a substantial portion of the available
so that the dc flowing through it will not cause
voltage would be dropped across the filter re-
any appreciable voltage drop.
Now look at Fig.17(B), which shows the re- sistor. You will see this type of filter in ap-
action of the circuit to an ac voltage. The ca- plications where the current is reasonably low.
pacitor has a very low reactance to ac, and In applications where there is ahigh dc cur-
the resistance of R1 will be much higher than rent, an LC filter like the one shown in Fig.18
the reactance of C2, so most of the ac voltage is usually used.
will be dropped across Rl. R1 and C2 act to- In the LC filter, the rectifier and Cl act
gether as avoltage divider, with most of the exactly like the simple capacitor filter shown
ac being dropped across R1 because its resis- in Fig.14. Capacitor Cl, which once again is
tance is much higher than the reactance of called the input filter capacitor, is charged by
C2. Consider, for example, a50 µ.F capacitor the input voltage and recharged by each pulse
which, as we mentioned before, has a react- to meet the peak line voltage less the small
ance of about 50 ohms at 60 Hz. Suppose R1 voltage drop across the rectifier.
has a resistance of 500 ohms. Its resistance
is ten times the reactance of C2. Therefore,
the ac voltage appearing across R1 will be ten
Li
times the ac voltage appearing across C2. A
Suppose, for example, the ac voltage across
Cl, which is called aripple voltage, is 20 volts.
This 20 volts will divide between R1 and C2
at the ratio of 10 to 1so that the ripple across
C2 would be less than 2volts.
The RC filter is a much better filter than
the simple capacitor filter, but it does have
one disadvantage. If we make R1 too large,
there will be a substantial dc voltage across
the resistor. This will reduce the voltage Figure 18. An LC filter.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

20

LOW R at 60 Hz. Therefore, as far as dividing the ac

voltage is concerned, we see in Fig.19(B) that
L
the inductive reactance of the choke, which
LOW DC is 3750 ohms, is in series with the 50 ohm
VOLTAGE HIGH DC
HIGH R C R
L VOLTAGE capacitive reactance of the capacitor. We have
avoltage-divider network in the ratio of ap-
proximately 75 to 1. If the ac voltage across
(A)
CIis 20 volts, as in the preceding example,
the voltage across the capacitor would be ap-
HIGH R
proximately 0.25 or about one quarter of a
volt. Thus, when compared to the RC filter
x. where we had an ac voltage division of ap-
HIGH AC
proximately 10 to 1, with the LC filter we
LOW AC
VOLTAGE LOW R RL VOLTAGE have an ac voltage division of approximately
75 to 1. The ac at the output of the LC filter
will be much lower and the dc will be much
higher.
(B)
Again, this type of filter is called api filter
because the configuration looks like the Greek
Figure 19. Equivalent circuits showing the reaction of an
LC filter (A) to dc, and (B) to ac. letter pi (r). C1is called the input filter ca-
pacitor and C2 the output filter capacitor. Since
the LC filter is amuch better filter than the
The action of the filter network made up of RC filter, you might wonder why we would
Li and C2 is shown in Fig.19. You already ever use an RC filter. The answer is simply
know that a capacitor has a high resistance that resistors are very inexpensive, whereas
to dc, so that the only current flow through the choke is not.
it will be asmall leakage current. Therefore,
as far as the dc is concerned, the capacitor
acts like ahigh resistance. The dc resistance Factors Affecting the Output Voltage
of Li, which is called achoke, can be kept low
by using areasonably large wire size to wind In any filter network containing a filter
the coil. It is comparatively easy to build a choke or afilter resistor, the dc current flow-
10 henry choke with a dc resistance as low ing through the load must also flow through
as 50 ohms. With a50 ohm dc resistance, the the filter choke or filter resistor. Thus there
voltage across the choke with a current of will be a voltage drop across the choke or
100 mA would be only 5volts. This is far less resistor. The exact value of the voltage drop
than the 50 volt drop you would get across a will depend upon the dc resistance and the
500 ohm filter resistor in the circuit shown current flowing. We've already pointed out
in Fig.16. that the voltage drop is usually lower across
The choke coil will also offer much better the filter choke than across the filter resistor
filtering of the ac. A 10 henry choke has an for agiven dc current.
inductive reactance of about 3750 ohms at If the current drawn by the load changes,
60 Hz. You already know that a 50 pt.F ca- the output voltage at the output of the filter
pacitor has acapacitive reactance of 50 ohms network will change. You can see why this is
 21

so because the current must flow through the The output voltage is also affected by the
filter resistor or filter choke. If the current size of the filter capacitors used. If the filter
flowing through the choke or resistor were to capacitors are too small, the rectifier won't
change, the voltage drop across it would also keep them completely charged. If the capac-
change, and the voltage at the output of the itors are large, once the rectifier gets them
power supply would have atendency to change charged they'll stay charged to avoltage near
as well. the peak ac voltage applied to the rectifier.

Summary Self-Test Questions

In this section we have covered some 15 To what value may the filter capac-
of the more important types of filter net- itor charge in the simple filter ca-
works you are likely to encounter in your pacitor circuit shown in Fig.14?
career as an electronics technician. You
have seen that these networks vary from 16 In what type of application may we
comparatively simple networks consist- find a simple capacitor-type filter
ing only of a capacitor up to networks like the one shown in Fig.14?
containing achoke and two filter capac-
17 What advantage does the RC pi-type
itors.
filter shown in Fig.16 have over the
The simpler types of filter networks
single capacitor-type filter shown in
can be used where the current drain is
Fig.14?
low and where the filtering does not have
to be perfect. More elaborate filters are 18 What is the advantage of an LC filter
used in power supplies having a high over an RC filter?
current drain and in cases where good
filtering is required to supply pure de at
the power supply output.
The filters in this section of the lesson
are shown with half-wave rectifiers. The
same filter circuits are also used with
full-wave rectifiers. As amatter of fact,
in applications where you want pure dc
with very little ripple on the output, you
almost always find afull-wave rectifier.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

22

TYPICAL POWER SUPPLIES the reverse polarity at the power supply out-
put. The positive terminal of this power sup-
The two main sections of the power supply ply is the common terminal and there are two
are the rectifier and the filter. Now that we negative voltages available. As before, the
have discussed both of these sections, let's ex- voltage taken across C2 is well filtered,
amine some typical power supplies and see whereas the one taken from across Cl is not.
what they look like. First, we'll look at the As you can see, both these power supplies
universal ac-dc power supply. This type of were designed for use in table-model radios.
power supply does not use a power trans- The audio output can be taken from across
former; it operates directly from the ac power Cl and this voltage is used to power the last
line. This type of power supply is used in low- transistor in the radio, the output transistor.
cost equipment, particularly table-model ra- The current through atransistor depends pri-
dios. marily on the forward bias across the emitter-
base junction and not on the collector voltage.
Therefore, if there is some hum on the col-
Universal AC-DC Power Supplies lector, it won't cause any appreciable change

The universal ac-dc power supply was first

developed for use in low-cost, table-model ra- AUDIO
dios. You were supposed to be able to operate OUTPUT

the radio from either an ac or dc power line.

R2 D1 R1
However, when operated from dc, the maxi-
mum voltage to which you can charge the
input filter capacitor is the dc line voltage,
whereas when operated from an ac power line 120 V
AC Cl C2
you can charge the capacitor to the peak value
of the ac power line, which is 1.4 times the
SW
voltage obtained from adc line. Frequently,
0--0......."0 o
when you tried to use one of these radios on (A)
adc power line, it wouldn't work. But today
the use of dc in power lines has all but dis-
appeared, and although these power supplies AUDIO
OUTPUT
are now intended for use on ac, the old name
has stuck. R2 D1 R1

Two ac-dc power supplies are shown in

Fig.20. In the circuit shown at (A), the neg-
ative terminal of the power supply is the com-
120 V
mon terminal and two positive output voltages AC
Cl C2

are available. The one at C2 will be awell-

filtered low voltage. The output taken from SW

across C1will be ahigher voltage, but it will 0---.0

. 0 0 +
not be as well filtered. (B)
In the circuit shown at (B), the diode rec-
tifier has been reversed and this will give us Figure 20. Universal ac-dc power supplies
MAW Schools

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and of honest dealing will determine your reputation, whether you
run your own business or work for someone else. To help you get
started on the right track, here are afew of the business rules you
should memorize:

Keep your promises. Make it standard policy to only make promises

you are reasonably sure you can keep.

Keep accurate records. Only records can show what your profits are,
and what the tax bill is. Adequate records are essential to show you
how to adjust your charges to be fair both to yourself and to your
customers.

Be honest in all your dealings. Honesty goes far beyond dollars and
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truth in your advertising, guaranteeing your work and your mer-
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-

• •P',4•)i4tpiii.e.111/Weliiiitc.:i041•644.:e'r
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

44

5. Which type of rectifier circuit produces 8. In the power supplies shown in Fig.20(A)
the least ripple and the best regulation and (B), R2 is connected between the diode
in apower supply? and the power line to:
a. Half-wave. a. Provide better filtering.
b. Voltage doubler. b. Reduce the voltage across Cl.
c. Full-wave. c. Limit the initial charging current
d. Simple capacitor filter. through Dl.
d. Reduce the voltage across Dl.
6. In a simple capacitor-type filter such as
shown in Fig.14, current flows through 9. In Fig.29, if the output voltage decreases,
the rectifier for: the collector current of Q2:
a. One half-cycle. a. Increases.
b. More than one half-cycle. b. Decreases.
c. Less than one half-cycle. c. Remains the same.
d. As long as the capacitor is discharged.
10. What is the qc load regulation of apower
7. The advantage of an LC filter such as supply whose open circuit output voltage
shown in Fig.18 over an RC filter such of 24 volts drops to 20 volts under full
as shown in Fig.16 is: load?
a. The output voltage will be higher. a. 16.7%.
b. Lower hum voltage at the output. b. 83.3%.
c. There will be less voltage drop across c. 20%.
the choke. d. 80%.
d. All three of the choices given are cor-
rect.
 43

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2229.

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1. If the primary-to-secondary ratio of astep- 3. If the primary-to-secondary turns ratio in

down transformer with losses is 10 to 1, a transformer is 1to 5 and the current
and the secondary winding is supplying supplied to the load by the secondary is
100 watts to the load, the primary power 1 ampere, the primary current will be
will be: approximately:
a. 10 watts. a. 1 /
5 ampere.

b. 100 watts. b. 1ampere.

c. 1000 watts. c. 5amperes.
d. Somewhat over 100 watts. d. 10 amperes.

2. The core of atransformer is made of lam- 4. The primary reason for using an auto-
inations rather than asolid piece of steel transformer over atransformer with two
in order to: separate windings is that:
a. Keep eddy current losses at a mini- a. It is abetter step-up transformer.
mum. b. It is abetter step-down transformer.
b. Reduce hysteresis losses. c. It is more efficient.
c. Reduce flux leakage losses. d. It is cheaper.
d. Reduce copper losses.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

42

connected across C1and C2 in series, serves no useful purpose insofar as

so these capacitors are continually powering the equipment is con-
supplying power. In the half-wave cerned.
rectifier circuit, current is supplied 24 Although the voltage across aprop-
to the load only during the part of erly biased zener diode changes very
the half-cycle when terminal A is little when the current changes
positive with respect to terminal B. through it, the voltage does change.
15 It may charge to the peak of the ac 25 The resistance of the series transis-
line voltage which in the case of a tor varies to control the output volt-
120 volt power line is approximately age in aseries voltage regulator.
170 volts. 26 When compared to a series voltage
16 It may be used in applications where regulator using discrete components,
the current drain from the power the three-terminal IC regulator is less
supply is low. expensive, uses less space, usually has
17 The RC pi-type filter provides much some form of overload protection, and
better filtering, particularly if there is quickly installed in the circuit.
is any appreciable current drawn from 27 The lower the percentage regulation
the power supply. of avoltage regulator, the better the
18 The inductance in an LC filter has a regulation. A regulator with a load
much lower dc resistance than the regulation of 2% provides better reg-
resistance in an RC filter. In addi- ulation than one with 5% regulation.
tion, in most cases the inductive re- 28 A slow-blow fuse may never be used
actance of the choke in an LC filter in place of afast-blow fuse.
is much higher than the resistance 29 You should not use a2ampere fuse
of the resistor, so that better filtering in place of a 1ampere fuse. A blown
is provided. fuse should be replaced with one hav-
19 The filter capacitors in Fig.20(B) are ing the same rating as the original
connected with the opposite polarity fuse.
to those in Fig.20(A) because the rec- 30 The circuit breaker is probably de-
tifier is reversed. fective and should be replaced.
20 For a given dc output voltage, the 31 A 6.8 volt zener diode used to protect
power transformer in the rectifier a6volt power supply will not conduct
circuit shown in Fig.21 must have if the voltage rises to 6.5 volts.
twice as many turns on the second- 32 The SCR must also have a positive
ary winding as the transformer used voltage applied to the gate before it
with abridge rectifier circuit. will begin conducting.
21 The highest dc output voltage will be 33 Once an SCR begins conducting, it
available between terminals 1and 2 will continue to conduct even after
in the circuit shown in Fig.22. the gate voltage is removed. The only
22 DI and D4. way you can stop it from conducting
23 A shunt regulator is inefficient be- is to temporarily remove the anode
cause the current passing through it voltage.
 41

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1 The primary winding. ciency will be 95 divided by 100 times

2 The secondary winding. In a trans- 100 equals 95%.
former, the ratio between the pri- 6 Copper losses are due to the resis-
mary voltage and the secondary tance of the wire used to wind the
voltage depends entirely upon the ra- various coils in the transformer. The
tio of the turns on the primary wind- copper loss in each winding is equal
ing to those on the secondary winding. to the current squared flowing in that
If the secondary winding has more winding times the resistance of the
turns than the primary winding, the winding.
transformer will be astep-up trans- 7 To reduce losses due to eddy cur-
former; if it has fewer turns, it will rents.
be astep-down transformer. 8 Eddy current losses, hysteresis losses,
3 The secondary winding. and flux leakage losses.
4 The primary winding. When a load 9 Since the primary and secondary
is connected across the secondary windings of an autotransformer are
winding of atransformer, the wind- continuous, that is there is only one
ing will supply power to the load. The winding, the autotransformer does
amount of power will depend upon not isolate the load from the power
the secondary voltage and the load line.
resistance. The power supplied by the 10 60 per second. Since ahalf-wave rec-
sècondary winding must come from tifier provides one pulse per cycle,
power taken by the primary winding there will be 60 pulses per second on
from the power line. If the secondary the 60 Hz power line.
is supplying the power at a voltage 11 It is difficult to filter to pure de. This
lower than the primary voltage, then is primarily due to the fact that a
the secondary current will be higher pulse flows during one half-cycle, but
than the primary current. On the there is no current flow during the
other hand, if the secondary winding next half-cycle.
is supplying the power at a voltage 12 For a given de output voltage, the
higher than the primary, then the transformer secondary need have only
secondary current will be lower than half as many turns as the full-wave
the primary current. rectifier circuit shown in Fig.10.
5 The efficiency of atransformer is the 13 The bridge rectifier has the disad-
ratio of the power supplied to the sec- vantage that it requires four recti-
ondary load over the power con- fiers, whereas a full-wave rectifier
sumed by the primary times 100. If circuit with a tapped secondary re-
a transformer supplies 95 watts to quires only two.
the secondary and takes 100 watts 14 In the full-wave voltage doubler cir-
from the power line, then its effi- cuit shown in Fig.13, the load is
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
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40

Summary Self-Test Questions

The important thing to remember about 28 Can you use aslow-blow fuse in place
fuses is that if you have to replace one,
of afast-blow fuse?
you should replace it with a fuse of the
same type and current rating as the orig- 29 Should you use a 2 ampere fuse in
inal. place of a 1ampere fuse?
Circuit breakers perform the same
function as fuses, but they are mechan- 30 If a circuit breaker trips after one
ical devices. Once the overload has been hour's operation and the current
removed, they can be reset so that the through it is normal, what should you
circuit then will be complete. If the cir- do?
cuit keeps opening even though the cur- 31 If a 6.8 volt zener diode is used for
rent through it is normal, it is asign that overvoltage protection in a 6 volt
the circuit breaker is defective and should power supply, will the diode conduct
be replaced. if the voltage rises to 6.5 volts?
Electronic protection circuits work
much faster than fuses or circuit break- 32 In addition to a positive voltage on
ers. A zener diode will provide protection the anode of an SCR, what other con-
against short-term overvoltage condi- dition must be met before the SCR
tions. Where large or sustained over- will conduct?
voltage conditions may exist, a circuit
such as the crowbar overvoltage protec- 33 When an SCR begins conducting, how
tion is normally used. can you stop it from conducting?
 39

IN SERIES WITH POWER

K1 TRANSFORMER PRIMARY

El

Figure 33. SCR crowbar overvoltage protection circuit.

to the primary of the power transformer conducting, the current through the relay coil
through the closed relay contacts. will drop to zero and the relay contacts will
If the value of El rises and exceeds the open, removing the ac voltage from the pri-
breakdown voltage of zener diode Dl, current mary of the power transformer. This will, in
will flow through the diode to the cathode and effect, shut down the power supply.
through R1 to +V. Current flowing through The speed at which the crowbar circuit works
R1 will develop avoltage across it so the base depends primarily on the speed of the relay.
of Q1 will be negative with respect to the There are fast-acting relays available that will
emitter. Remember that this is the condition open in less than a millisecond so the input
needed to provide forward bias across the voltage to the power supply can be removed
emitter-base junction of the pnp transistor Ql. very quickly, before any damage can occur.
When Q1 turns on, it acts like ashort cir- Diode D2 connected across the relay serves
cuit so that the gate of the SCR is connected no useful purpose when the relay is energized
through Ql directly to +V. This causes the and its contacts closed. However, when Q2
SCR to fire so ahigh current begins flowing stops conducting, the sudden drop in current
through it. This places a momentary short through the relay coil will induce a voltage
across the power supply so that the value of that keeps this current flowing. The polarity
El drops. When this happens, the voltage of of the voltage will be such that D2 conducts,
the base of Q2 will drop practically to zero causing this voltage to disappear rapidly so
and Q2 will stop conducting. When Q2 stops the relay will open.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
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38

visions must then be made to protect against

overvoltage conditions.
Such a circuit is shown in Fig.33. Com-
monly referred to as a"crowbar," this circuit
consists of asilicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
and acurrent source that senses the voltage
on the power supply lines. Normally, the SCR
and the current source transistor (Q1) are not
conducting, and the normal supply voltage is
applied to the equipment.
A silicon-controlled rectifier is adiode with
acathode and an anode like any other diode.
But it also has athird element called agate.
The SCR will not conduct, even when there
is apositive voltage applied to the anode, until
it is turned on or "fired" by apositive voltage
to the gate. Once the SCR begins conducting,
it will continue to conduct even if the positive
voltage is removed from the gate. The only
way you can stop current flow through the
SCR is to momentarily remove the positive
Figure 32. (A) A zener diode for overvoltage protection,
and (B) how the zener clamps overvoltage conditions. voltage applied to the anode.
In the circuit shown in Fig.33, the zener
diode Dl has a breakdown voltage equal to
The zener diode is an extremely fast-acting the voltage at which you want overvoltage
device; even transient overvoltage conditions protection to occur. This will be somewhat
will be detected. If some high-amplitude, short- above the normal value of El. Under normal
duration, power line transient should pass operating conditions, the voltage El is not
through the supply and appear on the output high enough to cause the zener to conduct, so
line, the zener diode will conduct momentar- there will be no current flow through it or
ily and clamp that overload condition to 5.6 through Rl. With no current flow through R1
volts. Figure 32(B) shows such acondition. A there will be no voltage drop across it; the
zener diode connected in this way provides base and emitter of Q1 will be at the same
excellent and inexpensive protection from potential. This means that Ql will not have
momentary overload conditions. any forward bias across the emitter-base
For momentary overload conditions, the junction and therefore will not conduct; it will
zener diode provides adequate protection. It act like an open circuit. Thus there is no volt-
may be insufficient, however, to protect against age applied to the gate of the SCR and the
large or sustained overvoltage. In these cases, SCR does not conduct.
the zener diode must have asubstantial power The base of Q2 is connected through R2 to
rating to withstand the current that will flow +V. This forward biases Q2 so current flows
during the overload condition. In many sit- through it and through the relay coil. Current
uations, zener diodes with the desired power through the relay coil will energize the relay
rating are simply not available. Other pro- so its contacts will close and power is applied
 37

A slow-blow fuse is one that will open if it cessive current flows through the coil of the
is subjected to a continuous overload; it is magnet, the magnet field will be sufficient to
essentially immune to momentary overloads. pull the core into the coil. This actuates a
This fuse contains an element that is heat- mechanism that releases the catch that holds
sensitive and it will open when it gets hot the contacts together.
enough from self-heating. It is because of the You do not have to know all the details of
element's heating delay that the fuse will not how acircuit breaker works, you simply have
blow when it is temporarily overloaded. Most to know the purpose for which it is used, and
of these fuses contain asmall spring that helps if you have to replace one, be sure to get one
to pull apart the fuse element rapidly when with the same current rating as the original.
it does melt. Occasionally you will encounter a circuit
Slow-blow fuses are used in any circuit when breaker that works when the equipment is
temporary overloads occur as a normal part first turned on and then opens after it has
of operation. A good example is their use in been in use for some time, even though the
motor circuits where the starting current is current through the circuit breaker is nor-
very high for a few seconds, but operating mal. When this happens, the circuit breaker
current is relatively low. An ordinary fast- is defective and you must replace it.
blow fuse would blow every time the motor
is started because of the high motor starting
current. Electronic Protection Circuits

Fuses and circuit breakers are electro-

Circuit Breakers mechanical protection devices. While they
provide adequate protection in many cases,
Circuit breakers work much like fuses — they operate too slowly in some other cases.
they open the circuit when the current ex- Where more rapid protection is required, elec-
ceeds apredetermined value. They have the tronic protection circuits are used.
advantage over fuses in that they can be reset A simple circuit for protection against mo-
once the overload has been removed. Fuses mentary voltage overloads is shown in
must be discarded and replaced once they blow. Fig.32(A). Here we have a5volt power supply
There are two basic types of circuit breaker. with a 5.6 volt zener diode connected across
One type has a bimetallic strip that is sur- it. As long as the power supply voltage re-
rounded by acoil through which the current mains 5 volts, the 5.6 volt zener diode con-
passes. If the current through the coil be- nected across it will not conduct in its reverse
comes too high, the heat produced causes the direction.
bimetallic strip to bend. The motion of the Since the diode does not conduct, it draws
bimetallic strip is transferred to amechanical no current from the supply; it is essentially
linkage that releases acatch used to hold the inactive. If some overvoltage should occur, the
switch contacts together. The contacts are diode will conduct when the voltage reaches
pulled apart by a spring. Once the overload 5.6 volts. Because of its constant voltage char-
is removed, pressing the reset button will en- acteristic, it tends to hold the voltage across
gage the catch that holds the contacts together. the power supply to 5.6 volts. Thus the equip-
A different type of circuit breaker uses an ment is protected. The additional 0.6 volt
electromagnet to operate the release. If ex- causes no damage or trouble.
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
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36

CIRCUIT PROTECTION Fuses are made from metal alloys which,

when made to aprecise width and thickness,
will melt and open as a predetermined cur-
Every power supply requires some protec- rent passes through. Figure 31 illustrates this.
tion from overloads. When excessive current The links in fuses designed to operate at cur--
is drawn from the power supply, there is a rents of about 1ampere or more are shaped
chance of damaging the regulators, rectifiers, like the link shown in Fig.31. Fuses designed
power transformer, and other components. to operate at lower currents are generally made
Most power supplies are designed to with- of around piece of fuse wire.
stand some overload. However, when they are Fuses are usually made with the link strung
excessively overloaded, or overloaded for long between two metal end caps, the housing being
periods of time, expensive damage can result. aglass tube. Some of the higher current units
For that reason most power supplies are pro- use aceramic tube housing for splatter pro-
tected with fuses or circuit breakers that re- tection and heat dissipation. The glass en-
move the overload before damage can occur. velope offers an advantage over the opaque
ceramic: the fuse condition is visible.
It is often impossible to determine whether
Fuses or not the fuse is good by visual inspection in
the case of a very low current fuse because
A fuse is a part connected in series with the fuse link is so thin. Any doubtful fuse can
the electric circuit it is to protect. It protects be checked with an ohmmeter. If the fuse is
the circuit by melting and opening if an ex- good, there will be alow resistance across it.
cessive current passes through it. Only when Fuses come in a wide range of standard
overloaded does the fuse operate, or "blow." values and can be used in either ac or dc cir-
Otherwise, it performs no function in the nor- cuits. Whenever you have to replace ablown
mal circuit other than completing the path fuse, never use one having a higher current
for current flow. rating than originally specified by the man-
ufacturer. If you do, you will forfeit the pro-
tection the fuse is supposed to supply.
There are three different types of fuses used
in electronic equipment: fast-blow, very fast-
blow, and slow-blow. The most commonly used
is the fast-blow type and, unless otherwise
specified, you can assume that afuse is of this
type. Fast-blow fuses are used in many solid-
state circuits where transistors, ICs, or diodes
would be damaged unless the overload is re-
moved quickly.
The very fast-blow types have been devel-
oped recently for critical semiconductor cir-
cuits where extremely rapid overload removal
is needed. The very fast-blow fuse will blow
Figure 31. Fuse operation showing (A) agood fuse, and in about Vio of asecond or faster when 100%
(B) a blown fuse. overloaded.
 35

Summary

One important thing for you to Series regulators with some type of error
remember about voltage regulators is that detection and feedback provide better
there are two types: shunt voltage reg- regulation than simple series regulators.
ulators and series voltage regulators. The trend in modern series voltage
Shunt voltage regulators are normally regulators is to use three-terminal inte-
used when the power requirements of the grated circuit regulators. They are avail-
load are low. While simple shunt regu- able in awide number of voltage ratings.
lators are quite satisfactory for main- They provide effective regulation, take
taining the voltage constant, they are up less space than regulators made up
very inefficient since all the current of discrete components, and are gener-
flowing through them is wasted. ally less expensive. In addition, they
Series regulators are more efficient usually have some type of overload pro-
than shunt regulators and they can be tection built into them so that in the event
used for higher power requirements. of an overload they simply shut down.

Self-Test Questions

23 Why is ashunt regulator inefficient? 26 Name three advantages of the three-

24 Will the voltage across a properly terminal IC regulator over series
biased zener diode remain constant regulators using discrete compo-
if the current through the diode nents.
changes? 27 Which regulator provides better load
25 How does the series transistor in a regulation, one with a load regula-
series voltage regulator control the tion of 5% or one with a load regu-
output voltage? lation of 2%?
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
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34

is one of the most important regulator para- The change in output voltage in this for-
meters. It is usually measured with a con- mula is simply the difference between the no-
stant load current so variations in the load load or open circuit output voltage and the
do not come to play. Line regulation can be output voltage with maximum or full load.
expressed as follows: % line regulation equals For example, assume we have apower supply
with ano-load voltage of 5volts. If we place
afull load on the supply and the output drops
change in dc output voltage to 4.75 volts, we have
x 100
change in ac input voltage
5 — 4.75
% load regulation = x 100
4.75
If for an input change of 5volts, the output
were to change by 50 millivolts (0.05 volt), 0.25 x 100
the regulation factor would be: 4.75
25
0.05 = 4.75 = 5.263%
x 100 = 1%
5
Once again, the lower the percentage of load
regulation, the better the regulator is work-
It is important to notice that the smaller ing. In other words, a power supply with a
the percentage of line regulation, the better load regulation of 1% has better regulation
the job the voltage regulator is doing. than power supply with aload regulation of
Load Regulation. The percentage of change 5%.
in regulated output voltage for a change in Ripple Rejection. Any ripple or hum volt-
load from zero to the maximum load current age fed from the filter network to the voltage
specified is called the load regulation. The regulator appears to the voltage regulator just
load on the regulator is changed from no load like achange in the input voltage. The reg-
(open output) to full load where maximum ulator will try to maintain the output voltage
safe current is drawn and the change in out- constant. A measure of the capability of the
put voltage noted. Load regulation is as regulator to reduce ripple voltage is termed
important as line regulation; it is atrue mea- ripple rejection. How well the regulator rejects
sure of how well the regulator maintains the this ripple is the ripple rejection factor. Ripple
constant voltage with varying loads. Load voltage is actually arapid change in the dc
regulation is expressed as follows: % load reg- input to the regulator; the regulator sees it
ulation equals as any other input voltage variation and,
therefore, attempts to compensate for it. The
change in output voltage regulator substantially reduces the output
x 100
full load output voltage ripple. This is true of any regulator circuit.
 33

bipolar transistor, has three terminals. The The three-terminal regulators usually con-
terminals on the regulator are the input, to tain protective circuitry that causes the de-
which is applied the unregulated dc voltage, vice to shut down when its internal
the regulated output voltage terminal, and the temperature becomes too high. This might
common or ground terminal. These are ter- happen if too much current were drawn from
minals 1, 2, and 3, respectively, in Fig.30. As the load or if the input voltage were too high,
you can imagine from the description, the resulting in alarge power dissipation in the
device is extremely easy to use. The unreg- regulator. In most instances, the regulator
ulated voltage from the power supply is ap- will resume normal operation when the cause
plied between the input terminal and ground. of the excessive heat is removed.
The load is connected across the output ter- Integrated circuit voltage regulators are
minal and ground. Such regulators are avail- replacing discrete component regulators be-
able in a wide range of current and voltage cause they are smaller and require less space
ratings. Typical regulated output voltage rat- (you have to make only three connections to
ings are 5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18, and 24 volts, both the regulator and the entire circuit is wired),
positive and negative, with current ratings they are usually provided with their built-in
as high as 1ampere. overload protection, and they are consider-
Three-terminal regulators are usually used ably cheaper than regulators using discrete
as remote regulators on printed circuit boards components.
to supply the voltage requirements of the cir- Adjustable Regulators. Adjustable IC
cuits on individual printed circuit boards. This voltage regulators are also available. A typ-
arrangement allows arelatively inexpensive ical one is the Fairchild 723. This device can
unregulated power supply to supply the power supply positive or negative output voltages.
needs for acollection of printed circuit boards The output voltage can be set to any value
as might be present in any large electronic between 2and 37 volts. The IC can supply an
system. The regulators on the individual cir- output current up to 150 mA.
cuit boards need to handle only the modest You do not have to know how these devices
power requirements of the circuitry on their work, but simply that they are available. They
own circuit boards. are more expensive than the fixed voltage
regulators, but in some applications the
increased cost may be justifiable.

UNREGULATED
FILTERED
DC INPUT Voltage Regulator Performance

Voltage regulator performance is mea-

sured in several ways. You do not have to
LOAD
know all of them, but there are several im-
portant specifications with which you should
be familiar.
Line Regulation. The percentage a regu-
lated dc output voltage may change for a
change in ac input voltage is called line reg-
Figure 30. Typical three-terminal IC regulator. ulation, or regulation factor. Line regulation
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
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32

UNREGULATED 01
0--111
DC INPUT

R6
\A \ D2

R4 R1
03

02 02 LOAD

R5

§ R3

Figure 29. An improved feedback voltage regulator

offset by equal and opposite variations in the Integrated Circuit Voltage Regulators
base current of Ql. These current changes
can change the voltage across the resistor R5 While some electronic voltage regulator
in Fig.28. As aresult, the current it supplies circuits are still constructed with discrete
changes, forcing the circuit to compensate for components, more and more integrated cir-
changes in the bias current as well as output cuits are being used in this application. Using
voltage variations. Naturally, this reduces the modern integrated circuit technology, it is
effectiveness of the regulator in compensat- possible to construct the entire feedback reg-
ing for load variations. The constant-current ulator circuit on asingle chip of silicon. Many
source eliminates this effect. integrated circuit voltage regulators are
A further improvement in the basic feed- available. Some of these devices require abso-
back regulator can be obtained by increasing lutely no external components other than the
the gain of the error amplifier circuit. Very usual power supply parts for proper opera-
small changes in the output voltage must be tion.
amplified sufficiently to provide control to the Three-Terminal Regulators. One of the
base of the series-pass transistor. The higher simplest and most widely used integrated cir-
the gain of the circuit, the more control small cuit voltage regulators is the three-terminal
variations in output voltage will have on the regulator. This device is packaged in astan-
series-pass transistor. dard power transistor housing and, like any
 31

in the output voltage will cause achange in put voltage in the circuit shown in Fig.28. A
the base of current of Q2, which in turn changes change in the input voltage will change the
its collector current. This causes the base cur- current through the zener diode D1 and R4
rent of Ql, and hence its collector current, to so there will be some slight change in the
vary. By changing the conduction of Ql, the voltage across Dl which will change the emit-
output voltage will be adjusted to compensate ter voltage of Q2. Similarly, achange in the
for the original output change. unregulated dc input will cause the current
Assume that because of some line or load through R5 and hence the base current of Q1
variation, the output voltage increases. This to change. This also will affect the regulated
will cause an increase in the voltage occur- output voltage. These two problems can be
ring at the base of Q2. The base current of overcome or greatly reduced by modifying the
Q2 will increase. In turn, the collector current circuit slightly as shown in Fig.29.
of Q2 increases. This brings about areduction Notice that in the improved feedback volt-
in the base current of Ql. Since Q1 conducts age regulator R4 has been moved from the
less, its effective resistance will increase. This unregulated input to the output. This will
causes the output voltage to decrease. As you result in amore constant current through the
can see, the original output voltage increase zener diode and R4 so that the voltage applied
is corrected. A decrease in output voltage to the emitter of Q2 will be essentially con-
causes the base and collector current of Q2 to stant.
decrease. Therefore, the base current of Q1 The resistor R5 in Fig.28 has been replaced
will increase. QI will conduct more, and its by the constant-current source made up of D2,
effective resistance will decrease. This results Q3, R5, and R6. Notice that Q3 is apnp tran-
in an offsetting increase in the output volt- sistor, so current flows from the collector of
age. Q2 and the base of Q1 to the collector of Q3.
Resistor R2 in the output voltage divider Electrons flow from the emitter of Q3 through
is apotentiometer. This permits you to adjust R6 to the power supply output. Notice that
the base current of Q2. The voltage at the the zener diode, D2, holds the base of Q3 con-
base of Q2 is essentially fixed at avalue equal stant, keeping the current through this tran-
to the zener voltage plus the emitter-base drop sistor constant.
of Q2. Despite the changes in the adjustment In addition to preventing ac ripple and
of R2, the voltage between the base of Q2 and changes in the input from changing the base
ground will remain essentially constant. current of Ql, the constant current source also
However, the base current of Q2 will vary as improves the load regulation of the circuit.
R2 is adjusted. Adjusting R2, therefore, con- In order to provide perfect regulation, the sum
trols the collector current of Q2 and the base of the base current of Q1 and the collector
current of Ql. This in turn varies the output current of Q2 should be constant. An increase
voltage. R2, then, is acontrol that can be used in the collector current of Q2 will then result
to adjust the output voltage to the desired in an equal decrease of the base current of Q1
level. Once it is set, the circuit will automat- and vice versa. If the sum of the currents is
ically maintain the output voltage at this not constant, poor regulation will result. By
desired value. using a simple resistor for this bias source,
Any hum voltage on the unregulated dc as we did in Fig.28, we create variations in
input or change in the unregulated dc input the output voltage that will affect the collec-
will cause some change in the regulated out- tor current of Q2. These variations should be
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

30

Figure 27. Block diagram of a feedback regulator.

establishes astandard for this circuit against emitter of Q2. The output voltage sample and
which the output will be compared. The sam- the zener reference voltage are compared by
ple taken from the output and the reference Q2. The current flowing through Q2 is afunc-
are both applied to an error detector, which tion of the output voltage and the zener volt-
compares the two. age. The base bias for Ql is obtained from
Any fluctuation in the output produces a resistor R5. The current through this resistor
positive or negative dc voltage at the output is acombination of the base current of Q1 and
of the error detector. The error voltage is am- the current from the collector of Q2. A change
plified and applied to the controller (usually
aseries transistor acting as avariable resis-
tance). The amplified error signal changes the UNREGULATED
DC
bias on the control element in Fig.27 to shift INPUT

the output back to the desired level.

The simplest form of feedback voltage reg-
ulator is shown in Fig.28. The series-pass
transistor, Ql, is an emitter follower similar
to that used in the regulator discussed ear- LOAD
lier. Here the base voltage of the series-pass
transistor is controlled by the error amplifier
Q2. Q2 performs the functions of comparison,
error detection, and amplification.
A sample of the output voltage is taken
from the output through the voltage divider
made up of R1, R2, and R3. This sample is
applied to the base of Q2. The emitter of Q2
is biased by the zener diode DI and through
resistor R4 to provide afixed voltage at the Figure 28. Simple feedback voltage regulator
 29

RI

UNREGULATED LOAD
INPUT

Figure 26. A simple emitter-follower series voltage regulator.

in collector current. Since the resistance of a essentially constant. If the input voltage should
transistor is equal to the collector-emitter drop, the opposite happens. The voltage drop
voltage divided by the collector current, the across R1 goes down, but the base voltage
transistor resistance must increase as the remains almost constant. The resistance of
collector-emitter voltage increases. The tran- the transistor will decrease so that the volt-
sistor therefore acts as avariable resistor. age across the load will remain essentially
We use this characteristic of atransistor in constant.
the series-regulated supply shown in Fig.26. Of course, if the input voltage should change,
Notice that the transistor base voltage is held the current through D1 will change, so there
at afixed value by the zener diode Dl. Let's will be some small change in the voltage across
see what happens if the dc input voltage in- it. This will result in aslight change in the
creases. collector and emitter currents of the transis-
When the dc input voltage increases, the tor; the voltage across the load will change
current flowing through the series circuit slightly, but far less than it would without
consisting of R2 and D1 will increase. The the series regulator. More elaborate circuits
voltage across diode Dl will remain essen- can be used to provide better regulation.
tially constant and the voltage drop across R1
will increase. The base voltage applied to the
transistor will remain essentially constant. Feedback Voltage Regulators
At the same time, the collector-emitter
voltage of the transistor will increase because Figure 27 is ablock diagram of an improved
of the increased input voltage. Since the base series regulator, often called afeedback reg-
voltage remains constant, there will be little ulator. In this circuit, the sampler is asensing
or no increase in collector current and hence element, usually a resistor voltage-divider
little or no increase in emitter current. The network. It samples apart of the output volt-
resistance of the transistor increases so that age. This sample is usually set equal to a
the voltage across the load will remain reference level. The reference voltage
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

28

o wattage zeners. They are expensive and have

afairly high resistance, providing less effec-
tive regulation than the low-power units.
• When the current requirements exceed those
that can be regulated by low-wattage zener
diodes, it is better to use aseries voltage reg-
ulator circuit.

Series Voltage Regulators

Figure 24. (A) Connections for a temperature-compen- Before going into the series regulator, let's
sating zener diode, and (B) its schematic symbol. look at the transistor characteristic curves
shown in Fig.25. Each curve is a plot of
connecting azener diode and anormal silicon collector current versus collector-emitter
diode in series. The temperature coefficient voltage for a given base current. Once the
of aconventional forward-biased diode is neg- collector-emitter voltage reaches a certain
ative, and that of a zener diode above ap- value, any further increase causes little or no
proximately 6volts is positive. Therefore, the change in collector current for a given base
possibility of one diode compensating for a current. If the base current changes, the
change in the other exists when they are con- collector current changes appreciably; if the
nected back-to-back as shown in Fig.24(A). base current remains constant, the collector
Diode Dl is asilicon diode connected in the current remains almost constant even with
forward-biased direction; D2 is azener diode wide changes in collector voltage.
connected in the reverse-biased configura- As an example, notice that on the curve for
tion. Sometimes both diodes are packaged to- I,
I'that if the collector-emitter voltage changes

gether, as shown in Fig.24(B). The dot end from point B to point C, there is little change
should be connected to the positive terminal
so that the zener diode is properly back biased.
A silicon diode has a voltage drop of ap-
proximately 0.7 volt across it when it is con-
ducting. When it is in series with the zener,
the drop across the combination will be 0.7
plus the zener voltage. For example, an 8.2
volt zener in series with a series diode reg-
ulates the voltage to 8.2 + 0.7 = 8.9 volts.
The simple shunt regulator shown in Fig.23
is quite satisfactory and economical, as long
as the current requirements of the load are
not too high. One-half watt and one watt ze-
ner diodes are inexpensive, have alow resis-
tance, and will provide good regulation. If the
power consumed by the load does not exceed
5 watts, this type of circuit works well. In
higher power applications we must use high- Figure 25. Transistor characteristic curves.
 27

in the current through it result in only avery

VOLTAGE REGULATORS
small change in the voltage across it. As the
The function of a voltage regulator is to current through the diode varies to compen-
take the voltage provided by the transformer- sate for changes in the load current or input
rectifier-filter arrangement and convert it into voltage, there will be some change in the out-
astable output voltage. This must be accom- put voltage, but the change will be much less
plished in spite of variations of the input line than it would be without the diode regulator.
voltage or of the load. The regulated voltage will be equal to the
There are two basic kinds of voltage reg- input voltage less the voltage drop across Rl.
ulators, shunt and series. In the shunt type, The value of RI is selected so that, under
the voltage regulation is obtained by aseries- normal operating conditions, the current
dropping resistor and by diverting current through the zener diode will be about 20% of
through some device, with aconstant voltage the current flowing through the load. If the
characteristic, in parallel with the load. The input voltage increases, the current through
shunt regulator is inefficient, but possesses the zener diode will increase so that the volt-
the significant advantage of not being de- age drop across RI will increase. This will
stroyed under short-circuit conditions. keep the regulated voltage constant. If the
A series regulator uses some type of vari- input voltage decreases, the current through
able resistance device in series with the load. the diode will decrease so the voltage drop
If the input voltage or load current changes, across RI will decrease.
this series resistance adjusts itself to com- If for any reason the load current increases,
pensate for the change. the current through the zener diode will de-
crease once again, keeping the voltage drop
across Rl almost constant. If the load cur-
Shunt Voltage Regulators rent decreases, the zener diode current in-
creases, keeping the current through and the
A simple shunt voltage regulator using a voltage drop across Rl almost constant.
zener diode is shown in Fig.23. You will re- One problem with silicon zener diodes is
member that azener diode is operated under the effect that temperature has on the reverse
reverse-bias conditions and that once the diode breakdown voltage. Zener diodes with break-
breaks down and begins conducting, changes down ratings of less than about 6volts have
a negative temperature coefficient. The
breakdown voltage of adiode with anegative
temperature coefficient decreases as the tem-
RI perature increases. Zener diodes with avolt-
age breakdown above 6volts have apositive
temperature coefficient. This means that the
INPUT ZENER LOAD
breakdown voltage increases with increases
VOLTAGE DIODE
in temperature. At about 6 volts, the zener
diode has almost a zero temperature coeffi-
cient. The 6 volt zener is very stable with
temperature changes.
A temperature-compensating zener, de-
Figure 23. A shunt zener diode voltage regulator signed for use above 6volts, can be built by
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

26

Summary Self-Test Questions

Most modern electronic equipment you 19 Why are the filter capacitors in
will encounter will use full-wave power Fig.20(B) connected with the oppo-
supplies with either arectifier circuit like site polarity to those in Fig.20(A)?
the one shown in Fig.21 or abridge rec-
20 What is the disadvantage of the full-
tifier. Bridge rectifiers are widely used
wave power supply shown in Fig.21
because the savings in the cost of the
compared to abridge rectifier?
transformer more than offsets the cost of
the two extra rectifiers. While half-wave 21 Between which two output terminals
rectifiers are not as common, they are of the power supply shown in Fig.22
useful in some applications. is the highest output voltage avail-
Modern power supplies use a pi-type able?
filter network. The filter network may n In the bridge rectifier circuit in Fig.22,
be either an RC network or an LC net- when terminal 7 of the transformer
work. LC networks usually provide bet T is negative and terminal 9is positive,
ter filtering and better voltage regulation. which two diodes will conduct?
 25

to the junction of D1 and D2 and terminal 9 former. Here we have afull-wave power sup-
connects to the junction of D3 and D4. When ply using the center tap of the transformer
terminal 7is positive with respect to terminal and producing avoltage between terminals 3
9, electrons will flow from terminal 9to the and 4 such that terminal 3 is positive with
junction of D3 and D4 and then through D3 respect to terminal 4. C3, L2, and C4 form a
to the minus terminal, which is terminal 2. pi-section LC filter network.
From there they will flow through the load Now let's see what happens in the power
to terminal 1, through the choke and D2 to supply made up of D7 and D8. When terminal
terminal 7of the transformer. During the next 7is negative with respect to terminal 8, elec-
half-cycle, when terminal 7 is negative and trons will flow from terminal 7to D7, through
terminal 9is positive, electrons will flow from the diode, and then through R1 to the nega-
terminal 7through D1 and then to terminal tive terminal (terminal 5), through the load
2of the power supply output, through the load back to terminal 6, and from there to ground
to terminal 1, through Li, and then through and over to terminal 8. During the next half-
D4 to terminal 9of the transformer. You can cycle, when terminal 9 is negative with re-
see we have a bridge rectifier circuit recti- spect to terminal 8, electrons will flow from
fying the full voltage between terminals 7 terminal 9 through D8, through R1 to ter-
and 9. The pi-section LC filter consisting of minal 5, through the load to terminal 6, from
Cl, Li, and C2 filters the output from the terminal 6 to ground, and back to terminal
rectifiers and changes the pulsating dc to 8. Now we have a power supply where ter-
smooth dc. minal 5is negative with respect to terminal
Now notice that terminal 7 of the trans- 6. Thus we have anegative voltage available
former connects to D5 and terminal 9 con- between ground and terminal 5. The RC filter
nects to D6. Terminal 8of the transformer is consisting of C5, R1, and C6 smooths the pul-
grounded. When terminal 8is negative with sating output from rectifiers D7 and D8 to
respect to terminal 7, electrons will flow from smooth dc.
terminal 8 to ground, to terminal 4 at the Thus, from the one transformer we have
output of the power supply, through the load three separate output voltages. We have a
to terminal 3, and then through L2 and D5 high voltage between terminals 1 and 2, a
back to terminal 7. During the next half-cy- positive voltage that is about half as high
cle, when terminal 8is negative with respect between terminals 3 and 4, and a negative
to terminal 9, electrons will flow from ter- voltage at terminal 5that would be approx-
minal 8 to ground and then to terminal 4, imately equal to the positive voltage on
through the load to terminal 3, through L2, terminal 3.
and through D6 to terminal 9 of the trans-
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR
ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

24

D2
120 V L1
AC

C2

02

D5 L2

C3 C4

D6

F-i 1
.--NVV-
4 I*--0 5

C5 C6

Figure 22. A multiple output voltage power supply.

A power supply designed to produce mul- supplies operating from asingle transformer.
tiple output voltages is shown in Fig.22. At To see how it works, first look at the circuit
first this might look like acomplicated sup- made up of diodes Dl, D2, D3, and D4. Notice
ply, but actually it is made up of three simple that terminal 7of the transformer connects
 23

in the current through the transistor so you Typical Full-Wave

will not hear any hum in the output of the Power Supplies
radio. The power supply at (A) is designed for
use with aradio using npn transistors, while A simple full-wave power supply is shown
the one shown at (B) is designed for use in a in Fig.21. Notice that this power supply uses
radio using pnp transistors. apower transformer and that the secondary
Notice the resistor R2 connected between of the transformer is tapped and the tap is
the diode and the power line in both supplies. grounded. During one half-cycle, D1 will con-
When the equipment is first turned on, Cl duct and during the other half-cycle D2 will
will be discharged. Without R2 in the circuit, conduct.
the initial charging current through the diode Notice that we have resistors R1, R2, and
would be so high the diode could be destroyed. R3 across the output. These resistors will make
R2 limits the initial charging current to asafe it possible for us to get three different oper-
value. ating voltages from the power supply. The
Although these two power supplies were resistors are also connected across the output
designed for use in radio receivers, you will of the power supply to serve another purpose.
find similar power supplies in other low-cost They will discharge the capacitors Cl and C2
electronic equipment. It is not always possi- when the equipment is turned off. Usually
ble to take a voltage from across the input the filter capacitors will have a fairly high
filter capacitor, but in many cases where some capacity, so it is desirable to discharge them
hum voltage does not matter and a higher when the equipment is turned off to prevent
voltage is needed, this is done. an accidental shock.

D1 L1

Figure 21. A full-wave power supply

 0•
How Amplifiers Work 2230

NRI Schools
ADivision of [Link]

Washington, DC 20008
"e-

4100.10061000114001fflée1+14ME4F>eee . ?.«W?' je7b.,e 01044m goer tie> , 4.

1...10•14.111. feel ie .1+14We-A
How Amplifiers Work
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Types of Amplifiers 1
Resistance-Capacitance Coupled Voltage Multipliers 1
A Two-Stage NPN Transistor Amplifier 2
A Two-Stage PNP Transistor Amplifier 5
A Two-Stage FET Amplifier 8
A Typical IC Amplifier 9
Operational Amplifiers 10
Summary 15
Self-Test Questions 15

Low-Frequency Power Amplifiers 16

Single-Ended Power Amplifiers 16
Push-Pull Amplifiers 19
Eliminating the Output Transformer 21
Inverse Feedback 23
IC Amplifiers 27
Summary 28
Self-Test Questions 28

Radio Frequency Amplifiers 29

Resonant Circuits 30
Transistor RF Amplifiers 33
I-F Amplifiers 37
IC Amplifiers 40
Summary 41
Self-Test Questions 41

Logarithms and Decibels 42

The Theory of Logarithms 42
The Decibel 43
Using the Decibel 44
Summary 46
Self-Test Questions 46

Answers to Self-Test Questions 47

Lesson Questions 49

Copyright 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN LT2230

02
 1

An amplifier is acircuit designed to take aweak signal at its input, and produce an amplified
copy of the original signal at its output. Often, amplifiers are classified according to the
frequencies they are designed to handle. In the first part of this lesson, we will study low-
frequency amplifiers. Later in this lesson, you will study high or radio frequency amplifiers. Both
types of amplifiers are important, because you will find either or both of them in practically every
type of electronic equipment.
Amplifiers can also be classified as either voltage amplifiers or power amplifiers. A voltage
amplifier is one that is designed to amplify aweak signal voltage, and make it stronger. A number
of voltage amplifiers may be used in cascade to take avery weak signal voltage, and amplify it to a
usable value. Power amplifiers are used to produce power to drive some external device. For
example, every radio receiver has apower amplifier in the output. It takes the audio signal voltage
that has been detected and amplified by preceding stages, and produces the power necessary to
drive the loudspeaker to produce sound.
The ability of transistors to amplify signals is essentially what makes many of our modern
electronic devices possible. Therefore, if you understand how these amplifiers work, and how
they are put together to perform specific tasks, you will be able to analyze the operation of many
different types of electronic equipment. Since amplifiers are so important, it is worthwhile to
spend as much time as necessary on this lesson to be sure you have acomplete understanding of
them.

TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS There are radio frequency amplifiers designed

for very low frequencies, as low as 18 to 20 kHz.
Other radio frequency amplifiers are designed
When we speak of low-frequency amplifiers, to amplify very high-frequency signals over
we are generally concerned with amplifiers that 1000 MHz. While they all do the same thing, the
are designed to amplify low frequency signals. circuitry may be quite different because of the
No sharp dividing lines exist at the low- frequency of the signal being handled.
frequency or high-frequency end of the range When we study low-frequency amplifiers in
over which the amplifier is supposed to work. this lesson, we will study both voltage and
Originally, a low-frequency amplifier was an power amplifiers. However, we will limit our
amplifier that operated in the audio range, study of radio frequency amplifiers to voltage
within the limits of our hearing. Of course, amplifiers.
these amplifiers will amplify signals beyond We'll start our study of low-frequency voltage
these frequency limits, but not as well. The amplifiers with the most widely used amplifier,
basic low-frequency amplifier can be modified the resistance-capacitance coupled voltage am-
so that it can amplify signals over a much plifier.
broader range than the audio range. In fact,
video amplifiers, which amplify picture signals
having frequencies up to several megahertz, are Resistance-Capacitance
simply modified low-frequency amplifiers. Coupled Voltage Amplifiers
Radio frequency amplifiers can be designed
to amplify a specific frequency signal, or to Resistance-capacitance coupling, most often
amplify signals over aspecific frequency range. called RC coupling or resistance coupling, is so
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

named because resistors and capacitors are The input signal to be amplified is fed into
used to couple the signal from one stage to the input terminal in Fig.1 and coupled through
another. Cl to the base of Q1. C2 holds the emitter at
This type of coupling is widely used between ground potential insofar as the signal is con-
voltage amplifiers and between voltage amplifi- cerned, because it has ahigh capacitance and
ers and Class A power amplifiers in audio work. therefore a very low reactance. The signal is
You will learn about Class A power amplifiers applied directly between the base and the emit-
later in this lesson. While the low-frequency ter of the transistor. It is in series with the
amplifiers we will be discussing are primarily forward bias across the emitter-base junction.
designed to amplify audio or sound signals, The applied signal, which is an ac signal
remember that these amplifiers can be used to having a frequency in the audio range, causes
amplify any low-frequency signal. the emitter-base current to vary, which in turn
causes the collector current to vary. The vary-
ing collector current causes avarying voltage
A Two-Stage NPN Transistor Amplifier drop across R4, so that the effective voltage
between the collector of the transistor and
In Fig.1, we've shown a typical two-stage ground is varying.
transistor RC coupled amplifier using npn tran- If the input signal drives the base in apositive
sistors. We are going to explain the operation of direction, the collector current will increase.
this amplifier in considerable detail because it This will cause the voltage drop across R4 to
is very important that you understand exactly increase, so the voltage between the collector
how it works. After you have studied this of the transistor and ground decreases. On the
amplifier, you will study another two-stage am- other hand, if the input signal swings the base
plifier using pnp transistors. in a negative direction, this will cause the

Figure 1. A two-stage RC coupled amplifier using npn transistors.

 3

collector current to decrease, because it re- collector voltage of QIdrops. Thus, we have a
duces the forward bias across the emitter-base negative signal at the collector of Q1 appearing
junction. When the collector current decreases, at the base of Q2.
the voltage drop across R4 will decrease, so the When the input signal swings the base of Q1
voltage between the collector of the transistor negative, the collector current decreases, and
and ground will increase. In other words, when the voltage drop across R4 decreases. This
the input signal swings positive, the signal causes the voltage between the collector of Q1
between the collector of the transistor and and ground to increase. C3 must charge to this
ground swings negative. When the input signal new value. To charge the capacitor, electrons
swings negative, the voltage between the col- flow from ground through R5 into the negative
lector of the transistor and ground swings plate of C3, out of the positive plate, and
positive. Thus, we have a 180° phase reversal, through R4 to the plus side of the power supply.
which happens in the common-emitter amplifi- The electrons flowing through R5 to charge C3
er circuit. to the higher voltage develop apositive voltage
The varying input signal applied to the input at the end of the resistor that is connected to
of Q1 results in an amplified varying signal the base of Q2, so that the swing in positive
appearing between the collector of Q1 and voltage at the collector of Q1 appears at the
ground. This is coupled through C3 to the base base of Q2.
of Q2. The way this happens is quite simple. The signal appearing between the collector
With no signal applied, there will be acertain of Q1 and ground is coupled through the RC
current flow through Q1 and a voltage drop network, consisting of C3 and R5, to the base of
across R4, so that the collector of Q1 will be at Q2. The emitter of Q2 is held at signal ground
a certain positive voltage. At the same time, potential by C4 so the signal is appearing
there will be acurrent flow from ground, which directly between the base and the emitter of Q2.
is connected to the negative side of the power The positive-going signal at the input of Q1,
supply, through R5, R6, R8, and back to the which produced a negative-going signal at the
positive side of the supply that will place the collector of Ql, produces anegative-going sig-
base of Q2 at a slightly positive voltage. nal at the base of Q2. This reduces the forward
Capacitor C3 will charge to avalue equal to the bias across the emitter-base junction so that the
difference between the base voltage of Q2 and current through Q2 goes down. If the collector
the collector voltage of Ql. It will charge with current of Q2 decreases, the voltage drop
the polarity shown. across R8 will decrease, so that the voltage
When the input signal causes the collector between the collector of Q2 and ground will
current of Q1 to increase, the voltage drop increase. Notice that we have an increasing
across R4 increases, and the net voltage be- voltage at the base of QI, producing an increas-
tween the collector of QI and ground de- ing voltage between the collector of Q2 and
creases. The voltage between the collector of ground.
Q1 and the base of Q2 is lower, so C3 must When the input signal to the base of Q1
discharge to this lower voltage level. When C3 swings in a negative direction, the current
discharges, electrons flow out of the negative through the transistor and R4 decreases. The
plate through R5 to ground. This will set up a voltage drop across R4 will decrease, so the
voltage drop across R5, having a polarity that voltage between the collector of Q1 and
makes the base end negative. The capacitor will ground swings positive. This will cause the
have to discharge the same voltage that the voltage between the base of Q2 and ground to
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

swing positive; the current through Q2, and resistance of the resistor and the current flow-
hence the collector current, will increase. ing through it. The current flowing through R2
This will increase the voltage drop across R8 is made up of the current through R1 plus the
so that the voltage between the collector of base current of Q1. If anything causes the
Q2 and ground decreases. In other words, we current through R2 to change, the voltage drop
have anegative input signal at the input of across it and the bias on the transistor will
QI producing a negative-going signal at the change.
output of Q2. Some minority carriers, which are holes, will
In both cases, the input signal at the input of cross the collector-base junction and flow from
Q1 is in phase with the output signal at the the collector into the base. These holes will
output of Q2. This is what we might expect. We capture some of the electrons flowing from the
know that in a common-emitter amplifier, we emitter to the base. Some of these electrons
have a180° phase shift. So we have a180° phase would normally flow out of the base and
shift in Q1 and another 180° phase shift in Q2. through R2, and contribute to the voltage drop
Two 180° phase shifts equal 360°, so that the across R2, which sets the forward bias across
output signal after going through two amplifier the emitter-base junction.
stages will be in phase with the input signal. If the transistor begins to heat, the number of
The output signal between the collector of Q2 holes crossing from the collector to the base
and ground is coupled through C5 to the output will increase. This will result in an increase in
terminal. the number of electrons flowing into the base
Notice how we have provided the forward that are captured by these holes. This will cause
bias across the emitter-base junction. In Ql, we afurther reduction in the base current through
connect aresistor, R2, between the collector of R2, causing a voltage drop across R2 to de-
the transistor and the base. We have another crease. This will cause the voltage on the base
resistor RI between the base and ground. These of the transistor to rise. In turn, the current flow
two resistors form a voltage-divider network through the transistor will increase, causing the
and by selecting the correct values, we can bias transistor to heat still further. When this hap-
the base at the value required. Current will flow pens, the number of holes crossing from the
from ground through R1 and then through R2 collector to the base will increase further, cap-
and R4 to the positive side of the power supply. turing still more electrons, which will increase
The value of R4 is usually selected so that the the base voltage even further. Eventually this
voltage between the collector of Q1 and ground high base voltage will overheat and destroy the
will be about half the power supply voltage. transistor. This action is called thermal run-
This will permit the voltage on the collector of away.
the transistor to swing a maximum in either Thermal runaway is prevented by the inser-
positive or negative direction as the input signal tion of R3 in the emitter circuit. If the base
changes. Once the value of R4 has been select- voltage tends to rise, the current through the
ed, then the values of RI and R2 are selected to transistor will increase and this will increase
provide the desired positive voltage on the base the voltage drop across R3. Thus, the emitter
of the transistor. will become more positive with respect to
It is important to notice that the base voltage ground. If the base voltage becomes more posi-
is determined by the voltage drop across RI tive, so will the emitter voltage, which will
and the voltage drop across R2. The voltage prevent or minimize any increase in forward
drop across each resistor is determined by the bias across the emitter-base junction. Thus, the
 5

sole purpose of R3 in the circuit is temperature example shown in Fig.1 has a gain of 10, the
stabilization. R7 in the emitter circuit of Q2 is total gain will be 100. Suppose we feed asignal
used for the same purpose. of 10 millivolts into the first stage having again
Let's consider another effect caused by the of 10. At the output, the signal should have an
way we provide this forward bias. When a amplitude of 10 millivolts times 10 equals 100
signal is applied to the input and drives the millivolts. Now, we feed the 100 millivolts into
emitter-base junction in the positive direction the second stage, where it is again amplified by
so that the collector current increases, the afactor of 10. We then have 100 millivolts times
voltage drop across R4 increases so that the 10 equals 1000 millivolts or 1volt.
collector voltage swings in the negative direc-
tion. Thus, the voltage between the collector of A Two-Stage PNP Transistor Amplifier
the transistor and ground decreases. We are
using this voltage to provide the forward bias In Fig.2, we've shown atypical two-stage RC
across the emitter-base junction of the transis- coupled amplifier using pnp transistors. The
tors. Therefore, the forward bias will decrease. operation of this amplifier is basically the same
The positive-going signal has the effect of in- as the one shown in Fig.!, except that the
creasing the forward bias on the transistor. The power supply connections are reversed and the
drop in output voltage has the effect of reduc- carriers through the transistors will be holes
ing the forward bias on the transistor. This is instead of electrons. Notice that we have ob-
called degenerative, or negative, feedback. It tained the forward bias for the emitter-base
reduces the effect of the input signal, which in junction for each transistor in the same way as
turn reduces the strength of the output signal. we did for the npn transistors in Fig.!. Also,
You might at first think this is a disadvantage, notice in Fig.2 that resistors R3 and R7 in the
but it does have the advantage of increasing the emitter circuit of each transistor, are used to
frequency response of the amplifier. The fre- prevent thermal runaway.
quency response of the amplifier is its ability to Even though the operation of this two-stage
amplify equally all the different frequencies fed amplifier is basically the same as the one
to it. shown in Fig.1, we are going to explain its
You could see why this is so if you consider operation in considerable detail. Read over the
what happens if the amplifier has atendency to explanapon carefully in order to note the differ-
amplify some frequency or frequencies more ences between these two amplifiers.
than others. They will appear as a stronger First, let's consider what is happening in Q1
signal in the output of the stage, meaning that under zero signal conditions. Essentially the
the feedback would increase. This will reduce same thing is also happening in Q2. Notice that
the gain of the stage more than it will in the the emitter of Q1 connects through R3 to the
case of frequencies that receive less amplifica- positive side of the power supply. Electrons
tion. Therefore, the degenerative feedback will be attracted from the emitter through R3 to
tends to equalize the gain of the stage over a the positive side of the power supply. The
wide range of frequencies. electrons leaving the emitter will produce holes
When amplifiers are connected one stage that will cross the emitter-base junction if the
after another as they are in Fig.!, we say they base is negative with respect to the emitter.
are connected in cascade. The total gain of the Notice that the negative side of the power
two amplifiers will be equal to the product of supply connects through R4 to the collector of
the gain of each stage. If each stage in the Q!. Electrons can flow from the negative side
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 2. A two-stage RC coupled amplifier using pnp transistors.

of the power supply through R4 to the collector, potential between the emitter and base, and
where they will fill holes arriving at the collec- reduce any change in the forward bias due to
tor. Some electrons flowing through R4 will the transistor heating.
flow through R2 and Rl to the positive side of When the input signal fed to QI swings in a
the supply. The voltage drop across RI will positive direction, it will reduce the forward
make the base negative with respect to ground. bias across the emitter-base junction. This will
By selecting the values of RI and R2 correctly, cause the number of holes flowing through the
the base can be made negative with respect to transistor to decrease. When this happens, the
the emitter so we have the correct forward bias current through R4 decreases so the voltage
across the emitter-base junction. drop across it decreases. This will cause the
It is important to notice that the current voltage between the collector of Q1 and ground
flow through R2 is made up of the current flow to swing in anegative direction.
through RI, plus some electrons that will flow When the input signal swings in a negative
into the, base and will fill holes crossing the direction, it will add to the forward bias across
emitter-base junction. In the pnp transistor, the the emitter-base junction. The increased for-
electrons are the minority carriers and some ward bias will cause the number of holes
electrons will cross from the collector to the flowing through the transistor to increase, and
base and fill some of the holes that would therefore the number of electrons flowing
normally be filled by electrons flowing through through R4 to fill the holes arriving at the
R2. We have the saine condition where thermal collector will increase. This will cause the volt-
runaway cart be produced in the pnp transistor age drop across R4 to increase so that the
that we had in the npn transistor. If the transis- voltage between the collector of QIand ground
tor current begins to increase because of ther- becomes less negative, or swings in apositive
mal runaway, the current through R3 will direction.
increase. This will swing the emitter in anega- Notice that we have the same situation in QI
tive direction, which will reduce the change in in Fig.2 that we had in QI in Fig.!. The positive-
 7

going incoming signal causes the voltage be- decrease causing the voltage drop across R4 to
tween the collector and ground to swing in a decrease. The voltage between the collector of
negative direction. A negative-going input sig- Q1and ground will swing in a negative direc-
nal causes the voltage to swing in a positive tion so that the voltage between the collector
direction. In both transistors, we have the 180° and ground increases. Capacitor C3 must
phase reversal. charge to this higher voltage. Electrons will
The signal developed between the collector flow from the negative terminal of the power
of QI and ground is coupled to the RC coupling supply through R4 and into the negative plate of
network consisting of C3 and R5 to the base of C3. Electrons will flow out of the positive plate
Q2. Here the signal is amplified and once again of C3 through R5 to ground. In flowing through
we have the 180° phase reversal that we have in R5, the electrons will cause a voltage to be
any common-emitter amplifier. The signal at developed across the resistor having apolarity
the output of Q2 has gone through a180° phase such that the base end of the resistor will be
reversal in QIand asecond 180° phase reversal negative. Thus the negative voltage swing at the
in Q2 and is therefore back in phase with the collector of Q1 appears as the negative voltage
input signal. swing at the base of Q2.
The coupling capacitor, C3, couples the sig- When the input signal swings in a negative
nal from the collector of QI to the base of Q2 in direction, it will add to the forward bias across
the same manner as in the preceding amplifier. the emitter-base junction of Q1so the number
To see how it works, let's consider the amplifier of holes flowing through the transistor to the
first under zero signal conditions. collector will increase. This means the number
With no signal applied to the input, there will of electrons flowing from the negative side of
be a certain number of holes crossing the the supply through R4 to the collector to fill
emitter-base junction and the base, and flowing these holes will increase. The increase in cur-
to the emitter. These holes will be filled by rent through R4 will cause the voltage drop
electrons coming from the negative side of the across it to increase. Thus the negative voltage
power supply and flowing through R4. Elec- between the collector of Q1 and ground de-
trons flowing through R4 will result in avoltage creases. Now C3 must discharge to this lower
drop across it. The collector of Q1 will be value. Electrons will leave the negative terminal
negative with respect to ground. The collector of C3 and flow to the collector to fill some of
voltage will be approximately one half the the holes arriving at the collector of Ql. Elec-
supply voltage. trons will flow from ground through R5 and
Electrons flowing through R8, R6, and R5 will into the positive side of C3. Electrons flowing
develop avoltage across R5 so that the base of through R5 will swing the base voltage in a
Q2 is negative with respect to ground. However, positive direction. Thus we have the voltage
the collector of QIwill be much more negative, between the collector of QI and ground becom-
so the capacitor C3 will charge with the polarity ing less negative, or swinging in a positive
shown. direction and a positive-going voltage appear-
When a signal fed to the input swings in a ing between the base of Q2 and ground. The
positive direction, it will subtract from the base of Q2 will not swing positive, it will simply
forward bias across the emitter-base junction be less negative.
of Q!, so the number of holes reaching the As in the case of the two-stage amplifier
collector will decrease. This means that the using npn transistors, the gain of the two-stage
number of electrons flowing through R4 will amplifier using pnp transistors will be equal to
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 3. A two-stage RC coupled amplifier using JFETs.

the product of the gain of each stage. For ty such that the source end is positive with
example, if we have again of 10 in each stage, respect to ground. The gate is connected to
the overall gain of the two-stage amplifier will ground through RI and since there will be no
be 100. current flow through RI, there will be no volt-
age drop across it. The gate will be at dc ground
potential. Since the source is positive with
A Two-Stage FET Amplifier respect to ground, it will be positive with
respect to the gate. This means that the gate is
Field-effect transistors are not used as fre- negative with respect to the source and the
quently as bipolar transistors in low-frequency channel. R5 is connected between the source of
voltage amplifiers, but there is no reason why Q2 and ground for the same reason.
they can't be. A typical two-stage RC coupled Notice that we have acapacitor, C2, connect-
amplifier using n-channel FETs is shown in ed across R2. This is alarge capacity capacitor
Fig.3. so it has a very low reactance. Insofar as the
You will remember that with ajunction FET signal is concerned, the source of the transistor
there must be areverse bias between the gate is connected directly to ground. Therefore any
and the channel to prevent current flow from signal fed to the input will be applied directly
the channel to the gate. With an n-channel FET, between the gate and the source.
the gate must be negative with respect to the When the incoming signal swings in a posi-
channel. In the circuit, R2 is connected between tive direction, it will reduce the reverse bias
the source of Q1 and ground, and is used to between the gate and the channel. This will
provide the required reverse bias between the permit the number of electrons flowing through
gate and the channel. Current flowing from the the channel to increase so the voltage drop
negative side of the power supply flows across R3 increases. Thus the voltage between
through R2 to the source. In so doing, avoltage the drain of the FET and ground decreases.
is developed across the resistor having apolari- Under zero signal conditions, C3 will be
 9

charged with the polarity shown. When the current through QI will decrease. This will
voltage between the drain of the transistor and cause the voltage between the drain of Q1 and
ground decreases, the level of the charge on C3 ground to increase. C3 must charge to this
must decrease. Electrons will flow from the higher voltage. To charge C3 at ahigher voltage,
negative plate of C3 through R4 to ground, and electrons will flow from ground through R4 and
will develop a voltage having a polarity such into the negative plate while electrons will
that the end connected to the gate is negative. leave the positive plate of C3 and flow through
Thus the negative-going voltage appearing be- R3 to the positive side of the power supply. The
tween the drain of Q1 and ground is coupled electrons flowing through R4 will develop a
through C3 to the gate of Q2. The negative voltage so that the gate end is positive. This will
voltage on the gate of Q2 will increase the reduce the reverse bias between the gate and
reverse bias between the gate of Q2 and the channel of Q2 so the current flow through the
channel so that current flow through Q2 will transistor will increase. The increased number
decrease. This means that the current through of electrons flowing through Q2 will result in a
R6 will also decrease so the voltage drop across greater voltage drop across R6 so the voltage
it will decrease. The voltage between the drain between the drain of Q2 and ground will de-
of Q2 and ground will increase. Thus we have a crease. Thus we have anegative-going signal at
180° phase reversal on Q1 followed by another the input producing a negative-going signal at
180° phase reversal on Q2 so that the voltage at the output.
the output of Q2 is in phase with the voltage at As in the preceding examples, the overall
the input. gain of the two-stage amplifier is equal to the
When the signal at the input swings in the product of the gain of the individual stages.
negative direction, it will add to the reverse bias Once again, if each stage has again of 10, the
between the channel of Q1 and the gate so the overall gain of the two-stage amplifier will be
100.

8V
104F
A Typical IC Amplifier

Integrated circuits are also used as low-

frequency voltage amplifiers. A typical circuit is
22 mF
OUTPUT shown in Fig.4. This circuit is actually the input
circuit of one channel of a stereo tape player.
The input circuit for the other channel is con-
tained in the same IC.
The schematic diagram does not indicate
what circuit may be used inside the IC. This is
the only information you will get on the sche-
matic diagram. If you can find out who manu-
factured the IC, the chances are that you can
find out what circuitry is inside the IC. But as a
technician, this information probably won't be
of much help to you. You know that the IC
Figure 4. An IC low-frequency amplifier is supposed to take a weak signal applied
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

between terminal 2and ground and produce an studied this circuit, but it is so widely used in
amplified signal between terminal 6 and op amps we will review it.
ground. Notice there is no forward bias shown across
If you encounter a circuit of this type that the emitter-base junction of Q1 and Q2. This is
fails to work properly, the only thing you can do taken care of in the input circuit. You will
is check the input signal at terminal 2 and the remember that there are two inputs to this type
output signal at terminal 6. If the output signal of amplifier, one marked with a + symbol sign
is much stronger than the input signal, you and the other with a — sign. The input marked
know that the IC is working. If you do not get with the + sign is called the noninverting input.
an amplified signal at terminal 6, you know The reason for this is that the phase of the
there is something wrong with the circuit. With signal coming out of the emitter follower will
no amplified output signal, you should check be the same as the phase of the input signal. For
the voltage on terminal 14 to be sure that you example, if the signal applied to the input of Q1
have 8 volts. If you do, make sure that the swings in a positive direction, this will cause
external components used in the circuit are the emitter current through Q1 to increase. This
good. If they are in good condition, the chances will increase the voltage drop across RI, swing-
are that the IC is defective, and the only thing ing the emitters of Q1 and Q2 in a positive
you can do is try areplacement. direction. This will reduce the forward bias
You might not expect an amplifier such as across the emitter-base junction of Q2 which in
shown in Fig.4 to have avery high gain because turn will reduce the collector current of Q2. If
it shows only one block for the IC. However, the collector current goes down, the voltage
there is no way of telling what is inside the drop across R2 will go down, so the collector of
integrated circuit. Usually there will be anum-
ber of stages connected in cascade so that the
amplifier normally has considerable gain. Most
often amplifiers of this type have again of 100
or more.

Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers, which are usually

called op amps, are simply a combination of
some of the individual amplifier circuits you
have already studied. A typical op amp may
consist of a differential amplifier directly cou-
pled to an emitter follower, which in turn is
coupled to another differential amplifier that is
coupled to an emitter follower. In most cases,
the device that is used as an operational ampli-
fier has a very high gain, but this gain is
controlled by an external feedback network.
Figure 5is adiagram of adifferential amplifi- Figure 5. A differential amplifier and an emitter-follower
er and an emitter follower. You have already combination forming an operational amplifier.
 11

Q2 will swing in apositive direction. This will ple, if we apply a 1volt input signal to an op
increase the forward bias across the emitter- amp with a gain of 10,000, our output would
base junction of Q3, causing the current theoretically be equal to the input multiplied by
through this transistor to increase. This will the gain, or 10,000 volts. This cannot actually
cause the voltage drop across R3 to increase, happen. The output of any amplifier is limited
and since current flows from ground to the by the power supply voltages. Most op amps are
emitter, the emitter will become more positive. powered with both positive and negative volt-
Thus, apositive-going signal applied to the base ages. A typical op amp, for example, may use
of Q1 will cause a positive-going signal at the power supplies of +12 and —12 volts. For this
output. reason, the output cannot swing any greater
If apositive-going signal is fed to the invert- than ± 12 volts or no more than 24 volts peak-
ing input, which is marked with a — sign, the to-peak for asine wave.
positive-going signal will be fed to the base of Since the gain of an op amp is so high, it can
Q2. This will increase the forward bias across be used only with very low level signals. Anoth-
the emitter-base junction of Q2, so that the er problem with the op amp is that it is very
collector current through the transistor will unstable and its gain may vary considerably
increase. This will increase the voltage drop from one amplifier to another. One amplifier
across R2 so that the voltage between the may have a gain of 10,000, and the next one,
collector of Q2 and ground will decrease. This which is supposed to be identical, might have a
will reduce the forward bias across the emitter- gain of 15,000. For many applications, this is a
base junction of Q3, causing the current to go disadvantage.
down. The drop in current will reduce the To overcome this problem we use negative
voltage drop across R3 so that the output signal feedback with op amps by feeding some of the
will swing in anegative direction. output voltage from the amplifier back to the
In summary, the signal fed into the noninvert- inverting input through a resistor. As you
ing input, which is marked with a + sign, will learned earlier, negative feedback reduces the
cause asignal having the same phase to appear overall gain of an amplifier. At the same time, it
in the output. A signal fed into the inverting stabilizes the amplifier and improves its fre-
input, which is marked with a— sign, will cause quency response.
a signal 180° out of phase to appear in the Figure 7(A) is adiagram of atypical op amp
output. circuit. Here, the noninverting input to the
The symbol for an op amp is shown in Fig.6. amplifier is grounded. This eliminates the dif-
Input 1, marked with a — sign, is the inverting ferential characteristics of the amplifier so we
input and input 2, marked with a + sign, is the can use it as a single-ended circuit. Negative
noninverting input. The letter A stands for the
gain of the op amp. If we apply an input signal
to the amplifier, an output signal will be gener-
ated. The input signal will be amplified by an
INVERTING
amount equal to the gain A of the amplifier. If INPUT

the input signal is very small, it will appear o

NONINVERTING o OUTPUT
greatly enlarged at the output because of the INPUT
high gain.
If the input signal to an op amp is too high,
the amplifier output will be clipped. For exam- Figure 6. Operational amplifier symbol
 HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

12

feedback is provided by resistor R2 connected

between the output and the inverting input.
An input resistor, R1, is also connected to the
inverting input. The free end of RI is the input
to the circuit. With this circuit, the gain of the
op amp is determined entirely by the ratio of
R2 to R1 rather than A. If this is difficult to see
at first, see Fig.7(B) for an explanation.
Figure 7(B) shows the current and voltages
in the op amp circuit. Current flowing through
R1 is designated Il, while current flowing
through the feedback resistor R2 is designated
12. The current flowing in the input of the op
amp is designated 13. 13 is generally the base
current of atransistor. The input voltage to this
circuit is labeled El, and the input to the
amplifier is shown as E2. The output voltage is
Eo.
Since the gain of the amplifier is A, we know
that the output voltage is equal to A times the
input voltage of the amplifier. We can write this:

Eo = E2 x (—A)

Figure 7. (A) A standard op amp circuit. (B) Currents

We use a — sign because the input signal is
and voltages in the op amp.
inverted. We can rearrange this formula to find
the input voltage of the amplifier:
simple Ohm's law expression for the current
through each resistance. For example, current
E2 = E°
—A Il through resistor R1 is equal to the voltage
across it, which is El — E2, divided by RI. The
To continue our explanation, you will re- current through R2 is equal to the voltage
member from earlier lessons that the voltage across it, E2 — Eo divided by R2.
across any part is equal to the difference in the In Fig.7(B), the current flowing in the amplifi-
voltages at the ends with respect to ground. For er is 13. If we assume that the op amp is a
example, if we measure 10 volts between one perfect amplifier and has an infinite impedance,
end of the resistor and ground, and 4 volts we can conclude that it will not draw current
between the other end and ground, the voltage from the input source and 13 = O. In fact, 13 will
across the resistor is 6volts. be so low that this is avalid assumption. The
With this in mind, we can write the formula entire input current Il must flow through R2.
for the voltage across RI and R2. The voltage This means that Il must be equal to 12. Now if:
across R1 is equal to El — E2. The voltage
across R2 is equal to E2 — [Link] the
voltages across the resistance, we can write a Il = 12
 13

then, There is also less possibility of running into

some problem, such as feedback that could
El — E2 E2 — E. cause the amplifier to be very unstable.
R1 R2 Figure 8is aschematic diagram of one-half of
an IC that contains two operational amplifiers.
The other half consists of another operational
Earlier we said that the input voltage E2 is amplifier that is identical to the one shown. The
equal to the output voltage E. divided by the diodes D1 through D4 are used to help maintain
gain, which is —A. The gain is so high that the aconstant input voltage to the input transistors,
input voltage E2 is extremely small. It is so Ql and Q2. D5 and D6 are used to help maintain
small we can call it zero. If we assume azero a constant base voltage to the two constant-
value for E2, we can remove the E2 figure from current sources, Q3 and Q6. Notice that the
the formula. Thus, input to Ql is the noninverting input, and the
input to Q2 is the inverting input. The output
El _ E. from Ql connects directly to Q4 and the
RI — R2 output from Q2 connects directly to Q5. The
output from Q5 connects directly to the combi-
From this we can find that the output voltage is nation of Q7 and Q8, which form an emitter-
equal to the ratio of the feedback resistance R2 follower. This type of amplifier has considerable
to the input resistance 111 multiplied by the gain and could be used as an amplifier in a
input to the circuit. stereo system, as shown in Fig.4. The amplifier
we have shown will be used in one channel,
E° = — —R2 x El while the other identical amplifier in the IC is
R1 used for the other channel.
Even though the gain of the two amplifiers
The negative sign indicates inversion. in one IC should be equal since they are all
If you have any difficulty working with these formed at the same time, there might be
formulas, don't worry. You don't have to go considerable difference in their gains. How-
through all the mathematics we have gone ever, since the gain is going to be controlled
through. We show it only for the benefit of primarily by the ratio of the feedback resistor
those who want to see why the gain of the op to the input resistor, by using resistors with a
amp depends entirely upon the ratio of R2 to 1% tolerance, you can have two op amps with
[Link] you need to do is remember this ratio. practically identical gain. For example, with a
The important thing to realize is that the op 1% tolerance one amplifier might have again of
amp is capable of avery high gain, and we can 100, and the other would have again of no less
control it so it will be stable by selecting the than 99 or more than 101.
correct values of the feedback resistor and the The op amp is avery flexible amplifier. Since
input resistor. its gain can be readily controlled by external
While operational amplifiers can be made resistance, it is a very useful amplifier. In
using discrete components, the operational am- addition, it lends itself to low-cost mass produc-
plifiers you will encounter will be integrated tion in ICs so it is widely used in all types of
circuits. Not only is an IC op amp less expen- electronic equipment. The three-terminal volt-
sive than one using discrete components, but age regulators you studied in apreceding les-
the characteristics can be controlled better. son use an op amp as the error amplifier.
 HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

14

INPUT

oó

D1

R6
D2
R5 200 OHMS

D3 9k
07

D4
•
08
AO
A

R2 R1
10k 10k 05
R7
6k
o
• OUTPUT

04

02 01

R8
5k

NF
:3
e R4
D6 1.67k
3k

AMPLIFIER 'A'
BIAS
SOURCE

Courtesy Fairchild Semiconductor

Figure 8. Schematic diagram of one operational amplifier in a dual op amp IC.

 15

Summary Self-Test Questions

In the two two-stage amplifiers shown Please check your answers on page 47.
in Figs.1 and 2, there is a 180° phase
reversal in each stage so that the signal at 1 In the amplifier shown in Fig.1, what is
the output will be in phase with the signal the phase relationship between the
at the input. In both amplifiers, the ampli- amplified output voltage and the input
fied signal between the collector of Q1 and voltage?
ground is coupled through C3 to the base 2 In the circuit shown in Fig.2, if the
of Q2. In each amplifier the charging and input signal voltage swings in the posi-
discharging of C3 as the voltage between tive direction, what will happen to the
the collector of Q1 and ground varies, collector voltage on Ql?
causes acurrent to flow through R5 so the 3 In the circuit shown in Fig.3, what is
varying voltage between the collector of the purpose of R5?
Q1 and ground will be coupled between 4 In the circuit shown in Fig.4, if the
the base of Q2 and ground. The overall voltage applied to terminal 14 is nor-
gain of the two stage amplifier is equal to mal, you have an input signal voltage
the product of the gain of the two stages. on terminal 2and all other parts check
An operational amplifier is a high-gain good, yet there is no output on termi-
amplifier that readily lends itself to IC nal 6, what should you do?
manufacturing techniques. Op amps have 5 What is the meaning of the + and —
two inputs, an inverting input and anonin- signs on the leads going to the base of
verting input. An op amp has such ahigh QI and Q2 in Fig.5?
gain that it has atendency to be somewhat 6 What type of circuit is used in Q3 of
unstable. To prevent this, the gain is con- Fig.5?
trolled by means of feedback from the 7 In Fig.6, what does the letter A in the
output to the inverting input. The gain center of the triangle indicate?
of an op amp will be equal to the ratio of 8 What determines the gain of the circuit
the feedback resistor to the input resistor. shown in Fig.7?
By using afeedback resistor and an input 9 How many differential amplifiers are
resistor with atolerance of I% or less, we there in the circuit shown in Fig.8?
can control the gain of an op amp quite
precisely.
 HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

LOW-FREQUENCY POWER ers. Let's look at single-ended amplifiers first,

AMPLIFIERS then we'll look at push-pull amplifiers.

After the weak audio signal has been ampli- Single-Ended Power Amplifiers
fied, it is fed to apower amplifier that develops
the power necessary to operate the loudspeak- A single-ended power amplifier is shown in
er. Power amplifiers can be divided into three Fig.9. This amplifier is a Class A amplifier. A
classes called Class A, Class B, and Class C. Class A amplifier is biased at the midpoint of its
In aClass A power amplifier, the transistor is characteristic curve. This means that the for-
biased on the midpoint of its characteristic ward bias across the emitter-base junction is
curve. Current flows through the transistor adjusted so that the current flowing through the
during the entire cycle. We say that current transistor is halfway between zero current and
flows for 360°. Class A power amplifiers can be maximum current.
used both as low-frequency power amplifiers The transistor used in the circuit of Fig.9 is
and radio frequency power amplifiers. an npn transistor. Forward bias for the emitter-
Class B power amplifiers are biased at cut- base junction is provided by R1 and R2. Current
off. Current flows through a Class B power flowing from ground through RI will develop a
amplifier only when it is driven into conduc- voltage across the resistor having the polarity
tion by the incoming signal. Current flows so that the end connected to the base will be
for approximately one half-cycle or for 180°. positive. Current flowing through R3 will also
Class B power amplifiers can be used both as develop a voltage across this resistor so that
low-frequency power amplifiers and radio the emitter is positive with respect to ground.
frequency power amplifiers. However, when a However, the values of R1 and R2 are adjusted
Class B power amplifier is used as a low- so the base is more positive than the emitter.
frequency power amplifier, two transistors Thus, the base current will be equal to the
will always be used, one to amplify each half current needed to cause the collector current to
of the cycle. We call this arrangement apush- be about halfway between zero and saturation.
pull amplifier. When the incoming signal swings in a posi-
A Class C power amplifier is an amplifier that tive direction, the base current will increase,
is biased beyond cutoff so that current flows causing the collector current to increase. An
through it for less than one half-cycle. Class C equal swing in the input signal in a negative
power amplifiers cannot be used as low- direction will cause an equal decrease in base
frequency power amplifiers. Their use is re- current and hence an equal decrease in collec-
stricted to radio frequency power amplifiers. In tor current. As a result, the average current
aClass C rf power amplifier, current will flow through the transistor does not change.
through the transistor for about 120°. The varying collector current flows through
Low-frequency power amplifiers using asin- the primary winding of Tl, which is called an
gle transistor are always Class A power amplifi- output transformer. The output transformer is
ers. They are called single-ended power astep-down transformer and is used to match
amplifiers. A low-frequency power amplifier the comparatively high output impedance of
using two transistors may be either a Class A the transistor to the low impedance of the
power amplifier or a Class B power amplifier. speaker voice coil. A step-down transformer
In both cases they are called push-pull amplifi- will produce astep-up in the current so that a
 17

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of single-ended Class A amplifier using an npn transistor.

relatively high current flows through the sec- is a much smaller capacitor that has a high
ondary winding of the output transformer and reactance at the frequencies to be amplified,
through the speaker voice coil. This will cause but a low reactance at the frequency of the
the speaker voice coil and the speaker cone to parasitic oscillations that might occur.
vibrate in and out generating sound. Figure 10 shows a single-ended Class A
Capacitor C2 is alarge capacitor and there- power amplifier using apnp transistor. In this
fore has a low reactance. As far as the input circuit the forward bias across the emitter-
signal is concerned, the emitter is connected base junction is set by RI and R2. When the
directly to ground. Resistor R3, connected be- transistor is operating, electrons are pulled
tween the emitter of atransistor and ground, is from the emitter and flow through R3. The
used to prevent thermal runaway. voltage drop across R3 will have a polarity
Capacitor C3, connected between the collec- such that the end connected to the emitter is
tor of the transistor and ground, is needed to negative (less positive) with respect to its
prevent parasitic oscillations. These are un- lower end. Current flowing through R1 and R2
wanted high-voltage signals that might develop will develop a voltage across R2 so that the
between the collector of the transistor and base end is more negative (even less positive)
ground. These signals can have ahigh enough than the voltage on the emitter. To forward
amplitude to arc through the transistor and bias a pnp transistor, the base must be
destroy it. Capacitors Cl and C2 are relatively negative with respect to the emitter.
large capacity capacitors that offer little or no The holes flowing through the transistor will
reactance at the frequencies to be amplified. C3 reach the collector, where they will be filled by
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of single-ended Class A amplifier using a pnp transistor.

electrons flowing from the negative side of the the voice coil are cemented to this paper speak-
supply through the primary winding of the er cone. Additional flexible leads are connected
output transformer to the collector. to them and they are brought out so they can be
In this circuit apositive increase in the input connected to the secondary winding of the
signal voltage will cause a reduction in the output transformer.
number of holes flowing through the transistor. The secondary winding of the output trans-
An equal 'amplitude negative input voltage former is connected in series with the voice
swing will cause an equal increase in the num- coil. The varying current in the secondary of the
ber of holes flowing through the transistor. output transformer causes avarying current to
The varying number of holes reaching the
collector due to changes in the input signal will
cause the number of electrons flowing through
the primary winding of the output transformer
to vary. In turn, this will induce a varying
current in the secondary which is in series with
the speaker voice coil.
Figure 11 is asimplified sketch showing how
the loudspeaker is made. The speaker is made
with a permanent magnet usually made of a
material called alnico. This is an alloy made of
aluminum, nickel, and cobalt that produces a
very strong magnet.
The speaker movement consists of a voice
coil form on which is wound avoice coil. This is
simply a coil consisting of a relatively few
number of turns. The voice coil form fits into a
slot in the permanent magnet. The leads from Figure 11. A sketch of a permanent magnet speaker.
 19

flow through the voice coil. Remember that the the transistors is set so they are operating at
output transformer is astep-down transformer, approximately midway between zero current
so the varying current will be much greater and saturation. When the input signal causes
than the varying current in the primary winding the base of Q1 to swing in apositive direction
of the transformer. The varying current flowing and the base of Q2 to swing in a negative
through the voice coil produces a magnetic direction, the collector current in Q1 will in-
field which alternately adds to and opposes the crease while the collector current from Q2 will
field from the magnet. This causes the voice decrease. This will cause the current through
coil form, and hence the speaker cone, to move the upper half of the primant winding of T2 to
in and out at an audio rate. The speaker cone increase and the current through the lower half
sets the air around it into vibration to produce to decrease. These two changes cause changes
the sound. in the magnetic field produced by the primary
Some speakers are much more elaborate winding of T2, which induces avoltage in the
than the simple one shown in Fig.11, but all secondary of T2, which in turn causes a high
permanent magnet speakers operate on the current to flow through it and through the
basic principle described. speaker voice coil.
Single-ended, Class A power amplifiers are Notice that the resistor R2 in the emitter
used in table-model receivers and in most TV circuit of Q1 and Q2 is not bypassed. In single-
receivers. They are used in table-model receiv- ended amplifiers this resistor must be by-
ers to keep the cost down. They are used in TV passed. Otherwise, the varying current through
receivers because most people are interested in the resistor will produce a varying voltage at
the quality of the picture rather than the quality the emitter, which will be in phase with the
of the sound. Since they are less expensive than signal voltage applied to the base. This will tend
push-pull amplifiers, you will find them even in to reduce the net base-to-emitter signal voltage,
expensive color TV receivers. Push-pull amplifi- and hence, the gain of the stage. However in
ers, however, can produce ahigher output, and this circuit, as the current through Q1 in-
in some cases, such as in portable receivers, are creases, the current through Q2 decreases an
an advantage because they can be designed to equal amount so that the current through R2
consume less power. remains constant. Therefore, there is no signal
voltage produced across the resistor.
The circuit shown in Fig.12 is aClass A push-
Push-Pull Amplifiers pull amplifier. Class A push-pull amplifiers are
widely used because they produce little distor-
The push-pull output stage got its name in the tion. Distortion is any change that occurs in a
early days of radio. In this circuit, two tubes are signal that is amplified. For example, suppose
used so when the current through one in- amusical instrument is producing anote as a
creases, the current through the other de- pure sine wave having afrequency of 300 Hz. If
creases. The increasing magnetic field, the signal is picked up by amicrophone, fed to
produced in one half of the output transformer, an amplifier, and the signal shape is changed in
is aided by the decreasing magnetic field pro- the output, we have distortion.
duced in the other. Thus, you have the effect of Distortion is also present if any additional
one stage pushing and the other pulling. signals are added in the amplifier. One of the
A push-pull stage using npn transistors is characteristics of amplifier stages is that they
shown in Fig.12. In this circuit, forward bias on tend to generate harmonics. Harmonics are
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

01
C2

R2
INPUT

SPEAKER
02

R3 C3

0-111 r ---.

Figure 12. Class A push-pull npn transistors.

signals with frequencies that are multiples of ond harmonic distortion, since this usually has
the original signal frequency. In other words, amuch higher amplitude than the higher order
when the 300 Hz signal is amplified, a 600 Hz distortion.
signal may be produced. Since this signal is A push-pull Class A power amplifier has the
twice the frequency of the original signal, we disadvantage that even with no signal present,
call it the second harmonic. In addition, a900 it consumes considerable power. As amatter of
Hz signal might be produced. This is called the fact, in a radio receiver using a Class A push-
third harmonic because 900 Hz is three times pull power amplifier, the push-pull output stage
the 300 Hz signal. will consume far more than half the power used
An amplifier stage can produce many har- by the entire receiver. This is not a serious
monics but fortunately the second is usually the problem in equipment operated from the power
strongest, the third weaker, the fourth still line because the power lost in the stage with no
weaker and so on. One of the characteristics of signal present, is generally never more than 20
push-pull amplifiers is that they cancel any or 25 watts. However, in a portable receiver,
even order harmonics produced in the stage. this can be a serious consideration. The high
Therefore, in a push-pull amplifier there is no zero signal current consumed by the power
second, fourth, sixth, etc., harmonic distortion. output stage is wasted, and this will tend to run
The most important thing is canceling the sec- the batteries down. We can overcome this
 21

problem by using aClass B push-pull amplifier. ground through one-half of the winding of the
In the Class B circuit, the transistors are biased output transformer to the collector of Q2 will
essentially at cutoff so that with no signal input, increase, while the current flowing from ground
there is very little current through the transis- through the other half of the primary winding of
tors in the output stage. the output transformer will drop to zero. This
A schematic diagram of aClass B, push-pull changing current will set up achanging magnet-
power amplifier using pnp transistors is shown ic field, which will induce a voltage in the
in Fig.13. The circuit is not too different from secondary of the output transformer, causing a
the one shown in Fig.12, except there is little or varying current in the speaker voice coil.
no forward bias applied to the transistors. Thus,
with zero signal input, there will be very little
current consumed. However when the signal Eliminating the Output Transformer
arrives and drives the base of Q1 positive and
the base of Q2 negative, the number of holes The output transformer used in a push-pull
flowing through Q2 will increase whereas the amplifier usually limits the frequency response of
number flowing through Q1 will drop to zero. the amplifier. The transformer causes the output
This will mean that current flowing from to drop off both at low and high frequencies.

Figure 13. Class B push-pull pnp transistors.

HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 14. A complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier.

Transformers can be built that have areasonably The stage preceding this push-pull output
good frequency response, but these transformers stage is apnp driver stage. It is direct-coupled
are expensive. Figure 14 shows a circuit that to the push-pull amplifier. Electrons flow from
eliminates both the input and output transform- the negative side of the supply to ground,
ers in apush-pull stage. This circuit uses apnp through the speaker, through the 270 ohm
and an npn transistor, and is called a comple- resistor R3, and through diode D1 and resistor
mentary symmetry push-pull amplifier. To R1, to the collector of the driver stage, where
make this circuit work, you need an npn transis- they fill holes arriving at the collector. This
tor and a pnp transistor that have essentially current flow through the speaker and through
identical characteristics. Let's see how this cir- R3 develops the forward bias needed across the
cuit works. emitter-base junction of Q2. Notice that Q2 is a
First, notice that there is no negative connec- pnp transistor, so its base must be negative
tion from the power supply shown. This con- with respect to the emitter. The emitter con-
nection is simply omitted to simplify the nects through R2 to the emitter of Q1, which is
diagram. When the diagram is drawn this way, an npn transistor. The collector of Q1 is in turn
you know that the negative connection from connected to the plus side of the power supply.
the power supply is to ground. Also, notice that The emitter of Q2 will be positive with re-
at the input, we've shown only one input termi- spect to ground. The base will also be positive
nal. You know that the input signal is applied with respect to ground but it will be less
between this terminal and ground. Again, the positive than the emitter, so we'll have a for-
second input is omitted for simplicity. ward bias across the emitter-base junction. The
 23

diode D1 and RI are in the circuit to ensure that the base of Q2 will become less positive. This
the base of Q1 will be positive with respect to will increase the forward bias across the emitter-
its emitter in order to forward bias the emitter- base junction of Q2. At the same time, the
base junction of this transistor. reduced current flow will reduce the positive
With zero signal, since both transistors voltage at the base of Ql, reducing the forward
are forward biased, electrons will flow from bias across the emitter-base junction of this
ground to the collector of Q2 where they will transistor, causing the number of electrons
fill holes arriving at the collector terminal. flowing through it to decrease. Here, we have
Meanwhile, electrons will be leaving the the opposite situation to what we had before in
emitter of Q2 creating the holes that flow that we have the electron current through Ql
through the transistor. The electrons leaving decreasing, but the hole current through Q2
the emitter flow through R2 to the emitter of increasing.
Ql. Since Q1 is an npn transistor, the elec- The increased number of holes flowing
trons flow through it to the collector and to through Q2 will result in more electrons flow-
the positive side of the supply. ing from ground to the collector of Q2 and
This current flow will develop a voltage so additional electrons flowing out of the emitter
that the emitter of Q1is positive. Electrons will of Q2. Since the current of Q1 has dropped,
flow through the speaker into the plate of Cl these electrons will flow through R2 and into
marked with a — sign and out of the positive the positive plate of Cl, and will begin to
plate to charge Cl to the voltage between the discharge this capacitor. Electrons will then
emitter of Q1 and ground. flow out of the negative plate of C1and through
When the input signal swings in a positive the speaker voice coil in the opposite direction.
direction, the current flow from ground through This change in the direction of current flow
the speaker, through R3 and D1, and through through the speaker will set up amagnetic field
RI, will increase. This will swing the base of Q2 around the speaker voice coil that has the
in a positive direction, reducing the forward opposite polarity. This changing magnetic field
bias across the emitter-base junction of the will cause the speaker voice coil to move in and
transistor. Therefore, the number of holes flow- out and will set the air in front and back of the
ing through the transistor will decrease, which speaker in motion. It is this motion of air
means the number of electrons leaving the columns that produce sound.
emitter of Q2 will decrease. At the same time,
the base of Ql will swing in apositive direction,
increasing the forward bias across the emitter- Inverse Feedback
base junction of this transistor. Therefore, the
current through Ql must increase. This will We have already briefly mentioned inverse
cause electrons to flow from ground through feedback. It is negative feedback that reduces
the speaker and into the negative plate of Cl, the output. It also reduces distortion and im-
and out of the positive plate to Ql. This in- proves the frequency response of an amplifier.
crease in current through the speaker produces Negative feedback can be applied to the
amagnetic field in the speaker voice coil. single-ended Class A power amplifiers shown in
When the input signal swings in the negative Figs.9 and 10 by omitting C2. C2 is the emitter
direction, the current flow from ground through bypass in the circuit.
the speaker, R3, D1, and RI will decrease. This In the circuit in Fig.9, if the input signal
will decrease the voltage drop across R3 so that swings the base of Q1 in apositive direction,
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

it will increase the forward bias across the in a negative direction, which will tend to
emitter-base junction of the npn transistor. This reduce the forward bias across the emitter-base
will cause the number of electrons flowing junction.
through the transistor and through R3 to in- In both cases, this negative, or degenerative,
crease. This will increase the voltage drop feedback tends to reduce the gain of the stage.
across R3, driving the emitter end in apositive If either stage amplifies some particular fre-
direction, which will tend to reduce the forward quency in the band more than it does another
bias across the emitter-base junction. This will frequency, this feedback will be greatest at this
tend to reduce the net effect of signal voltage frequency or band of frequencies. Therefore,
between the base and the emitter and reduce the gain will be reduced most for these frequen-
the gain of the stage. cies. This will tend to keep the overall gain of
In the circuit in Fig.10, if the input signal of the amplifier constant over a wider frequency
Q1 swings in a negative direction, it will in- range.
crease the forward bias across the emitter-base A more elaborate feedback system where the
junction of the pnp transistor. This will cause signal is fed back three stages is shown in
the number of holes that are crossing the Fig.15. In this system, if the base of Q2 (an npn
emitter-base junction to increase, which will transistor) is driven positive by the signal, the
cause the electrons leaving the emitter and feedback signal drives the emitter positive,
flowing through R3 to the positive side of the reducing the net effect of change in emitter-
power supply to increase. This will increase the base forward bias. Similarly, when the base of
voltage drop across R3, crriving the emitter end Q2 swings negative, the feedback signal drives

SPEAKER

100
OHMS

Figure 15. A three-stage negative feedback system.

 25

the emitter negative, which again reduces the tor circuit decreases, which in turn decreases
effect of change in the emitter-base bias. Let's the forward bias across the emitter-base junc-
trace the signal through the amplifier. tion of the pnp transistor Q3. This causes the
If the incoming signal swings the base of Q1 current through it to decrease, so that the
negative, current through Ql will decrease so current through the speaker, the 100 ohm resis-
the voltage drop across the 6.8k load resistor tor, D1, and the 10 ohm resistor decreases. This
will decrease. This causes the collector of Ql will increase the forward bias across the emit-
and the base of Q2 to swing in a positive ter-base junction of Q5 and reduce the forward
direction. When the base of Q2 swings positive, bias across the emitter-base junction of Q4, so
it will increase the forward bias across the that the current through Q4 will go down but
emitter-base junction of the transistor so the the current flow through Q5 goes up. This will
current through Q2 will increase. This will cause the electrons that are leaving the emitter
cause the voltage drop across the lk collector of Q5 to flow into the 1000 p.F capacitor to
resistor to increase so that the collector of Q2 reduce the charge on the capacitor. In other
will swing in anegative direction. Since Q3 is a words, the voltage swings in the negative
pnp transistor, the increased voltage drop direction. This voltage is fed through the
across the lk resistor will increase the forward 2.2k resistor, back to the emitter of Q2. This
bias across the emitter-base junction of Q3. will reduce the effect of the negative voltage
This will cause the collector current to in- applied to the base of Q2 by attempting to
crease. The collector current for this transistor increase the forward bias across the emitter-
flows from ground through the speaker, base junction of the transistor. Overall feed-
through the 100 ohm resistor, through the diode back of this type tends to flatten out the
D1, and through the 10 ohm resistor to the frequency response of the amplifier.
collector, where the electrons fill holes arriving Another feedback circuit is shown in Fig.16.
at the collector. This increased current flow Notice that in this circuit we have no output
will drive the base of Q4, which is an npn transformer but we do have an input transform-
transistor, in a positive direction. This will er. Also notice that all three transistors are pnp
cause the current flow through this transistor transistors.
to increase so that the current will flow through We are not going through all of the details of
the speaker, into the 1000 [Link] capacitor, this circuit, but briefly with no input signal, the
through the 0.47 resistor, and through the tran- transistors Q2 and Q3 are biased so that the
sistor. This causes the voltage across the capac- current flow through them is equal. Therefore,
itor to increase so that apositive signal is fed electrons will enter the negative terminal, and
through the 2.2k resistor and back to the emit- flow to the collector of Q2 where they will fill
ter of Q2. This will reduce the effect of the holes arriving there. Electrons will leave the
positive-going signal on the base of Q2. emitter of Q2, flow through R9 and over to the
When the input signal drives the base of Ql collector of Q3 where they will fill holes arriv-
positive, it will cause the current through this ing there. Electrons will leave the emitter of Q3
transistor to increase so the voltage drop and flow through R10 to the positive side of the
across the 6.8k collector resistor will increase, power supply. With zero signal applied, there
swinging the collector of Ql and the base of Q2 will be no current flow through the speaker and
in a negative direction. This will cause the the collector of Q3 will be at ground potential.
current flow through Q2 to decrease so that the The windings of Ti are phased so that with a
voltage drop across the lk resistor in the collec- positive input to Ql, we'll get anegative signal
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 16. Three transistor ampr ers where there is no output transformer

on the base of Q2 and apositive signal on the direction. The number of holes flowing through
base of Q3. Current through Q2 will increase; Q3 will be greater than the number of holes
current through Q3 will decrease. Electrons flowing through Q2. Electrons will leave the
will leave the negative terminal of the power negative terminal supply to fill holes arriving at
supply to fill holes arriving at the collector of the collector of Q2. Electrons will leave the
Q2. Some of the electrons leaving the emitter of emitter of Q2 and flow through R9 to the
Q2 will flow through R9 to the collector of Q3, collector of Q3 to fill holes arriving there.
but most will flow through the speaker, making However, there will not be enough electrons
terminal A of the speaker negative. This nega- leaving the emitter of Q2 to fill all the holes
tive voltage is fed through C3 and C2 and R4 in arriving at the collector of Q3 so electrons flow
parallel, back to the base of Q1 where it tends from ground through the speaker to terminal A
to reduce the input signal. and then to the collector of Q3. This will make
When the base of Q1 swings in the negative terminal A of the speaker positive. This voltage
direction, the base of Q2 will swing in apositive is fed back to the base of Q1 to reduce the
direction and the base of Q3 in the negative negative voltage fed to the base of Ql.
 27

Feedback of this type from the output back the entire audio system including the power
to Q1 tends to make up for any lack of flat amplifier. The one shown in Fig.17 is an exam-
frequency response in Ti. Sometimes trans- ple of such an IC.
formers have a peak where a certain signal This circuit is taken from an automobile
frequency will receive considerably more am- receiver. In automobile receivers, compact size
plification than other signals. If this happens, is very important. This particular receiver is a
the output signal will increase, resulting in stereo receiver, which means there has to be
increased feedback to Ql, which will tend to two audio amplifiers. Therefore, any simplifica-
flatten out the frequency response. Transform- tion that can be made in the amplifier helps to
ers also have a tendency of falling off at low keep the receiver as small as possible.
frequencies. They just don't work as well. When In the circuit shown, the signal is taken from
this happens, the feedback signal will decrease, the volume control and fed through a 3.3 p.F
and once again will tend to improve the fre- capacitor to terminal 9, which is the input to the
quency response of the amplifier. integrated circuit. The output is taken off termi-
nal 14 and fed through a 1500 I.E.F capacitor to
the speaker. The diagram shows all connec-
IC Amplifiers
tions to the integrated circuits, but the manu-
When ICs were first used in audio systems, facturer's service information does not show
they were used as voltage amplifiers and the what is in it. As atechnician, you will run into
output of the IC was then fed to a power circuits of this type. If the amplifier fails to
amplifier. Now, ICs are available that contain work, all you can do is check for the input

•14 V NC 100
• +14 V

3.3p F 513 1500. F

14
45k
3-6

500 pF SPEAKER

•
100k
01 F

18 0 0027 .F
100

o
+14 V 150 F

Figure 17. IC voltage amplifier and power amplifier.

 HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

28

signal to terminal 9. If it is normal, then check plifiers, and the output from the last one is fed
the components associated with the integrated to apower amplifier made up of an npn and a
circuit. If they are all good, you have to assume pnp transistor connected as shown in Fig.14. All
that the integrated circuit is defective and re- of this circuitry is inside the IC. If anything goes
place it. wrong with one of the components or transis-
In this particular integrated circuit, there are tors inside the IC, there is nothing you can do
two differential amplifiers used as voltage am- except replace the entire unit.

Summary

Single-ended power amplifiers are all power amplifier. This is particularly ad-
Class A power amplifiers. They are used in vantageous in portable equipment.
applications where good quality is satis- IC amplifiers that contain entire audio
factory, and economy is most important. systems are made up of voltage amplifiers
Push-pull audio amplifiers may be either and a power amplifier. When a defect
Class A or Class B amplifiers. A push-pull develops in part of an IC amplifier, all you
amplifier has the advantage over asingle- can do is replace the unit.
ended amplifier in that the distortion is Inverse feedback is used to reduce dis-
lower. Even order harmonic distortion is tortion and improve the frequency re-
canceled in push-pull amplifiers. A Class B sponse of an amplifier. With inverse
push-pull amplifier draws little or no cur- feedback, part of the amplified output
rent under zero signal conditions. Thus it signal is fed back to the input to oppose or
is more efficient than apush-pull Class A reduce the effective input signal.

Self-Test Questions

10 In Figs.9 and 10, is Ti astep-up or a 15 In Fig.14, if the input signal causes

step-down transformer? the current through Q1 to increase
11 Is the signal current in the secondary and the current through Q2 to de-
of Ti in Fig.9 greater or less than the crease, where does the extra current
primary signal current? required by Q1 come from?
12 When asignal is applied to Q1 and Q2 16 In Fig.15, if the input signal causes
in the circuit shown in Fig.12, what the current through Q5 to increase,
happens to the current through R2? what is the polarity of the feedback
13 What is the advantage of using a signal back to the emitter of Q2?
Class B push-pull power amplifier 17 If you have normal input to an IC
such as shown in Fig.13 in aportable amplifier such as shown in Fig.17, all
transistor receiver? operating voltages are normal, and
14 What are two advantages of elimi- the parts are good, but there is no
nating the input and output audio output from the speaker, what should
transformers shown in Fig.13? you do?
 29

RADIO FREQUENCY circuit of rf amplifiers, but in this case, the load

AMPLIFIERS is usually a resonant circuit. Most often, the
resonant circuit will be aparallel-resonant cir-
cuit.
Radio frequency amplifiers are generally re- Four basic loads that you might run into in rf
ferred to as rf amplifiers. RF amplifiers can be amplifiers are shown in Fig.18. In the one
divided into two types: voltage amplifiers and shown at (A), the load is a parallel-resonant
power amplifiers. The rf amplifiers in radio and circuit made up of Li and Cl. Li is inductively
television receivers will all be voltage amplifi- coupled to L2 in order to feed the signal to the
ers, whereas the rf amplifiers found in radio next stage.
and TV transmitters will be power amplifiers. In the circuit shown at (B), the load is Li. In
In the amplifiers that you studied in the this case it is not a resonant circuit but an
preceding sections, we found that we had a inductance. However, Li is inductively coupled
load in the output circuit of each stage. The to 1,2, which along with C1makes up aresonant
load was in the collector circuit of the amplifi- circuit.
ers using transistors and in the drain circuit of In the circuit shown in Fig.18(C), we have
the amplifiers using FETs. In the case of voltage two resonant circuits. Li and Cl will be in the
amplifiers, the load is usually aresistor, where- output circuit of the rf amplifier, and they form
as in the case of power amplifiers, the load is a parallel-resonant circuit. Li is inductively
usually either the output transformer or the coupled to 1.2 so that voltage is induced in
speaker. You will find a load in the output series with each turn of L2. Since the voltage is

Figure 18. Four basic loads that might be found in rf amplifiers.

HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

induced in series with the various turns of the amplifier in the input of aradio receiver must
coil, L2 and C2 form a series-resonant circuit. be able to amplify signals over the entire AM
At first glance, you might think the circuit is a broadcast band from 550 kHz to 1600 kHz. As
paraltel-resonant circuit because it looks like you tune the radio across the band, the rf
the circuit made up of Li and Cl. Remember amplifier is tuned to operate at the frequency of
that the determining factor, whether the circuit the broadcast stations you wish to receive.
is series-resonant or parallel-resonant, is how Some rf amplifiers, on the other hand, are
the voltage is applied to the circuit. The voltage designed to operate at only one frequency.
is applied in parallel across Li and Cl, but it is Before studying rf amplifiers in detail, let's
induced in series with the turns of L2, which learn alittle more about resonant circuits.
makes the circuit L2-C2 a series-resonant cir-
cuit.
In the circuit in Fig.18(D), we have aparallel-
resonant circuit made up of Cl and Li as the Resonant Circuits
load. The parallel-resonant circuit will act as a
high resistance so that considerable signal volt- When we say acircuit is resonant, we mean
age will be developed across it. This voltage is that the inductive reactance in the circuit is
coupled through C2 to the following stage. You exactly equal to and canceled by the capacitive
will run into all four types of loads shown in reactance in the circuit. In the case of aparallel-
Fig.I8 in rf amplifiers and related circuits. resonant circuit, the tank current will be at a
Some rf amplifiers are designed to operate maximum but the circuit itself will act like a
over aband of frequencies. For example, the rf high resistance. As aresult, the current supplied

Figure 19. A response curve showing the two 70.7% points. The bandwidth extends 20 kHz on each side of the
resonant frequency.
 31

Figure 20. The response curves at (C) show the effect of loading a parallel resonant circuit as at (B).

to the resonant circuit by agenerator connected since,

across it will be at aminimum.
0.707 x 0.707 = 0.5
In the case of a series-resonant circuit, the then
resistance of the circuit will be at aminimum so
that the current flow through it will be at a P= 0.707 x 0.707 xExI
maximum. Current flow in a resonant circuit = 0.5 xExI= 0.5 x p
does not drop to zero immediately above and
below the resonant point, but rather declines where P is the power at resonance.
slowly as shown in Fig.19. Here we have a We can change the bandwidth of aresonant
circuit that is resonant at 1000 kHz. Below the circuit by loading the circuit. This is usually
resonant point, the current drops off until at 900 done by connecting aresistor across the circuit.
kHz it is almost zero. Above resonance, it also In Fig.20(A), we have shown aresonant circuit
drops off so that at 1100 kHz it is almost zero. and curve 1 of Fig.20(C) represents the re-
Since aresonant circuit responds to aband of sponse curve of the circuit. In Fig.20(B), we've
frequencies around the resonant point, we say shown the same resonant circuit with aresistor
that this circuit has a bandwidth. Engineers connected across it and curve 2 of Fig.20(C)
have arbitrarily fixed the bandwidth of the shows the response curve of the circuit with
circuit as the point where the voltage and the resistor in parallel with it. The resistor
current drop to 70.7% of the value at resonance. lowers the peak of the response curve, and
This is called the half-power point. In the broadens the band of frequencies over which
resppnse curve shown in Fig.19, the half-power the response will be at least 70.7% of that at
points are 980 kHz and 1020 kHz. The band- resonance.
width of the circuit on each side of resonance is In some applications, we may want a sharp
20 kHz, so the total bandwidth of the circuit is response and a narrow bandwidth. In most
40 kHz. communications receivers, we need a sharp,
You might wonder how this gets the name narrow response curve in order to separate
half-power point. At resonance, the power is stations operating close together. However, in
equal to E x I. At the 70.7% point the power is TV, the response curves must be designed to
equal to: pass aband of frequencies several MHz wide.
The coupling between resonant circuits will
P = 0.707 E x 0.707 I affect the response of the circuit. For example,
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

in Fig.21 we have shown two resonant circuits. If we want a still wider bandwidth, we can
The resonant circuit made up of C1and Li is a push the coils still closer together and then
parallel-resonant circuit. However, L2 and C2 adjust one resonant circuit until it is resonant
form aseries-resonant circuit, since L2 is induc- slightly below the original resonant point, and
tively coupled to Li so that the voltage is adjust the other resonant circuit so that it is
induced in series with the turns of the coil. The resonant slightly above the original resonant
voltage is induced in 12 by placing it near Li so point. This will give us aresponse curve like the
that the magnetic lines of force set up around one shown in Fig.22(D).
Li cut the turns of 12. If 12 is some distance In Fig.22(E), we have superimposed the four
from Li, so that only some of the magnetic lines response curves so you can see what they look
of force set up by Li cut 12, we say that the like in relation to each other. Notice that curve
circuits are undercoupled or loosely coupled. 1is quite sharp, but its amplitude is less than
This will produce a response curve in the curve 2. There are applications where it is
output like the one shown in Fig.22(A). If we worthwhile to take this drop in output to get a
bring 12 closer to Li, so that eventually we sharp response curve.
reach a point that all of the flux from Li is Normally the coils will be adjusted at least to
cutting the turns of 12, we get aresponse curve critical coupling as shown by curve 2, and in
like the one shown in Fig.22(B). We call this several cases overcoupled as in curve 3. As an
point critical coupling. At critical coupling, all example, the response curve 2 might be ade-
the lines of flux produced by Li are cutting 12. quate for AM broadcasting, but overcoupled
If we bring the coils still closer together, we coils like that shown at 3might be required for
reach apoint that is called overcoupled. By this FM because the FM signal requires a wider
we mean that the coupling is tighter than bandwidth than an AM signal.
critical coupling and we'll get the double hump In TV applications where an even wider
response curve shown in Fig.22(C). It is readily bandwidth is needed, overcoupling and detun-
apparent that the bandwidth of the curve at (C) ing the two circuits is used to get the wide
is wider than the bandwidth of the curve at (B). bandwidth that is needed. Even though this
results in a lower output as shown by curve
4 in Fig.22(E), we must resort to this tech-
nique in order to amplify all of the frequencies
in the TV signal. We then make up for the
drop in output by using additional amplifier
stages.
As a technician, you will not have to be
concerned about the coupling between coils in
resonant circuits. The engineers that designed
the set will take care of this in the design.
However, if you have to replace an rf transform-
er such as the one shown in Fig.21, it is
important that you get either an exact duplicate
replacement or a replacement that has the
same characteristics as the original transform-
Figure 21. A schematic diagram of a double-tuned rf er. Otherwise, you'll change the bandwidth and
transformer. gain of the amplifier.
 33

Figure 22. (A) An example of undercoupling, (B) critical coupling. (C) and (D) overcoupling, and (E) asuperimposi-
tion of the curves.

Transistor RF Amplifiers is wound on the same rod and is inductively

coupled to Ll. This particular part is called a
A typical rf amplifier that might be found in a loopstick. In the first radios built with an inside
radio receiver is shown in Fig.23. The circuit antenna, the coil in the input to the rf amplifier
uses an npn transistor in a common-emitter stage was wound in the form of a loop. The
circuit. passing signal from the broadcast station cut
Li is acoil wound on aferrite rod. A ferrite the turns of the loop and induced avoltage in
rod is a rod made of a powdered iron-type each turn. This voltage was then fed to the rf
material held together by asuitable binder. L2 amplifier. The antenna was called aloop antenna
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Figure 23. A transistor if amplifier.

The ferrite rod with the two coils wound on it loading the resonant circuit. If current through
replaced the loop antenna. Since this device Ql did load the resonant circuit excessively, it
looked like a stick and replaced the loop, the would lower the Q, broadening the circuit's
naine loopstick came into use. response curve and reducing the selectivity.
In the loopstick, the passing radio signals The signal induced in 12 is applied to the
induced avoltage in the turns of Li. Li is tuned base of the transistor and to the emitter
to resonance by CIso that the voltage induced through C2. C2 is selected to have alow react-
at the resonant frequency will cause a much ance at the signal frequency. The varying emitter-
higher current to flow in the resonant circuit base current produced by the signal produces a
than other frequencies. This in turn will mean high signal collector current, which is fed to the
that maximum signal voltage at the resonant parallel-resonant circuit consisting of 1.3 and
frequency will be induced into 12. C5.
L2 is inductively coupled to Li. 12 has fewer Notice that the collector voltage is applied to
turns than Li so there will be acurrent step-up, a tap on 12 through R4. C6 is connected be-
meaning that the current flowing in 12 will be tween the tap and ground which holds the tap
higher than the current flowing in Ll. This at signal ground potential. There will be asmall
serves two useful purposes, it provides ahigher voltage induced in the lower half of the coil
current for the emitter-base circuit of the tran- which will be 180° out of phase with the signal
sistor Ql, and it prevents the transistor from voltage at the collector. This voltage is fed
 35

through C4 and back to the base. This is a IA is inductively coupled to L3 so that the
neutralizing voltage and C4 is called aneutraliz- amplified output from the rf amplifier is fed on
ing capacitor. to the next stage.
We feed this signal back through C4 to Figure 24 is a schematic diagram of an rf
prevent QI from oscillating. When atransistor amplifier using ajunction field-effect transis-
oscillates, it begins generating a signal of its tor. Notice that the signal is picked up by the
own. Q1 will oscillate because there is ahigh antenna and fed to Li, which is inductively
signal voltage developed across L3 between coupled to L2. L2 and Cl form a series-
the collector and ground. There is a certain resonant circuit. Cl is adjusted so that the
capacitance between the collector and base of combination is resonant at the frequency of
the transistor. Some of this signal will be fed the desired station. The capacitance of C2 is so
back into the base. The signal will be strong large that as far as the rf is concerned, it can be
enough to develop asignal of its own. Thus, the ignored. It is used to block the age (automatic
signal fed from the collector to the base causes gain control) voltage from ground so that it
the base-emitter circuit to generate a signal, will not be shorted out. The age voltage is a
which in turn is fed to the collector and from negative voltage that is applied to the gate of
the collector back to the base. Thus, the stage the transistor. This voltage will vary to control
begins to oscillate and produces its own signal. the gain of the transistor, becoming more
To prevent this, we feed asignal that is 180° out negative on strong signals and less negative on
of phase with the signal at the collector weak signals.
through C4 and back into the base. This The varying signal applied between the gat
cancels or neutralizes the signal being fed from and ground causes the current flow from the
the collector to the base through the internal source to the drain of the transistor to vary.
collector-base capacitance of Ql. This small varying signal fed to the gate con-

77"1"111mme,
L3

INPUT L2 Cl =..""

C2

F1

O AGC

Figure 24. An if amplifier using a junction field-effect transistor

HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

RF
L4 OUTPUT

"11.1111111
C2

Figure 25. An rf amplifier using an insulated-gate field-effect transistor.

trots a large varying current flow from source of the channel and control the resistance of the
to drain, and this current in turn flows through channel.
L3. 12 is inductively coupled to IA which is In operation, the rf signal is applied to Ll.
tuned to resonance by C3. The amplified signal This may be from another rf amplifier or direct-
voltage appearing at the output is then fed on to ly from the antenna. The signal current flowing
the next stage. through Li induces avoltage in series with L2.
In the circuit shown in Fig.24, there will be L2 and Cl form a series-resonant circuit. The
some reverse current flow across the junction resonant signal voltage is applied to the gate of
of the transistor. This will have the effect of the transistor and this voltage is applied in
lowering the input resistance of the transistor, series with the negative agc voltage so it varies
which in turn will lower the Q of the resonant the negative voltage on the gate at an rf rate.
circuit. This can be overcome by using an The varying signal voltage causes the resistance
insulated-gate field-effect transistor in the cir- of the channel to vary, causing the current
cuit such as shown in Fig.25. The circuit here flowing from the source through the transistor
shows an n-channel depletion-type, insulated- to the drain to vary. 12 and C5 form aparallel-
gate, field-effect transistor. resonant circuit. This high-impedance circuit
In the circuit shown, current flows from the develops ahigh signal voltage due to the vary-
negative side of the power supply, through R2 ing current flowing through it. 13 is inductively
to the source of the transistor. It flows through coupled to IA, and the output from IA is fed to
the transistor to the drain, and then through 12 the following stage.
back to the positive side of the voltage source. A p-channel transistor can be used as well as
The gate is connected to the negative automatic an n-channel transistor in acircuit of this type.
gain control voltage through L2. The negative Also the enhancement type of insulated-gate
voltage applied to the gate will limit the width transistor could be used. However, it is likely
 37

that most rf amplifiers using an insulated-gate difference. The difference frequency is fed to an
field-effect transistor will be depletion-type n- amplifier called an intermediate frequency am-
channel transistors. Dual gate IGFETs are widely plifier which is abbreviated i
-f amplifier. The
used as rf amplifiers. The signal is fed to one signal is still aradio frequency signal, but it has
gate and the age voltage to the other. a lower frequency than the actual received
One of the disadvantages of the insulated- signal. The signal is then fed to a detector,
gate transistor is that it is easily damaged. which separates the audio signal from the rf
Simply removing or inserting the transistor in carrier. The detector gets its name, second
the circuit when the voltages are applied could detector, because in the early days of radio, the
destroy the transistor. High peak voltages build mixer was called the first detector. The audio
up in the gate circuit due to the very high signal from the second detector is then fed to
resistance of the gate. Since the gate is actually low-frequency voltage amplifiers and finally to
insulated from the drain source by means of a apower amplifier.
layer of insulation, the input resistance of the The reason for converting the incoming sig-
gate is very high. Pickup from anearby power nal to alow-frequency signal is to improve the
line can induce ahigh enough voltage in agate receiver selectivity. Consider two stations, one
to destroy the transistor if the circuit is open. operating on 1500 kHz and the other on 1450
kHz. The frequency difference is 50 kHz, which
I-F Amplifiers is just alittle more than 3% of 1500 kHz. After
the two signals have been converted to alower
Modern radio and television receivers are rf frequency (455 kHz is acommon i -f frequen-
called superheterodyne receivers. In a super- cy), the 50 kHz separation between the two
heterodyne receiver, the incoming signal is fed stations represents a frequency difference of
to an rf amplifier such as shown in the block almost 11%. The i -f amplifier can separate the
diagram in Fig.26. The signal is amplified and two signals, whereas an rf amplifier operating
fed to a mixer stage where it is mixed with a at 1500 kHz would not be able to do so.
locally generated signal. This produces two All modern receivers are superheterodyne
new signals, one equal to the sum of the fre- receivers. AM broadcast receivers today use an
quencies of the two signals and one equal to the i-f of 455 kHz. Automobile receivers frequently

LOW.
H MIXER H IF AMP SECOND
FREQUENCY
DETECTOR
AMP

OSCILLATOR

Figure 26. A block diagram of a typical super-heterodyne receiver.

 HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

38

Figure 27. A typical transistor i

-f amplifier using a pnp transistor.

use an i
-f of 262 kHz. Some older home-type inductively coupled to L3, so asignal is induced
receivers use this frequency, and 175 kHz was in this winding that can be fed to a second i -f
also used at one time. The important thing to amplifier or to the detector stage. C4 provides
remember is that an i -f amplifier is an rf amplifi- neutralization that feeds asignal back into the
er operating at alow fixed frequency. base, which is 180° out of phase with the signal
A typical i
-f amplifier using apnp transistor is fed from the collector, to the base through the
shown in Fig.27. C1 and Li form a parallel- internal collector-to-base capacitance. The
resonant circuit that is resonant at the interme- neutralizing signal cancels the feedback
diate frequency. They are part of the collector through the collector-to-base capacitance and
circuit of the mixer stage. L2 is inductively prevents oscillation in the stage.
coupled to Li so asignal is induced in L2 that is Electrons leaving the emitter of the transistor
applied to the base of the transistor and to the to form holes flow through R3 to ground. In
emitter through C2, which has a low reac- doing so, they develop avoltage drop across R3
tance at the i -f frequency. having apolarity such that the emitter is nega-
The signal applied between the base and tive with respect to ground. You will remember
emitter causes the number of holes flowing that this resistor is put in the circuit for bias
through the transistor to vary. This causes the stabilization to prevent thermal runaway of the
number of electrons flowing from the negative transistor. R2 and R1 are selected so that the
terminal of the power supply through R4 and junction of the two resistors is more negative
the upper half of L3 to the collector, to fill the than the emitter of the transistor. The base of
holes arriving at the collector to vary. IA is the transistor connects to the junction of RI
 39

Figure 28. Transistor i

-f amplifier using an npn transistor.

and R2 through L2 so the base will be negative C3 has a low reactance at signal frequency.
with respect to the emitter, which places a The lower end of L2 is inductively coupled to
forward bias across the emitter-base junction the upper end so that avoltage is induced in the
of the transistor. upper end of the coil 180° out of phase with
Another transistor i -f amplifier is shown in the signal fed into the lower end through C2.
Fig.28. This amplifier uses an npn transistor This voltage is fed to the base, neutralizing any
whereas the one shown in Fig.27 uses a pnp signal voltage fed from the collector back to the
transistor. In addition to the different transistor base through the transistor itself.
types, the method of obtaining neutralization is Notice that the collector is connected to atap
somewhat different. Notice the resistor in the on coil L3. The output resistance of the transis-
emitter circuit, R2. This resistor is not by- tor is comparatively low, and by feeding the
passed; therefore, asignal voltage will be devel- collector into atap in the coil in this manner,
oped across it. The signal voltage is fed through we prevent loading of the parallel-resonant
C2 into the lower end of the coil L2. The center circuit made up of L3 and C4. Loading would
tap of L2 is at signal ground potential because reduce the selectivity of the circuit.
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

IC Amplifiers output of the rf amplifier is fed through C3 back

to the input to neutralize the rf amplifier. In the
mixer stage, the incoming signal is converted to
You might wonder if integrated circuits are 455 kHz, which is the i -f. The i
-f signal is fed to
used as rf and i-f amplifiers. The answer to this pin 8 of the IC, where it is amplified and fed
is yes. As amatter of fact, they are widely used to the parallel-resonant circuit made up of C13
in both radio and TV receivers. and L8. L9 is inductively coupled to L8, so a
In Fig.29 we show what can be accomplished strong circulating signal is induced in the series-
with asingle integrated circuit. Here, we have a resonant circuit made up of L9 and C14.
14-pin IC that is used as the rf amplifier, the This signal can then be fed to the second
mixer-oscillator, the i-f amplifier, the age detec- detector.
tor, and the age amplifier. In fact, this IC could Part of the signal from the output of the i -f
be used along with adiode as adetector and the amplifier is fed from pin 9 through C11 to the
IC shown in Fig.17 to form acomplete receiver. age detector and amplifier. In this stage a
The coils L2-L3, L4, and L5 are all adjustable negative signal voltage, which depends upon
by a single adjustment. Changing these coils the strength of the incoming signal, is devel-
tunes the receiver across the standard AM oped, amplified, and fed back to the rf amplifier
broadcast band. to control the gain of it. The stronger the signal,
The signal picked up by the antenna is fed to the greater the negative voltage developed and
the parallel-resonant circuit consisting of L2 the more the gain of the rf amplifier is reduced.
and Cl. The high circulating current in L2 ICs such as the one shown in Fig.29 are
induces avoltage in L3, which is fed to terminal widely used because they are relatively inex-
3of the rf amplifier. The signal is amplified and pensive to manufacture. The assembly of the
fed through L4 to terminal 14 of the mixer equipment is simple because the one part re-
oscillator. Also notice that a signal from the places anumber of discrete parts.

Figure 29. In the circuit shown, asingle IC contains the rf amplifier, the mixer-oscillator, the i
-f amplifier, and the agc.
 41

Summary Self-Test Questions

The rf amplifiers we discussed in this 18 What do we mean by the bandwidth

section are all voltage amplifiers. They are of acircuit?
designed to take a weak radio frequency 19 Name two methods that can be used
signal and amplify it into astronger signal. to increase the bandwidth of the cir-
RF amplifiers have a load in the output cuit.
circuit. In most cases, the loads will be 20 What do we mean by critical cou-
some form of resonant circuit. An i -f am- pling?
plifier is an intermediate frequency ampli- 21 What is the name given to C4 in the
fier. It is an amplifier that operates at a circuit shown in Fig.23?
relatively low radio frequency. In addition, 22 Why is C4 necessary in the circuit
since all incoming signals picked up by the shown in Fig.23?
radio are converted to the same intermedi- 23 What do the letters age in the circuit
ate frequency, the i -f amplifier is designed shown in Fig.24 stand for?
to operate at a fixed frequency. Its pur- 24 What is the advantage of using an
pose is to improve the selectivity of the insulated-gate field-effect transistor
receiver. Selectivity is the ability of the as an rf amplifier when compared to a
receiver to separate signals operating on junction field-effect transistor?
frequencies relatively close together. 25 What is the i -f frequency used in the
modern AM broadcast receiver?
26 What is the i -f used in many automo-
bile receivers?
27 In the circuit shown in Fig.27, what
purpose does C4 serve?
28 In the circuit shown in Fig.28, why is
the collector fed to atap on L3?
29 How many integrated circuits are
used in the circuit shown in Fig.29?
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

LOGARITHMS AND DECIBELS Now, as we have said, 100 is 10 to the second

power. The logarithm of 100 is simply the
power to which 10 must be raised to give us
If we feed a signal of 1 microvolt into an 100. The number 10 must be raised to the
amplifier stage and we have a signal of 100 second power (102)to give us 100. Therefore,
microvolts in the output, the gain of the stage is the logarithm of 100 is 2. Similarly, the loga-
100 divided by 1 = 100. This is one way of rithm of 1000 is 3, and the logarithm of 10,000 is
measuring the gain of astage. Another method 4. The logarithm of 10 is 1.
is to measure it in units called the decibel. The This is not very complicated when the num-
decibel is alogarithmic ratio. It is aratio that is ber is an exact power of 10. But let us consider
based on logarithms. Therefore, before we can the numbers between 10 and 100. It is a little
understand what a decibel is, we must first more difficult to see how anumber between 10
learn something about logarithms. and 100 can be expressed as a power of 10.
There are two important types of logarithms Actually, this is quite difficult to work out
in use today. One is called acommon logarithm mathematically, but it can be done. Fortunately,
and the other a natural logarithm. Common all these values have been worked out and are
logarithms are based on the number 10. This is available in tables called logarithm or log ta-
the type of logarithms that you will study and bles. If you want to know the logarithm of a
use now. number, you simply refer to the table. For
example, the logarithm of the number 2is 0.301.
This means that if it were possible to multiply
The Theory of Logarithms the number 10 by itself 0.301 times, the product
would be 2. This can be written 10'3. 3'3'. The
The basic idea of logarithms come from the exponent (or power) 0.301 is called the loga-
fact that any number can be expressed as the rithm.
power of another number. The power of a Now let's take the numbers 20 and 200. The
number is the product of anumber multiplied logarithm of 20 is 1.301 and the logarithm of 200
by itself a given number of times. The first is 2.301. Notice that in the three logarithms for
power of a number is the number itself; the 2, 20, and 200, the figures to the right of the
second power is the number multiplied by decimal point remain the same. The figures to
itself; the third power is the number multiplied the left change. The logarithm can be divided
by itself twice, and so forth. into two parts. The part to the left of the
This is easiest to understand by taking an decimal point is called the characteristic, and
example. In the system of common logarithms, the part to the right of the decimal point is
we express all numbers as a power of ten. called the mantissa.
Therefore, we will use 10 as our example. The For any number having the same digits, the
number 10 itself is equal to 10 to the first mantissa does not change. For example, the
power. This can be written 10'. The number 100 mantissa of 2, 20, 200, 2000, 20,000, and 200,000
is equal to 10 x 10. This is 10 to the second is always 0.301. However, the characteristic
power and can be written [Link], 1000 is changes. The characteristic for 2is 0, for 20 is 1,
equal to 10 x 10 x 10, which is 10 to the third for 200 is 2, for 2000 is 3, and for 20,000 is 4.
power and can be written 10 [Link] number Notice that the characteristic is always one
10,000 is [Link] 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 is equal number smaller than there are whole numbers
to 10,000, or 104. in the original number. For example, in the
 43

this is not as accurate as using alog table, but

For numbers from: Characteristic
often it is satisfactory. Today, with the availabil-
ity of low-cost hand-held scientific calculators,
1to 9 0.
10 to 99 1. (10 1 )
both the log table and the slide rule are obso-
100 to 999 2. (10 2 ) lete. Most scientific calculators have provisions
1,000 to 9,999 3. (10 2 )
10,000 to 99,999
for giving you the logarithm of anumber rapidly
4.(10 4 )
100,000 to 999,999 5. (le) and more accurately than you can get it from a
log table.
Figure 30. The characteristics of numbers from 1 to
999,999
The Decibel

Many years ago, engineers working on tele-

number 2000 there are four numbers and the
phone installations introduced the unit of pow-
characteristic is 3.
er measurement called the bet. This unit of
The chart given in Fig.30 gives you the char-
measurement is named for Alexander Graham
acteristics of the numbers you are likely to
Bell, the inventor of the telephone. The bel was
encounter.
introduced as a unit of measurement because
We mentioned earlier that you can find the
engineers and scientists discovered that the
logarithm of a number by looking it up in a
table of logarithms. You will find a table of human ear responds to variations of loudness
in alogarithmic manner. Therefore, it is conve-
logarithms in any good math reference book. A
nient to have aunit that can be used to express
log table generally lists the numbers from 10 to
the ratio between the power of two signals in a
99 in the left column, which is usually headed
logarithmic manner. The bel is simply the loga-
with the letter N. To the right, there will be 10
rithm of the ratio of the power of two signals.
additional columns with headings from 0to 9. If
For example, if we have asignal power of 100
you want to look up the logarithm of the
number 25, you find the number 25 in the N watts and another signal power of 10 watts, and
we wish to express the ratio of these two
column and then look in the first column which
signals in bels, we would use the formula:
will be headed 0and find that the logarithm is
0.3979. If you want to look up the logarithm of
the number 255, you find the number 25 in the 1
bels = log LF-

N column, and then move over to the column P2

under the heading 5, and find that the logarithm
Substituting 100 watts for P1 and 10 watts for
is 0.4065. Notice that the log table gives only the
P2, we would get:
mantissa of the number. You have to determine
the correct characteristic yourself. This is easy
100
to do because the characteristic is always one bels = log
less than the number of whole numbers in the 10
number. Also, the table given in Fig.30 will tell
you that for numbers from 100 to 999, the
= log 10
characteristic is 2. Therefore, the characteristic
for the number 255 is 2.
You can also find the logarithm of anumber Now, the log of 10 is 1, so this power ratio is
using aslide rule that has an Lscale. However, equal to 1bel. In other words, apower ratio of
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

100 watts to 10 watts, which is aratio of 10 to 1, Using the Decibel

is equivalent to 1bel. Thus, the power ratios of
10 watts to 1watt and 1000 watts to 100 watts It so happens that the smallest amount of
are both power ratios of 10 to 1, so they also change in sound level that can be distinguished
represent achange in power of 1bel. by the average human ear is 1dB with a sine
The bel proved to be too large a unit to wave input or 3dB on complex waves such as
handle easily, so another unit, 1/10 the size of the average human voice.
the bel, was introduced. This unit is called the Because the decibel is such aconvenient unit
decibel, which is abbreviated dB. Thus, the for expressing changes in sound level, manufac-
commonly used measuring unit is the decibel; turers of audio equipment have for some time
the prefix deci means 1/10. A power ratio in used it in describing the response of their
decibels is defined as: amplifiers. This practice has generally spread
into describing the performance of many ampli-
dB = 10 log —
P1
fiers.
P2 Let us see how the decibel can be used to
describe the response of an amplifier. You will
which simply means that the ratio of two remember that we said that engineers arbitrari-
powers expressed in decibels is equal to 10 ly selected the 0.707 voltage points, or the half-
times the logarithm of the ratio of the two power points, to describe the bandwidth of an
powers. amplifier. At the half-power point, we have a
You will notice that the above relationship ratio of 1to 0.5 because 0.5 is half of 1. In dB
refers to power ratios only. It is common in this is:
electronic work to use voltage ratios, especially
1
when calculating or discussing the gain of dB = 10 log — = 10 log 2
amplifiers. When the ratio between two volt- 0.5
ages is calculated in decibels, we must modify
the decibel equation to take care of the fact that The log of 2is 0.301; thus, the power ratio is:
the power ratios are proportional to the squares
of the voltage ratios, since P = E2 ÷ R. The dB = 10 x 0.301 = 3(approximately)
formula to express voltage ratios in decibels is:
Thus, at the half-power point, the power in the
circuit is down 3 dB from what it is at the
maximum power or resonant point.
El
dB = 20 log — Another way in which the decibel is used is in
E2 expressing attenuation of certain signals. For
example, we mentioned that amplifiers fre-
It is important to keep in mind that the voltage quently generate harmonics. While this is a
formula can be used only when the resistances problem in audio amplifiers because it intro-
of the two circuits being compared are equal. If duces distortion, it is an even greater problem
we are trying to compare voltages developed in radio frequency transmitters because it re-
across resistors of unequal value, we must sults in an extra or spurious signal being trans-
convert the voltages to the power developed mitted. For example, suppose a radio station
across the resistor and then use the power transmitting in the standard broadcast band has
formula apower output of 1000 watts. Suppose further
 45

that the second harmonic radiation is down 30 Voltage Ratio dB Power Ratio dB

dB. This means that the second harmonic radia-

1 o 1 O
tion is 30 dB less than the fundamental radia- 2 6.0 2 3.0
tion. But just how much is 30 dB? It actually 3 9.6 3 4.8
represents the power ratio of 1000 to 1. This 4 12.0 4 6.0
5 14.0 5 7.0
means that if the power output on the funda-
6 15.6 6 7.8
mental is 1000 watts, the power output in the 7 16.8 7 8.4
second harmonic is actually only 1watt. 8 18.0 8 9.0
The table in Fig.31 gives the decibel values 9 19.2 9 9.6
10 20.0 10 10.0
corresponding to voltage and power ratios.
20 26.0 20 13.0
From this you can see that if an amplifier has a 30 29.6 30 14.8
voltage gain of 40 dB, the output signal will be 40 32.0 40 16.0
100 times the input signal. 50 34.0 50 17.0
60 35.6 60 17.8
If your primary intention is to go into radio-
70 36.8 70 18.4
TV servicing, you will seldom, if ever, have to 80 38.0 80 19.0
calculate decibel values corresponding to volt- 90 39.0 90 19.6
age or power ratios. However, if you intend to 100 40.0 100 20.0
1,000 60.0 1,000 30.0
go into communications or industry as an elec-
10,000 80.0 10,000 40.0
tronics technician, you should be able to calcu-
late both voltage gain and power ratios in Figure 31. Decibel values corresponding to voltage and
decibels. power ratios.
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

Summary

A common logarithm is the power to istic is 1, so the log is 1.301. The logarithm
which 10 must be raised to equal a num- of 200 is 2.301.
ber. For example, 10 2 = 100 and 10 3 = An easier way to find the logarithm of a
1000. number is with a pocket calculator. The
A logarithm is made up of two numbers, calculator will give you both the charac-
awhole number to the left of the decimal teristic and the mantissa of the number
point which is called characteristic and a with better accuracy than you can obtain
decimal number to the right which is with most log tables.
called a mantissa. The characteristic is The decibel is a logarithmic ratio that
always one less than the total number of was originally developed to express the
digits in the number. For example, the ratio between two powers. The power
characteristic of all numbers between 10 ratio in decibels is:
and 99 is 1, the characteristics of all num-
P1
bers between 100 and 999 is 2 and the dB = 10 log 2-

characteristics of all numbers between

1000 and 9999 is 3. The ratio between two voltages can also
The mantissa of the logarithm of anum- be expressed in decibels when the resis-
ber can be found by looking it up in the log tances of the two circuits being compared
table. For example, alog table will give the are equal. The formula is:
mantissa of the number 2 as 0.301. The
logarithm of 2is 0.301. The number 20 has El
dB = 20 log —
the same mantissa as 2, but the character- E2

Self-Test Questions

30 What is acommon logarithm? 34 If the logarithm of 7is 0.8451, what is

31 What is the part of the logarithm to the logarithm of 700?
the left of the decimal point called? 35 What is the decibel?
32 What is the part of the logarithm to
the right of the decimal point called? 36 If the power output from an amplifier
33 What is the characteristic of numbers drops from 1000 watts to 100 watts,
from 100 to 999? what is the change in decibels?
 47

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1 They are in phase. The signal under- 10 Step-down transformers. Step-down

goes a 180° phase shift in each stage transformers are used to match the
so the total phase shift is 360°, result- high impedance of the output stage to
ing in the output signal being in phase the low impedance of the speaker
with the input signal. voice coil.
2 It will swing in the negative direction. 11 In a step-down transformer the sec-
There will be a180° phase shift in Ql. ondary current is always greater than
3 R5 is used to develop areverse bias the primary current.
between the gate and the channel. 12 It remains constant. If the current
The current flowing through R5 will through Q1 increases, the current
develop a voltage having a polarity through Q2 will decrease an equal
such that the source end is positive. amount so that the current through
This means the entire channel will be R2 remains essentially constant.
positive with respect to ground. The 13 When the input signal is zero, the
gate connects to ground through R4 transistors Ql and Q2 draw little or
and there is no current flow through no power. This will result in im-
R4 and no voltage drop. This means proved battery life.
the channel will be positive with re- 14 The frequency response of the ampli-
spect to the gate, or in other words, fier will be improved and the cost will
the gate will be negative with respect be reduced by the elimination of the
to the channel. two transformers.
4 Replace the IC. 15 From Cl. C1 simply charges to a
5 The + sign indicates a noninverting higher voltage and supplies the extra
input. That means the signal fed into electrons needed by Ql.
this input will produce an output sig- 16 Negative. If the current through Q5
nal that is in phase with it. The — sign increases, the electrons must come
indicates an inverting input. The out- from the 1000 pY capacitor, which
put signal will be 180° out of phase will tend to discharge the capacitor
with the input signal fed into this and produce anegative signal, which
input. is fed back to the emitter of Q2.
6 Q3 is an emitter follower.
17 Replace it. If the input signal is nor-
7 The letter A indicates the gain of the
mal and all parts and operating volt-
amplifier.
ages are correct, the IC must be
8 The gain of the circuit is determined
defective.
by the ratio of R2 to R1.
9 Two. Q1and Q2 form one differential 18 The bandwidth of the circuit is gener-
amplifier and Q4 and Q5 form asec- ally defined as the frequency between
ond. which the output voltage is 0.707 or
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

70.7% of the maximum voltage ob- 25 455 kHz.

tained at resonance. 26 262 kHz.
19 The bandwidth can be increased by 27 C4 is aneutralizing capacitor.
overcoupling and by loading the reso- 28 To reduce the loading on the reso-
nant circuits. nant circuit.
20 Critical coupling is that point where 29 1.
the lines of flux produced in the pri- 30 A logarithm is the power to which 10
mary winding of the transformer cut must be raised to express another
the turns of the secondary winding of number.
the transformer. 31 The part of the logarithm to the left of
21 C4 is aneutralizing capacitor. the decimal point is called the charac-
22 Energy from the collector of QI will teristic.
be fed back to the base through the 32 The part of the logarithm to the right
collector-to-base capacity. This signal of the decimal point is called the
could cause QI to begin generating mantissa.
its own signal, which we call oscillat- 33 Two. The characteristic of a number
ing. The signal fed through C4 has the is one less than the total digits in the
opposite polarity to the signal fed number.
from the collector to the base of Q2
34 2.8451. Both 7 and 700 will have the
through the collector-to-base capaci-
same mantissa in their logarithm. The
ty and cancels it.
difference is in the characteristic.
23 AGC stands for automatic gain con-
Since 700 has three digits, the charac-
trol.
teristic must be 2.
24 There is no current flow through the
gate of the insulated-gate field-effect 36 The decibel is 1/10th of abel. A bel is
transistor, and therefore, it does not the logarithm of the ratio between
load the resonant input circuit. There two numbers.
is some current flow to the gate of a 36 The ratio of 1000 watts to 100 watts is
junction field-effect transistor, which 10 to 1. Thus, 1000 ± 100 is 10. The
will have some loading effect on the logarithm of 10 is 1; therefore, this
resonant circuit, which will reduce change represents a change of 10
the selectivity of the circuit. decibels.
 49

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2230.

—
Make sure you print your name, student num-
— Name John Snrté;
ber, and lesson number in the spaces provided Prht

on the Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to fill in Student No Lesson No

the circles beneath your student number and les- XYo 2 37 9Li 3C.)
son number. 00000000 0000
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time. You may run out of study material if you
do not send your answers for evaluation
promptly.

1. During the negative half-cycle of a sine 3. If in the operational amplifier circuit shown
wave signal fed to the amplifier in Fig.1, in Fig.7(A), A equals 1000, R1 equals 5000
which way will the collector voltage of QI ohms, and R2 equals 50,000 ohms, the gain
and Q2 swing? of the amplifier is:
a. QI negative, Q2 negative. a. 10.
b. Q1 positive, Q2 positive. b. 100.
c. QI negative, Q2 positive. C. 1000.
d. Q1 positive, Q2 negative. d. 10,000.

2. During the negative half-cycle of a sine 4. When asignal is applied to aclass A power
wave signal fed to the amplifier in Fig.2, amplifier such as shown in Fig.9, the aver-
which way will the collector voltage of Q1 age collector current:
and Q2 swing? a. Increases.
a. QI negative, Q2 negative. b. Decreases.
b. QI positive, Q2 positive. c. Remains the same.
c. QI negative, Q2 positive. d. Drops to zero.
d. Q1 positive, Q2 negative.
HOW AMPLIFIERS WORK

5. What is the advantage of the class B push- 8. Transistor rf amplifiers are usually neutral-
pull amplifier shown in Fig. 13 over the class ized to:
A push-pull amplifier shown in Fig.12? a. Increase the gain.
a. Has higher power output. b. Decrease the gain.
b. Uses pnp transistors. c. Prevent oscillation.
c. Has lower distortion. d. Reduce power consumption.
d. Has lower power consumption.
9. In the circuit shown in Fig.29, which stage
6. A positive-going signal fed to the input of is neutralized?
the circuit shown in Fig.14 will cause the a. The rf amplifier.
current through: b. The mixer-oscillator.
a. QI and Q2 to increase. c. The i-f amplifier.
b. QI and Q2 to decrease. d. The agc detector amplifier.
c. Q1 to increase, Q2 to decrease.
d. QI to decrease, Q2 to increase. 10. The input and output impedance of a cer-
tain amplifier are both 500 ohms, and the
7. The most important effect noticed when the gain of the amplifier is 20 dB. If an input
coupling between the coils of an rf trans- signal of 1volt is fed into the input, what
former is increased beyond critical cou- would you expect to find in the output?
pling is that: a. 1volt.
a. The output will increase. b. 10 volts.
b. The output will decrease. c. 20 volts.
c. The bandwidth will decrease. d. 100 volts.
d. The bandwidth will increase.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes c'

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
ir
MM/Schools

THE ERROR OF HASTE

The fable of the hare and the tortoise is more than an interesting
childhood story — it carries an important message we sometimes
forget in this age of speed.

The hare, you will recall, started off in great haste. Soon it was so far
ahead of the slow-plodding tortoise that it became overconfident and
took anap. The tortoise kept going steadily and won the race.

Haste does not always mean progress. Too often it leads instead to
errors, to actual waste of time and energy, and even to complete fail-
ure, as in the case of the hare. ,

We must learn to work and wait. Take time for all things, because
time often achieves results that are obtainable no other way. Shake-
speare expressed it thus: "Wisely and slow; they stumble who run
fast." More emphatic still was Benjamin Franklin, who said:
"Great haste makes great waste."

Don't risk the dangers of haste. Keep going steadily like the tortoise,
and you'll approach your goal steadily, inevitably.

LT2230 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

tg
 g•

P •

jI 9j

How Oscillators Work 2231

iig NRI Schools

ADivision of The McGraw Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
4
How Oscillators Work
Copyright © 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008
ISBN LT2231

03
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Resonant Circuits 1
Damped Waves 1
Factors Affecting Resonant Circuits 3
Summary 5
Self-Test Questions 5

LC Oscillators 6
Oscillators Using Inductive Feedback 6
Oscillators Using Capacitive Feedback 9
Summary 13
Self-Test Questions 13

Crystal Oscillators 14
The Piezoelectric Effect 14
Simple Crystal Oscillators 16
Problems in Servicing Crystal Oscillators 18
Summary 19
Self-Test Questions 19

RC Coupled Oscillators 20
A Collector-Coupled Multivibrator 20
An Emitter-Coupled Multivibrator 21
Multivibrator Output Signals 23
Summary 24
Self-Test Questions 24

Answers to Self-Test Questions 25

Lesson Questions 26
‘

e
 1

An oscillator circuit is used to generate an ac signal. It takes the dc from the power supply
and converts it to ac. The frequency of the ac signal may be anywhere from a few hertz to
thousands or even millions of hertz. The exact frequency at which the oscillator operates will
depend upon the oscillator circuit and the values of the parts used in the circuit.
Oscillators can be divided into two types: LC and RC. LC oscillators use inductance and
capacitance in the frequency-determining circuits. RC oscillators use resistance and capacitance
in the frequency-determining network.
Both LC and RC oscillators work on the same basic principle, that of feeding some of the signal
from the output circuit back into the input circuit. This signal is called the feedback signal and
enables the oscillator to go on generating its own signal. The amount of signal that must be fed
back into the input depends upon anumber things, but it must always be strong enough to enable
the oscillator to produce asignal that can overcome the losses in the oscillator circuit.
In addition to feeding enough energy from the output circuit back into the input circuit of the
oscillator, the feedback signal must also be of the correct phase. This will enable the oscillator to
produce asignal that will reinforce the signal in the oscillator output. If the feedback signal is not
of the correct phase, it will oppose the signal in the output instead of aiding it, and the oscillator
will stop oscillating.

RESONANT CIRCUITS the capacitor will begin to discharge through

the coil. The excess of electrons on side A of
LC oscillators are used to generate high- the capacitor will attempt to flow through the
frequency signals. Perhaps the most important coil to get to side B. As aresult, acurrent flow
part of an LC oscillator is its resonant circuit. will be set up in the circuit, as shown in
Before we start studying LC oscillators, let's Fig.1(B).
briefly review resonant circuits and learn some Remember that a coil opposes a change in
more important facts about them. the current flowing through it. So the capacitor
cannot discharge instantly through the coil, but
rather must build up acurrent in the coil, which
Damped Waves in turn builds up a magnetic field around the
coil. Eventually, the capacitor will build up a
If we connect a imam across a capacitor, current flow in the coil and enough electrons
the capacitor will charge to the battery voltage. will leave plate A and get to plate B to discharge
If we disconnect the battery from the capacitor, the capacitor.
the capacitor will remain charged until we The instant the capacitor is completely dis-
provide a circuit through which it can dis- charged, the current does not stop flowing. This
charge. is due to the inductance of the coil. Remember,
If we connect a coil across the charged inductance is the quality of acoil that opposes
capacitor, at the instant we connect the coil, the any change in the current flowing through it.
voltage across it will be equal to the capacitor The capacitor has built up acurrent flow in the
voltage, but the current flow in the circuit will coil in an effort to discharge.
be zero as shown in Fig.1(A). Immediately after The current flowing in the circuit not only
the coil is connected across the capacitor, discharges the capacitor, but continues flowing
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

(A) (B) (C)

1
(D)
MIL
(F)

Flgure 1. How oscillation takes place in a resonant circuit.

in the same direction, charging the capacitor Once again, when the capacitor is dis-
with the opposite polarity, as shown in Fig.1(C). charged, the coil current does not stop flowing
Here you see the current flowing through the instantly, so the capacitor is charged with the
coil in the same direction as it was in Fig.1(B). original polarity, as shown in Fig.1(E). Here we
Now plate B of the capacitor is building up a have electrons flowing out of pate B of the
surplus of electrons, and hence a negative capacitor, resulting in a shortage of electrons
charge. Electrons are being pulled out of plate on this plate, and into plate A, producing
A of the capacitor, which produces ashortage a surplus of electrons on this plate. Again,
of electrons in this side of the capacitor, and the current will eventually drop to zero and the
hence apositive charge. capacitor will once again begin discharging
Of course, the charge that is being placed on through the coil in the opposite direction, this
the capacitor eventually builds up to a point time with electrons flowing from plate A to
where it can stop the current flowing through plate B, as shown in Fig.1(F).
the coil. When the current flow through the coil Notice that in Fig.1(F), we have the same
drops to zero, the capacitor begins to discharge situation as in Fig.1(B). In other words, we have
through the coil in the opposite direction as gone through a complete cycle of events. The
shown in Fig.1(D). Now electrons are leaving capacitor is charged with one polarity. This
plate B of the capacitor and flowing through the produces acurrent flow through the coil, which
coil in the opposite direction to get to plate A, eventually charges the capacitor with the oppo-
which has ashortage of electrons. site polarity. The capacitor then begins to
 3

Flgure 2. A damped wave

discharge through the coil in the opposite direc- Frequency. We already know that resonance
tion, which builds up acharge on it having the occurs when the inductive reactance of the coil
same polarity as the original charge placed on is equal to and canceled by the capacitive
the capacitor. This charge on the capacitor reactance of the capacitor. Thus, at resonance:
begins the cycle of events all over again by
attempting to discharge through the coil. XL = Xc
If we had aperfect coil and aperfect capaci-
tor, this oscillation or current flow back and We know that the inductive reactance of acoil
forth would continue indefinitely once it start- XL is given by the formula:
ed. But since there are losses both in the coil
XL = 6.28 x fxL
and in the capacitor, instead of a continuous
oscillation, we would get a damped wave,
and the capacitive reactance of a capacitor is
which is sometimes called a wave train, as
given by the formula:
shown in Fig.2. The amplitude of each cycle of
the wave is a little less than the amplitude of 1
the preceding cycle. Eventually, due to the '
CC —
6.28 xfxC
losses in the tank circuit, the oscillation will
stop. But if we were able to momentarily Now, since resonance occurs when XL equals
connect the battery across the capacitor at the Xc ,we have:
peak of each cycle, we could keep the oscilla-
tion going indefinitely. We do this electroni- 1
6.28 x fxL=
cally in an oscillator circuit. 6.28 xfxC

This can be manipulated to give us:

Factors Affecting Resonant Circuits
f2 1
There are several other things we should (6.28) 2 x1AxC
know about resonant circuits. For example, we Now, if we take the square root of both sides of
should know the frequency at which oscillation the equation we get:
takes place. We should also know how many
cycles there will be in a damped wave. We 1
should also know what is meant by the period f=
of aresonant circuit. 6.28 x xC
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

In this formula the times sign is usually omitted have acircuit that is resonant at afrequency of
so you will usually see it written as: 1000 hertz, its period would be 1/1000 of a
second.
1 The period of a resonant circuit is given by
f—
the formula:
6.28 VI7C
1
It is a good idea to memorize this formula P=
because it tells you a great deal about the
frequency of a resonant circuit. The formula
where P represents the period of a resonant
says that the frequency of a resonant circuit
circuit in seconds, and f is the frequency in
varies inversely as the square root of the LC
hertz.
product. When one factor varies inversely with
Since in electronics we are usually dealing
the other, we have a situation where making
with comparatively high frequencies, the period
one bigger makes the other smaller. This means
of most resonant circuits will be only a very
that increasing the size of either L or C will
small fraction of asecond. As amatter of fact,
reduce the frequency at which the resonant
the period of many resonant circuits will be
circuit oscillates, and reducing the size of either
only asmall fraction of amicrosecond.
Lor C will increase the frequency at which the
To simplify things, the microsecond is used
resonant circuit oscillates. We can express this
in electronics work as the unit of time. The
simply by saying: larger Lor C, lower frequen-
microsecond, abbreviated µsecond or ps, is
cy; smaller Lor C, higher frequency.
one millionth of a second. Thus, if a resonant
In using this formula, the frequency of oscil-
circuit has a period of five millionths of a
lation will be given in hertz and the value of L
second, we would say it has a period of 5
and C used must be in henrys and farads,
microseconds, or 5 µs.
respectively.
The Q Factor. The number of cycles that will
When dealing with radio-frequency signals,
occur when the resonant circuit is shock-excit-
the inductors used will be measured in micro-
ed depends almost entirely upon the Q of the
henrys rather than in henrys and the capacitors
coil. The higher the Q, the more cycles that will
in microfarads or picofarads. We can simplify
occur.
the basic formula for the frequency of a reso-
The Q of a coil tells us how good a coil we
nant circuit to
have. A coil that has a high Q has a high
inductive reactance compared to the resistance
159,000 of the coil. A coil with a low Q has a high
f= resistance compared with the inductive reac-
\FCC tance. You will remember that the Q of acoil is
expressed by the formula:
This formula can be used to find the frequency
of aresonant circuit with the inductances given
in microhenrys and capacitances in microfar-
ads.
Period. The period of a resonant circuit is If we examine this formula and remember that
the time it takes the resonant circuit to go XL varies directly as the frequency and the
through one complete oscillation. Thus, if we inductance, we see that Q will vary directly as
 5

the frequency and the inductance. You might nant circuit. In other words, the amplitude of
think that increasing the frequency of a reso- one cycle will be almost equal to the amplitude
nant circuit by using a smaller capacitor in of the preceding cycle. But if the Q of the coil is
combination with a larger coil will result in a low, the losses in the coil will be high so that
higher Q. This will often happen, but the in- the amplitude of each cycle will be substantial-
crease in Q is not as great as might be expected ly less than the amplitude of the preceding
because the resistance of the coil is determined cycle. This means that the oscillation will be
by the ac resistance rather than the dc resis- damped out quite rapidly, and the number of
tance. The ac resistance of a coil actually cycles that will occur when the circuit is shock-
represent ac losses in the coil, which varies excited will be limited.
directly as the frequency varies. Increasing the In most oscillator circuits, a high-Q coil is
frequency of a resonant circuit increases the used. This means that only a small amount of
inductive reactance of the coil, but at the same energy must be supplied to the resonant circuit
time it increases the losses, so that Q normally in order to sustain oscillation. On the other
does not increase as fast as you might expect. hand, if the coil has a low Q, the losses in the
In aresonant circuit with ahigh-Q coil, there resonant circuit will be high, with the result
will be a large number of cycles of a damped that alarge amount of energy must be supplied
wave train set up by shock-exciting the reso- to keep the oscillation going.

Summary Self-Test Questions

When atank circuit is shock-excited, an Please check your answers on page 25.
oscillation will be built up in the tank
circuit. The frequency of the oscillation 1 When a capacitor in a tank circuit is
will depend on the inductance of the coil charged, what will cause the current to
and the capacity of the capacitor in the continue flowing in the tank circuit
circuit. A resonant circuit with a high Q after the capacitor has discharged?
will have almost no losses, so very little
energy must be supplied to the circuit to 2 Write the formula for the frequency of
keep the oscillation going. On the other aresonant circuit with the inductance
hand, aresonant circuit with alow-Q coil in microheruys and the capacity in
will have high losses so that much more microfarads.
energy is required to keep the oscillation
3 Write the formula for the period of a
going. A wave train is a series of cycles
resonant circuit.
from an oscillator. A damped wave train is
a wave train in which the amplitude of
4 What is ahigh-Q coil?
each cycle is less than the amplitude of the
preceding cycle. The period of aresonant
circuit is the length of time it takes for one
full cycle to occur.
 HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

LC OSCILLATORS Oscillators Using Inductive Feedback

If a tank circuit such as shown in Fig.1 is One of the most important and widely used
shock-excited by momentarily connecting a inductive feedback oscillators is the Hartley
battery across it, adamped wave such as shown oscillator. It gets its name from the man who
in Fig.2 will be produced. The number of cycles invented the circuit. The original Hartley oscil-
in the wave train will depend upon the Q of the lator circuit was developed for use with a
coil. The higher the Q, the more cycles we get. vacuum tube, but an almost identical circuit,
If, instead of allowing the wave train to damp which bears the same name, is now used with
out as in Fig.2, once each cycle we supply a transistors.
pulse that is timed to occur at the peak of the A typical Hartley oscillator is shown in Fig.4.
oscillation, as shown in Fig.3, we can reinforce Notice the oscillator coil Li. The entire coil is
the wave train and maintain the oscillation wound on asingle form with atap at terminal 2.
indefinitely. Since the turns of the coil are on the same form
In an oscillator circuit, this is exactly what and close together, the portion of the coil
we do. We use atransistor to supply aburst of between terminals 1and 2 is inductively cou-
energy at the correct time to make up for losses pled to the portion of the coil between termi-
in the tank circuit so that the oscillation will nals 2and 3.
continue. Resistor R2 places apositive voltage on the
In an oscillator circuit some energy is fed base of Q1 so that, when the oscillator is turned
from the output back into the input to make up on, current will begin to flow through the
for losses that occur in the circuit. We call the transistor and through the part of the coil
energy fed from the output back to the input between terminals 1and 2. The changing mag-
feedback, and since it is timed to aid the oscilla- netic field produced by the current between
tion, it is called regenerative feedback There terminals 1and 2of Li will set up the field that
are two basic types of feedback used in oscilla- cuts the turns of the coil between terminals 2
tor circuits: inductive and capacitive. Let's look and 3and induces avoltage in this part of the
at inductive feedback first. coil. The voltage will have apolarity such that

Figure 3. The oscillator pulse is timed to occur at the peak of the oscillation in the tank circuit to reinforce the
oscillation.
 7

R1 R2
Wv

01
C2

3 IC_ R4

C4

L R3

1
qie
+0

Figure 4. A typical Hartley oscillator.

terminal 3of the coil is positive with respect to collector current. When this happens, the cur-
terminal 1. Thus capacitor CIwill be charged rent flowing through the coil between terminals
so that the plate connected to the R1/C2 junc- 1and 2 will no longer be changing; therefore,
tion of the coil will be positive and the other there will be no further voltage induced in the
plate negative. The value of C2 is chosen so that coil between terminals 2 and 3. When this
its reactance is practically zero at the oscilla- happens, the voltage across the coil will begin
tion frequency; therefore, the base of the tran- to decrease and the capacitor Cl will begin to
sistor is in effect connected directly to Ci. discharge. Now the negative voltage on C2 cuts
Similarly, the positive voltage on the plate of C1 off the transistor so there is no current flowing
is in effect applied directly to the base of Ql. through it. C1continues to discharge until it is
This causes the current through the transistor completely discharged, but by this time there is
to increase still further, causing the positive ahigh current flowing in the tank circuit con-
potential of terminal 3 of the coil and on the sisting of Li and Ci. This cument doesn't drop
plate of C1to increase still more. This in turn to zero the instant C1is discharged, but contin-
makes the base of Ql still more positive. ues to flow to charge C1 with the opposite
While the base of Ql is positive, some of the polarity. The current will eventually drop to
electrons crossing the emitter-base junction zero, but C1 will be charged and now must
will leave the transistor at the base and flow discharge. In doing so, it will swing past the
into C2, charging it with the polarity shown. As point where it is completely discharged and the
the base is driven further positive, the base upper plate will once again start to become
current increases until eventually there is a positive. Eventually a point is reached where
substantial charge on C2. the positive voltage is great enough to over-
Eventually a point is reached where the come the negative voltage across C2. This will
positive voltage on the top plate of CIcannot cause the transistor to start conducting and
cause any further increase in the transistor once again we get a burst of current through
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

the coil between terminals 1and 2, which will tor is no longer necessary because the voltage
once again make terminal 3 of the coil still built up across C1is sufficient to drive the base
more positive and cause a sharp burst of cur- positive, making the transistor conduct at the
rent through the transistor. correct time during each cycle.
The transistor will conduct in bursts like this We mentioned earlier that the Hartley oscilla-
once every cycle. The burst of energy, supplied tor was originally developed for use with vacu-
to the tank circuit by the transistor, is timed um tubes. One of the big differences between a
correctly to overcome the losses in the tank transistor and avacuum tube is that atransistor
circuit, so the oscillation will continue indefi- is alow-impedance device, whereas avacuum
nitely. tube is a high-impedance device. Thus, some-
When the transistor is not conducting, C2 times the transistor may load the tank circuit so
discharges through R1. This maintains a nega- heavily that the losses become excessively
tive bias across the emitter-base junction. The high, and the Q is lowered so that the stability
sole purpose of R2 is to start the oscillator of the oscillator is affected. In some applica-
oscillating. When the oscillator is first turned tions, you will find that the base of the transis-
on, R2 places a small positive voltage on the tor is connected to atap on the oscillator coil as
base of the transistor so that there will be a shown in Fig.5. The purpose of connecting the
forward bias across the emitter-base junction. base to the tap is to reduce the loading effect of
This causes the current to start flowing from the transistor on the tuned circuit. The opera-
ground, through the lower portion of the coil, tion of this circuit is essentially the same as the
through R3 to the emitter, and then across the circuit shown in Fig.4.
emitter-base junction, where a few electrons The problem of overloading the resonant
leave the base, but the majority flow on to the circuit can be overcome by the field-effect
collector. Once the oscillation starts, this resis- transistor. A Hartley oscillator using ajunction-

R2
#VNA

•
01

R4

LI C1 C4

R3
411-1\AA0- 0

-o

Figure 5. Connecting the base to a tap on the oscillator coil will reduce the loading effects of the transistor.
 9

01
C2
G

R1

C3 R2§
L1

Figure 6. A Hartley oscillator using ajunction-type, n-channel field-effect transistor,

type, n-channel field-effect transistor is shown The positive pulse fed to the gate of Q1 will
in Fig.6. appear for only a short portion of the cycle.
When the equipment is first turned on, cur- When the positive pulse disappears, the nega-
rent begins to flow from the negative side of the tive voltage on C2 will be applied directly to the
power supply to terminal 1of the oscillator coil gate, and will cut off the flow of current through
Li, through the lower part of the coil to termi- the channel of the transistor. Meanwhile, C2
nal 2, and then to the source of the transistor. It will begin discharging through RI and Li. The
will flow through the n-channel to the drain and time constant of C2 and R1 is long enough so
then through R2 back to the positive side of the that C2 discharges very little before the next
power supply. positive pulse comes along and recharges C2, at
The current flowing through the lower por- the same time it allows a burst of current to
tion of Li will induce avoltage in the upper part flow through the transistor. This burst of cur-
such that terminal 3of the coil will be positive rent supplies sufficient energy to the tank cir-
with respect to terminal 1. The voltage across cuit to make up for any losses, and thus
Li will charge C1so the grounded plate will be oscillation is maintained.
negative and the upper plate positive. C2 is a
large-capacity capacitor, so it has a low reac-
tance at the oscillator frequency; thus the posi- Oscillators Using Capacitive Feedback
tive pulse on the upper plate of Cl is fed
through C2 to the gate of the transistor. This There are a number of different oscillator
positive pulse has two effects. It attracts elec- circuits that use capacitive feedback instead of
trons across the gate junction and charges inductive feedback to sustain oscillation. Let's
the capacitor C2 with the polarity shown. At look at some of them now.
the saine time, it reduces the resistance of the The Colpltts Oscillator. The most important
channel, allowing a higher current to flow of the oscillators using capacitive feedback is
through the channel from the source to the the Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig.7. When the
drain. equipment is first turned on, current flows
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

through L2, which is a small rf choke used to At the same time, the positive voltage applied
complete the emitter circuit. R3 is used to place to the base of the transistor through C3 causes
a small positive voltage on the base of the base current to flow in the transistor. This
transistor, forward biasing it in order to start it charges C3 with the polarity shown. Eventually
conducting when the equipment is first turned a point is reached where there is no further
on. increase in current through the transistor.
Current flowing through L2 develops avolt- When this happens, CIand C2 begin discharg-
age drop across the coil which charges capaci- ing and current begins flowing through Li in
tor C2. The charge on the capacitor C2 will start the opposite direction. Meanwhile, the charge
an oscillation in the tank circuit, which consists built up on C3 places areverse bias across the
of Li and capacitors Cl and C2. Remember that emitter-base junction of the transistor so that it
when we have two capacitors connected in stops conducting.
series they will act like one capacitor as far as The transistor will be cut off during the
the coil is concerned, and the circuit will start remainder of the cycle, and will remain cut off
to oscillate. The voltage developed across Cl is until the next cycle begins. When the voltage on
the feedback voltage. It is applied between the CI builds sufficiently in apositive direction to
base and emitter of the transistor. overcome the negative voltage across C3, the
When the voltage across Cl swings in a transistor will start conducting once again.
positive direction, it makes the end of Cl When this happens, the burst of current
connected to C3 positive and the other end through the transistor will build up a voltage
negative. This will increase the current flow across L2, which will recharge Cl and make up
through the transistor, causing an increase in for any losses in the circuit.
current flow through L2, which charges C2 still Notice that during the entire half-cycle when
further. This in turn causes the current flow the voltage across Cl has anegative polarity so
through Li to increase, charging CIstill further that anegative voltage is fed to the transistor,
and driving the base of the transistor still the transistor will be cut off. Also, during a
further positive, building up the oscillation. portion of the other half-cycle, when the

QI
C3

RI
C4 R2

Ll

L2
C2 RFC

Figure 7. A Colpitts oscillator.

 11

voltage on Cl is positive, the transistor will not circuit to sustain oscillation. If the value of CI
conduct until the voltage is sufficiently high to is increased and the value of C2 decreased by
overcome the negative bias voltage across C3. the correct amount, the total capacitance in the
Thus the transistor is conducting for considera- circuit formed as aresult of the two capacitors
bly less than one-half cycle. It is operating as a in series remains the same, and hence the
Class C amplifier. Current flows through it only resonant frequency of the oscillator does not
during asmall portion of each cycle. However, change.
this burst of current supplies enough energy to In some Colpitts oscillators, an additional
the tank circuit to make up for any losses in the capacitor is connected directly across Li. This
tank circuit so that the oscillation will continue. is done to provide some convenient means of
The amount of feedback voltage supplied to changing the resonant frequency so we can
the transistor depends upon the ratio of CI to vary the frequency at which the oscillator oper-
C2. If Cl is large compared to C2, the reactance ates. It isn't practical to try to vary both CI and
of Cl will be low and the reactance of C2 will C2 at the sanie time and maintain the same
be high. Most of the voltage developed across voltage divison across them. However, asepa-
the two capacitors will be developed across the rate capacitor placed across the coil can be
higher reactance, which in this case is C2. This varied, which will change the resonant frequen-
means that the feedback voltage applied to the cy of the oscillator without changing the feed-
input of the transistor will be low. However, if back. This is due to the fact that the values of
Cl is small compared to C2, the reactance of Cl Cl and C2 remain constant and they will still
will be high compared to the reactance of C2, form avoltage divider. Part of the total voltage
and the feedback voltage applied to the input of developed across the two capacitors in series
the circuit will be high. will be fed back to the input of the circuit.
The ratio of CI and C2 can be altered to Again, resistor R3 in the circuit shown in
provide the required feedback to the input Fig.7 is used to place a small starting bias

C4

C2 RI

L2
R2
Li RFC

C3

B+

Figure 8. A variation of the Colpitts oscillator.

HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

across the emitter-base junction of Q1 to get certain frequency, it will not drift from that
the current flow through the transistor started. frequency very much. Some oscillators, on the
Once the oscillation begins, R3 could be re- other hand, do not have good frequency stabil-
moved from the circuit and the oscillation ity and will drift appreciably.
would continue. One variation of the Colpitts oscillator is
There are a number of variations of the shown in Fig.8. Here we have capacitor Cl
Colpitts oscillator circuit. Any time you run into connected across Li, in addition to the voltage
an oscillator where the feedback is controlled divider capacitors C2 and C3. Notice that in the
by acapacitive voltage divider, such as Cl and circuit, the collector of the transistor is fed
C2 in the circuit shown in Fig.7, you can be sure back directly to Li, Cl, and C3. The choke coil
that it is some form of Colpitts oscillator. The has been removed from the emitter circuit and
Colpitts oscillator can be designed with excel- the emitter is connected directly to ground.
lent frequency stability. By this we mean that In the circuit when current begins flowing
once the oscillator is adjusted to operate at a through the transistor, there will be a voltage

vr-

L2
R2
RFC
L1
(A)

B 0 C5

Figure 9. (A) The ultra-audion circuit. (B) The same circuit with internal transistor capacities added.
 13

developed across the rf choke, L2, and this the base and emitter. We have used the same
voltage will charge C3. Once the capacitor is designations to identify the parts in the circuit
charged, oscillation starts in the circuit just as shown in Fig.8 and Fig.9(A) so that you can see
in the Colpitts oscillator shown in Fig.7. the similarity between the two circuits. The
The Ultra-Audion Oscillator. A modified capacitors represented by the dashed line con-
form of the Colpitts oscillator that is frequently nections in Fig.9(B) are the internal capacities
used in the vhf region is shown in Fig.9. This of the transistor which are not added into the
circuit is called the ultra-audion oscillator. circuit as external parts. However, in the vhf
When the circuit was first developed, it was region, these capacitances are large enough to
thought to be anew type of oscillator. However, take the place of the actual capacitors used in
careful analysis shows that it is really aColpitts the low-frequency oscillator shown in Fig.8.
oscillator similar to the one shown in Fig.8. You should learn to recognize this circuit as a
Figure 9(A) is the schematic diagram of an form of the Colpitts oscillator because it is
ultra-audion oscillator and Fig.9(B) shows the widely used at high frequencies. Of course,
ultra-audion oscillator with the transistor ca- manufacturers do not draw the internal transis-
pacitances, drawn in dashed lines, that exist tor capacitors on schematic diagrams, so the
between the collector and emitter, and between circuit looks like Fig.9(A) rather than Fig.9(B).

Summary

An oscillator is acircuit used to develop Both types are self regulating: the ener-
an ac signal. It takes dc from the power gy supplied to the tank circuit makes up
supply and changes it into ac. for losses in the tank circuit.
There are two basic types of LC oscilla- The ultra-audion oscillator is amodified
tors, one uses inductive feedback and the Colpitts oscillator. In this circuit, the ex-
other uses capacitive feedback. In both ternal voltage-divider capacitors connect-
types current flows through the transistor ed across the coil are omitted. These are
in bursts that last for less than one-half not needed because in the vhf region
cycle so they are in effect Class C amplifi- where the circuit is used the capacity
ers. In the Colpitt's oscillator the amount between the collector and emitter takes
of feedback can be varied by varying the the place of one capacitor and the capaci-
size of the voltage divider capacitors ty between the base and the emitter of the
across the tank coil. transistor replaces the other capacitor.

Self-Test Questions

5 What do we mean when we refer to an 7 What type of feedback is used in the

oscillator as a "self-regulating oscilla- Hartley oscillator?
tor?" 8 What type of feedback is used in the
Colpitts oscillator?
6 What two types of feedback are used in 9 What type of oscillator is the ultra-
LC oscillators? audion oscillator?
 HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS X axis, it is called an X-cut crystal. These are

shown shaded in Fig.10.
The oscillator in a radio or TV broadcast X-cut crystals have been widely used in crys-
station, the color oscillator in a TV receiver, tal oscillators, but other cuts are also used. Two
various oscillators in video cassette recorders, of these are the AT cut and the BT cut, both of
and other oscillators in critical applications which are cut perpendicular to the Yaxis, but at
must be held to a very close frequency toler- an angle to the Z axis.
ance. LC oscillators can be designed with very It is the peculiar property of acrystal that if
good frequency stability but their frequency an electric stress is applied in the direction of
stability is not good enough for many applica- the X axis, a mechanical stress is produced in
tions. Usually, crystal oscillators are used in the direction of the Y axis, and if amechanical
applications where the frequency must be held stress is placed along the Yaxis, it will cause an
to avery close tolerance. In this section of the electrical stress on the X axis. The electrical
lesson, you will study crystal oscillator circuits stress produced by mechanical force is termed
and learn how they work. the piezoelectric effect.
For use in crystal oscillators, crystals are cut
The Piezoelectric Effect into small squares of varying thicknesses. The

The operation of acrystal oscillator depends

on a peculiar effect shown by quartz crystals
that is known as the piezoelectric effect. Be-
cause of this effect, a crystal that has been
suitably cut from apiece of quartz and placed in
asuitable holder can be substituted in place of
an LC resonant circuit. Now let's see what the
piezoelectric effect is and how the crystal oscil-
lator works.
In its natural state, a quartz crystal has a
hexagonal cross section and pointed ends like
the one shown in Fig.10. An imaginary line
drawn between the two apexes is called the Z
axis. The axis is shown in Fig.10. There are two
other sets of axes labeled the X axis and the Y
axis. Notice that there are three X axes and
three Yaxes. Both the X axes and the Yaxes are
perpendicular to the Z axis. The X axes pass
through the corner of the crystal, whereas the Y
axes are perpendicular to the face of the crys-
tal.
Small pieces of crystal, usually about 1 2 "
/
square and of varying thicknesses, can be cut
from a natural quartz crystal. If the crystal is
cut perpendicular to the Y axis, it is called aY-
cut crystal, and if it is cut perpendicular to the Figure 10. Major axes in a quartz crystal.
 15

Figure 11. A crystal and its holder.

crystal is then mounted between two metal springs. The entire assembly is put in acontain-
plates which will make contact with the two er and hermetically sealed to prevent changes
large surfaces of the crystal. The plates are in humidity from affecting the frequency of the
usually held in contact at the surface by crystal. A drawing of the crystal is shown in
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

Fig.11(A), and the side view of the crystal is ance of the crystal is highest at the parallel-
shown in Fig.11(B). The complete crystal inside resonant frequency. In a parallel-resonant
of the hermetically sealed holder is shown in configuration, the resonant frequency of the
Fig.11(C). circuit is determined by both the crystal and the
When an ac voltage is applied between the externally connected circuit components. Crys-
plates and across the quartz crystal, the crystal tals are manufactured for use either as aseries-
can be made to vibrate. When a crystal is resonant or aparallel-resonant circuit. A crystal
ground to the proper thickness so that mechan- that has been manufactured for a series-reso-
ical resonance exists at the frequency of the ac nant application normally cannot be used in
voltage, the amplitude of the vibrations will be parallel-resonant applications.
quite large.
The equivalent electrical circuit of the crystal
is shown in Fig.12. C1represents the capaci- Simple Crystal Oscillators
tance formed by the plates. The crystal itself is
represented by Li, C2, and R1. The crystal may To help see how a crystal oscillator works,
be operated as either a series- or a parallel-
look at the LC oscillator shown in Fig.13. This
resonant circuit. When operated as a series- oscillator is called atuned-base, tuned-collector
resonant circuit, the resonant frequency of the oscillator. It is easy to see where it gets its
circuit is then determined only by Li and C2. name, since there are resonant circuits in both
The impedance of the crystal will be lowest at the base and the collector circuits.
the series-resonant frequency. When operated The oscillator works because of the transis-
as a parallel-resonant circuit, the combination tor's collector-base capacitance between the
of Li and C2 has the net effect of an inductance output circuit and the input circuit. When a
because the inductive reactance of Li is much resonant circuit in the output is tuned to a
larger than the capacitive reactance of C2. The frequency slightly lower than the operating
resonant frequency of aparallel circuit is deter- frequency, it will act like an inductance. Under
mined by C1 and the net inductance of the these conditions, the phase of the signal that is
series combination of Li and C2. The imped- fed from the output back to the input is correct
to aid the voltage in the input tank circuit
consisting of Li and Cl, and thus oscillation
occurs.
The crystal oscillator shown in Fig.14 is a
simple modification of the oscillator shown in
Fig.13. Here the crystal has been substituted for
the resonant circuit in the input circuit of the
oscillator. The crystal acting as aparallel-reso-
nant circuit is the equivalent of the circuit that
has been removed. Therefore, the crystal oscil-
lator operates in exactly the same way as the
oscillator shown in Fig.13. The crystal oscillator
has the advantage of excellent stability over the
LC oscillator. The stability of the oscillator can
Flgure 12. The equivalent electrical circuit of a crystal be further improved by keeping the tempera-
and its holder. ture of the crystal constant at all times. In
 17

Figure 13. A tuned-base, tuned-collector oscillator.

broadcast transmitters, the crystal is placed impedance at the resonant frequency so that
inside an oven that is kept at a constant tem- energy at this frequency is readily fed through
perature. the crystal from the collector and back to the
Another example of a crystal oscillator is base. At frequencies above and below the fre-
shown in Fig.15. In this application, the crystal quency of the crystal, the impedance of the
is used as a series-resonant circuit; it is in the crystal increases so that energy cannot be fed
path between the collector circuit of the tran- back at these frequencies. Thus the crystal
sistor and the base. The crystal provides alow basically controls the frequency at which the

R2
eVNA

OUTPUT
0

X1 4 LI
R1 §

Figure 14. A simple crystal oscillator.

HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

Figure 15. Transistor crystal-controlled oscillator using a series-resonant crystal.

oscillator operates. You will find crystal oscilla- there is a corner chipped or the crystal has
tors used in both parallel applications, as been cracked. In either case the crystal should
shown in Fig.14, and series applications, as be replaced.
shown in Fig.15. But often there is no apparent defect. This is
one of the peculiarities of crystals; sometimes
they simply fail to oscillate. Usually when you
Problems in encounter this, the only thing you can do is
Servicing Crystal Oscillators replace the crystal.
Sometimes the operation of the crystal be-
Crystal oscillators present some special ser- comes erratic. When the power is applied to the
vicing problems. Sometimes the crystal simply oscillator, it may start oscillating one time and
won't oscillate. Most of the crystals you are another time it will not oscillate. This may be
likely to encounter will be hermetically sealed due to dirt in the crystal or to acracked crystal.
units; and if the crystal fails to oscillate, there is Again, in the case of ahermetically sealed unit,
nothing you can do but replace it, providing which is the type you will encounter most
everything in the circuit checks satisfactorily. If frequently, there is nothing you can do with the
the crystal is the type that can be dismantled, unit but replace it.
sometimes you can dismantle it and inspect the Another problem often encountered with
crystal to find the trouble. You may find that crystals is that the frequency at which they
 19

oscillate becomes erratic. You may turn on the next time you turn on the equipment, it might
crystal-controlled oscillator and find that it is oscillate at the correct frequency. When you
operating at some frequency other than the encounter this problem in the crystal, the only
frequency for which it has been ground. The thing you can do is discard it.

Summary Self-Test Questions

Crystal oscillators are used in applica- 10 What are the three major axes of a
tions where better frequency stability is quartz crystal?
needed than can be obtained with an LC
oscillator. The frequency of crystal oscilla- 11 What is the piezoelectric effect?
tors is controlled by a quartz crystal that
has been cut to the thickness that provides 12 What two types of circuits may a
the required operating frequency. There crystal form?
are three major axes of a quartz crystal:
the Z axis, the X axis, and the Y axis. An 13 What is the chief advantage of acrys-
effect known as the piezoelectric effect tal oscillator over an LC oscillator?
makes the use of crystals possible in a
resonant circuit. This is the electrical 14 If ahermetically sealed crystal starts
stress produced in the crystal along one oscillating sometimes when the
axis when a mechanical stress is placed equipment is turned on, but fails to
along another axis. oscillate at other times, how is the
Crystals can be used both as parallel, problem remedied?
resonant circuits or as series-resonant cir-
cuits. Crystals made for use in parallel-
resonant circuits have a high impedance,
whereas crystals used in series-resonant
applications have alow impedance. Usual-
ly acrystal cut for one mode of operation
cannot be used in the other.
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

RC COUPLED OSCILLATORS brator gets its name from the fact that the
output signal from QI is coupled from the
collector through Cl to the base of Q2, and
The oscillators that we have studied so far the output from Q2 is coupled from the collec-
have been LC oscillators. Now we will study RC tor to the base of Q1 through C2.
oscillators, so called because they use resis- In the circuit shown in Fig.16, one of the
tance and capacitance. transistors will start conducting first or slightly
The most common RC oscillator is the faster than the other. Let's assume that Q1
multivibrator. It is a two-stage oscillator. starts conducting first. As the current through
During the first half-cycle, one stage is turned Q1 increases, the voltage drop across RI will
full on — it is passing maximum current. The increase. This will cause the voltage at the
other stage is cut off. During the other half- collector of Q1 to swing in anegative direction.
cycle, the status of the two stages reverses. The Electrons will flow through the transistor QI
stage that was cut off goes into maximum to the one plate of Cl, charging it with the
conduction and the stage that was conducting polarity shown. At the same time, electrons
during the first half-cycle is now cut off. leave the positive plate and flow through R3
You have already studied the multivibrator back to B+. In flowing through R3 they set up a
known as aflip-flop. The flip-flop is a bistable voltage drop across the resistor having apolari-
multivibrator. Bistable means it has two stable ty such that the base end is negative. The
states. It rests in one of the states until it negative voltage across R3 drives the base of
receives a trigger pulse. When triggered, the the transistor Q2 negative with respect to the
flip-flop changes state and remains in the new emitter of Q2 so Q2 will be cut off. The transis-
condition until triggered again. tor will be cut off as long as Cl is charging
Another type of multivibrator is the monosta- through R3. It will be developing a voltage
ble multivibrator. This multivibrator has one across R3 great enough to overcome the for-
stable state. When it receives atrigger pulse, it ward bias that the power supply is applying
generates a single output pulse. One output through R3 to the base of the transistor.
pulse is produced for each trigger pulse. Upon Eventually C1will be charged and the cur-
receiving atrigger input, it switches to the semi- rent flow from it through R3 will stop. Now the
stable state for afixed period of time and then power supply voltage is fed through R3 to the
returns to its stable condition to wait for anoth- base of Q2, turning this transistor on. When this
er trigger pulse. happens, current will begin to flow through Q2
A third type of multivibrator is the astable, or and R4, causing the voltage on the collector of
free-running, multivibrator. This type of multivi- Q2 to drop. Now C2 will charge with the
brator is also an oscillator; once it starts run- polarity shown, causing electrons to leave the
ning, it continues to run. In this section of the positive plate of C2 and flow through R2. This
lesson, we are going to deal with the free- will develop avoltage drop across this resistor
running multivibrator. having a polarity such that the base end is
negative. This will completely cut off Ql. Once
Q1 is cut off, there will be no current flow
A Collector-Coupled Multivibrator through R1 and no voltage drop across it.
Meanwhile, the positive plate of C1is con-
A schematic diagram of a collector-coupled nected to the base of Q2. With Q2 conducting,
multivibrator is shown in Fig.16. The multivi- the resistance between the emitter and base is
 21

Figure 16. A collector-coupled multivibrator.

low so that Cl, which is charged with the the base end of R3 is negative. This will cut off
polarity shown, is connected directly from B— Q2 and cause the collector voltage to rise to the
to B+. The capacitor must discharge and B+ value. Now C2 must discharge and charge
charge with the opposite polarity. Electrons with the opposite polarity; in doing so, it will
will flow from B— to the emitter of Q2 across tend to pull the base of QI highly positive,
the emitter-base junction, out of the base, into causing Q1 to saturate almost instantly. This
the plate of Cl marked with a+ sign and out of action of first one transistor conducting and
the plate marked with a— sign through RI to then the other, will go on indefinitely. Thus the
B+. Since practically all of the electrons flow- multivibrator is free-running.
ing to the base of Q2 are being used to charge Transistors are particularly well-suited for
Cl, there will be little or no voltage drop across this type of application because they can be
R3. Thus the potential on the base of Q2 will switched from saturation, or maximum current
attempt to swing highly positive, driving this condition, to cutoff very rapidly. In many appli-
transistor into saturation. The transistor re- cations, this rapid change from one state to the
mains in this condition until C2 is completely other is desirable.
charged, at which time QI will begin conduct-
ing again.
When this happens, the voltage at the collec- An Emitter-Coupled Multivibrator
tor of QIdrops, and Cl begins discharging and
charging with the polarity shown. To do this, Another widely used multivibrator is the
electrons will flow out of the positive plate of emitter-coupled multivibrator. A schematic dia-
Cl through R3, developing apotential such that gram of this type of multivibrator is shown in
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

Fig.17. The operation of this multivibrator is through R5 in parallel with R7 and the
somewhat different from the operation of the emitter-base circuit Q2. Q2 goes into satura-
collector-coupled multivibrator. tion, creating ahigh positive voltage across R7.
Resistors RI and R2 place a forward bias As long as CIis charging, Q2 will be conduct-
across the emitter-base junction of Q1 and ing heavily. But as soon as Cl is charged, the
resistors R4 and R5 place aforward bias across bias across the emitter-base junction of Q2 will
the emitter-base junction of Q2. When the drop, causing the current flow through the
equipment is first turned on and both transis- transistor to drop. When this happens, the
tors start to conduct, the capacitor Cl must voltage across R7 will drop and QIwill begin to
charge. To charge the capacitor, electrons will conduct. Once Q1 starts to conduct, there will
flow from ground through R5, R7, and the be a voltage drop across R3, and Cl must
emitter-base circuit of Q2, into one plate of Cl discharge. When CI discharges, electrons will
and out of the other, and then through R3 to flow through R4, developing a voltage across
B+. The electrons flowing through R5 set up a this resistor with apolarity such that the base
voltage drop across this resistor having apolar- end is negative. This will cut off Q2 so that
ity such that the base end of the resistor is current flow through R7 from Q2 will drop to
positive. This causes Q2 to conduct heavily and zero. When this happens, the forward bias
develop avoltage drop across R7 such that the across the emitter-base junction of Q1 will
emitter end is positive. This positive voltage increase, causing it to conduct more heavily.
will overcome the forward bias on QI and cut The voltage drop across R3 will increase, caus-
Q1 off. Once this happens, there will be no ing CI to discharge further. Eventually apoint
current flow through R3 from QI so that Cl is reached where C1is discharged, the negative
must charge to almost the full supply voltage. voltage on the base of Q2 due to the voltage
This causes additional electrons to flow drop on R4 will disappear and Q2 will start

Figure 17.
 23

The value of the RC network used in coupling

the transistors in Fig.16 will not only determine
the waveshape of the output of the circuit; it
will also affect the frequency at which the
oscillator operates. For example, if the time
constant of C1and R3 or the time constant of
C2 and R2 is decreased, the frequency at which
Figure 18. Output from a symmetrical multivibrator.
the oscillator operates will increase. Similarly,
if the time constant of the network is increased,
across R7 which will cut off Q1, and CI will the frequency at which the oscillator will oper-
once again charge through R5 and R3, driving ate is decreased. This type of multivibrator can
Q2 into saturation. This oscillation of first QI be made to operate over a wide range of
and then Q2 conducting will continue indefi- frequencies by selecting the time constant of
nitely. the RC coupled networks.
In the multivibrator shown in Fig.17, Q2
conducts when Cl is charging and Q1 conducts
when it is discharging. The charging path for Cl
Multivibrator Output Signals is through R5 in parallel with R7 and the
emitter-base junction of Q2 and R3. The resis-
tance of R5 in parallel with R7 and the emitter-
Multivibrators are called symmetrical multi- base junction of Q2 is so low when compared to
vibrators when each transistor conducts for the resistance of R3 that it can be ignored.
the same length of time. In the circuit shown in Therefore, the time constant of the charging
Fig.16, this is what happens if Cl is equal to C2 network is primarily the time constant of Cl
and R2 is equal to R3. Under these conditions, and R3.
Q1 will conduct for acertain period of time and Cl discharges through R7, QI, and R4. The
then be cut off. Q2 will conduct for an equal resistance of R7 in series with Ql is so low
period of time while Q1 is cut off. Under these
circumstances, the output from the multivibra-
tor will resemble awaveform shown in Fig.18.
In the circuit shown in Fig.16, C2 discharging
through R2 keeps QI cut off for a certain
period. Similarly, Cl discharging through R3
keeps Q2 cut off. As long as the time constant of
C2 and R2 is equal to the time constant of Cl
and R3, the output from the multivibrator will
be symmetrical. However, by changing the time
constants of these two networks we can obtain
an asymmetrical output as shown in Fig.19. In
the circuit shown in Fig.16, if Q2 conducts
longer than Q1, we'll have an output like the
one shown in Fig.19(A). On the other hand, if
Q1 conducts longer than Q2, we can get an Figure 19. Output from an asymmetrical multivibrator
output as shown in Fig.19(B). with (A) having a shorter pulse width than (B).
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

when compared to the resistance of R4, they time it is conducting, and the output will be like
can be ignored. Therefore the discharge time is Fig.19(B).
primarily the time constant of Cl and R4. Thus, Again, the time constant of Cl and R3 and the
if we make R3 equal to R4, the output from the time constant of C1 and R4 determine the
multivibrator will be symmetrical. frequency at which the multivibrator operates.
But in most cases R4 is much larger than R3. To increase the frequency of the multivibrator
This means that the discharge time of Cl will be operation, we can decrease the value of Cl. To
much longer than the charge time. Therefore, decrease the multivibrator frequency, we can
Q2 will be cut off for aperiod greater than the increase the capacity of Cl.

Summary . Self-Test Questions

The most common RC oscillator is the 15 Which components primarily deter-

multivibrator. There are three types of mine the frequency at which the mul-
multivibrators. The mcmostable multivi- tivibrator shown in Fig.16 operates?
brator has one stable state. The bistable 16 If C1equals C2 and R2 equals R3 in
multivibrator, often called a flip-flop, has the circuit shown in Fig.16, will the
two stable states. The astable multivibra- output from the multivibrator be sym-
tor is afree-running multivibrator. metrical or asymmetrical?
There are two basic types of astable 17 In the circuit shown in Fig.16, if the
multivibrators, the collector-coupled mul- value of C2 and R2 is decreased, how
tivibrator and the emitter-coupled multivi- will the frequency of the multivibra-
brator. The shape of the output signal and tor be affected?
the frequency at which the multivibrator 18 In the circuit shown in Fig.17, if R3 is
operates can be controlled by controlling equal to R4, will the output be sym-
the RC time constant of the coupling net- metrical or asymmetrical?
works. 19 What is abistable multivibrator?
20 What is amonostable multivibrator?
 25

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1 The inductance of the coil causes the 11 The piezoelectric effect is the pecu-
current to continue flowing after the liar property of a crystal whereby, if
capacitor has discharged. Inductance an electrical stress is applied in the
is the quality of a coil that opposes direction of the X axis, amechanical
any change in the current flowing stress will be produced in the direc-
through it. tion of the Y axis. If a mechanical
stress is placed along the Y axis, it
2 f = 159 '000 will cause an electrical stress on the
X axis.
1 12 Crystals may be used in series-
3 f
P = — resonant or parallel-resonant circuits.
13 The chief advantage of acrystal oscil-
4 A high-Q coil is a coil in which the lator over an LC oscillator is excel-
ratio of the inductive reactance of the lent frequency stability.
coil to the resistance of the coil is 14 When the performance of the crystal
high. is erratic, the only solution is to re-
5 When we say that an oscillator is self- place the crystal.
regulating, we mean that the energy 15 The frequency at which the oscillator
supplied to the tank circuit is just shown in Fig.16 operates is deter-
what is needed to make up for losses mined by C2-R2 and Cl -R3.
in the tank circuit. 16 The output will be symmetrical.
6 Inductive feedback and capacitive 17 The frequency of the multivibrator
feedback. will increase.
7 The Hartley oscillator uses inductive 18 The output will be symmetrical.
feedback. 19 A bistable multivibrator is a multivi-
5 The Colpitts oscillator uses capaci- brator with two stable states. A flip-
tive feedback. flop is abistable multivibrator.
9 The ultra-audion is a form of the 20 A monostable multivibrator is amul-
Colpitts oscillator that is used at very tivibrator with only one stable state.
high frequencies. A pulse may cause it to change to the
10 The three major axes of a quartz unstable state, but it will return to the
crystal are the X axis, the Y axis, and stable state, and remain there until
the Z axis. another pulse occurs.
HOW OSCILLATORS WORK

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2231.

—
Make sure you print your name, student number, and les- - Name Jo'n Smith

son number in the space provided on the Lesson Answer OM. Rfit

Student No. LOSSCII Na

Form. Be sure to fill in the circles beneath your student
number and lesson number.
Y o 2 37 9 PHU
00000000 00 00
- 00000000 0000
Reminder: A properly completed Lesson Answer Form - 00 000000 0000
allows us to evaluate your answers and speed the re- - 00000000 0000
- 00000000 0000
sults and additional study material to you as soon as pos- 00000000 0000
00000000 0000
sible. Do not hold your Lesson Answer Forms to send 00000000 0000
00000000 0000
several at one time. You may run out of study material if 00000000 0000
you do not send your answers for evaluation promptly. OM.

1. A damped wave is awave that: 5. In the oscillator shown in Fig.4, transistor

a. Describes awet oscillator coil. Q1 is conducting:
b. Increases in frequency. a. All the time.
c. Decreases in frequency. b. For more than half acycle.
d. Decreases in amplitude. c. For one-half cycle.
d. For less than half acycle.
2. The period of acircuit that is resonant at a
frequency of 1MHz is: 6. In the oscillator circuit shown in Fig.7, after
a. 1000 microseconds. the oscillator has started operating, R3 is
b. 100 microseconds. removed from the circuit. When this hap-
c. 10 microseconds. pens, the oscillator will:
d. 1microsecond. a. Stop oscillating.
b. Continue oscillating.
c. Increase in frequency.
3. If the capacity in an LC circuit is increased,
d. Decrease in frequency.
the resonant frequency of the circuit will:
a. Remain the same.
7. The ultra-audion oscillator is aform of the:
b. Increase.
a. RC-coupled oscillator.
c. Decrease.
b. Colpitts oscillator.
d. Become unstable.
c. Hartley oscillator.
d. None of the above.
4. If the capacity in an LC circuit is cut in half
and the inductance is doubled, the resonant 8. A crystal in acrystal oscillator may act as:
frequency will: a. A parallel-resonant circuit.
a. Remain the same. b. A series-resonant circuit.
b. Increase. c. Either a series-resonant or a parallel-
c. Decrease. resonant circuit.
d. Become unstable. d. None of the above.
 27

9. An astable multivibrator is a multivibrator 10. In the circuit in Fig.16, which part affects
that: the frequency of the multivibrator?
a. Has one stable state. a Q1.
b. Has two stable states. b. Q2.
c. Is free-running. c. RI.
d. Is none of the above. d. Cl.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 ,

•
ibee-
AiwffSchools

BELIEVE IN YOURSELF
Here are asome statements made by famous, successful people on
the subject of believing in yourself. Iquote them just to show you
how important self-confidence really is:

"Anything that you have areal desire to do, you have the capacity to
do. Believe that and act upon your belief. There are no dreams that
can't come true."

"Believe in yourself. Believe in humanity. Believe in the success of

your undertakings. Fear nothing and no one. This way, you cannot
fail."
fr

"I CAN IF ITHINK ICAN! Write these words in letters an inch

high and put them where you can see them every day. Memorize
and repeat them — aloud and to yourself — adozen times aday."

LT2231 A Division re The McGraw-Hill Companies

•

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Analog Electronics4 4489

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ADwision of The McGnnv11211 Companies

Washington, DC 20008
•

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Analog Electronics
•
•

•
•
Table of Contents
Overview 1

Experiment 1: Transformer Operation 2

Experiment 2: Rectifier Operation 4

Experiment 3: Filter Operation 6

Experiment 4: Increasing Circuit Voltage 8

Experiment 5: Shunt Regulation with aZener Diode 10

Experiment 6: IC Series Regulator 13

Experiment 7: NPN Transistor Voltage Amplifier 16

Experiment 8: IC Operational Amplifier 19

• Experiment 9: NPN Transistor Multivibrator

Experiment 10: IC Function Generator

22

25

Examination Questions 29

Copyright ( 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN KM4489

01
 •

Objectives

In this training manual, you will use your Digital

Multi meter to...
•
• Connect and test apower transformer secondary circuit.

• Construct and test afull-wave bridge rectifier.

• Add aripple filter and observe its action.

• Construct and test ashunt Zener regulator.

• Construct and test an IC series regulator.

• Construct and test acommon-emitter amplifier.

• Construct and test atwo-stage IC amplifier.

•
•

Overview

In this training manual, you will put your At the end of this training manual, on page 29,
knowledge of analog electronics to work. You is an examination consisting of 10 multiple-
will construct several circuits on your Discov- choice questions. Each of the questions per-
ery Lab and verify their operation. By identify- tains to one of the following experiments. The
ing, handling, connecting, and testing real questions are in the same order as the experi-
electronic components, you will make circuit ments. There are four questions about basic
theory come to life. power supplies and two questions each about

•
voltage regulators, amplifiers, and oscillators.
In each of the following sections, you will
As you perform each of the experiments, you
be instructed to wire acircuit, using both
will be instructed to turn to the examination
schematic and pictorial diagrams. After you
and answer the relevant question. When you
finish connecting each circuit, you will apply
are finished with all 10 questions, follow the
power and make some measurements with
instructions at the beginning of the examina-
your digital multirneter. You will deduce from
tion to fill in your answer card for this train-
these measurements how the circuit performs.
ing unit.

•
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 1:
Transformer Operation

Introduction Procedure

Almost all electronic circuits and equip- Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con-
ment need to operate from alow voltage de nect the center-tapped transformer secondary
source. Electrical power is distributed in the leads to the breadboard strip as shown in
form of arelatively high ac voltage, so a Figure 1-1.
power supply section or module is used to
Step 1. For your personal safety and that
change the voltage level and convert from ac
of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
to dc. In this section, you will construct and
power cord before you make these connections.
test apower supply similar to that used in
most modern electronic equipment. Step 2. Prepare three 6" lengths of solid
hook-up wire by removing 1/
4"of insulation
If you were constructing acomplete power
from each end of each wire.
supply, one of the first things you would do
would be to arrange the wiring between the Step 3. Connect the leftmost terminal of
power transformer's primary winding and the power transformer secondary (marked
the ac power line. Your Discovery Lab already 15VAC) to point C on the breadboard strip,
has the primary connections in place, both as shown in Figure 1-1.
for convenience and to prevent you from
When you insert the wire ends into the
having to deal with the dangerous ac power
breadboard strip's holes, stop Just short of
line.
full insertion so that enough bare wire is ex-
posed for your meter lead to make good con-
tact.
Materials Needed
Step 4. Connect the center terminal of the
power transformer secondary (marked with a
For this experiment, you'll need your
ground symbol) to point B on the breadboard
Discovery Lab, Digital Multimeter, and a
strip.
length of hook-up wire.

2
 -
REGULATED •
•
POWER SUPPLY •

GND •

+20 VDc -20 vDc -

•
....

•
12 •

_4--- .
.
+1 2
1 I • • • • • • • • • I.• I. • • .....

15VACI 15VAC

-
30VAC

+5

ON OFF
i
Figure 1-1. Connecting the power transformer secondary leads.

• Step 5. Connect the rightmost terminal of Step 8. After you take your measurements,
remove the wire connecting point C to the
the power transformer secondary (marked
15VAC) to point A on the breadboard strip. transformer secondary.

Step 6. Check your wiring to make sure it

is correct and then apply power and turn on
the Discovery Lab's power switch. Results

Step 7. Set your digital multimeter to

You verified the operation of the power
measure about 50 Vac and measure the trans-
transformer; you found that half of the sec-
former's output voltages. Use point B as a
ondary winding can be used to provide one
common point; you should find about 15
voltage, or the entire winding can be used to
volts ac at either point A or point C. Now
provide twice as much voltage to circuits that
shift the common lead to point A and meas-
need that much.
ure the voltage at point C. Use this measure-
ment to answer Examination Question 1.

•
3
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 2:
Rectifier Operation

Introduction Lab's power cord before you make these con-

nections.

Now you will add afull-wave bridge rectifier Step 2. Connect arectifier diode as D1
to the power transformer. This will convert the from point A to point -.
ac voltage from the transformer into dc voltage.
Step 3. Connect arectifier diode as D2
from point B to point -.

Materials Needed Step 4. Connect arectifier diode as D3

from point B to point +.
For this experiment, you'll need your Step 5. Connect arectifier diode as D4
Discovery Lab with the wiring in place from from point A to point +.
the previous experiment, your digital mul-
timeter, four IN4002 diodes, and one 10k Step 6. Connect a 10k (brown-black-

resistor. orange) resistor as the load (

RL) from point -
to point +.

Step 7. Check your wiring to make sure it

Procedure is correct and then apply power and turn on
the Discovery Lab's power switch.
Add afull-wave bridge rectifier to the power
transformer as Figure 2-1 shows in sche-
matic form. All rectifier diodes are 1N4002
or equivalent and are rated at 1amp (A),
100 volts (V) ply. Place the components as
shown pictorially in Figure 2-2.

Step 1. For your personal safety and that

of the equipment, again unplug the Discovery Figure 2-1. Schematic of the full-wave bridge rectifier.

4
L, . REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
GND

_20 Voc

-12

. D4 D3 D1 D2
....
"
+12
• • • • • ..... • • • ..........
15VAC 15VAC • • •

30VAC

+5

ON OFF

Figure 2-2. Wiring the full-wave bridge rectifier.

• Step 8. Set your digital multimeter to its

50-V scale and measure the dc voltage at the
any ripple filter. You should have observed
that, while de output voltage is present, there
rectifier's output. Connect the digital multime- is also alarge ac component at the output.
ter's minus (-) jack to point - as acommon
point. Record your reading in the upper-left
DC VOLTS AC VOLTS
space of Figure 2-3. WITHOUT
FILTER
Step 9. Set your digital multimeter to
measure about 50 Vac and measure the ac EXP. 2, STEP 8 EXP. 2, STEP 9

ripple voltage at the rectifier's output. Connect

the digital multimeter's minus (-) jack to point
- as acommon point. Record your reading in WITH C1
ADDED
the upper-right space of Figure 2-3. Use these
measurements to answer Examination EXP. 3, STEP 4 EXP. 3, STEP 5
Question 2.

WITH FULL
AC INPUT
Results
EXP 4, STEP 5 EXP. 4, STEP

You constructed afull-wave bridge rectifier Figure 2-3. For the full-wave bridge rectifier experiment,
e circuit and observed its operation without enter your measured values in this voltage chart.

5
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 3:
Filter Operation

Introduction Lab's power cord before you make these con-

nections.
Now you will add afilter capacitor to the
Step 2. Connect the filter capacitor from
power supply circuit. This will smooth the
point - to point +. Note that the + end of the
ripple from the pulsating dc voltage and
capacitor must be on point +, and vice versa.
produce one more pure dc output voltage.
Electrolytic capacitors like this are polarity-
sensitive and will not work if connected back-
wards!
Materials Needed
Step 3. Check your wiring to make sure it
is correct and then apply power and turn on
For this experiment, you'll need your
the Discovery Lab's power switch.
Discovery Lab with the wiring in place from
the previous experiment, your digital mul- Step 4. Set your digital multimeter to
timeter, and one 100-microfarad (e), 50-V measure about 50 V and measure the dc volt-
electrolytic capacitor. age at the rectifier's output. Connect the digi-
tal multimeter's minus (-) jack to point - as a
common point. Record your reading in the
center-left corner of Figure 2-3.
Procedure

Now add a 100-pF, 50-V electrolytic capaci-

tor to the circuit as Figure 3-1 shows in sche-
matic form. Orient the capacitor as shown
pictorially in Figure 3-2.
CI
Step 1. For your personal safety and that
of the equipment, again unplug the Discovery
Figure 3-1. How afilter capacitor is added to the circuit.

6
• r REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
GND

-2°VDC
-
• • • •
• •

) 12
•
•
-
• •
Î 7
•--...,•
F
.
. D4 D3 D1 D2
•••---•
• ....
+12 . ....
I I . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .....

15VAC 15VAC - • • •

_ •
_

30VAC

+5
-

...
ON OFF
a,
Figure 3-2. While connecting the filter capacitor, observe polarity.

• Step 5. Set your dgital multimeter to meas-

ure alow ac voltage and measure the ac rip-
Results

ple voltage at the rectifier's output. Connect You added afilter capacitor at the output
the digital multimeter's minus (-) jack to point of the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and
-as acommon point. Record your reading in observed its effect on dc and ac output voltage.
the center-right corner of Figure 2-3. Use these You should have noticed adramatic decrease
readings to answer Examination Question 3. in the ac ripple voltage when you installed the
filter capacitor.

•
7
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 4:
Increasing Circuit Voltage

Introduction Step 2. Disconnect the wire connecting

point B with the Discovery Lab's center power
Now you will increase the ac voltage applied transformer terminal.
to the rectifier circuit by using the entire
Step 3. Connect point B instead to the left-
transformer secondary winding rather than
most transformer terminal (marked 15VAC).
just half of the winding, as before.
Step 4. Check your wiring to make sure it
is correct and then apply power and turn on
the Discovery Lab's power switch.
Materials Needed
Step 5. Set your digital multimeter to
For this experiment, you'll need your Dis- measure about 50 V and measure the de volt-
covery Lab with the wiring in place from the age at the rectifier's output. Connect the digi-
previous experiment and your digital mul- tal multimeter's minus (-) jack to point - as a
timeter. common point. Keep yourfingers away
from the circuit conductors to avoid getting
a shock. Record your reading in the bottom-
left corner of Figure 2-3.
Procedure
Step 6. Set your digital multimeter to
Now connect the power transformer to the measure alow ac voltage and measure the ac
rectifier circuit to use the entire secondary ripple voltage at the rectifier's output. Connect
winding instead of only half. the digital multimeter's minus (-) jack to point
-as acommon point. Again, keep yourfingers
Step 1. For your personal safety and that
awayfrom the circuit conductors to avoid get-
of the equipment, again unplug the Discovery
ting ashock. Record your reading in the bottom-
Lab's power cord before you make these con-
right corner of Figure 2-3. Use these readings
nections.
to answer Examination Question 4.

8
• Step 7. If you are finished with the power
supply experiments, unplug the Discovery
Lab's ac power cord and remove the wires
Results

In this experiment, you doubled the amount

and components you added for these experi- of ac voltage applied to the input of the full-
ments. Save them for later use in other wave bridge rectifier circuit. You should have
experiments. observed that the dc output voltage was
doubled as aresult.

•
9
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 5:
Shunt Regulation with aZener Diode

Introduction Step 2. Prepare two 6" lengths of solid

hook-up wire by removing /
4 "of insulation
1

In this experiment, you will use one of from each end of each wire.
your Discovery Lab's variable de outputs to
Step 3. With one of the wires, connect the
demonstrate the operation of asimple shunt
Discovery Lab's +20-V output to point A on
Zener diode voltage regulator.
the breadboard strip.

Step 4. Use the other wire to connect the

Discovery Lab's ground to point B on the
Materials Needed
breadboard strip.

For this experiment, you'll need your Step 5. Connect a 100 0, 1-W resistor (R1)
Discovery Lab, your digital multimeter, one from point A to point C on the breadboard
100-ohm (e), 1-W (W) resistor, two lk resis- strip.
tors, one 6-V, /
2 -watt (W) Zener diode, and a
1
Step 6. Connect a6-V, 1/
2-W Zener diode
length of hook-up wire.
from point C to point B on the breadboard
strip. Make sure that the Zener's cathode
(striped end) is connected to point C.
Procedure
® 10RI
00
Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con-
struct the circuit that is shown in schematic
form in Figure 5-1. Wire the components as
INPUT LOAD
shown in Figure 5-2: VOLTAGE 1k

Step 1. For your personal safety and that of

e
the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
power cord before you make these connections. Figure 5-1. The Zener diode shunt regulator circuit.

10
• REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
GND

-12 •
100 (1
RI
•
DI •
.
ZENER •
+12
DIODE « 1k
• SIII • •
I5VAC 15VAC

30VAC

+5

ON OFF
8}
Figure 5-2. Wiring the Zener diode shunt regulator circuit.

• Step 7. Connect a lk, /

4 -W resistor from
1

point C to point B on the breadboard strip.

Step 11. Set your digital multimeter to
measure about 10-V scale and measure the
This resistor is the load (Rd and is connected voltage at point C. This is the input to the regu-
in parallel with the Zener shunt regulator. lator circuit. Since the regulator circuit uses a
6-V Zener, you should find aregulated voltage
Step 8. Check your wiring to make sure it
at point C. Record your reading in the top-
is correct and then apply power and turn on
right corner of Figure 5-3.
the Discovery Lab's power switch.
INPUT 0 OUTPUT 0
Step 9. Connect your digital multirneter's
negative lead (the black probe) to point B
(ground) on the breadboard strip. Leave this 1 k LOAD
connection in place for all of the following
steps.

Step 10. Set your digital multirneter to

measure about 50 V and measure the voltage
at point A. This is the input to the regulator
circuit. Note that you can vary this voltage
500 0 LOAD
from less than 2V to about 20 volts. For now,
set it to about 15 V and leave it there. Record

•
your reading in the top-left corner of Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3. For the Zener diode shunt regulator experi-
ment, enter your measured values in this voltage chart.

11
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Step 12. Now connect another lk, /

4 -W
1 Step 14. While the extra load resistor is
resistor from point C to point B on the bread- connected, run the input voltage up and down
board strip. This resistor is in parallel with and notice that it has little, if any, effect on the
the existing load and will double the load output voltage, until you turn it down to about
current, since it's the same value as the origi- half of your preset +15 volts. This shows that
nal load resistor. Again measure the voltage the regulator has excellent line regulation.
at point C and record your reading in the
Step 15. When you finish checking your re-
bottom-right corner of Figure 5-3. If the
sults, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove
regulator is working, the voltage won't change
the components you installed in steps 5-12
much when you add the extra load. This
above.
shows that the regulator has excellent load
regulation. Use these measurements to answer
Examination Question 5.
Results
Step 13. Measure the input voltage at point
A and record your reading in the bottom-left
You constructed and analyzed aZener diode
corner of Figure 5-3. Since the Discovery
shunt regulator. You checked for load regula-
Lab's adjustable dc outputs are regulated,
tion by changing the amount of load resistance
you shouldn't notice much difference with or
applied to the circuit. You also checked for
without the extra load resistor.
line regulation by changing the input voltage
with the Discovery Lab's variable output
power supply.

12
•

Experiment 6:
IC Series Regulator

Step 1. For your personal safety and that

Introduction
of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
power cord before you make these connec-
In this experiment, you will use one of your
tions.
Discovery Lab's variable dc outputs to demon-
strate the operation of athree-terminal IC Step 2. Prepare a2" length of solid hook-up

• series voltage regulator. wire by removing 1/4" of insulation from each

end.

Step 3. Connect this wire from point A to

Materials Needed point D on the breadboard strip.

For this experiment, you'll need your Dis- Step 4. Bend the leads of a 7805 voltage

covery Lab with the wires left in place from regulator IC, as shown in Figure 6-3, on the

the previous experiment, your digital multime- next page. Bend the center (ground) lead

ter, one 7805 voltage regulator IC, two 1µF ca- toward the front (marked side) of the IC,
and bend the outer leads toward the back of
pacitors, two 100 ,S1 resistors, and alength of
the IC.
hook-up wire.

UNREGULATED
FILTERED
DC INPUT
Procedure

Again, using your Discovery Lab as abase,

construct the circuit shown in schematic form
In Figure 6-1. Wire the components as shown
in Figure 6-2, on the next page.

•
Figure 6-1. The three-terminal IC series regulator circuit.

13
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

r REGULATED
-
•
•
POWER SUPPLY
ONO •
-
+20 VOc -20 VD c
-

-
---I
.e...----
:4
• .....
.
• • •
•
+12
— C1
I I ..u á. nrn
15VAC
_.....
15VAC -
_
- •
e
•
30 YAC

+5
—

ON OFF
el
Figure 6-2. Wire the three-terminal IC voltage regulator.

Step 5. Carefully insert the three leads of Step 6. Connect a 1µF capacitor from
the 7805 IC into the breadboard so that the point A to point B on the breadboard socket.
center lead contacts point B, the left (IN) lead Make sure the positive (+) lead of the capaci-
contacts point D, and the right (OUT) lead tor is connected to point A.
contacts point C. You may find it helpful to
use apair of longnose pliers to insert the
.IF
Step 7. Connect another 11 capacitor
from point C to point B on the breadboard
leads into the socket.
socket. Make sure the positive (+) lead of the
capacitor is connected to point C.

Step 8. Connect a 10012, 1-W resistor (Rd

from point C to point B on the breadboard
socket.

Step 9. Once again connect your digital

multimeter's negative lead (the black probe)
to point B (ground) on the breadboard strip.
Leave this connection in place for all of the fol-
lowing steps.

Figure 6-3. Bend the leads of the 7805 voltage regulator

IC as shown.

14
• Step 10. Set your digital multimeter to
measure about 50 V and measure the voltage
at point A. This is the input to the regulator cir-
current, since it's the same value as the origi-
nal load resistor. Again, measure the voltage
at point C and record your reading in the
cuit. Note that you can vary this voltage from bottom-right corner of Figure 6-4. If the regu-
less than 2V to about 20 volts. For now, set it lator is working, the voltage won't change
to about 15 V and leave it there. Record your much when you add the extra load.
reading in the top-left corner of Figure 6-4.
Step 13. Measure the input voltage at point
Step 11. Set your digital multimeter to A and record your reading in the bottom-left
measure about 10 V and measure the voltage corner of Figure 6-4. Since the Discovery
at point C. This is the input to the regulator Lab's adjustable dc outputs are regulated, you
circuit. Since the regulator circuit uses a shouldn't notice any difference with or without
7805 IC, you should find nearly aregulated the extra load resistor. This shows that the
voltage at point C. Record your reading in the regulator has excellent load regulation.
top-right corner of Figure 6-4. Use this read-
Step 14. While the extra load resistor is
ing to answer Examination Question 6.
connected, run the input voltage up and down
Step 12. Now connect another 100 1/, 1-W and notice that it has little, if any, effect on the
resistor from point C to point B on the bread- output voltage, until you turn it down to about
board strip. This resistor is in parallel with half of your preset +15 volts. This shows that
the existing load and will double the load the regulator has excellent line regulation.

• INPUT 0 OUTPUT 0
Step 15. When you finish checking your re-
sults, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove
the components you installed in steps 2-12
above.
100 0 LOAD

Results

You constructed and analyzed an IC series

regulator. You checked for load regulation by
50 0 LOAD
changing the amount of load resistance ap-
plied to the circuit. You also checked for line
regulation by changing the input voltage with

Figure 6-4. For the IC series regulator experiment, enter

the Discovery Lab's variable output power
your measured values in this voltage chart. supply.

•
15
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 7:
NPN Transistor Voltage Amplifier

Introduction Step 2. Prepare three 6" lengths of solid

hook-up wire by removing 1/
4"of insulation

In this experiment, you will construct a from each end of each wire.
common-emitter amplifier stage using an
Step 3. With one of the three 6" wires, con-
npn transistor and analyze its dc operation.
nect the Discovery Lab's GND point to point
A on the breadboard strip.

Step 4. With another of the three 6" wires,

Materials Needed
connect the Discovery Lab's +12-V output to
point B on the breadboard strip.
For this experiment, you'll need your
Discovery Lab, your digital multimeter, one
2N3904 transistor, two 100 S2 resistors, two
lk resistors, and alength of hook-up wire.

Procedure

Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con-

struct the circuit shown in schematic form in
Figure 7-1. Wire the components as shown in
Figure 7-2.

Step 1. For your personal safety and that

of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
power cord before you make these connec- Figure 7-1. An NPN transistor connected in a common-
emitter amplifier circuit.
tions.

16
•
1K

REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
CND
_20VDc

( WWII.
• BB

1k
12

cc)
. 1k
UUU 1O .‘' 13MBe

®:11 •••• °

100 0 J1000

15V
AC I 15V
AC
•
•
30VAC •
•
+5 •

2N TRANSISTOR
3904 LEAD ID
ON OFF
I
E B C
Figure 7-2. Wiring the common-emitter amplifier.

Step 5. With the last of the three 6" wires, Step 9. With the last of the three 9" wires,
connect the Discovery Lab's -12 V output to connect the center terminal of the Discovery
point C on the breadboard strip. Lab's lk pot to point F on the breadboard
strip.
Step 6. Prepare three 9" lengths of solid
hookup wire by removing /
4 "of insulation
1 Step 10. Connect a lk resistor from point B
from each end of each wire. to point D on the breadboard strip.

Step 7. With one of the three 9" wires, con- Step 11. Connect a 100 SI resistor from
nect the left terminal of the Discovery Lab's point E to point A on the breadboard strip.
lk pot to point D on the breadboard strip.
Step 12. Connect a lk resistor from point
Step 8. With another of the three 9" wires, B to point G on the breadboard strip.

•
connect the right terminal of the Discovery
Step 13. Connect a 100 resistor from
Lab's lk pot to point E on the breadboard
point H to point A on the breadboard strip.
strip.

17
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Step 14. Install the 2N3904 NPN transistor Step 22. When you finish checking your re-
on the breadboard strip. Connect the collec- sults, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove
tor to point G, the base to point F, and the the components you installed in steps 10-14
emitter to point A of the breadboard strip. above. Leave in place the six wires you in-
stalled in steps 3-9.
Step 15. Connect the negative (-) lead of
your digital multirneter to point A of the
breadboard strip.
Results
Step 16. Connect the positive (+) lead of
your digital multirneter to point B of the
You constructed atypical amplifier circuit
breadboard strip. and analyzed its operation under static (dc)
Step 17. Set the digital multirneter to its conditions. You built and tested acommon-
50-V range. emitter npn transistor voltage amplifier and
checked it for normal operation. You should
Step 18. Check your wiring to make sure it
have observed that the output voltage swings
is correct and then apply power to the
were opposite in direction to those at the in-
Discovery Lab and turn on its power switch.
put, since this is an inverting amplifier circuit.
The digital multirneter should immediately
register about 12 V. If there is no reading,
quickly turn off the power and recheck your
connections.
BASE COLLECTOR
Step 19. Assuming the +12-V power supply
is working properly, make the following tests
with the power on.
POT
Step 20. Read the dc voltage at points F CW

(input) and G (output) of the breadboard strip.

Take each reading with the 1k pot fully clock-
wise, centered, and fully counterclockwise. POT
Record your readings in the table in CENTERED

Figure 7-3.

Step 21. Turn the lk pot fully clockwise

and again read the voltage at point G (the POT
CCW
collector of the transistor). Use this measure-
ment to answer Examination Question 7.
Figure 7-3. For the common-emitter amplifier experiment,
enter your measured values in this voltage chart.

18
•

Experiment 8:
IC Operational Amplifier

Introduction Step 1. For your personal safety and that

of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
In this experiment, you will construct atwo- power cord before you make these connec-
stage amplifier using an IC dual op amp. You tions.
will configure one of the two op amp circuits
Step 2. Make sure the six wires installed

•
as an inverting amplifier and the other op
in steps 3-9 of the previous experiment are
amp as avoltage follower. You will then ana- still in place.
lyze the dc operation of the two-stage amplifier.
Step 3. Install the 1458 dual op amp IC on
the breadboard strip as shown. Be careful to
avoid bending any of the eight leads under
Materials Needed the chip.

For this experiment, you'll need your Step 4. Prepare six 1" and two 3" lengths
Discovery Lab with the wires left in place from of solid hook-up wire by removing /
4 "of
1

the previous experiment, your digital multime- insulation from each end of each wire.
ter, one 1458 dual op amp IC, one 10k resis-
Step 5. Connect one of the 3" wires from
tor, one 100k resistor, and alength of
Pin 8 of the 1458 IC to point B on the bread-
hook-up wire.
board strip.

Step 6. Connect another of the 3" wires

from Pin 4 of the 1458 IC to point C on the
Procedure
breadboard strip.

Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con- Step 7. Connect one of the 1" wires from
struct the circuit shown in schematic form Pin 3 of the 1458 IC to point A on the bread-

•
in Figure 8-1, on the next page. Wire the board strip.
components as shown in Figure 8-2, on the
next page.

19
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

+12 V

100k
— AAA-
10k
1k

V+ = +12 V —•• PIN 8

V- = -12 V -- PIN 4

OUTPUT 1 V+
-12 V

INPUT 1 - — 1458 1 -OUTPUT 2

DUAL
INPUT 1 + A. OP AMP —6 INPUT 2 -

V - —
5 INPUT 2 +

Figure 8-1. A 1458 dual op amp iC used as atwo-stage amplifier. The first stage has a gain of 10; the second stage is a
voltage follower, which provides a low impedance output.

1K

REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY

+ 20 VOc -201/0c

A.. • • • .1

8° 3
.02 0

▪ •00k
I I
15VACI1 5VAC
•
•
30V
-AC •
•
+5 •

ON OFF

Figure 8-2. Wiring the two-stage IC amplifier circuit.

20
• Step 8. Connect another of the 1" wires
from Pin 6 to Pin 7 of the 1458 IC.
Step 18. When you finish checking your
results, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove
all the wires and components from the bread-
Step 9. Connect another of the 1" wires
board strip.
from Pin 1to Pin 5 of the 1458 IC.

Step 10. Connect a 10k resistor from point F

to Pin 2of the 1458 IC.
Results
Step 11. Connect a 100k resistor from Pin 2
to Pin 1of the 1458 IC. You constructed atypical two-stage IC
amplifier circuit and analyzed its operation
Step 12. Connect the negative (-) lead of
under static (DC) conditions.
your digital multimeter to point A of the
breadboard strip. You built and tested an inverting amplifier
and avoltage follower, each implemented with
Step 13. Connect the positive (+) lead of
half of adual op amp IC. You programmed
your digital multimeter to point B of the
the inverting amplifier for avoltage gain of 10
breadboard strip.
with the resistor values you used. The two
Step 14. Set the digital multimeter to read amplifiers were cascaded so that the output
about 50 V. of the x10 inverting amplifier fed the input of
the voltage follower. As was also the case with

•
Step 15. Check your wiring to make sure it
the transistor amplifier, you should have
is correct and then apply power to the
observed that the output voltage swings were
Discovery Lab and turn on its power switch.
opposite in direction to those at the input,
The digital multimeter should immediately
since this is an inverting amplifier circuit.
register about 12 V. If there is no reading,
quickly turn off the power and recheck your
connections.

Step 16. Assuming the +12-V power sup- INPUT OUTPUT

ply is working properly, make the following

tests with the power on. Measure the input
(point F) and output (point G) voltages with POT
CW
the lk pot turned fully clockwise, centered,
and fully counterclockwise. Remember to re-
verse the leads for negative voltages when us-
ing an analog meter. Record your readings in POT
CENTERED
the table in Figure 8-3.

Step 17. Again measure the output voltage

at point G with the lk pot turned fully coun-
terclockwise. Use this reading to answer POT
CCW
Examination Question 8.

• Figure 8-3. For the two-stage IC amplifier experiment,

enter your measured values in this voltage chart.

21
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Experiment 9:
NPN Transistor Multivibrator

Introduction Step 1. For your personal safety and that

of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's

In this experiment, you will construct atype power cord before you make these connec-

of oscillator circuit called amultivibrator. tions.

You will build this circuit around two npn Step 2. Make sure all wires and compo-
transistors and study its operation. nents are removed from the breadboard
strip. As needed, re-use the cut lengths of
solid hook-up wire from previous experi-
Materials Needed ments.

Step 3. Connect a6" piece of hook-up wire

For this experiment, you'll need your
from the Discovery Lab's +5 terminal to point A
Discovery Lab, two 2N3904 transistors, two
on the breadboard strip.
lk resistors, two 10k resistors, two 100µF
capacitors, two LEDs, and alength of hook-
up wire.

Procedure

Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con-

DI
struct the circuit shown in schematic form in
Figure 9-1. Wire the components as shown in
Figure 9-2.

Figure 9-1. Two npn transistors connected as an astable

multivibrator.

22
 REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY

+2 01/0c ( -20V0c

® D2
+
DI loo
eiF
-
LED
TRANSISTOR
LEAD ID
FLAT SIDE
GOES TO
GROUND
E BC

Figure 9-2. Wiring the astable muitivibrator circuit.

• Step 4. Connect another 6" piece of hook-

up wire from the Discovery Lab's GND termi-
Step 10. Connect a lk resistor from the
collector (right lead) of Q1 to +5 point A.
nal to point B on the breadboard strip.
Step 11. Connect another lk resistor from
Step 5. Insert two 2N3904 transistors and the collector (right lead) of Q2 to +5 point A.
orient them as shown. We will call the transis-
Step 12. Connect a 100 e capacitor from
tor on the left Q1 and the one on the right Q2.
the collector of Q1 to the base of Q2. The plus
Step 6. Connect a 1" piece of hook-up wire (+) lead goes to the base of Q2.
from the emitter (left lead) of Q1 to ground
Step 13. Connect another 100 e capaci-
point B.
tor from the collector of g2 to the base of Ql.
Step 7. Connect another 1" piece of hook- The plus (+) lead goes to the base of Ql.
up wire from the emitter (left lead) of Q2 to
Step 14. Connect an LED as D1 from the
ground point B.
collector of Q1 to ground. The cathode (flat)
Step 8. Connect a 10k resistor from the side goes to ground.
base (center lead) of Q1 to +5 point A.
Step 15. Connect an LED as D2 from the
Step 9. Connect another 10k resistor from collector of Q2 to ground. The cathode (flat)
the base (center lead) of Q2 to +5 point A. side goes to ground.

•
23
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Step 16. Check your wiring to make sure Step 18. When you finish checking your re-
it is correct and then apply power to the sults, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove
Discovery Lab and turn on its power switch. all the wires and components from the bread-
LEDs Dl and D2 should begin flashing board strip.
immediately. If they don't, quickly turn off the
Discovery Lab and check your wiring.

Step 17. Observe the operation of the flash- Results

ing lights. Each one is displaying the state of
one of the two transistors. When QI is con- Using two npn transistors, you constructed
ducting, its collector voltage is very low, so and tested an astable multivibrator, which
LED Dl is dark. When Q Iis cut off, its generates complementary (equal, but opposite)
collector voltage increases, and so LED Dl square wave outputs. Since the oscillation
is lit. Use your observations to answer Exami- frequency is very low, you were able to see
nation Question 9. the oscillator's complimentary outputs driv-
ing the two LEDs.

24
•

Experiment 10:
IC Function Generator

Introduction Procedure

In this experiment, you will construct a Using your Discovery Lab as abase, con-
function generator using an IC dual op amp. struct the circuit shown in schematic form in
You will configure one of the two op amp cir- Figure 10-1, on the next page. This circuit is

• cuits as an integrator and the other op amp

as avoltage comparator. You will connect
these circuits so that each one's output feeds
quite abit more complex than others you
have built so far. Be very careful to make the
connections exactly as shown and position
the other's input. You then will observe the the wiring, especially the resistor leads, to
output of this oscillator circuit. avoid short circuits. Wire the components as
shown in Figure 10-2, on page 27.

Step 1. For your personal safety and that

Materials Needed of the equipment, unplug the Discovery Lab's
power cord before you make these connec-
For this experiment, you'll need your Dis- tions.
covery Lab with all the wires from previous
Step 2. Make sure all wires and compo-
experiments removed, one 1458 dual op-amp
nents are removed from the breadboard strip.
IC, one lk resistor, one 4.7k resistor, four
As needed, re-use the cut lengths of solid
10k resistors, one 47k resistor, one 10 µF
hook-up wire from previous experiments.
capacitor, an LED, and a length of hook-up
Wire. Step 3. Connect a 6" piece of hook-up wire
from the Discovery Lab's GND terminal to
ground point A on the breadboard strip.

•
25
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

R1
10k
i\AA,

Cl

R4
10 isF 10k
R3
2
A UTPUT
/
4 10k 5
W V OUTPUT
AAA
V+ 6
R7
R2 R5 1K
10k 47k
DI A,

V-
R6
100k 4.7k
POT

1458 DUAL
V+ = +12 V PIN 8

OP AMP V— = —12 V PIN 4

OUTPUT 1 .
11 -V+

INPUT 1-2 OUTPUT 2

INPUT 1+3 —6INPUT 2 —

- 4
-
5
INPUT 2 +

Figure 10-1. A 1458 dual op amp IC used as afunction generator. The integrator is on the left, and the comparator is
on the right.

Step 4. Connect another 6" piece of hook- Step 9. Connect a 10k resistor from
up wire from the Discovery Lab's +12 termi- ground point A on the breadboard strip to
nal to point B on the breadboard strip. Pin 3 of the 1458 IC.

Step 5. Connect another 6" piece of hook- Step 10. Connect a4.7k resistor from
up wire from the Discovery Lab's -12 termi- ground point A on the breadboard strip to
nal to point C on the breadboard strip. Pin 6 of the 1458 IC.

Step 6. Install the 1458 dual op amp IC on Step 11. Connect a 10k resistor between
the breadboard strip as shown. Be careful to pins 2 and 7of the 1458 IC.
avoid bending any of the eight leads under
Step 12. Connect another 10k resistor
the chip. between pins 5 and 7of the 1458 IC.

Step 7. Connect a3" piece of hook-up wire Step 13. Connect another 10k resistor
from point B on the breadboard strip to Pin 8 between pins 1and 5 of the 1458 IC.
of the 1458 IC.
Step 14. Connect a47k resistor from
Step 8. Connect another 3" piece of hook- point B on the breadboard strip to Pin 6 of
up wire from point C on the breadboard strip the 1458 IC.
to Pin 4 of the 1458 IC.

26
•

REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY

• • .......... • • • •
• • ..........

• • ..........
15VACil 5VAC
• 10µF
•
30VAC •
• LED
•
FLAT SIDE
GOES TO
GROUND
ON OFF

Figure 10-2. Wiring the function generator circuit.

Step 15. Connect a lk resistor from Pin 7 Step 19. Check your wiring to make sure it
of the 1458 IC to the anode of the LED. is correct and then apply power to the Dis-
Connect the cathode (flat) side of the LED to covery Lab and turn on its power switch.
ground. Rotate the 100k pot from one extreme to
another. LED D1 should begin flashing and
Step 16. Connect a [Link] capacitor from
remain flashing over much of the pot's range.
Pin 1to Pin 2 of the 1458 IC. The positive (+)
If it doesn't, quickly turn off the Discovery
lead should connect to Pin 2.
Lab and check your wiring.
Step 17. Connect the center terminal of
Step 20. Observe the operation of the flash-
the 100k pot to PM 6 of the 1458 IC.
ing LED. The lamp is connected to the function
Step 18. Connect the right terminal of the generator's square wave output. Rotate the
100k pot to point C on the breadboard strip. 100k pot from one extreme to the other and

• note its effect on the flashing LED. Use your ob-

servations to answer Examination Question 10.

27
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

Step 21. When you finish checking your re- other half as acomparator. By connecting
sults, turn off the Discovery Lab and remove these two circuits back-to-back, so that the
the all the wires and components from the output of each one feeds the input of the
breadboard strip. other, you formed afunction generator
circuit.

The output of the integrator circuit is a

Results triangle waveshape, while the output of the
comparator is asquare wave. The frequency
You built and tested abasic function of both outputs is the same. You used an LED
generator circuit around a 1458 dual op amp indicator to observe the square wave output
IC. You connected one half of the IC (one and to study the result of changing the value
complete op amp) as an integrator and the of one of the circuit's resistors.

28
•

Examination Questions

\
This is Examination Number 4489.

Make sure you print your name, student la

number, and examination number (Lesson Name Join Smith

Number) in the space provided on the Answer Pmt

Student No. Lesson No.
Form. Be sure to fill in the circles beneath your
student number and examination number XY 0 I2 3 7 IS 9LI 'ZOO
(Lesson number). 00000000 0000
00000000 0000

•
00000000 0000
Reminder: A properly completed Answer
00000000 0000
Form allows us to evaluate your answers and 00000000 0000
speed the results and additional study mate- 00000000 000e
00000000 0000
rial to you as soon as possible. Do not hold 00000000 0000
your Answer Forms to send several at one 00000000 0000
00000000 0000
time. You may run out of study material if you
do not send your answers for evaluation
promptly.

1. In Step 7 of Experiment 1, when Imeas- 2. In Step 9 of Experiment 2, when Imeas-

ured the voltage across the transformer's ured the voltage across RL, Ifound about:
secondary winding with the digital mul- a. +25 V and 0Vac.
timeter's black lead on point A and the me- b. +12 V and 7Vac.
ter's red lead on point C, Ifound about: c. +50 V and 0 Vac.
a. 15 Vac. d. +50 V and 30 Vac.
b. +15 V
c. 30 Vac.
d. +30 V

•
29
ANALOG ELECTRONICS

3. In Step 5 of Experiment 3, when Imeasured 8. In Step 17 of Experiment 8, when Imeas-

the voltage across RLwith the filter capacitor ured the IC voltage follower's output volt-
connected, Ifound about: age with the lk pot turned fully
a. +20 V and 0 Vac. counterclockwise, Ifound about:
b. +20 V and 15 Vac. a. -12 V
c. +40 V and 0Vac. b. 0 V.
d. +40 V and 30 Vac. c. +12 V.
d. +20 V
4. In Step 6 of Experiment 4, when Imeas-
ured the voltage across RLwith increased 9. In Step 17 of Experiment 9, when Iob-
input voltage, and with the filter capacitor served the operation of the two LEDs
still connected, Ifound about: driven by the multivibrator, Isaw that:
a. +20 V and 0 Vac. a. LED D1 was lit when LED D2 was
b. +20 V and 15 Vac. dark, and vice versa.
c. +40 V and 0 Vac. b. Both LEDs flashed on and off together.
d. +40 V and 30 Vac. c. Only LED D1 flashed.
d. Only LED D2 flashed.

5. In Step 12 of Experiment 5, when Imeas-

ured the Zener-regulated voltage across 10. In Step 20 of Experiment 10, when Iob-
the load resistor, Ifound about: served the operation of the LED driven
a. +0.7 V. by the function generator, Isaw that I
b. +6 V. could:
c. +25 V. a. Change the LED's brightness by
d. +50 V. adjusting the 100k pot.
b. Start and stop the oscillation of the
6. In Step 11 of experiment 6, when Imeas- function generator by adjusting the
ured the IC-regulated voltage across the 100k pot.
load resistor, Ifound about: c. Not change the oscillator's operation
a. +0.7 V. by adjusting the 100k pot.
b. +5 V. d. Change both the brightness and blink-
c. +6 V ing rate by adjusting the 100k pot.

d. +25 V.

7. In Step 21 of Experiment 7, when Imeas-

ured the transistor amplifier's output volt-
age with the 100k pot turned fully
clockwise, Ifound about:
a. +1 V
b. +2 V.
c. +10 V.
d. +20V

30
 NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
NOTES

•
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
•

•
 1 Schools
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KM4489 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
• P"

Basic Electronics Experiments 2332

e 0 g NRI Schools

d
A Division of The McGraw Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008

gr
•

0
pue
 •

Copyright 0 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

•
• Table of Contents
Overview 1

Experiment 1: Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 6

Experiment 2: Voltage in a Series-Connected Circuit 11

Experiment 3: Voltage Polarity 16

Experiment 4: Measuring Voltage to Determine Current 20

Experiment 5: Series Voltage Dividers 24

Experiment 6: Electrical Power 28

Preparing for Experiments 7-9 32

Experiment 7: Using an Ohmmeter 34

Experiment 8: Circuit Continuity 36

• Experiment 9: Parallel Resistance

Experiment 10: Charging and Discharging Capacitors

39

42

Experiment 11: Basic Coil Action 45

Experiment 12 :Transistor Operation 48

Examination Questions 53

•
 •

Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson you will: •

• Configure components using schematic diagrams and
measure the voltage, resistance, and current within the
circuits.

• Determine open and shorted components using amulti-

meter.

• Configure components in acircuit to observe effects of a

bleeder resistor.

• Determine the power factors of acircuit by taking appro-

priate measurements throughout the circuit.

• Determine best range to use when measuring resistance

with an ohmmeter.

• Determine the status of atransistor as it operates within a

circuit.

•
•

Overview

This training manual contains your digital gain abetter understanding of electronics
multimeter, complete with test leads, operat- and electronics troubleshooting.
ing manual, and electronic parts to be used
The best way to complete this training
in the experiments. Your first step in perform-
manual is to perform each experiment in se-
ing the experiments is to study the section in
quence. Don't hurry to finish any experiment,
this manual on using the digital multimeter.
even if you feel you already know what the re-
If you are already familiar with digital multi-
sults will be. We also encourage you to review

•
meters, the information and instructions pro-
your regular lesson materials for additional
vided will serve as areview.
information on each subject discussed in this
This training manual features practical manual.
experiments that demonstrate some of the
This training manual also contains asol-
electronic fundamentals discussed in your les-
dering project, the purpose of which is to pro-
sons. Each experiment is an actual working
vide you with soldering practice. You may
demonstration. The principal objective of this
assemble your soldering project whenever
training manual is to provide you with hands-
you like. However, most students prefer to
on experience that illustrates basic electronic
wait until they have completed all of the ex-
concepts. Another goal is to develop your abil-
periments in this training manual before they
ity to visualize acircuit and wire it using only
work on the soldering project.
aschematic diagram as your guide.

As you perform each experiment, try to

understand what happens in the circuit. For
Preparing for the Experiments
example, if an LED (light-emitting diode)
glows brighter when you change the amount You will build circuits with resistors, ca-
of resistance in acircuit, what basic circuit pacitors, atransistor, LEDs, and acoil. Nine-
characteristic changed and why? Did the volt batteries (included) supply power for the
applied voltage change? Did the current breadboard on which you will connect the
change? Does the circuit configuration also circuits. The battery clip leads and the coil

• affect the result? If you learn to ask yourself

these types of analytical questions, you can
leads are stranded wire. They don't plug into
the breadboard easily. To make attaching the
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

stranded-wire leads easier, solder alength of electronic circuit components together with-
hook-up wire to them. Since hook-up wire is out using solder. The design of the bread-
solid, it can be inserted easily into the holes board also lets you add or change
of the breadboard socket. components easily.

Cut three pieces of white hook-up wire On the breadboard, notice the two rows at
and three pieces of black hook-up wire in 3" the top and bottom labeled with a + and -
lengths. Strip /
4 "of insulation from the ends
1 sign. The wire-sockets in each of these four
of these wires. Also strip 1/
4"of insulation rows are connected. This type of connection
from the battery clip and coil leads. Splice is called abus, and it comes in handy for con-
the black hook-up wire pieces with the black venient connections to power supply voltages.
leads of the battery clips and the white hook- Each hole in the top row (blue) is connected
up wire to the red leads. Solder these joints to every other hole in the row. Likewise, all
together as shown in Figure 1. the holes in the second row (red) are con-
nected to each other. The red and blue rows,
Solder the remaining black and white wire
however, are not connected to each other. You
pieces to the leads of the coil. Since the coil is
could, for example, connect the positive and
not polarized, it makes no difference what
negative leads from abattery to the red and
color hook-up wire you use for each lead.
blue rows and have access to voltage along
the length of the breadboard.

Refer to Figure 3 on the next page. The

Using the Breadboard Socket
center section of the breadboard holds 126
five-slot connectors, arranged in two rows of
You will build the experimental circuits on
63 connectors each. Each of the five-hole col-
abreadboard that is similar to the bread-
umns is separate from the others, but the five
board shown in Figure 2 on the next page. A
holes in each one are connected. In fact, the
breadboard provides alarge number of mul-
back side of the breadboard is acollection of
tipin wire-sockets that allow you to connect
slots, each filled with aconductive spring-clip
that covers five holes. Most of your experi-
ments will use the center section of the bread-
board, while power supply (battery) connec-
tions typically insert into the blue and red
buses.

Using Your Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Your DMM has multiple functions, plus a

diode test position. It can measure AC and
DC voltages and AC and DC current, as well
as resistance. The rotary switch in the center
of the DMM selects all functions and ranges.
Figure 1. Splice hook-up wire to the leads of the battery clip.

2
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ut
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ut
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+

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abcde
-
Q13••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

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CD••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
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+ ••• •• ••••• ••
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B•MI ll• ••••• ••••• Wil l@ •,•••• ••••• ••••• ••••• ••••• •We i

Figure 2. The breadboard socket used during these experiments.

Typically, when the rotary function switch is However, the rotary switch is used to select
pointing in the vertical position (or 12 AC or DC functions on this model. Each func-
o'clock), the DMM is in the OFF position. tion may have three to five ranges, depending
upon the meter design.
In aclockwise direction from the OFF posi-
tion (roughly 12 to 5 o'clock) are the voltage Some multimeters have acapacitance func-
functions. Moving in acounterclockwise direc- tion, but it is not included with this particu-

•
tion are the resistance and diode test func- lar model. One of the unique features is being
tions (roughly 9 to 12 o'clock). The current able to test NPN and PNP transistors using
functions are found between the other two an visual indication or audible tone to indi-
function areas (apprcodmately 5 to 9 o'clock). cate agood test.
On some models aseparate switch might be
Test lead jacks are usually are located on
used to select the proper AC or DC function.
the bottom of the DMM. One jack is marked

ALL HOLES IN + ROW ONE

ARE TIED TOGETHER VERTICAL
COLUMN

i •.1.-
F.I•1 1+ -1+1 I. «. .
c01 u, u, O. s.
O u, o u, o
o
O, •••.• THESE 5
o • • •••••••••••••••••••••••• HOLES ARE
O,••••••••••••••••••••••••• ELECTRICALLY
O. ••••••••••••,!.
CONNECTED

0•• •••••••••• •••

0 . •• ••••••••• THIS SET OF HOLES IS

C)•• •••••••••
NOT CONNECTED TO THE
floe • • ••••••••
HOLES ON THE OTHER SIDE
O U •••••••••••• •••• ,
01 li1 u.
o
OF THE CENTER BARRIER
o u,

•[Link].1 00000 CICICICICI L. 1.1.

... • .......... . .•

NO CONNECTION
ALL HOLES IN — ROW BETWEEN COLUMNS

•
ARE TIED TOGETHER

Figure 3. The breadboard socket is designed to provide amethod of connecting components without soldering.

3
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

COM. This is the common jack; it is used for of how to set the range switch for voltage
all types of measurements. This jack is often and/or current measurements. With practice,
-referred to as the ground or negative jack. you should be able to determine for yourself
Normally, you will plug the black test lead the proper range to use.
into this jack. The black test lead remains in
There is one safety procedure that must
this jack when taking voltage, current, and re-
be followed when measuring unknown volt-
sistance measurements.
ages or currents. You should always start
A jack marked V/12 is used for both DC with the highest range to avoid damage to
and AC voltage measurements and resistance the meter. The meter has abuilt-in fuse that
measurements. The V represents voltage, and is designed to protect it, but it is possible to
the SI represents resistance. When the voltage damage the meter before this fuse blows.
and resistance measurement functions are
For example, suppose you want to meas-
used, the red test lead is plugged into this
ure an unknown dc voltage. You should set
jack.
the range switch to the highest volt range on
The jack marked mA is used for both DC the DCV function. Let's say that the highest
and AC current measurements between 0 range is 1,000 volts. If the reading you get on
and 200 milliamps (mA). There is also ajack the meter indicates that the voltage is sub-
marked A which is used for both DC and AC stantially less than 1,000 V, then you can
current measurements between 200 mil- switch to the next lowest position that does
liamps (mA) and 20 amps (20 A). When you not cause an overload indication. By using
are going to use the DMM to measure cur- this procedure, you will avoid the possibility
rent, initially you should keep the black lead of damaging the meter. If you start out meas-
in the COM jack and plug the red lead into uring the voltage on the 200 V position, for
the A jack. This is a safety precaution when example, and the voltage is very high perhaps
measuring current, especially when it is un- 700 or 800 V you could damage the meter.
known. Thereafter, to measure current that is But if you start off on the highest DCV posi-
known to be lower than 200 mA, plug the red tion, you'll see that the voltage is high and
test lead into the mA jack. know that you should not switch the range
switch to alower voltage position.
The best way to become familiar with your
DMM is by using it. In this training manual, The same is true when taking current
you will be instructed to take DC voltage and measurements. Start in the highest current
DC current measurements. You also will take position and switch to a lower range if you
resistance measurements. In the next train- see that the current is much lower than the
ing manual, you will learn how to use the AC range selected.
voltage ranges of the DMM. The procedures
This is only preliminary information on
for measuring AC current are rarely used,
your DMM. You will learn more about your
and will not be covered in this course. How-
DMM and how to use each function as you per-
ever, please note that current measurement
form the experiments. We recommend that you
procedures are the same for both AC and DC.
do not use the DMM for any measurements
In the early experiments, as you are learning
other than those in the experiments until after
how to use your DMM, you will be informed

4
• you have completed this training manual. By
that time, you will have had sufficient instruc-
needing replacement. These instructions are
given as areminder. Turn off the DMM after
tion on how to use each function of the meter. you have performed all of the experiments
These instructions will reduce the possibility that you are planning to do at one time.
of accidental damage to the meter due to in-
The experiments in this manual will famil-
correct use.
iarize you with the operation of your digital
multimeter (DMM). At the same time, you will
learn the causes of incorrect voltage and resis-
Performing the Experiments tance measurements in electronic circuits.

You are now ready to begin learning how

In performing your experiments, be sure
to troubleshoot with aDMM. Keep in mind
to follow these steps:
that taking measurements is only the begin-
Step 1. Read the entire experiment and ning. What you can do with the results of
pay particular attention to the discussion of your measurements is what really counts.
the experiment.
The DMM supplied in this kit is avery reli-
Step 2. Perform the experimental proce- able and accurate servicing instrument. It
dure and each step of the experiment exactly was designed by service engineers for the
as directed. Record your results in the charts service expert. Learn to use it properly, and it
or tables provided for that purpose. will be your most powerful tool. It will give

• Step 3. Study the discussion of the experi-

ment and analyze your results. If they do not
you information quickly and accurately. Your
regular lessons in conjunction with these ex-
periments will teach you how to apply this in-
seem to be right, repeat the measurements to
formation.
make sure that you did not make amistake.
Do not move on to the next experiment until Caution: Your DMM has afuse that pro-
you get the desired results. vides built-in protection against an accidental
overload. However, it is still possible to dam-
Step 4. You will notice instructions to turn
age your meter. Be sure that you read the in-
off the DMM at the end of many of the experi-
structions carefully and fully understand
ments. However, it is not necessary to turn off
them before proceeding with the experi-
the instrument if you are going to perform
ments. These precautions will eliminate the
more than one experiment without stopping.
possibility of an accident that could result in
The DMM draws so little current that the bat-
serious damage or injury.
tery usually will last ayear or more before

•
5
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1: Kirchhoff's Voltage

Law

Introduction RI R2 R3

The source voltage across aseries of resis-

tors causes current to flow through the resis-
tors. This current produces avoltage drop
across each resistor. Regardless of how many
resistors are used in the circuit, each one will 10 V
have avoltage drop across it that is related to
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6.7k
the current and resistance. The higher the re-
Vs
sistance, the more voltage is required to push I
T = F = 1.49 mA
T
current through it. VR1 = I
T X RI = 1.79 V

VR2 = IT X R2 = 3.28 V
In your regular lessons, you learned about
VR3 = I
T X R3 = 4.93 V
Kirchhoff's voltage law. This law states that
VS = VR1 = VR2 = VR3 ' 10 V
the sum of the voltage drops around any
closed circuit equals the source voltage. Con- Figure 1-1. Applying Kirchhoffs law to asimple series circuit
sider the circuit shown in Figure 1-1. By di-
viding the source voltage (10 V) by the total
input resistance means that the total resis-
circuit resistance (6.7k), we find that the cur-
tance you are connecting across the circuit
rent flow in this circuit is 1.49 milliamps.
will not affect the circuit, regardless of the
Once we determine the current, we can prove
meter range you are using. Thus, voltage read-
Kirchhoff's voltage law by calculating the volt-
ings in low-voltage circuits are much more
age across each resistor and then adding
accurate. However, even this meter can upset
these values together. The total should equal
the voltage distribution in very high-resistance
the source voltage.
circuits.
Modern digital multimeters have avery
high and constant input resistance. This high

6
• Materials Needed
R1

10k
R2

-"\AAI-

470k
R3

AAA-
100k

In this experiment, you will need:

Breadboarding socket 9 V

Digital multimeter iIiI

1 9 V battery with the battery clip attached
Figure 1-2. Schematic of the series circuit for Experiment 1.
1 10k resistor
1 100k resistor
1 470k resistor Step 3. Measure the voltage drops across
1 1M resistor R2 (470k). Reposition the black lead of your
2 10M resistors DMM to the junction of R1 and R2 and touch
the red lead to the junction between R2 and
R3. Record your reading for the voltage

Procedure across R2 in Table 1-1.

Step 4. Lastly, you will measure the voltage

If you need to do so, install the battery drop across R3 (100k). Move the black lead
that was supplied with the DMM. Also, plug to the junction of R2 and R3 and touch the
the black meter lead into the jack marked red lead to the junction between R3 and the
COM and the red lead into the jack marked V. positive terminal of the battery. Record your

• In this experiment, you will breadboard a

simple series circuit and use your DMM to
measurement in Table 1-1. Now, Total the
voltage drops you measured across RI, R2,
and R3 and compare this value to the source
measure the voltages in the circuit. Begin by
wiring the circuit in Figure 1-2. A pictorial of voltage you recorded in Table 1-1. How does

how the circuit might be arranged is shown the sum of the voltage drops compare to the

in Figure 1-3, on the next page. When you source voltage you measured in Step 1?

have finished, turn the DMM selector switch Step 5. Wire the circuit shown in Figures
to 20-V DC. 1-4, on the next page, on your breadboard

Step 1. To measure the source voltage, socket. Be sure to connect R2 in parallel with

touch the black lead of your meter to the junc- R3, and one end of RI to the junction of R2

tion of R1 and the negative lead of the battery. and R3. A pictorial is provided in Figure 1-5,

Touch the red lead to the junction of R3 and on page 9.

the positive lead of the battery. Record your Step 6. Measure the source voltage by
reading for Step 1in Table 1-1, on the next touching the black lead of your DMM to the
page. negative terminal of the battery and the red

Step 2. Measure the voltage drop across lead to the positive terminal of the battery. Re-

RI (10k) by touching the black lead of your cord your measurement in Table 1-2.

DMM to the end of R1 that connects to the Step 7. Measure and record the voltage
negative terminal of the battery and the red drops across each resistor like you did in

• lead to the junction between R1 and R2. Re-

cord your reading for Step 2 in Table 1-1.
Steps 2-4. Notice that the voltage drop across
R2 and R3 is the same, even though the

7
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

I ....

.
RI •.. R2 • R3

o
BB@ ••••• Wen/

If E
WO (10k) ••(470k) •(1000••• M•••• •••••
+

l .1
ul
r) j

-V

C.)••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••

..O••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••

Dann.. ••••••••••• ••••••••••••13

.,
trl• • • • • • • • • • 3 • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••111M/

r
17a sea maamaa•••• •••••••••••••••
0•••• ••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••

_OVUM ••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••

OW •••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••

o o e o e o
.- ..-CY C•1

I • BOB ••••11 •••• ••••• ••••• ••

. • ••• 111•••• ••••• ••••• ••••• •
-r

Figure 1-3. An illustration of the circuit for Steps 1and 2.

resistance of R2 is different from R3. When a in aparallel circuit, the total resistance decreases
voltage source is equally applied across two as you add more components to the parallel
or more electronic components, the compo- network. The higher voltage across R1 is an
nents are said to be in parallel. indication that the total source current is
higher.
Also, notice that the voltage across R1 is
greater in this experiment than it was in the When you measure the voltage across a
series circuit using the same resistors. Unlike component, the meter's internal resistance
aseries circuit, the more components we is placed in parallel with it. Like any other
add to aparallel circuit, the more source cur- parallel combination, the combined resistance
rent will flow in the circuit. That's because

R2
470k
R1
Step 1 Source Voltage 10k

Step 2 Voltage Drop Across R1

Step 3 Voltage Drop Across R2
Step 4 Voltage Drop Across R3
Sum of Voltage Drops

Table 1-1. Record your readings for the circuit in Figure 1-4. Kirchhoff's voltage law also applies to
Figure 1-1 here. combinational-combinational circuits.

8
• o o
›
1
,

• • • • •

• •

•
• • • • a'

00000
1:113000

•
Figure 1-5. An illustration of the circuit for Step 3.

is less than the internal resistance of the reconstruct the circuit shown in Figure 1-2
meter or the resistance of the component. on page 7, using two 10M resistors and one
As long as the resistance of the component 1M resistor.
is substantially smaller than the internal
Repeat steps 1through 4 and notice that
resistance of the meter, you'll get accurate
the sum of the individual voltage drops does
readings. But, if the resistance of the compo-
not equal the source voltage. This proves that
nent is extremely high, the combined internal
measurement errors can occur in very-high-
resistance of the meter and the resistance of
resistance circuits. Fortunately, circuits with
the component could cause an inaccurate
this much resistance are rare, but they do ex-
reading. In this case, we say that the meter
ist. Disconnect the battery from your circuit.
loads down the component. To demonstrate,

Step 6 Source Voltage Results

Step 7 Voltage Drop Across R1
In this experiment, you proved that in a
Voltage Drop Across R2
series circuit the sum of the voltage drops
Voltage Drop Across R3
across the individual components is equal to
Sum of Voltage Drops (V1 +V2 or V3)
the source voltage.

• Table 1-
2. Record your results for Step 3here.

9
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

When you connect your meter across are- volt. Thus, on a5 V range, ameter of this
sistor, you are adding the resistance of the type will have atotal resistance of 100,000
meter in parallel with the resistance of the re- ohms. If you use this type of meter and con-
sistor. This changes the resistance in the cir- nect it across the 100k resistors in this ex-
cuit slightly. Your meter has an internal periment, you would change the resistance to
resistance of around 22 megohms. When you 50k. The resulting voltage reading you would
connected it across the 100k resistor, the re- get would be quite inaccurate.
sistance of the parallel combination became
This experiment demonstrates the value of
99,548 ohms. You saw that the change is
ahigh-resistance meter in voltage measure-
small it was less than 500 ohms, which is
ments, particularly in low-voltage circuits.
less than 0.5 percent. This small change
However, even this meter can cause errone-
means that the voltage reading you'll get will
ous measurements in high-resistance circuits.
be quite accurate.

Years ago, service technicians used meters

that had asensitivity of 20,000 ohms per

10
•

Experiment 2: Voltage in a
Series-Connected Circuit

Introduction too high or too low. You can get afairly good
idea of what the voltage drop in each part of
You know from the experiments you have the circuit should be by looking at the sche-
already performed that when current flows matic diagram. For example, if there are
through aresistance, there is always avoltage three resistors having the same resistance in
drop across the resistance. You also know that aseries circuit, you should find that the volt-
current flows only in acircuit with continuity. age drop across each of the resistors is equal

•
to about one-third of the source voltage. On
Continuity, as used in electronics, refers
the other hand, if one very high resistance is
to the completeness of the path through
in series with one or more low resistances,
which current flows. If there is no continuity,
then the voltage drop across the high resis-
or, in other words, if the path is broken at
tance will be very nearly equal to the source
some point, current cannot flow. These facts
voltage, and the voltage drop across the low
are of great importance to the technician.
resistance will be almost zero.
They are used constantly in troubleshooting.
If there is no voltage drop across one part
A complete circuit has avoltage source,
in acircuit but there is avoltage drop across
one or more parts through which current can
the other parts, there must be ashort circuit,
flow, and wires or leads that connect parts to-
or apath with no resistance, across the part
gether and to the voltage source. The parts in
with no voltage drop. Thus, the current flows
the circuit do not necessarily have to be resis-
through the short circuit rather than through
tors. However, all parts through which cur-
the part. Because the resistance is essentially
rent is able to flow have some resistance.
zero through the short, there is no voltage
Examples of other parts are coils, transform-
drop across it.
ers, and transistors. The fact that such parts
have some resistance means that there will If you measure the whole source voltage
be avoltage drop across each part when it is across apart in aseries circuit, you can as-
connected in acircuit with avoltage source. sume that the part is open (will not pass cur-
rent). The full source voltage across the part

•
Certain defects are evident when the volt-
indicates that there is no voltage across the
age drop at some point in acircuit is either
other parts in the circuit and therefore no

11
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

current flowing through them. The break is

TWIST THE TOP EXPOSED
in the part across which you measured the WIRES TOGETHER

source voltage. You will investigate these con-

ditions in this experiment so that when you
come across them in service work, you will
know what to expect.

Materials Needed

To perform this experiment you will need:

Breadboarding socket
Digital multimeter
1 9 V battery with the battery clip attached
2 lk resistors
1 2.2k resistor
1 10k resistor
Figure 2-1. Illustration of atwisted pair of wires.
Hook-up wire

from your DMM should connect to the nega-

tive terminal of the battery, and the red meter
Procedure
lead should connect to the positive battery
terminal. Record your reading in the Normal
Begin by cutting two pieces of wire about
Resistance column of Table 2-1.
2" long and removing about /
2 "of the insula-
1

tion from both ends of each wire. Twist the

two wires together as shown in Figure 2-1.
When the top portion is connected as shown,
the twisted pair will be used to simulate a
shorted resistor. When the top is untwisted,
the twisted pair will be used to simulate an
- 9 V R2
open resistor. 2.2k

Now construct the circuit shown in Figure R3

2-2. Your wiring should look something like 1k

MA/
the illustration in Figure 2-3.
R4
Step 1. Examine Figure 2-2. Notice that 10k
_
RI, R2, and R3 form aseries circuit and are
connected across the 9 V battery. R4 is not in
Figure 2-2. Schematic of the circuit for Experiment 2.
the circuit.

Put the DMM on the 20 V DC range and

measure the source voltage. The black lead

12
• +
I WO

• e •

,r,
O

ii 1
R1 ••• R2
(1k) MI

1-17 I
• (2.2k)
•.
•

Fy--1 I
•
R3
(1k)
••

1-i ,-111
R4 •••
(1 Ok) ...
1-1 o
m)
III••••

.• ..•
nr,
n
/

abcde
•1•1•1.1.
aaaa•••••••••••• ••••••••••••••

•••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••fl

•••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••••

4)•••• ••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••/

1:11.••• •••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••

(J•11•• ••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••

4:)••• ••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••

0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••••••••

i
• ••• ••••• ••• Milan@ ••••• ••

• ••• ••••• •••• ••••• ••••• •

-4.

•
Figure 2-3. Pictorial of the circuit for Experiment 2.

Step 2. Next, measure the voltage drop Step 3. Notice that avoltage drop devel-
across R1, R2, and R3 and record these volt- oped across R1, R2, and R3. These voltages
ages in Table 2-1. Remember, the end of are- indicate that current is flowing through each
sistor where electrons enter will be negative part. Now measure the voltage across R4.
with respect to the other end of the same re- You'll get a0 V reading indicating that there
sistor. For example, to measure the voltage is no current flowing through this part.
across R2, touch the black lead of your DMM
Step 4. Remove R2 and replace it with the
to the end of R2 that is closest to the negative
twisted wire pair which you prepared earlier.
terminal of the battery, and touch the red
The twisted pair simulates ashorted-out re-
lead to the other end of R2.
sistor. Now measure the voltage drop across
R1, R2, and R3 and record your reading in
Table 2-1 under R2 Shorted. You should dis-

Voltage Normal R2 Shorted R2 cover that there are voltage drops across R1
Measured Resistance Open and R3, with 0 volts across R2. This indi-
cates that R2 is shorted out of the circuit.
Across R1

Across R2 Short circuits usually increase the current

Across R3 flow in acircuit. This is why you should have

•
noticed an increase in the voltage drops
across R1and R3. The power sources in
Table 2-1. Record your results for Experiment 2here. most equipment are protected so that when

13
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

the current exceeds apredetermined level, For this step, you should get 0 V readings
the power source shuts off, thereby protect- across R1 and R3 and the full source voltage
ing the equipment from further damage. across R2. Can you explain why? Remove the
simulated burned-out resistor and save it for
Step 5. With the twisted pair still con-
later use. Reconnect the 2.2k resistor back in
nected to the breadboard socket, untwist
the circuit for R2.
the top portion as shown in Figure 2-4. The
twisted pair now simulates aburned-out Step 6. In Step 3 of this experiment, you
resistor. Again, measure the voltage across found that there was no voltage drop across
R1, R2, and R3. Record your readings in resistor R4. Notice that one end of R3 and one
Table 2-1 under R2 Open. end of R4 connect to the negative terminal of

I zoos R1 .. .1 . .1 R3 a a R4 . . . roam I
+ . • . . (1 k) • a Be (1k) . (10k) ••• ricima
i 11
•,, • '
IFM 1
1 .•.. . •

o• RUBRICS

_n • • •••••

0••••• p MMMMM ••••••

0•••• UUUUUUUUUUU

-0uaaa4 ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■

n •
r
in o in o in o ,n
— .- N N .n
I ••• Dam= enema [aj•
• ••• EICICICID
• ••• CICICICID ono aciacici ••.•• 1_•1
+

Figure 2-4. A circuit using the simulated "open" resistor.

14
• the battery. Thus, the ends of these two resis-
tors are at the same potential. Connect the
Results

black lead of your DMM to the end of R3 that This experiment demonstrates four impor-
is connected to the negative terminal of the tant facts:
battery. This connection also connects the
black lead from the DMM to one end of R4. 1. If current flows through acircuit, there
will be avoltage drop across all parts not
Touch the red lead of the meter to the free shorted in the circuit.
end of R4. Once again, you should get a0 V 2. If one part in acomplete circuit has no
reading. Now connect the red lead to the end voltage drop across it, but there are volt-
of R3 that is connected to R2. Make amental age drops across all other parts, the part
note of the voltage reading. Leaving the red with no voltage drop is shorted. The short
may be in the part itself or in some other
lead still connected to the junction of R2 and
parallel part.
R3, connect the black meter lead to the free
3. If in acircuit that should be complete, you
end of R4 and observe what happens. You
find full source voltage across one part
should measure the same voltage. Disconnect and no voltage across the other part, the
the battery from the circuit. part with full source voltage across it is
open.
This experiment shows that there is no
4. If there is no voltage drop across apart,
voltage drop across R4, but there is continu-
but one lead of the part connects to an
ity through it. If there had been no continuity,

•
operating circuit, both ends of the part
with the black lead connected to the free end will be at the same potential with respect
of R4, you would have measured 0 V at the to all other parts in the circuit.
junction of R2 and R3.

•
15
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 3: Voltage Polarity

Introduction the reference points we select, the source can

be seen as positive or negative.
Many of the expressions used in electron- In this experiment you will use resistors
ics servicing do not make sense to beginners and a9V battery supply to determine polarity
until they are used in practical work. One
expression that often causes confusion is Another term that often causes confusion

positive or negative with respect to. This ex- is ground. In most circuits, ground is simply

pression means that apoint in acircuit is at acommon reference point. Thus, in Figure

apositive or negative potential compared to 3-1, we say that the drain is positive with re-

the potential at some other point in the cir- spect to ground. Schematic symbols used for

cuit. For example, we may say that the drain ground connections are shown in Figure 3-2.

of afield-effect transistor is 10 V positive. Very often, the metal chassis provides an elec-

This statement has no real meaning because trical return path back to one side (usually

apoint by itself cannot have avoltage. the negative side) of the power supply. In this
case, any one of the ground symbols might be
Voltage is defined as apotential difference used. An automobile is agood example of a
between two points. Thus, when we say that
there are 10 V at the drain of an FET, we
mean that there is apotential difference of 10
V between the drain and areference point.

Using Figure 3-1, let's suppose that the

source of the FET is the reference point.
Thus, you can say that the drain is positive
with respect to the source. If the drain is your
reference point, then you would label the
source as negative with respect to the drain. -
-
At the same time, the gate is negative with re-
spect to the source, and the source is positive
Figure 3-1. A field-effect transistor with batteries for
with respect to the gate. Thus, depending on drain-source and gate-source biasing.

16
• chassis ground system. In most cars, all wir-
ing is at some positive level with respect to
next page. For convenience, we have num-
bered the junction of R1 and the negative
the chassis. lead from the battery as Terminal 1, the junc-
tion of R1 and R2 as Terminal 2, and so on.
An earth ground also provides acommon
We've also shown the negative terminal of the
return path back to one side of the power
battery in Figure 3-4 going to ground. In an
supply. In addition, it provides adegree of
actual circuit, this might be aconnection to
protection from shock hazards if the equip-
the metal chassis or to the foil around the
ment is defective. Polarized plugs often are
perimeter of aPC board.
used to ensure the proper connection of
earth-grounded equipment. A common tie In this experiment, the black lead from
point is like achassis ground, except that ter- your DMM will be connected to Terminal 3,
minal lugs are used in place of ametal chas- the junction of the 4.7k and 10k resistors
sis. If ametal chassis is used, only certain (R2 and R3). Turn the range switch on the
areas serve as return paths. DMM to the 20 V DC range and proceed with
the following steps.

Step 1. With the black lead from the DMM

Materials Needed on Terminal 3, touch the red lead to Terminal
1. Record the polarity and the voltage in
To perform this experiment, in addition to Table 3-1.

•
the 9 volt battery, the breadboard socket, and
Step 2. With the black lead from the DMM
your DMM, you will need the following:
still on Terminal 3, touch the red lead to Ter-
1 2.2k resistor minal 2. Record the polarity and voltage in
1 4.7k resistor Table 3-1.
1 10k resistor
Step 3. With the black lead still on Termi-
nal 3, touch the red lead to Terminal 4. Re-
cord the polarity and voltage in Table 3-1.
Procedure
Step 4. You already know the voltage and
polarity of Terminal 1with respect to Termi-
For this experiment, you will construct the
nal 3. You determined these values in Step 1
circuit shown in Figure 3-3. An illustration of
this circuit is shown in Figure 3-4, on the
RI R2 R3
2 3
COMMON •
MAI •
\AA
f e \AA
f
CHASSIS 2.2k 4.7k 10k
OR COMMON COMMON
EARTH CHASSIS TE
GROUND GROUND POINTS

V
9 V

•
Figure 3-2. Schematic symbols for ground.

Figure 3-3. The circuit for Experiment 3.

17
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

I
••••
••••• ••• • ••• ••• ••/'
•••• 2.2k .. 4.7k . 10k ... 11•••• BROUS

1 1
e o e
• • • a a • • , • •0

abcde
L•1•1•1■1■
•• ••• ••• .) •••

• • • •••••••••••• ••••••••••••••
B•••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••

tp•••• ••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••• I()

1:/•••• •••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••
0•••• ••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••
_D UMB ••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••
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If ,,, o o o e o e
- - CV c•• •)
I • ••• ••••• WV ••••• ••••• DOI
• ••• ••••• I
I •••• W M . •
+

Figure 3-4. An illustration of the circuit for Experiment 3.

of the experiment. To test your understand- Step 5. When you are finished, turn off the
ing of this subject, fill in the following state- DMM and unplug the battery from the bread-
ment. Perform whatever measurements are board socket.
necessary in order to complete the statement.
Your response to this statement will help you
to answer one of the exam questions at the
Results
end of this manual.

The voltage on Terminal 3 is In Steps 1and 2, you should have discov-

with respect to Terminal 1, and ered that the voltages on Terminals 1and 2
(the same as, greater than, or less than) the were negative with respect to Terminal 3. Your
voltage measured in Step 1. meter should have indicated anegative (-)
sign in front of the voltage reading. The meter
has built-in auto polarity. Thus, it automat-

Terminal Polarity ically indicates whether the voltage being

Voltage
measured is positive or negative with respect
1
to the common terminal.
2

4 In Steps 3 and 4, you should have discov-

ered that the voltage on terminal 4was posi-
tive with respect to Terminal 3. Depending on
Table 3-1. Record your results for Experiment 3here.

18
• your meter, this is indicated by the absence
of any sign or by apositive (+) sign ahead of
In Step 4, you determined the voltage and
polarity of Terminal 3 with respect to Termi-
the voltage reading. nal 1. To do this, you simply touched the
black lead of the DMM to Terminal 1and the
The auto polarity feature of your DMM is
red lead to Terminal 3. Voltages are meas-
one of the conveniences found in this type of
ured with respect to the black (common) lead
meter. In some voltmeters, however, you will
of your meter.
have to reverse the leads or change the posi-
tion of aswitch when taking negative voltage
measurements.

•
19
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 4: Measuring Voltage

to Determine Current

Introduction Procedure

Ohm's Law tells us that current in amperes Step 1. Build the circuit shown in Figure
is equal to the voltage in volts, divided by the 4-1. The diagram for this circuit is shown in
resistance in ohms. Therefore, if we measure Figure 4-2, on the next page. Notice the polar-
the voltage drop across aknown resistor, we ity of the battery. Also, the red meter probe
can accurately determine the current through should be reconnected to the V input jack.
it by dividing the voltage by the resistance. Set your DMM selector switch to the 20 V
range.
In this experiment, you will see that you
can determine the current flowing in acircuit Step 2. Measure the voltage across R1 by
by measuring the voltage across any known connecting the red lead from your DMM to
resistor and by applying Ohm's Law. You will the end of the resistor connected to the posi-
also see how you can use the voltmeter scale tive terminal of the battery. Connect the black
to indicate current directly in milliamps if lead of your DMM to the other end of R1.
there is a lk resistor in the circuit. Record the voltage reading in Table 4-1.

Materials Needed

For this experiment, you will need your

DMM, breadboarding socket, battery with
clip, and the following resistors: — 9 V

2 lk resistors
R3
1 4.7k resistor 1k

MA/

Figure 4-
1. A schematic diagram of the circuit for
Experiment 4.

20
• ,n r11
1k)
R1
(
ITOH
R2 W

Fr
R3 • DOCICID
• DOCICID
o
••••
••••

u• ••••••••••• ••••
• • • • • ••••• • •

o• • • •••••• ••••• • •

• • """""
-
0
•••••
u •••••
• •
••••• ••••
o • •
•o
•••• o
•o

CICIDOCI DOCIOCI •
DDDDD •••• CICICICIO •
f
u

RED

BLACK

/..-
-e„>,

Figure 4-2. An illustration of the circuit for Experiment 4.

• Now, to find the current, we use Ohm's

Law, which tells us that the current in
we measured 1.43 V across RI. Using this fig-
ure, we get:
amperes is equal to the voltage in volts di-
I= E/R
vided by the resistance in ohms, or I= E/R.
By substituting 1,000 for R and the voltage 1.43
-0.00143 amp
that you have just measured and recorded for 1,000
E, you can find the current in amps. To To change this to milliamps, multiply it by
change the answer to milliamps, multiply by 1,000. This gives us:
1,000 (or simply move the decimal point
three places to the right). For example, let's 0.0014 x 1,000 = 1.43 milliamps

say that the source voltage was 9 V and that Notice that to perform this operation we
simply had to move the decimal point three
places to the right.
Voltage Reading Current in mA
R1 Now, determine the current through the
1k lk resistor from your experimental results.
R2 Record your current in Table 4-1.
4.7k
Step 3. Measure the voltage across R2
Ammeter
by connecting the DMM across it. Switch

•
Ammeter reading the meter to alower range to get the most

Table 4-1. Record your results for Experiment 4here.

21
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

accurate measurement. Record the reading in Results

Table 4-1.

Determine the current through R2 just as Now, let us compare your results for Steps
you did for R1 in Step 1. This time, substi- 1, 2, and 3. The three current values should
tute 4.7k for R in the formula and substitute be approximately the same. Actually, the cur-
the second voltage measurement for E. Re- rent is exactly the same anywhere in the cir-

cord the current reading in Table 4-1, after cuit, but because of parts tolerances, your
multiplying the answer by 1,000 to change values probably show slight differences.
amps to milliamps. When we performed this experiment, the
actual measured and calculated values came
You know that the current is the same in
within 0.04 milliamps. This is avariation of
all parts of aseries circuit. Therefore, the cur-
only 40 microamps.
rent determined in Step 3 should be the
same as that obtained in Step 2. However, Notice the voltage value that you measured
there may be some small variation in your re- across the 1k resistor (R1) and the current
sults due to parts tolerances. The resistors that you calculated for RI. The voltage across
used all have a5% tolerance so the actual R1 and the current in milliamperes flowing
value may not be exactly the value indicated. through it should be the same because you di-
vided the voltage by 1,000 to find the current
Step 4. In this step, you will use the DMM
and then multiplied by 1,000 to change it to
to measure the current flow in the circuit to
milliamps. In other words, when the resis-
see how close you come to the calculated
tance equals 1,000 ohms, the value of the
value. Set your DMM to the 20 mA current
voltage across it in volts is equal to the value
range. Unplug the red lead from the V jack
of the current through it in milliamps. Thus,
and plug it into the A jack. Unplug the nega-
you can read the current directly on the volt-
tive lead from the battery and connect it to
meter scale if you are measuring across a Ik
the black lead from the DMM. Connect the
resistor. If the voltmeter indicates 0.2 V, you
red lead to the end of R3, which was formerly
have 0.2 mA of current. If it indicates 1.5 V,
connected to the negative lead of the battery
you have 1.5 mA of current, and so on.
This connection puts the meter in the circuit
so that it can measure the actual current flow While your DMM can measure current di-
in the circuit. Record the measured value in rectly, you do have to open the circuit and put
Table 4-1. You should find that it agrees very the meter in series with the circuit. Generally,
closely with the calculated values obtained in this involves unsoldering alead or aconnec-
Steps 2 and 3. tion. If there happens to be a lk resistor in
the circuit, you can simply measure the volt-
Step 5. After you've completed this step,
age across the resistor to determine the cur-
move the red lead from jack A on the DMM
rent. Thus, you will save the time needed
back to jack V again. Turn your DMM to the
to unsolder apart, take the reading, and
OFF position.
re-solder the part.

22
• Technicians seldom take current measure-
ments or use Ohm's Law to calculate the cur-
rent in the circuit. The circuit current values
Voltage measurements can give an indica-
tion to all three answers without the use of
Ohm's Law or the necessity of unsoldering
are not given for most electronic equipment. and re-soldering connections. The technician
However, the voltage values are generally usually does not care about the actual value
given. If the correct voltage appears across of the current, but rather whether it is
the part, you can assume that the current is normal.
correct for that circuit. As far as the current
is concerned, the technician is interested in
only three possibilities. These are:

1. Is the current normal?

2. Is the current too high?
3. Is the current too low?

•
23
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 5: Series Voltage

Dividers

Introduction The power supply sees this increased demand

as adecrease in load resistance. If the power
As you have seen in the preceding experi- supply is properly designed, it will maintain
ments, if any resistance in aseries circuit has aconstant voltage despite the varying load
changed in value, the voltage across each re- resistance.
sistor will change. In some circuits, however,
In this experiment, you will build acircuit
we want the voltage to remain fairly stable
in which the load resistance can be varied
even when the resistance changes.
and in which the load requires considerably
As you have learned previously, when a less voltage than the source voltage of 9 volts.
large resistor and asmall resistor are in par- You will see how the voltage across the load
allel, the combined resistance is approxi- changes when the load resistance is changed.
mately that of the small resistor. This means Then, you will change the circuit so that the
that even if the larger resistance varies some- effects of variation in load resistance are
what, it will still be much higher than the reduced to aminimum.
smaller resistance. Thus, the combined resis-
As atechnician, you may not be particu-
tance will remain essentially unchanged. This
larly interested in being able to design voltage
important fact can be put to good use when
dividers, but you should certainly know how
we want to stabilize the voltage across aload they work. If you find that aparticular circuit
in which resistance varies.
is not operating satisfactorily, you must rely
For example, an amplifier is similar to are- on your voltage measurements to tell you
sistance connected across apower source. It what might have happened in the circuit. A
converts aportion of the power supply volt- knowledge of how voltage dividers operate
age to auseful output signal. If the amplifier will go along way in helping you find the
has to produce ahigher output signal, it con- source of the trouble.
sumes more power from the power supply.

24
• Materials Needed to the negative lead of the battery and the red
lead to the junction of the 4.7k resistor and
the 10k resistor (R2). The meter is now con-
Gather the battery with clip, your DMM,
and the breadboarding socket. You will also nected across the 4.7k resistor and part of

need the following parts: the 10k potentiometer. These two parts make
up the load resistor, R1, in Figure 5-1.
1 lk resistor
1 4.7k resistor With asmall screwdriver, adjust the poten-

1 10k resistor tiometer so that the meter reads 0.8 volts. We

1 10k trim potentiometer will consider this position to be the normal

Hook-up wire resistance of R1. Now, turn the potentiometer

fully counterclockwise. This increases the re-
sistance of R1 and thereby increases the volt-
age across it. From the perspective of the
Procedure power source, however, the higher load resis-
tance appears to be asmaller load since it
Step 1. Build the circuit shown in Figure
draws less current. Now record the voltage
5-1. A pictorial layout of this circuit is shown
across the load at this time in the space
in Figure 5-2, on the next page. Use the
labeled Voltage with Minimum Load in Step 2
jumper cables supplied with this kit so that
of Table 5-1, on the next page.
you can clip both leads of the meter to the cir-

•
cuit under test. Also make sure that the red Now, rotate the potentiometer fully clock-
test lead of your DMM is connected to the V wise, reducing the resistance of the variable
jack. You are now ready to see how the circuit resistor to practically 0. The resistance of RI
works. now consists of only the 4.7k resistor. This
decreased resistance appears to be alarger
Step 2. Measure the load voltage in Figure
load, from the perspective of the power
5-1 by clipping the black lead from the DMM
source, because the circuit now draws more
current. Note the meter reading and record it
in the space provided for Voltage with Maxi-
mum Load in Step 2 of Table 5-1.
10k

Step 3. Remove the lk resistor as shown

in Figure 5-3, on the next page. The load is
R3
k 4.7k still made up of the combination of the 4.7k
9 V 1
resistor and part of the potentiometer. Adjust
} rR1
(LOAD) the potentiometer fully counterclockwise.
Note the voltage reading and record it as the
10k
Voltage with Minimum Load for Step 3 in
Table 5-1.

•
Figure 5-1. A schematic of the circuit for Step 1.

25
 BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

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a-, ••••••••••••••••••••••

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o •••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • •• •
ci •••••••••••• ••• •• ••• • •• •• ••
•••••••••••• •• • •• ••••••••• • •
•••••••••••• • •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • ••••
•••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• •
o tr. o o
1,1
o"
• • • •• ••••• ••••• ••• ••
• • • • CICICIEICI • •• • ••••• •••• •

+ WHITE
(RED)

- BLACK

Figure 5-2. Layout of the circuit for Step 1.

Next, turn the potentiometer fully clock- readings. In Step 2, there should be less of a
wise to reduce the value of Rl. Record the difference between the maximum and mini-
reading as the Voltage with Maximum Load mum voltages than in Step 3.
in Table 5-1. When you are finished with the
In many voltage dividers, the source volt-
experiment, unplug one lead of the battery to
age divides between the circuit parts. The volt-
open the circuit and conserve battery life.
age across apart is proportional to its

R2
Results V\A/
/

10k

Look over the figures you have recorded

in Table 5-1 and compare the two sets of
4.7k

RI
Voltage with Voltage with (LOAD)

Minimum Load Maximum Load

10k
Step 2

Step 3

Table 5-1. Record your results for Experiment 5here. Figure 5-3. A schematic of the circuit for Step 2.

26
• resistance. If two parts have equal resis-
tances, the source voltage will divide equally
between them. Both will have the same volt-
In Step 3, you removed the bleeder resis-
tor. With the potentiometer turned counter-
clockwise, the total load resistance was about
age drop. If one part is variable, then it will 14.7 kilohms. This is nearly 1 1/2 times the
have more than half of the voltage across it resistance of R2. Thus, more than half the
some of the time and it will have less than source voltage was dropped across Rl. With
half the rest of the time. the potentiometer turned fully counterclock-
wise, the total load resistance was only 4.7k,
In Step 1, you installed what is commonly
making RI less than half the resistance of
called ableeder resistor. This time, the volt-
R2. Thus, most of the source voltage was
age changes were much smaller. When two
dropped across R2.
resistors are in parallel, the combined resis-
tance is less than the smallest resistor. The In your work, be on the lookout for
combined resistance of RI and the 1k bleeder bleeder resistors. They can fail or change in
resistor was between 780 SI and 982 S2 depend- value just like any other parts. You must take
ing on the potentiometer setting. In other them into consideration when you diagnose a
words, when you added the bleeder resistor, circuit where the components are in parallel
changes in load resistance were substantially with other electronic parts.
reduced. Therefore, load voltage was nearly
the same (but much lower), regardless of
load resistance variations.

•
27
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 6: Electrical Power

Introduction we can conclude that power can be initially

calculated using these two factors of voltage
In this experiment, we will discuss the and current. Depending on the circuit quanti-
term power, and how it is determined in an ties known, one of the following formulas can
electronic circuit. Power, whether it is electri- be used to determine power:
cal or mechanical, is defined as the rate at P=ExI
which work is being done. Work is done
whenever aforce causes motion to occur. P = IR

When mechanical force is exerted to lift or P = E2/R

move, work is being done. However, when
force is exerted without motion, such as
when the force of acompressed spring is ex-
erted between two stationary objects, work is
not taking place.

With this in mind, we already know that

voltage is the electrical force that causes cur-
rent to flow in aclosed circuit. When avolt-
age exists, but its force does not produce
current flow, as in an open circuit, no work is
being done. Work is accomplished when ap-
plied voltage causes electrons to move. The
instantaneous rate at which this work is done
is called the electrical power rate, and is
measured in watts.

This unit measurement of electrical power

is normally measured using adevice called a
wattmeter, illustrated in Figure 6-1. A watt-
meter combines both voltage and current, as
Figure 6-1. Wattmeter with a25-watt range.
shown in Figure 6-2, on the next page. Thus,

28
• Materials Needed

In this experiment, you will need the bat-

tery with clip, your DMM, the breadboard
socket, and the following parts:

2 lk resistors
1 2.2k resistor
SOURCE LOAD
1 4.7k resistor
Jumper leads

Figure 6-2. Wattmeter connections to measure power.

Procedure

Wire Figure 6-3 on your breadboard

Where P is power in watts (W), E is in socket. Refer to the diagram in Figure 6-4, on
volts (V), Iis in amperes (A), and R is in the next page, to make sure you have wired it
ohms (S). correctly. Now you are ready to measure the
power consumed by the circuit.
Electrical components are usually given a
power rating. This rating, in watts, indicates Step 1. Turn on your DMM by setting it to
the rate at which the device converts electri- measure DC current. Start with the 20 mA/20
cal energy into another form of energy such A range, since the amount of current flow in
as heat, light, or motion. Light bulbs are the the circuit is unknown. Unplug the probe
most common devices using this type of
power rating. In other electrical devices this
RI
power rating indicates the maximum power 4.7k

the device is designed to use rather than the

normal operating power.

Knowing how to determine the power of a

given electrical configuration improves your R2 R3
9 NI 2.2k 1k
overall competence as atechnician. It might
also help you to evaluate the performance of
adefective circuit. For example, apower
source could be loaded down if acircuit con-
nected across it consumes too much power.
Knowing how to calculate power might help
you locate the defective circuit.
Figure 6-3. The circuit for Experiment 7.

29
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

..... r. .... ..... .....

.... .. ..... .....
C,. C,. n) rs)
o o o ci.
......... . .
0

.... .. .. .
••..••••..••"•
••• ••

•••. ••••....... ..
••

• ..••...•. ... ... • " ........

.. .• •...• • ............ ... .
. .... ..... - .......

0•••••••••••••••••••••••• • ...............
o••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .... ....
0•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ... ...........
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ........
...... . ........
(1••
CD••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
W IV N
0 U, 0 ¡I
.\

..... ..... ..... ..... . • • . ..... ..... .....

..... ..... ..... ..... . • • . ..... ..... .....

NEW
BREADBOARD

Figure 6-4. An illustration of the circuit for Experiment 6.

lead from the V input jack and connect it to using one of the jumper leads. Connect the
the A input jack. This setup allows you to black lead to the free end of R1. Measure the
safely connect your DMM to the circuit as an total current flow in the circuit and record
ammeter. your measurement in Table 6-1.

Now, disconnect the positive lead of the NOTE: If necessary, switch the DMM to a
9-V battery from the breadboard socket and lower current range to get amore accurate
connect it to the positive lead of the DMM reading. You will do this by positioning the
selector switch to the 200-mA range, and
Part 1 Part 2 moving the red lead of the DMM from the A
Total Current jack to the mA jack. You can read even lower
Source Voltage ranges now by simply placing your selector
switch to the lower ranges.
Total Power
Power R1 Step 2. Next, you will measure the loaded
Power R2 source voltage. First disconnect the meter
and reconnect the positive lead of the battery
Power R3
to R1. Set your DMM to the 20 V DC range.
Power R4
Don't forget to unplug the red probe from the
A or mA jack and connect it to the V jack.

Table 6-1. Record your results for Experiment 6here.

30
 Measure the loaded source voltage by con- the voltage, use the formula P = E2/R to find
necting the black lead to the negative battery the power consumption for each resistor. Re-
terminal and the red lead to the positive bat- cord your answers in Table 6-1 under Part 2.
tery terminal. Record your measurement in
Step 5. Add the power used by the individ-
Table 6-1.
ual parts in the circuit. Record your answer
You can now calculate total power con- in Table 6-1 as the Total Power under Part 2.
sumption by multiplying the total circuit cur- Compare the Total Power for under Part 1in
rent by the loaded source voltage. If your Table 6-1 with the Total Power for Part 2. Ex-
current is in milliamps, you'll have to convert cept for asmall difference, due to the parts
it to amps. Thus, if you measured 2.5 mA, tolerances, the results should be nearly equal.
divide this figure by 1,000 to convert it to
amps. Record your results in Table 6-1 for
total power under Part 1.
Results
Step 3. To determine the power consumed
by individual parts, you will need to measure In this experiment, you calculated electri-
the voltages across R1 and R4. Record your cal power. You saw that power is determined
measurement in the margin of this page. Us- by multiplying voltage by current. Total cir-
ing the formula P = E xI, determine the cuit power can also be determined by adding
power consumed by each of these resistors. the power used by individual parts.
The value of Iis the total current recorded in
Technicians need to also understand that
Table 6-1. Record your answers in Table 6-1
power is dissipated or converted to other
under Part 2.
forms of energy. Consequently, the fuse of a
Step 4. Next, you will determine the power circuit responds to heat, aby-product of the
used by resistors R2 and R3. The same voltage power converted, by melting if the current
is dropped across both R2 and R3 because they flow exceeds the predetermined level. Some
are wired in parallel. However, the current is electrical parts are rated (in watts) according
divided between them. Having determined to their ability to dissipate heat.

31
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Preparing for Experiments 7-9

Ohmmeter Operation How Your Ohmmeter Works

In servicing electronic equipment, the tech- Your DMM is primarily avoltage-measuring

nician usually relies on voltage and resistance device. It does not measure the resistance of
measurements. Often, you will not be able to apart directly. The DMM contains six preci-
take voltage measurements, because adefect sion resistors that are used for resistance
in the circuit overloads afuse as soon as the measurements. A different resistor is switched
equipment is turned on. Under these circum- in for each range. In the 200-ohm range, a
stances, the technician must rely on resis- precision 200-ohm resistor is used internally.
tance measurements to locate the problem. In the 2k range, aprecision 2k resistor is used.

To use the ohmmeter section of your When you take aresistance measurement,
DMM, the black lead should be in the COM asmall current flows through the precision
jack and the red lead should be in the V jack. resistor inside the meter and through the
The switch is rotated through one of the six resistor under test. This flow produces avolt-
positions. You will learn how to properly se- age across the resistor that the DMM meas-
lect the correct position as part of the follow- ures and converts into aresistance reading.
ing experiments.

In taking resistance measurements, the

equipment MUST be turned off. As amatter Setting the Range Switch
of fact, it is agood idea to unplug the equip-
ment from the power line or disconnect the As ageneral note, the objective in setting
batteries if the equipment is battery operated. the range switch is to set the switch to the po-
This precaution will prevent accidental dam- sition that gives you the most significant read-
age to the DMM. If you try to take resistance ing. The maximum resistance that can be
measurements with the power turned on, the measured on each of the ranges is shown in
resistance measurements may be inaccurate, the top row in Table 7-1. If you try to meas-
and you run the risk of damaging the DMM. ure aresistance at too low arange, you will

32
• Resistor 200 2k 20k
Range
200k 2M 20M Best Range
1k
2.2k
4.7k
10k
100k
470k
1M
2M

Table 7-1. Record the reading on each range for the resistors listed and the range that gives the best reading.

get an overload indication on the meter dis- In checking the resistance of a47-ohm re-
play. This reading tells you that the resistance sistor in alab, the two digits displayed on the
is too high to be measured at that range. If left indicate 47. The digit on the right continu-

•
you use too high arange when measuring a ally changes, sometimes displaying a 1, some-
resistance, the meter will not give you the most times a2, and sometimes a3. This indicates
accurate reading that it is capable of giving. that the resistance of the resistor is alittle
For example, suppose you have a47 nresis- over 47 D. If we switch the range switch to
tor, and you want to check its exact resis- the 2k position, the meter will display 0.047.
tance. Remember that resistors have a If we switch to the 20k range, we'll get aread-
tolerance and that a 47 SI resistor, having a ing of 0.04 or 0.05. If we move the switch to
tolerance of 10%, could have aresistance any- the 200k range, we'll get areading of 0.00. It
where between 42.3 1 and 51.7 D and still be is obvious from this that the 200 D range pro-
within tolerance. Because this resistance is vided us with the most accurate reading. Now
less than 200 12 ,
you would use the 200 S2 it is your turn to get some practical experi-
range to check the resistance. ence measuring the resistance of resistors.

33
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 7: Using an Ohmmeter

Introduction Materials Needed

In checking the resistance of parts with an In this experiment, in addition to your

ohmmeter, there are three important rules to DMM, you'll need the following resistors:
bear in mind:
1 lk resistor
1. Make sure the equipment that is being 1 2.2k resistor
tested is turned off. If power is supplied 1 4.7k resistor
from apower line, it is usually agood idea 1 10k resistor
to remove the power line plug from the wall 1 100k resistor
socket. If the equipment is battery oper- 1 470k resistor
ated, all batteries should be disconnected.
1 1M resistor
2. Use the correct range of the ohmmeter. As
1 2M resistor
you will see, if you use the wrong range,
the ohmmeter may indicate that agood
1 10M resistor

part is open or shorted.

3. Keep your fingers off the part being tested
when measuring high resistances. The re- Procedure
sistance of your body can affect the result
of your measurements. On low resis-
Step 1. Connect the ohmmeter leads to the
tances, however, it does not matter. Do not
10M resistor and rotate the switch to the
touch the probes when measuring iron-
core devices, such as transformers or 20M position. You should get areading alit-
chokes, because you may receive ashock. tle above or below 10 megohms. Now touch
As you continue working with your ohm- the two ohmmeter leads with your fingers,
meter, you will learn other valuable tricks and you will see that the reading drops. The
of the trade that will enable you to get the resistance of your body is now in parallel
greatest use from the ohmmeter section of with the 10M resistor, and thus reduces the
your DMM. resistance reading.

34
• Step 2. Disconnect your ohmmeter from
the 10M resistor and connect it across a 10k
resistor. Now, starting with the 200 ohm
Then, indicate the range that gave the most
accurate reading. Record your results in
Table 7-1.
range, note the reading on the DMM. Switch
to the 2k and then the 20k, 200k, 2M, and
20M ranges. You should discover that on
Results
ranges below 20k, the DMM display indicated
an overload. On the 20k range, you received
In this experiment, you learned that you
areading close to 10.00 kilohms. On the
must choose asuitable ohmmeter range. The
200k, 2M, and 20M range, you got readings
wrong range may indicate afault when the
with fewer digits. Thus, the 20k range gave
resistor is actually good. Additionally, the ap-
you the most accurate reading.
propriate range also gives you the most accu-
Step 3. Measure the resistance of each re- rate reading for the resistor being measured.
sistor listed in Table 7-1, on page 33. Meas-
ure the resistance on each ohmmeter range.

•
35
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 8: Circuit Continuity

Introduction overload reading that may lead you to believe

that the circuit is open.

You have seen in earlier experiments how In this experiment, you will demonstrate
circuit continuity can be checked with avolt- that in acircuit containing both large and
meter. Also, you have learned that when conti- small resistances, asmall resistor could be
nuity is intact, the circuit is able to carry shorted without materially affecting the over-
current. While parts may have shorted or all resistance measurement. To find such a
changed in value, these conditions do not af- short requires acheck of the individual resis-
fect the ability of the circuit to carry current. tors. Do this type of check when the symp-
If the circuit has continuity it simply means toms of the circuit indicate that there are
that the circuit does not have an open. possible problems causing the circuit to fault

Most technicians prefer using the ohm- out.

meter for continuity testing, because it can

easily be shifted to various points in the cir-
cuit to measure the actual resistance. Al- Materials Needed
though the ohmmeter can display the
approximate sum of the resistances, it is not In this experiment, you will need your
designed to measure the total resistance of DMM, the breadboarding socket, the dummy
the circuit while making continuity checks. resistor that you used in Experiment 2, and
The true purpose of the ohmmeter is to show the following resistors:
that the circuit is complete.
1 lk resistor
When making continuity measurements, 1 2.2k resistor
technicians seldom bother to determine the 1 10k resistor
actual resistance in the circuit. They simply 1 100k resistor
check to see that there is areading that 1 1M resistor
shows continuity. When making continuity 1 10M resistor
tests with your DMM, set the range switch to
the 20M position. Otherwise, if you are check-
ing ahigh-resistance circuit, you may get an

36
• Procedure Step 4. Remove the lk resistor (R4) from
the circuit and replace it with the 2.2k resis-
You will make avoltage divider using five tor. A change in resistance value from 1,000
resistors in series and check the continuity. ohm to 2,200 ohm is apparent when you
Using your breadboarding socket, construct check each individual resistor. However, see
the voltage divider shown in Figure 8-1 and how it affects the total resistance by measur-
Figure 8-2, on the next page. By now, you ing the resistance from A to B and record
should be able to build simple circuits with- your results in Table 8-1.
out the aid of apictorial diagram.
Step 5. Remove the 2.2k resistor and in its
Step 1. Measure the value of each resistor place substitute the simulated open resistor
in the divider and record the resistance in you made in Experiment 2. Now, measure the
ohms in the spaces provided for Step 1in resistance between Terminals A and B. The
Table 8-1, on the next page. Now, add up the meter will give an overload reading, indicat-
values of all five resistors and record this ing that the resistance between Terminals A
sum as the total resistance in the space and B is greater than 20 megohms. This cer-
provided. tainly indicates that the circuit was open,
since the original resistance was approxi-
Step 2. Connect one lead of your DMM to
mately 11 megohms.
Terminal A and the other lead to Terminal B.
Adjust the range switch to give areasonable Step 6. To find the open part in the voltage

• indication and record the value in Table 8-1.

Your reading should be approximately the
same as the sum of the individual resistance
divider consisting of R1, R2, R3, the open re-
sistor, and R5, connect the black lead from
the ohmmeter to Terminal A. With the range
measurements. switch in the 20M position, touch the red
lead to Terminal E You should get a reading
Step 3. To simulate a short across resis-
of about 10 megohms. Now, move the red
tors R4 and R5, take ashort piece of wire
lead to Terminal E. You should get a reading
and connect it between Terminals B and D.
of about 11M, indicating continuity between
With the DMM still connected to Terminals A
Points A and E. Now move the red lead to
and B, record your reading for Step 3 in
Point D. Again, you should get a reading indi-
Table 8-1. The value you record should be
cating continuity between Points A and D.
almost the same as that obtained in Step 2,
Now move the red lead to Point C. You should
showing that the two resistors could be com-
get an overload indication that pinpoints the
pletely shorted without materially affecting
open circuit as being located between Termi-
the ohmmeter measurement.
nals C and D.

A R1 R2 E R3 D R4 R5
o V\A, o o o j\AA o MA/ o
10M 1M 100k 1k 10k

• Figure 8-1. The circuit for Experiment 8.

37
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

• • • •• R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 • •• • •
•• • •• • •••
))) )—• )—• )
—s
C,
o
o •• •• • •• •• • •• • •• ••• •• •• • •• ••• •• • • •• • •• • •• • ••
o-• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• • •• •• •• • ••
• • •• •• • ••• • • ••• •• •• ••• •• •• ••• • •• • •• •• • •• • ••
a. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
o

o al IIII.•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

IIIM•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

o Men • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

•••••••• • •• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••••

(7,
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a,
o o o o

• •• • • • •• • •• u • ••• • • ••• • •• •• •• •• • • •• • •
• ••• •• • •• • • • •• • •• •• •• • •• •• • • •• • •

Figure 8-2. An illustration of the circuit for Experiment 8.

Results You also saw that an increase in resistance

in one of the low-resistance parts will have

In this experiment, you saw that continuity no apparent effect on the total measured
can be checked with an ohmmeter. You saw resistance.

that you can reduce the resistance of the di- These are key points to remember when
vider in Figure 8-1 by completely shorting out troubleshooting electronic equipment. Make
R4 and R5 without appreciably changing the continuity tests when you suspect that acir-
measured total resistance. Therefore, to cuit is open, but remember that this does not
check the condition of the individual resis- show the value of the individual parts.
tors in acircuit having ahigh resistance, you
must connect the ohmmeter directly across
each resistor in question.

Measurement Value

Step1 R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

Total

Step 2 A to B

Step 3 R4 and R5 Shorted

Step 4 R4 = 2.2k

Table 8-1. Record your results for Experiment 8here.

38
•

Experiment 9: Parallel Resistance

Introduction R — R1 xR2
R1 + R2
You already know that electronic parts con-
For example, if we have a lk resistor and
nected in parallel have acombined resistance
a3.3k resistor in parallel:
lower than that of the smallest resistance of
the group. However, as aservice technician, R _ 1,000 x3,000
you may want to know what the exact com- 1,000 + 3,300

• bined resistance should be. This enables you

to measure the combined resistance and de-
cide whether the parts are in good condition.
—
3,300,000
4,300

=- 767 ohms
It is easy to decide what the combined re-
sistance should be when parallel-connected
parts have the same resistance. The rule is as It is helpful,but not imperative, that you
follows: be able to make these computations on a
daily basis. As abusy technician, you may
The combined resistance of equal parts in
parallel is equal to the resistance of one of not always have the time to calculate them.

the resistors divided by the number of resis- Instead, when you cannot readily tell the com-

tors in the group. bined resistance at aglance, you may resort

to simply unsoldering one end of each of the
Thus, if we connect three lk resistors in resistors and check the resistors individually.
parallel, the combined resistance is 1,000 di-
If by chance you have the time to spare
vided by 3, or 333 ohms. Three 3.3k resis-
tors in parallel have aresistance of 1,000 and find the calculations easy to work, then

ohms; two 22k resistors in parallel have a you can avoid the trouble of unsoldering a

combined resistance of about 11,000 ohms. component to determine its condition and re-
solder the component into the circuit. It may
Parallel-connected resistors are not always be agood idea for you to invest in an inexpen-

•
equal in value. When this is the case, the com- sive, hand-held calculator. With this addi-
bined resistance, R, can be found by using tional tool, you can quickly work through
the formula: these calculations.

39
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

When resistors do not have any shunting Procedure

(parallel-connected) parts, the resistance
value is checked by connecting the test leads Step 1. Plug one of the lk resistors and a
directly across the resistor. With some me- 2.2k resistor into the breadboard socket so
ters, doing this can cause erratic readings if that they are in parallel. Calculate the resis-
there are transistors or diodes in the circuit. tance with the formula:
This is usually because the ohmmeter voltage
R1 xR2
is so high that the diode junction within the R+ =
RI + R2
semiconductor may conduct and affect the
measurement. 1,100 x2,200
R — 1,000 + 2,200 — 687.5 12
However, using the DMM issued in this kit,
the voltage used in the ohmmeter section is Measure the combined resistance. To do
so low that neither the diodes nor the transis- this, simply clip one lead from your DMM to
tors will conduct. This feature makes the each end of aresistor. Rotate the range
DMM particularly useful in servicing solid- switch until you get asuitable reading and
state equipment. record the measured value in Table 9-1.

In this experiment, you will connect resis- Step 2. Remove the 2.2k resistor and re-
tors in parallel and measure their combined place it with a 10 k resistor. Calculate the re-
resistance. You will then check the measured sistance of the combination with the formula:
value with the calculated resistance value to
R1 xR2
prove that the calculated value is correct.
R+ = RI + R2
Expect small variations between the calculated
and measured values due to component By substituting the values of the resistors,
tolerances. we have:

1,000 x 10,000
R — 1,000 + 10,000 — 909 ohms

Materials Needed
Now, measure the resistance of the parallel
combination. Record this reading in Table 9-1.
In this experiment, you will need your
DMM, the breadboard socket, and the follow-
ing resistors: Parallel Computed Measured
Combination Value Value
2 lk resistors
1k and 2.2k
1 2.2k resistor
1k and 10k
1 10k resistor
1 100k resistor 10k and 2.2k

1 10M resistor 10k and1M

10M and 100k

Table 9-1. Record your results for Experiment 9here.

40
• Step 3. Following the same procedure,
measure the combined resistance of the other
Results

parallel combinations listed in Table 9-1. In

When you compared your measured val-
each case, calculate the values so that you ues with the calculated values given in the
can check the measured values. chart, they should have been fairly close in

Step 4. Build the series-parallel circuit most cases. However, because of the toler-

shown in Figure 9-1. You should be able to do ances of the resistors, you may find that the
this without the aid of apictorial diagram. readings differ somewhat in some cases.

Before you measure the combined resis- When two resistors are in parallel and one

tance, examine the circuit carefully and calcu- is much larger, an accurate resistance check
late in advance what the total resistance of the larger resistor cannot be performed
should be. Jot down what you think it is until it is disconnected from the circuit. For
somewhere below the schematic diagram. example, when you measured the 10M and
100k resistors in parallel, their combined re-
Step 5. Now connect one lead from the
sistance should have been close to 100,000
DMM to Terminal A and the other lead to Ter-
ohms, or the resistance of the smaller resis-
minal B. Choose the appropriate ohmmeter
tor. Even when the 10M resistor was com-
range on your multimeter and read the resis-
pletely removed, the resistance remained
tance value. Compare this value with the
close to the parallel value.

•
value you calculated before taking the meas-
urement within the circuit. When there is only aslight difference in
the value of the parallel resistors, or when
one is disconnected or is defective, there will
be aconsiderable change in the measured
resistive value of the parallel configuration.
1k

Figure 9-1. The circuit for Step 4of Experiment 9.

•
41
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 10: Charging and

Discharging Capacitors

Introduction If you need to do so, install the battery

clips on the batteries at this time.

As you have learned, acapacitor is an elec-

tronic component that has the ability to store
an electrical charge. In most circuits, capaci- Procedure
tors charge and discharge constantly accord-
ing to dynamic circuit conditions. Rates of Wire the circuit shown in Figure 10-1. Do
capacitive charge and discharge are depend- not connect the negative battery lead until
ent upon the circuit resistance. The time (in you are instructed to do so. Use a 10k resis-
seconds) required for acapacitor to charge to tor for R, set your meter to the 2 mA posi-
63% of the applied voltage is equal to the re- tion, and move the red lead to the mA socket.
sistance value (in megohms) multiplied by Figure 10-2, on the next page, shows one way
the capacitance value (in microfarads). This to breadboard the circuit.
is known as the time constant of the circuit,
and it is typically expressed as TC = R xC.

AAA/

Materials Needed
20 m1
ELECTROLYTIC
For this experiment, you will need the
- 9 V
breadboard socket and your DMM in addi-
tion to the following parts:

1 9-volt battery with clips

1 10k resistor
1 100k resistor Figure 10-1. A DC voltage capacitor charging circuit.

2 10 microF electrolytic capacitors

42
• RED
BLACK
METER
LEAD

METER
LEAD

=- TEST
RESISTOR

10µF

CONNECT THIS
WHITE WIRE WHEN
+ (RED) INSTRUCTED

- BLACK

•
Figure 10-2. One way to breadboard the connection for Experiment 10.

To get the 20pF capacitance shown in Step 1. When you're ready, touch the 9-volt
Figure 10-1, you'll have to connect two 101.1F battery black lead to the capacitor's negative
electrolytic capacitors in parallel. When ca- lead. As soon as you do this, the meter will
pacitors are connected in parallel, the total indicate acharging current. When the meter
capacitance is the sum of the individual val- display changes to 000, the capacitor has
ues. Remember that electrolytic capacitors become completely charged.
should be installed with polarity positioned
Step 2. To repeat the experiment, you'll
in the appropriate direction.
have to discharge the capacitors. To observe
When you connect the 9-volt battery to the capacitive discharge current, simply un-
the circuit, the voltage across the series- clip the red meter lead from its current posi-
connected resistor and capacitor will be 9 tion. Move the red lead to the negative lead of
volts. The time it takes the capacitor to acapacitor. You should see the same indica-
charge depends on the amount of resistance tion on the meter as before. This shows the
and capacitance in the circuit. If either the capacitors discharging through the resistor

•
resistance or the capacitance is increased, and the meter in the opposite direction of cur-
the amount of time it takes to charge the rent flow. You can repeat Steps 1and 2 sev-
capacitor will increase as well. eral times to observe the action.

43
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Step 3. Increase the amount of resistance Results

in the circuit by replacing the 10k resistor with
a 100k resistor. Repeat Step 1and Step 2 of In Steps 1and 2 of this experiment, you
the experiment. Notice that the current dis- proved that when power is applied to aca-
played on the meter display indicates 000 pacitor, ahigh current initially flows and then
more slowly than it did before in both the decreases as the capacitor charges. As the
charging and discharging cycles. current diminishes, the meter will eventually
indicate zero. You also learned that acapaci-
Step 4. Remove one of the 10µF capacitors
tive circuit discharges in the opposite direc-
and repeat Step 1. Notice that the charging
tion. Lastly, you may have noticed that as
rate is faster with less capacitance in the cir-
long as the charge and discharge paths re-
cuit. Short the leads of the capacitors by
mained the same, the time for charging and
touching the leads together. By doing this you
discharging was equal.
will discharge the capacitors. Now, connect
the capacitors in series to reduce the capaci- In Steps 3 and 4, you saw that increasing
tance further. Electrolytic capacitors are con- the resistance in the circuit caused the time
nected in series, just like two batteries constant to increase. In this case, it should
connect the positive lead of one capacitor to have taken 10 times as long for the capacitor
the negative lead of the other. The circuit to fully charge through the 100k resistor as it
should charge very quickly because it has did through the 10k resistor. You also proved
less capacitance. (If you want to repeat this that capacitors connected in series have less
step, you will have to discharge the capaci- capacitance than capacitors connected in par-
tors each time.) allel. Decreasing the capacitance also decreased
the charge and discharge times. This is be-
Step 5. Disconnect the battery to turn the
cause the time constant was smaller. Simi-
circuit off.
larly, increasing the capacitance in the circuit
without changing the resistance increases the
time constant.

44
•

Experiment 11: Basic Coil Action

Introduction memory concerning the impedance, reac-

tance, and inductance properties of coils.
A coil is an inductive device created by a
looping turn of wire around acore. The con-
ductor is usually copper wire. The core can Materials Needed
be made of any material that affords apath
for magnetic flux lines in acoil. The DC resis-
For this experiment, you will need the

•
tance of acoil is the same as the resistance of
breadboard socket, your DMM and the follow-
the wire itself meaning that the form of acoil ing parts:
doesn't change the conductor's DC charac-
teristics. However, it does change the way the 2 9-volt batteries with clips

wire responds to alternating current (AC). Be- 1 lk resistor

cause acoil of wire can oppose the starting, 2 Red light-emitting diodes
1 Choke coil
stopping, or changing of current, it has the
characteristic of inductance.

Recall that inductance is the characteristic

of acoil that enables it to induce avoltage
into itself. Winding wire in the form of acoil
causes asignificant increase in the inductance
properties. Therefore, when inductance is
increased the inductive reactance increases.
The opposition that the coil offers to alternat-

,
+
ing current is much greater than its opposi- 18 V =-- - COIL
tion to direct current. This opposition to
current flow is known as impedance.

You have already studied these properties

•
in an earlier lesson. We suggest that if these
factors sound vague to you, you may want
Figure 11-1. Circuit connection to demonstrate counter
to review the earlier lesson to refresh your electromotive force (CEMF).

45
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Procedure (LEDs) to observe the voltage changes in the

circuit.

A full study of inductance, inductive reac- You will want to begin this experiment by
tance, and many other aspects of inductors constructing the circuit shown in Figure 11-1
(coils) would normally require weeks of labo- without the LEDs. To get the 18 V supply,
ratory time. Therefore, this experiment will you'll have to connect two 9-volt batteries in
focus on the basic properties of coils. In this series aiding. Use the diagram in Figure 11-2
experiment, you'll construct asimple induc- if you need help. Be sure to move the red lead
tive circuit and use light emitting diodes of your DMM back to the V socket.

CHOKE
N

1k

CATHODE

BUBB DOOOO
DOODO

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O •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

e•••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

CD WIll •••••••••• ••••••_•••••••••••••••••••••••••••

o o o

00000 •• OODOO 00000 00000

DOODO 00000 OODOO 00000

- BLACK - BLACK

+ WHITE
(RED)
WHITE
(RED) LEAVE THIS END FREE
UNTIL INSTRUCTED TO
MAKE CONNECTION
we'

Figure 11-2. One way to connect components for coil demonstration.

46
• Step 1. Connect the negative lead of the
18 V supply to the free end of the lk resistor
Step 4. Disconnect the red lead from the
coil and carefully watch L2.
and the positive lead to the free lead from the
Step 5. Disconnect the battery.
choke coil. Set your meter to the 20 V range
and measure the voltage drops across the
resistor and the coil. You should find that the
DC voltage across the resistor is more than Results
the DC voltage across the coil. Thus, the resis-
tance of the coil is less than 1kilohm. The When you initially connected power, LED
coil's inductive properties will become evi- LIturned on, indicating current flow in the
dent as you connect the LEDs later in this circuit. LED L2 did not light because it does
experiment. not conduct (it is reverse biased). When you
disconnected the battery from the circuit, you
Step 2. Disconnect the battery red lead
saw that LED L2 lit very briefly. Can you ex-
from the coil. Connect the LEDs across the
plain this from what you know about coils
lk resistor and the coil with the polarity, as
and their properties?
shown in the schematic. An LED lights when
anegative voltage is applied to the cathode When you disconnected the battery, the cir-
and apositive voltage is applied to the anode. cuit DC current stopped. The magnetic field
Ensure that the components are installed surrounding the coil (induced by current

•
into the circuit properly, review Figure 11-1 flow) collapsed as circuit current stopped.
carefully. The collapsing magnetic field induces avolt-
age and current into the coil in the opposite
The second LED (L2) should be connected
direction of the battery current. The opposite
with opposite polarity when compared to first
polarity of the induced voltage is of the cor-
LED (L1). Current should flow from the bat-
rect polarity to light L2. The induced voltage
tery, through LED Li and the lk resistor,
(sometimes called CEMF, or counter electro-
through the coil, and back to the battery posi-
motive force) is of very brief duration, lasting
tive. Current should not flow through LED L2
only as long as the decreasing current is
at this point.
changing.
Step 3. Touch the battery red lead to the
free end of the coil. Current in the circuit
flows through L1and bypasses L2.

•
47
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 12 :Transistor
Operation

D2
Introduction
PNP

The two types of bipolar transistors are D1

the NPN and the PNP transistors. Both types

are used in electronic circuits. For any tran- E

sistor to operate, the emitter-base junction (A) (8 )

must be forward biased and the collector-
Figure 12-2. (A) A PNP transistor and (B) diode equivalent.
base junction must be reverse biased. Apply-
ing this requirement to the NPN transistor
shown in Figure 12-1(A), this means that the represents the collector-base junction. Figure
base must be positive with respect to the 12-2 is similar to Figure 12-1, but it shows a
emitter, and the collector must be positive PNP transistor symbol and its two-diode
with respect to the base. representation.

Figure 12-1(B) shows atwo-diode repre- In this experiment, you are going to show
sentation of the NPN transistor. D1 repre- that an NPN transistor can have acurrent
sents the base-emitter junction, while D2 gain when properly biased. That is, asmall
current in the input circuit can control a
much higher current in the output circuit.
Also, you will learn how to measure voltages
02
to determine if atransistor is saturated (con-
NPN ducting hard), cut off (not conducting), or
biased for linear (Class A) operation.
DI

A transistor is asolid-state device that am-

F
.
plifies by controlling the flow of current carri-
(A) (B) ers through its semiconductor materials. The

Figure 12-1. (A) An NPN transistor can be represented

as (B) two back-to-back diodes.

48
• basic idea of current flow within atransistor
is that the amount of current flowing from
emitter to collector is controlled by the base
current. The base current is very small com-
pared to the collector current. Therefore, in-
creasing or decreasing the base current will
cause amuch larger collector current to
increase or decrease. The total current flow
in atransistor flows in the emitter circuit. Ap-
proximately 95% of the emitter current reaches
the collector circuit, while the remaining 5%
passes through the emitter-base circuit.
Figure 12-4. Lead identification for atypical transistor.

Materials Needed Procedure

You will need your breadboard socket, 9- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 12-3
volt battery with clips, your DMM, and the fol- on your breadboard.
lowing parts:
Figure 12-4 identifies the leads of the tran-

•
1 lk resistor sistor. As in an earlier experiment, the 18 V
1 2.2k resistor supply is produced by connecting two 9-volt
1 4.7k resistor batteries in series aiding. Figure 12-5, on the
1 10k resistor next page, shows an illustration of one way to
1 10k trim potentiometer wire this circuit.
1 NPN transistor (2N3904 or equivalent)
Set your meter to 20 V DC and connect the
black lead to ground. For this experiment, you
will measure the output voltage directly from
the collector of the transistor. The input volt-
age will be measured at the end of the 10k
base resistor that connects to the center tap
+9 V +18 V
of the 10k potentiometer. Base voltage will be
measured directly from the base of the tran-
4.7k Ç1k sistor. In amoment, you'll see why the base
-- INPUT VOLTAGE
MEASURED HERE
voltage isn't necessarily the input voltage.
- OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Step 1. Connect the battery and rotate the
•••• I -• -1\AA/ 2N3904
10k 10k // 10k potentiometer fully in the counterclock-
BASE wise direction. Measure the output voltage on
VOLTAGE
the collector and record the reading in Table

•
12-1, on the next page. Then, measure the
base voltage and record this measurement in
Figure 12-3. Schematic for the circuit for Experiment 12.

49
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

• • ••••
• •

e.
o o o
• • • • •

• • • •

o •••••••• • • • • • ••
• •••••" ee•••
" ""•
•••••••• • ••••••
" 10k

o
o- • • • • • •

o
• •
•

•
•

• • • •
•

•
•

•
""
CD

o U,

" "

WHITE
(RED)

Figure 12-5. An illustration of the circuit for Experiment 12.

Table 12-1. Measure the input voltage as indi- measure and record the voltage on the base
cated above and record this voltage in Table of the transistor.
12-1, even if it's zero. Then, slowly adjust the
Step 4. Adjust the 10k control for an input
potentiometer until you acquire areading of
of 1volt. Remember, for this experiment, the
1volt.
input is measured at the center tap of the con-
Step 2. With the input set to 1V, measure trol. Do not readjust the control after setting
the base voltage again. It should be about it.

0.7 V direct current. Record your results in

Step 5. Now, measure the collector supply
Table 12-1. This means you have approxi-
voltage and record this voltage in Table 12-2.
mately 0.3 V dropped across the 10k resis-
tor. Using Ohm's Law, it is easy to determine
that you have approximately 30 microamps
of current in the base circuit. Pot Position Input Output Base

Step 3. After you record the DC voltage at Fully Clockwise

the base, re-measure the output voltage and Input =1volt 1volt
record it in Table 12-1. Now, turn the potenti- Fully Counterclockwise
ometer completely clockwise and record the
collector (output) voltage. Next, measure and
record the input voltage once again. Then, Table 12-1. Record your results for Step 1here.

50
• Load Output Supply
Resistance Voltage Voltage
Voltage
Across
Load
Collector
Current
should have measured approximately 0.7 V
DC at the base. You will always measure be-
tween 0.6 and 0.7 V across the emitter-base
1k junction of a conducting silicon transistor.
2.2k With the proper bias voltage present, the tran-
sistor began conducting, and there was a volt-
Figure 12-2. Record your results for Step 2here.
age drop across the collector load resistor.
You should have measured about 12.3 V DC

Then, measure and record the collector out- at the collector of the transistor. This indi-

put voltage. Subtract this voltage from the cates that the transistor is no longer cut off.

previous reading and enter your result as the From this experiment, you have proved
voltage drop across the lk collector load re- that atransistor must be biased before it will
sistor. To find the collector current, divide the conduct. The emitter-base junction is for-
voltage across the collector by the resistance ward biased with apositive voltage at the
and enter your results. base and the emitter grounded. A positive

Step 6. Next, remove the 1k load resistor voltage at the base of an NPN transistor

and replace it with a 2.2k load resistor. The causes areduction in the voltage at the collec-

total resistance is now more than twice the tor. The collector was connected to a +18 V

original value. Again, measure the supply and DC supply through a lk resistor. The base-

•
output voltages and determine the voltage collector junction was therefore reverse biased.

drop across the collector resistor. Then, cal- When you increased the bias voltage to
culate the collector current and record it in maximum, you found that the voltage across
Table 12-2. When you are finished, discon- the emitter-junction remained essentially con-
nect the batteries from the circuit. stant, while the voltage across the base resis-
tor increased. This resulted in an increase in
base current. This small change in base cur-
Results rent was more than sufficient to saturate the
transistor and cause the collector voltage to
An NPN silicon transistor was used in drop almost to zero.
Step 1. Until the bias pot was properly ad- A saturated transistor appears as avery low
justed to produce the necessary base voltage, resistance, and it drops very little voltage. It
there was no current flow through the transis- has characteristics very similar to aturned-on
tor. This was determined when you read the switch. The majority of the voltage in this cir-
full supply voltage at the collector. The tran- cuit is dropped across the collector resistor.
sistor was cut off (not conducting), and it
appeared as an open circuit. You also learned that once the transistor is
saturated, further increase in base-emitter
When the bias control was adjusted to pro- current will not affect the collector current.
duce 1V DC at the 10k base resistor, you

•
51
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

When atransistor is properly biased to op- have determined that the base current, which
erate as alinear (Class A) amplifier, the collec- you can vary by adjusting the control, actu-
tor voltage will be approximately half of the ally controls the collector current; the transis-
supply voltage. In the circuit that used an 18 tor is acurrent-controlled device with asmall
V DC supply, the collector voltage should be base current (about 30 mA) controlling a
adjusted for approximately 9V to allow a large collector current (about 5.6 mA).
maximum positive and negative swing of an
input signal without distortion.

Additionally, you learned that the size of

the collector resistor did not greatly affect the
collector current. From this experiment, you

52
•

Examination Questions
This is Examination Number 2332.

Make sure you print your name, student num-

ber, and examination number (Lesson No.) in Wme John Smith
the space provided on the Answer Form. Be Rint
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student Student No. Lesson No.
number and examination number (Lesson No.). xyo 2 37 9 LI
233 2
Reminder: A properly completed Answer Form
allows us to evaluate your answers and speed

• the results and additional study material to you

as soon as possible. Do not hold your Answer
Forms to send several at one time. You may run
out of study material if you do not send your
answers for evaluation promptly.

1. If you measure the full source voltage 2. In aparallel circuit made up of two lk
across one of the components in acircuit resistors, what happens to the total resis-
and zero voltage across all the other com- tance if a 1M resistor is added in parallel
ponents, then: with them? (Note: For accuracy, calculate
a. The component with full source voltage the values instead of using the DMM)
across it is shorted. a. It decreases slightly.
b. The component with full source voltage b. It decreases substantially.
across it is open. c. It remains exactly the same.
c. One of the components with no source d. It increases.
voltage across it is open.
d. One of the components with no source

• voltage across it is shorted.

53
BASIC ELECTRONICS EXPERIMENTS

3. If the load resistance in the circuit used in 6. Using the values recorded in Table 3-1,
Experiment 5increases, the voltage drop what is the voltage on Terminal 3of Figure
across it will ,indicating that 3-3 with respect to Terminal 1?
the output current has a. Negative and equal to the voltage meas-
a. Increase, increased ured in Step 1.
b. Decrease, decreased b. Positive and equal to the voltage meas-
c. Increase, decreased ured in Step 1.
d. Decrease, increased c. Positive and much smaller than the volt-
age measured in Step 1.
4. In the circuit shown below, the current d. Positive and much greater than the volt-
leaving the parallel branch and flowing to age measured in Step 1.
the positive terminal of V is the
current flowing through Rl. 7. According to the information you recorded
a. Usually greater than. in Table 7-1, what ohmmeter range gave
b. Considerably greater than. the most significant reading for the 2.2k
c. Considerably less than. resistor?
d. Equal to. a. 2k.
b. 20k.
R2
c. 200k.
R1 1k R4
•- «/N.A.r"-^ d. 2M.
150 0 R3 1k
.
4.7k
v =
- 8. What resistance did you measure from the
circuit shown in Figure 9-1?
a. Approximately 2,700 ohms.
5. What is the most practical and quickest b. Approximately 5,500 ohms.
way to determine total current in the circuit c. Approximately 17,000 ohms.
for Question 4? d. Approximately 28,500 ohms.
a. Create an open in the circuit and then
connect an ammeter.
b. Use Ohm's Law to calculate after meas-
uring the voltage across Rl.
c. Measure the voltage across R3.
d. Use Ohm's Law to calculate after meas-
uring the voltage across R2.

54
• 9. What change in resistance would you
expect between Terminals A and B of
10. When you compared the base and collec-
tor currents of the conducting transistor
Figure 8-1 if resistors R3, R4, and R5 in Experiment 12, you found that:
were shorted? a. No current flowed in the circuit.
a. Increase more than 10 percent. b. They were about equal.
b. Decrease more than 10 percent. c. The base current was slightly greater
c. Decrease less than 5 percent. than the collector current.
d. Increase 1percent. d. The collector current was much
greater than the base current.

•
55
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
•

•
 NOTES
• Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
•

•
 NOTES
• Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
•

•
•

•
Miff/ Schools
•

MM., Graduates Say...

"My NRI training really helped on the job. This gave me confidence
and peace of mind, besides enabling me to tackle more challenging
and profitable work.

I'd recommend NRI training, in fact Ialready have. The material is

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•

•
e
KM2332(808) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
 Pp pp

9J 1

IMI>
Voltage, Current, and Resistance

d 2217

NRI Schools
A Don
im of The McGiuteHillComparrin

Washington. DC 20008
Voltage, Current, and Resistance
 Table of Contents

Voltage 1
DC Voltage 1
Voltages in Series 4
Voltage Units 5
Review 5
Self-Test Questions 6

Current 7
Current Units 7
Review 9
Self-Test Questions 9

Resistance 10
The Ohm 10
Resistance Units 11
Review 12
Self-Test Questions 12

Ohm's Law 13
How Voltage Affects Current 13
How Resistance Affects Current 14
Finding E 15
Review 15
Self-Test Questions 16

Answers to Self-Test Questions 17

Lesson Questions 19

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you will ...

• Explore some practical aspects of connecting

dc power sources.

• Learn about "ground."

• Discover how dc voltages connected in series add

together.

• Learn how voltage, current, and resistance

values are changed into smaller or larger units.

• Examine useful applications of Ohm's Law in

finding the values of current and voltage in a
series circuit.
 VOLTAGE

VOLTAGE

You have learned that voltage is the electrical

pressure or force that sets electrons in motion. (A) (B)
Batteries and generators are sources of voltage.
The unit in which voltage is measured is the volt

lilff
(V). Let's review some of the important things
you learned about voltage in the first lesson, and
expand that knowledge.

(C)
DC Voltage
Figure 1. Battery symbols. Each cell is rated at 1.5 volts.

DC is a common abbreviation for direct cur-

rent. A dc voltage is one that causes a direct
Most people think of a flashlight cell as a
current to flow. In the early days of electronics,
battery, but technically it is acell. The combin-
equipment (usually radio equipment) was built
ation of two or more cells is abattery. A three-
on a metal chassis. One side of the operating
cell combination, shown in Fig.1(B), has atotal
voltage source was connected to this chassis. The
voltage of 4.5 volts. If we connect 15 cells as
chassis, in turn, was connected to awater pipe
shown by Fig.1(C), we get avoltage of 15 x1.5 =
or other metal pipe driven into the ground. As a
22.5 volts. Notice that we did not draw 15 cells.
result, the connection to the chassis became
Usually two cells are shown, and the voltage is
known as the "ground connection."
listed in numerals.
With one side of the voltage source connected
We can connect two 9V batteries in series, as
to the ground, dc voltage measurements are
shown in Fig.2, to get 18 volts. There is 9V between
made between the ground and other points in the
terminals A and B, 9V between terminals B and
circuit. This is a convenient method of reading
C, and 18 V between terminals A and C. Some-
voltages found in various parts of the circuit.
times we say that terminal C is 18 V positive
A flashlight cell produces a voltage of about with respect to (or compared to) terminal A; or
1.5 volts. Higher voltages can be obtained by that terminal A is 18 V negative with respect to
connecting two or more cells together, because
their voltages add together. We say the cells are
connected in series. A series connection puts the
9 V
negative terminal of one cell in contact with the
positive terminal of another. The two cells com- • -- 111

bine into one voltage source having a negative

and apositive terminal, as shown schematically
in Fig.1(A). If each cell has avoltage of 1.5 V, the
total voltage available from the series-connected
combination is 3volts. Figure 2. Two 9V batteries connected in series.

1
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

terminal C. If polarity is unimportant to the Most modern electronic equipment is made

application, we may just say that there is 18 V with printed circuit boards. These are thin, in-
between A and C. sulating boards to which alayer of copper con-
ductor is glued. The copper is marked with the
To simplify the wiring of most electronic
desired circuit pattern, then most of the copper
equipment, a common terminal of the power
is etched off the board by an acid solution, leav-
source is frequently used as a reference point.
ing the circuit conductor layout. Frequently,
For example, terminal B is acommon point with
some excess copper is left on the board to form
respect to the voltages at A and C. It is 9 V
the common connection, also called the ground
positive with respect to terminal A, and 9 V
foil.
negative with respect to terminal C. This com-
mon terminal may be used as areference point Using the chassis as a common connection
and is most frequently called ground, or some- significantly reduces the amount of necessary
times acommon ground. At the ground point, the wiring in electronic equipment. The same tech-
voltage is considered to be zero because it is used nique is used on a larger scale in automobiles,
as areference value. When you read that some where the frame of the vehicle takes the place of
circuit point is at "ground potential," it means awire. The negative terminal of the automotive
that the voltage at tha
-----Epou
— TtigiTV-With respect battery is bolted to the frame or chassis of the
to the common ground. car. Current flow in automotive electrical acces-
sories is from the chassis ground, through the
Usually, the negative terminal of the battery
accessory, then through a wire to the positive
or power supply is connected to the common
terminal of the battery This is why you will
ground terminal as shown in Fig.3(A). Notice the
frequently see automotive electrical systems
sylubuLused to represent the ground connectiseL
described as "12 V negative ground" systems.
When connected in this way, terminal A is
regarded as the zero reference point (the ground)
for voltage in the equipment circuits. Terminal B
would measure +9 V, and terminal C, +18 volts. 9 V 9 V

The common connection can also be made as (A) 1 -- 1111 + • o

shown in Fig.3(B). Here, terminal C connects to
the common ground terminal, so the voltage at
terminal C is 0volts. Terminal B voltage is —9 V 9 V 9 V
and terminal A has —18 volts. The net effect is
the same as when terminal A is grounded; there (B) °1111 +
A -II
is 18 V between terminals A and C. The dif-
ference is in the polarity of the voltage with
respect to the ground reference point. 9V 9V

A third way of making the common or ground (C) o -II o

connection is shown in Fig.3(C), where terminal
B is at ground potential. Terminal A is —9 V, and
terminal C is +9 V with respect to the reference Figure 3. Three ways of adding a common or ground
connection to two 9 V batteries connected in series. The
point, terminal B. There is still 18 V total between voltage between the terminals is the same in all three
terminals A and C. circuits.

2
 VOLTAGE

tery B is at ground or zero potential, terminal 3

of battery B will be 9V with respect to ground.
A — 9 VOLTS
In Fig.4(B), the ground connection is moved so
that terminal 1, the positive terminal of battery
A, is ground. Now we consider terminal 1 of
BULB
battery A to be at zero, or ground potential, and
+ 3 terminal 4, the negative terminal of battery B,
B — 9 VOLTS is —18 V with respect to ground. Remember that
the total voltage is the same in both cases.

As you've seen before, we can go one step

GROUND further and ground the connections between ter-
minals 2and 3of the two batteries, as shown in
(A) Fig.5. Here we have both negative and positive
GROUND polarities with respect to ground. Terminal 1of
battery A is positive with respect to ground, and
terminal 4of battery B is negative with respect
— A — 9 VOLTS to ground. The total voltage applied to the bulb
is still 18 V because the two batteries are con-
nected in series. The same current flows through
LD BULB the bulb in the two examples given in Fig.4 and
the circuit shown in Fig.5. In your study of
+ 3
electronics, you will run into alot of equipment
8 — 9 VOLTS
where voltages may be either negative or posi-

T4
-
tive with respect to ground.

(B)
Figure 4. Simple circuits with ground connection.

A 9 VOLTS
In Fig.4, one battery is labeled A and the other -2
is labeled B. The positive terminal of battery A
is terminal 1, and the negative terminal is ter-
minal 2. The positive terminal of battery B is _L
terminal 3, and the negative terminal is ter-
3
minal 4. Notice that the negative terminal of
battery B in Fig.4(A) is grounded. --- 9 VOLTS
T4
With the batteries connected in this way,
using ground as a reference, we say that ter-
Figure 5. A simple circuit with a positive voltage with
minal 1 of battery A is +18 V with respect to respect to ground and a negative voltage with respect to
ground. Also, if the negative terminal (4) of bat- ground.

3
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

0 1

4.5 V 3.0 V

1
9 V 7.5 V

=— 4.5 V 4.5 V

o2

(A) (B)
Figure 6. Batteries connected in series so their voltages add.

Voltages in Series of the 4.5 V batteries, so that the total voltage

between terminals 1and 2is 9volts.
Voltage sources can be connected in series.
In Fig.6(B), we have batteries with different
Whether they add together or subtract from each
volt ages connected in series aiding. In effect, we
other depends on how they are connected. have simply added two cells to the 4.5 V battery,
In Fig.6(A) we have two 4.5 V batteries con- so the total voltage is 7.5 volts.
nected in series aiding. This means that the two In Fig.7, we have three examples of batteries
voltages add together. Notice that the batteries connected in series opposing. These batteries are
are connected in the same way as the cells form-
connected so that their voltages oppose. To find
ing each battery are connected. We have, in
the total voltage we subtract the battery voltages.
effect, simply added three additional cells to one

1 1 1

— 4.5 V — 4.5 V — 3.0 V

MMM. M•M.
,

0V +1.5 V —1.5 V

M11».

— 4.5 V 3.0 V 4.5 V

L o2 o2

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 7. Batteries connected in series so their voltages subtract.

4
 VOLTAGE

In Fig.7(A), each battery is a 4.5 V battery. The Microvolt. The microvolt, abbreviated u‘',
When you subtract 4.5 from 4.5, the result is 0. is one millionth of a volt. The symbol µ is the
Therefore, the potential between terminals 1 Greek letter mu, and is traditionally used to
and 2is 0volts. indicate "micro." To convert volts to microvolts,
multiply by 1,000,000. Do this by moving the
In Fig.7(B), we have batteries of unequal volt-
decimal point six places to the right. To convert
ages. Subtracting the smaller voltage from the
from microvolts to volts, move the decimal point
larger, we have 4.5 — 3.0 = 1.5 volts. Since the
six places to the left.
positive terminal of the larger battery connects
to terminal 1, terminal 1will be 1.5 V positive. The Kilovolt. Another unit used in voltage
measurements is the kilovolt. The kilovolt is
In Fig.7(C), we have the opposite situation.
1000 volts. Thus, 25 kilovolts, abbreviated 25 kV,
The positive terminal of the 4.5 V battery con-
is equal to 25,000 volts. Voltages are measured in
nects to terminal 2. Therefore, terminal 2 is
kilovolts in TV receivers, in video displays used
positive with respect to terminal 1, or, in other
with computers and microcomputers, and in
words, terminal 1is 1.5 V negative.
radio and TV transmitters. Remember, akilovolt
We can connect de generators in series in the is equal to 1000 V, so to convert kilovolts to volts,
same way as the batteries shown in Figs.6 and we simply multiply by 1000.
7. If they are connected in series aiding, their
voltages add. If they are connected in series
Review
opposing, their voltages subtract.
A dc voltage produced by a battery or a dc
generator will have a polarity that does not
Voltage Units
change. Connected to a circuit, a dc voltage
source produces acurrent that flows in one direc-
In many electronic circuits, the voltage values
tion. Voltage sources are frequently connected to
are not expressed in volts. Some values are much
common points called ground, and may be either
smaller, and require that the voltage unit be
positive or negative with respect to ground.
expressed in amore convenient unit of measure-
ment. Occasionally, larger units are needed as Batteries and generators can be connected in
well. For this reason, several useful voltage units series aiding so that their voltages add, or in
have been defined. series opposing so that their voltages subtract.
When voltage sources are connected in series
The Millivolt. When the volt is too large aunit,
between ground and another point, the polarity
we use the millivolt, and sometimes th
of the point may be positive or negative when the
microvolt. A millivolt, mV, is one thousandth of
batteries oppose, depending on the polarity of
avolt. The prefix milli means one thousandth
the larger voltage source.
To convert volts to millivolts we multiply by
1000. To do this, we simply add zeros and move Some circuits you will use will have very
the decimal point three places to the right. To small voltages; others will have very high volt-
convert from millivolts to volts, we do the op- ages. Remember that the millivolt (mV) is one
posite: divide by 1000 and move the decimal thousandth of avolt, the microvolt (11V) is one
point three places to the left. Thus, 2. 5V =2. 5 millionth of avolt, and the kilovolt (kV) is one
x1000 =2500 mV. thousand volts.

5
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

Self-Test Questions
Your understanding of the basic prin-
ciples of electronics is essential. Advanced
Please check your answers on page 17.
lessons are based on the fundamentals you
learn in early lessons. If you skip over parts
1 In the circuit shown in Fig.4(3), if both
you do not understand, you are sure to run
batteries are 6V, what voltage is present at
into problems later. If you have difficulty
terminal 4with respect to ground?
with some of the material, carefully reread
2 In the circuit shown in Fig.5, if each battery (0
those lesson sections. If you need additional
is a45 V battery, what is the voltage at ter- ;4
help, take advantage of the NRI consulta-
minal 1with respect to ground? What is the
tion service. Write and tell us exactly which
voltage at terminal 4with respect to ground?
section of the lesson gave you trouble, and
3 If a 15 V battery and a45 V battery are ,
we will give you additional assistance.
connected in series as in Fig.6(B), what will
the voltage be at terminal 1with respect to
ground?
4 Two batteries are connected as shown in
Fig. 7(B). One battery is a45 V battery with
its positive terminal connected to terminal 1,
and the other battery is a22-1/2 V battery
with its positive terminal grounded. What is
the voltage at terminal 1with respect to
ground?

6
 CURRENT

Another important point to remember is that

CURRENT
electrons start moving in all parts of acircuit the
instant the circuit is completed. Electrons do not
You have learned that an electron is part of an leave the negative terminal, hit other electrons,
atom and that it has anegative electrical charge. and start achain reaction of movement. All free
All electrons have the same negative electrical electrons in the entire circuit start moving at the
charge. Electrons repel each other because like same time.
charges repel. Electrons are repelled by negative Alternating Current. The electric current sup-
charges, and attracted by positive charges. plied to homes for light and power is an alternat-
Direct Current. When a battery is connected ing current, or ac. Alternating current flows first
to an electric circuit, electrons are repelled from in one direction and then in the other direction.
the negative terminal of the battery and at- The current supplied by most power companies
tracted by the positive terminal. Electrons move in the United States and Canada is 60-cycle
in one direction through the circuit. This type of current. This means that it goes through 60
current flow is called direct current, or dc. Direct cycles per second. We use the word hertz (ab-
current is widely used in electronic equipment. breviated Hz) for cycles per second, so we say
Current will flow through many of the devices that the frequency is 60 Hz. In resistive circuits,
used in electronic equipment in only one direc- alternating and direct current have the same
tion, and therefore the current used to operate relationships of current, voltage, and resistance.
these devices is direct current. We will discuss alternating current more fully in
another lesson.
In asimple circuit, such as the one shown in
Fig.8, the current flow is the same in all parts of
the circuit at all times. The number of electrons Current Units
leaving the negative terminal of the battery is

r
exactly the same as the number of electrons
The basic unit of current measurement is the
passing point A on the wire connecting the bat-
ampere — abbreviated A — but in electronics this
tery to the lamp. The number of electrons flow-
unit is often too large for convenient use. In com-
ing through the lamp is the same as the number
mon electronic circuits the current flow is small.
of electrons passing point B on the other wire,
It may be only afew thousandths of an ampere.
and it is the same as the number of electrons
moving into the positive terminal of the battery. The Milliampere. We can express three
thousandths of an ampere (3/1000) more easily
as adecimal, 0.003 ampere. But, it is more con-

1
venient to express the value in milliamperes
(mA). A milliampere is one thousandth of an
d_
e ampere. A current of three thousandths of an

1) ampere is 3 milliamperes. To convert amperes

li
to milliamperes, we simply multiply by 1000.
This is done by moving the decimal point three
places to the right. The process is similar to
;4 converting dollars to cents. One dollar is written
Figure 8. A simple circuit.
in numerals as $1.00. To convert the $1.00 to

7
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

cents, we move the decimal point two places to unit, the microampere, abbreviated pA. The
the right and we have 100e. To convert 5 A to microampere is one millionth of an ampere, just
mA, we can write 5A as 5.000 amperes. Move as amicrovolt is one millionth of avolt.
the decimal point three places to the right and
we have 5000 milliamperes. Similarly, if the To convert amperes to microamperes, move
current is 0.05 A, we can write it as 0.050 A, and the decimal point six places to the right. In fact,
try to remember that the decimal point always
move the decimal point three places to the right
to give us 50 mA. In other words, to go from the moves to the right when converting from large
units to small units. Since there are a million
large unit to the small unit, move the decimal
microamperes in one ampere, we move the
point to the right.
decimal point six places to the right. To convert
To convert milliamperes to amperes, move the milliamperes to microamperes, we move the
decimal point three places to the left. In other decimal point three places to the right.
words, 47 mA can be written as 047. milli-
amperes. Moving the decimal point three places To convert microamperes to milliamperes,
to he left, we have 0.047 ampere. move the decimal point three places to the left.
To convert microamperes to amperes, move the
Note: A standard means of expressing any decimal point six places to the left. In other
number less than one in decimal form includes words, 50 RA would be 0.000050 ampere.
placing azero to the left of the decimal point.
In Fig.9 we have several examples of conver-
The Microampere. In some circuits even the sions from one unit to another. Study this figure
milliampere is too large aunit. There is asmaller and the conversions. Then try to do them your-

LARGE TO SMALL SMALL TO LARGE

DOLLARS TO CENTS CENTS TO DOLLARS

$1 = 100e 1000e =$10
WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 2 PLACES TO THE RIGHT WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 2 PLACES TO THE LEFT
$1.00 =100e 1000e =$10.00
AMPERES TO MILLAMPERES MILLIAMPERES TO AMPERES
1A = 1000 mA 10 mA =0.010 A
WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 3 PLACES TO THE RIGHT
WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 3 PLACES TO THE LEFT
1A = 1.000 A 010. mA =0.010 A
1.000 A = 1000 mA 10 mA =0.01 A
AMPERES TO MICROAMPERES
MICROAMPERES TO AMPERES
1A = 1000000 µA 1000000 µA = 1.000000 A
WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 6 PLACES TO THE RIGHT
WE MOVED THE DECIMAL POINT 6 PLACES TO THE LEFT
1A =1.000000 A
1000000 µA = 1.000000 A
1.000000 A = 1000000 MA
1000000 µA = 1A

Figure 9. Examples of conversion from one unit to another.

8
 CURRENT

self. This is the best way to learn how to convert Self-Test Questions
from one unit to another. With alittle practice,
you will be able to convert from one unit to 5 If the current flow past apoint in the circuit
another as easily as you convert dollars to cents is 1A and it is increased so that four times
or cents to dollars. the number of electrons pass the point in a
second, what will the new current be?
6 Convert $6.00 to cents. de p
Review 7 Convert 2A to mA. 2 d00 fri.4, 2

8 Convert 0.42 A to mA. 0 »,

We have reviewed current flow. Remember 9 Convert 0.037 A to mA. 37 ewe?
that current flow is amovement of electrons, and 10 Convert 0.002 A to mA. 2 A-1,9
in asimple series circuit the current flow is the 11 Convert 46 mA to A. os/6 A
same in all parts of the circuit. When the circuit 12 Convert 822 mA to A. ,r)- -
1' 4

is complete, current starts to flow in all parts of 13 Convert 2A to µA. 000

the circuit at the same time. 14 Convert 0.0017 A to µA. i700 (A-»
You learned that the milliampere is one 15 Convert 147 µA to A. oa 1'47 '?

thousandth of an ampere, and the microampere 16 Convert 0.031 mA to µA. 3/ 14-4

is one millionth of an ampere. To convert from 17 Convert 327,000 µA to mA, and then to A.
larger units to smaller units, move the decimal
point to the right. In converting amperes to
milliamperes (or milliamperes to amperes),
move the decimal point three places; in convert-
ing amperes to microamperes (or microamperes
to amperes), move the decimal point six places.

9
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

in the second case has twice the resistance to

RESISTANCE
current flow, or 2ohms.

DC Resistance. DC resistance is the opposi-

All wires and components in electronic equip-
tion offered to the flow of direct current in the
ment have resistance. The resistance may be so
circuit. If adc voltage is applied to an electrical
low that it has no effect on the performance of
circuit, the de resistance of the circuit will limit
the circuit; however, almost every circuit has the current that will flow in the circuit. Usually,
some resistive component that affects the way it we call it resistance, rather than dc resistance.
operates. In a dc circuit, the only factor that
limits the amount of current that flows is the AC Resistance. The ac resistance of a com-
resistance in the circuit. ponent may not be the same as the dc resistance.
At very high frequencies, much higher than the
60 Hz used by the power companies that supply
The Ohm electricity to your home, ac circuits have special
characteristics that change the effective resis-
The unit of resistance is the ohm, named after tances. We will discuss these factors in greater
pioneer scientist George Simon Ohm. Its symbol detail in another lesson.
is the Greek letter omega (Q). When an applied Resistors. You know that electronic circuits
voltage of 1V causes 1A of circuit current, the use copper wire to keep resistance low, but there
circuit resistance is 1ohm. What if an applied are many instances where specific values of
voltage of 2V causes 1A of circuit current? Since resistance are needed in the circuit for various
the current flow is 1A in both cases, the circuit reasons. Parts designed to add resistance to the

Carbon Resistors

Carbon resistors come in several different

sizes and in many different resistance values.
The size of the resistor tells you how much
power the resistor can handle. Three different
sizes of carbon resistors are shown here. Each
resistor has a resistance of 1000 ohms. The
resistor on the top is a 1/2-watt resistor. The
one in the middle can handle twice the power
without burning up, and is a 1-watt resistor.
The one on the bottom is a 2-watt resistor,
which can withstand four times the power of
the 1I2-watt component. The watt is aunit of
electrical power which we will discuss later.

10
 RESISTANCE

Wire-wound and Deposited-film

Resistors

A wire-wound resistor (A) is made of wire

wound on aform which is usually ceramic.
The wire used to wind a resistor is called
resistance wire because it has amuch higher
resistance than copper wire. Wire-wound
resiotors are used in places where they must
handle ahigher current than could be han-
dled by acarbon resistor.
Alsaaadà.:
The deposited-film resistor (B) is composed
of a metal oxide film deposited on aceramic (B)
form. These resistors can handle higher cur-
rents than carbon resistors, and can be made
in larger resistance values than the wire-
wound type.

circuit are called resistors. There are many dif- Megohm. Megohm units (M) refer to resistors
ferent values, physical sizes, and types of resis- larger than one million ohms. A 2,200,000 resis-
tors used in electronic equipment. The most tor would be labeled 2.2M. Resistor values below
commonly used type, the carbon resistor, is a a megohm may occasionally be expressed in
mixture of powdered carbon and a cement-like megohms. For example, a470,000 ohm resistor
material that bonds the carbon together. By could be labeled 470k, or 0.47M.
varying the composition of the mixture, different
Converting back and forth between ohms,
values of resistance are obtainable, from less
kilohms, and megohms is the same process as
than an ohm up to several million ohms.
converting between amps (amperes), milliamps,
Resistance Units and microamps, except that the ohm is the basic
unit, and we typically work with larger values
than one ohm. To convert from the small unit to
Some electronic circuits require resistances of
the larger unit, simply move the decimal point
several thousand ohms, others may use values
to the left, either three places for kilohms or six
greater than amillion ohms.
places for megohms. To convert from the larger
Kilohm. For convenience, one thousand ohms unit to the smaller unit, move the decimal point
are represented by the letter k (kilo), so lk is in the opposite direction to the right. This may
1kilohm. A resistance of 2200 ohms is expressed as seem very complicated, but don't be concerned
22k. A resistor having aresistance of 100,000 ohms about it. You will see all three terms, ohms,
would be labeled 100k. A resistor with a resis- kilohms, and megohms so often that converting
tance of 470,000 ohms would be labeled 470k. from one to another will become automatic.

11
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

Review Self-Test Questions

In a dc circuit the current flow is limited by 18 If the current flow in acircuit is 1A, and
the circuit resistance. The unit of resistance is we double the resistance in the circuit, will
the ohm. If acurrent of 1A flows in acircuit when the current increase4:d-ese,
reaor remain
a voltage of 1V is applied to the circuit, the the same?
resistance in the circuit is 1ohm. 19 Name three types of resistors commonly
used in electronic equipment.
Three important types of resistors that yo
20 Convert 4700 ohms to k. 1/
,?1(
will encounter in electronic equipment are th
21 Convert 5,600,000 ohms to M. 3":
carbon resistor, the wir resistor and th
22 Convert 0.330M to k. 33p k
etal oxi e im resistor. These resistors are
23 Convert 2.2M to ohms. oô,OO D
made in various---1ee'tstalrii values and sizes to
24 Convert 8.2k to ohms. go
handle different values of current.
25 Convert 680k to M. ,(,%()
In many electronic circuits, the resistance is
so high that we use the kilohm, which is equal to
1000 ohms, and the megohm, which is equal to
1million ohms.

12
 OHM'S LAW

OHM'S LAW How Voltage Affects Current

Now we are going to use Ohm's law in the

Ohm's law is one of the most important laws form:
in electronics. It tells us how the voltage, cur-
rent, and resistance are related in an electrical E
circuit. Ohm's law states that the current flow in I=—
R

a circuit is equal to the voltage divided by the

resistance. Rather than using words to ex •res
This formula shows how achange in the applied
this w
circuit voltage affects the current in the circuit.
curre R for resistance.
sing th os, we can e ress S ms aw In Fig.10 we have asimple circuit consisting
as: of a voltage source and a resistor. Notice the
schematic symbol for aresistor; this is another
important symbol you should remember. The
battery voltage (E) is 20 V; the resistance (R) of
With this expression, if we know any two of the resistor is 2ohms. The unknown value is the
the three values — resistance, current, or volt- amount of current.
age — we can determine the third. We can determine the circuit current using
Ohm's law. We simply substitute the numeric
For example, we can interchange the R and I
and we have the formula: values of voltage and resistance for E and R in
the formula, then divide to give us the value of I:
E
R ---
1
This formula tells us that the resistance in a
circuit is equal to the voltage divided by the 20
current. We can also express this formula as: = — = 10 A
2
E =IR
This tells us that the voltage in a circuit is
equal to the current flow in the circuit multiplied
by the resistance in the circuit.

The importance of the three forms of Ohm's

law is that they show us how the current, volt- E = 20 R = 2 OHMS
age, and resistance in acircuit are related. As we
will see in the following sections, a change in
either the voltage or the resistance in the circuit
will result in achange in the current.

Figure 10. A simple circuit consisting of avoltage source

and aresistor.

13
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

In the circuit shown in Fig.10, the current flow Here the current is 5A, half the value it was
will be equal to 10 amperes. If we increase the before. Doubling the resistance cut the current
voltage to 40 V, the new current flow will be: in half. Suppose that, instead of doubling the
resistance from 2 ohms to 4 ohms, we cut the
40 resistance in half, reducing it from 2ohms to
=20 A
1ohm. Using Ohm's law, we can easily find out
what happens:
If we reduce the voltage to 10 V, the current
flow in the circuit will be:
I=—
20 =20 A
1
I= L0 = 5 A
2
Cutting the resistance in half doubled the cur-
Notice in each example that the current flow
rent from 10 A to 20 amperes.
is directly related to the voltage. Increasing the
voltage increases the current; reducing the This relationship between current and resis-
voltage reduces the current. In the example tance holds true regardless of how we change the
where the voltage doubled, the current resistance. If we increase the resistance to three
doubled. When the voltage was cut in half, the times its original value, the current decreases to
current was cut in half. This relationship will one third the original value. If we cut the resis-
always hold true. tance to one third its original value, the current
increases to three times its original value. We
If we increase the voltage to three times the
say that current varies "inversely" with respect
original value, the current will increase to three
to resistance. If the resistance increases, the
times the original value. If we reduce the voltage
current decreases. If the resistance decreases,
to one third of its original value, the current will
the current increases.
be reduced to one third of its original value. As
long as resistance remains the same, any change
in the voltage will result in adirect change in the
current.

How Resistance Affects Current

In the simple circuit shown in Fig.10, where

the voltage is 20 V and the resistance 2ohms, we
1 I I
found by using Ohm's law that the current flow E = 20 V — R = 4 OHMS

is 10 amperes. The same circuit is shown in

Fig.11, except that we have replaced the 2-ohm
resistor with a 4-ohm resistor. How will this
affect the value of I? Using Ohm's law, we can
find the current:

I=—
E = —
20 =5A Figure 11. The 2-ohm resistor in the circuit of Fig.10 is
R 4 replaced by a 4-ohm resistor.

14
 OHM'S LAW

This relationship between current and resis-

Im 2 A
tance is obvious if we examine Ohm's law. Look
at the expression for current below:

E
I=—
R
E r• ? — § R = 15 OHMS
If E remains constant and we increase R, it is
obvious that Imust become smaller, because E
is divided by alarger number. If we reduce R, and
keep E constant, Imust get larger.
Ti ---.1

Finding E Figure 12. A simple circuit where I=2 amperes and R .

15 ohms.

In some circuits, we may know the values of

current and resistance, but we want to find the
voltage in the circuit. An example of this type
current is in amperes, and the resistance is in
of problem is shown in Fig.12. Here the current
ohms. However, the current may be expressed in
is 2A and the resistance 15 ohms. We want to
milliamperes or microamperes. In such a case,
find the value of E using Ohm's law:
you must convert the value to amperes to use
E =IR Ohm's law. Similarly, the resistance may be in
kilohms or megohms. Again the value must be
We can substitute for the values of Iand R and
converted to ohms.
get:

E =2x15
Review
=30 V
We have seen how circuit current is affected
Thus, the value of the voltage applied to the
by the applied voltage and by the circuit resis-
circuit must be 30 volts. If we measured acircuit
tance. We found that increasing the voltage in-
current increase to 3 A, and the resistance
creased the current, and decreasing the voltage
remained 15 ohms, we would know that the
decreased the current. We said that the current
voltage applied to the circuit had increased to
varies directly to the voltage. In the case of the
45 V, because:
resistance in the circuit, we found it had the
E =IR opposite effect on the current. Increasing the
resistance of the circuit decreased the current,
E =3x15 and decreasing the resistance increased the
current. The current is said to vary inversely to
E =45 V the resistance.
Notice that in all of the examples we've given You should remember the three forms of Ohm's
using Ohm's law, the voltage is in volts, the law so that you can see how each of the three

15
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

quantities — current, voltage, and resistance, is Self-Test Questions

affected by changes in the other two. The three
forms of Ohm's law are: \ 26 Give the form of Ohm's law that is used
y- Ee 1) when you know the voltage and current,
I — 1 and want to find the resistance.
R r 27 Write the Ohm's law formula that is used
when you know the current and resistance
E =IR in the circuit, and want to find the voltage.
28 Write the Ohm's law formula that is used
when you know the voltage and resistance
E in the circuit, and need to find the current.
R =—
I 29 In the circuit in Fig.10, find the current
Remember that to use Ohm's law, the voltage if the voltage is 15 V and the resistance is
must be in volts, the current in amperes, and theohms. 3
resistance in ohms. 30 If in the circuit in Fig.11, the voltage is 60 V
and the resistance is 15 ohms, what is the
current?
31 If the current in acircuit is 3A and the
resistance is 20 ohms, what is the voltage?

16
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

21 5.6M. In order to convert 5,600,000 ohms to

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
megohms, we move the decimal point six
QUESTIONS places to the left.
22 330k. In order to convert megohms to
kilohms, we move the decimal point three
1 -12 V.
places to the right.
2 Terminal 1is +45 V, and terminal 4is -45 V.
23 2,200,000 ohms.
3 +60 V The two batteries are connected in
24 8200 ohms.
series aiding, and therefore their potentials
25 0.680M. In order to convert kilohms to
will add, 15 +45 =60 V. The terminal is
megohms, move the decimal point three
positive because it is connected directly to
places to the left.
the positive terminal of one of the batteries.
26 E
4 +22-1/2 V The two batteries are connected R =—
to oppose each other, and thus their voltages I
subtract. 45 V -22-1/2 V =22-1/2 V. The 27 E = IR
polarity will be that of the higher voltage
28 T E
battery, which is the 45 V battery. Since its -—
positive terminal is connected to terminal 1, R
terminal 1will be positive. 29 5A. To solve this problem use the formula:
5 4A. If the original current was 1A and the
number of electrons increased by four times, E
I=—
R
the new current must be 4A.
6 $6.00 =600e. Substituting 15 V for E and 3ohms for R,
7 2A =2000 mA. we get:
8 0.42 A= 420 mA.
9 0.037 A =37 rnA. 15
10 0.002 A = 2rnA. 3
11 46 rnA =0.046 A. 30 4A. To solve this problem, use the formula:
12 822 mA = 0.822 A.
13 2A =2,000,000
I=
14 0.0017 A = 1700 !..tA.
15 147 pe =0.000147 A.
Substituting 60 V for E and 15 ohms for R,
16 0.031 mA =31 t,k. we get:
17 327,000 !tA =327 mA =0.327 A.
18 The current will decrease. If we double the
I= 0 =4A
resistance in the circuit, the current will be 15
cut in half.
31 60 V. To solve this problem, use the formula:
19 Carbon resistors, wire-wound resistors, and
metal oxide film resistors. E =IR
20 4.7k. In order to convert 4700 ohms to Substituting 3A for Iand 20 ohms for R,
kilohms, we move the decimal point three we get:
places to the left.
E =3x20 =60 V

17
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are:

• When connected to acircuit, adc voltage source

causes current flow in one direction.

• Voltage sources use common points called grounds.

• A point in acircuit may be either positive or negative

with respect to ground.

• Batteries and generators connected in series aiding

will add their voltages. In series opposing, their
voltages subtract.

• Current flows in all parts of the circuit at the same

instant when voltage is applied.

• Current, voltage, and resistance units may be con-

veniently expressed in smaller or larger units for ease
of measurement.

18
 LESSON QUESTIONS

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2217.

Make sure you print your name, student number,

Name JOhl Snith
and lesson number in the space provided on the Les-
Pmt
son Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the circles be-
Student No Lesson No
neath your student number and lesson number.
XY o 2 3 7 9
Mann
Reminder: A properly completed Lesson Answer ip0000000 000©
Form allows us to evaluate your answers and speed 00000000 0000
oolb00000 imoe
the results and additional study material to you as
Goofe0000 000®
soon as possible. Do not hold your Lesson Answer 0000000l, 000®
Forms to send several at one time. You may run out opoce000 000®
00000000 0000
of study material if you do not send your answers
c000fe000 000l,
for evaluation promptly. 00000•®o 000®
00000000 0000

1. If a9V battery and a6V battery are 3. A common point on the wiring connections,
connected in series aiding, the total voltage tied to the negative side of the power source,
of the two batteries will be: is called a:
a> 15 volts. a. Lug.
b. 3volts. (4. Ground.
c. 9volts. c. Node.
d. 6volts. d. Chassis.

2. If a6V battery and 4V battery are connected 4. A voltage of 20 mV is equal to how many
in series opposing, the total voltage across the volts?
two will be: a. 20 volts.
a. 6volts. b. 2volts.
b. 4volts. c. 0.2 volts.
2volts. Ca. 0.02 volts.
d. 10 volts.

19
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

5. If the current flow in the circuit is 2A when 8. If the current flow in acircuit is 8A and
the voltage is 5V, what will the current be the resistance is 2ohms, the voltage will be:
when the voltage is raised td20 volts? a. 4volts.
a. 1-1 2amperes. b. 8volts.
b. 4amperes. c. 12 volts.
,—
t. 8amperes. d. 16 volts.
d. 20 amperes.
9. If the voltage in acircuit is 100 V and the
6. If the current flow in the circuit is 4A when current is 1A, then the resistance is:
the resistance is 2ohms, what will the cur- a. 1ohm.
rent be if the resistance is increased to 8 b. 10 ohms.
ohms? ® 100 ohms.
1ampere. d. 1000 ohms.
b. 2amperes.
c. 4amperes. 10. If the current flow in acircuit is 6mA and
d. 8amperes. the resistance is 6k, what will the current
be if the resistance is changed to 3k?
7. If the voltage applied to acircuit is 20 V a. 3milliamperes.
and the resistance is 4ohms, the current b. 6 milliamperes.
will be: c. 9milliamperes.
a. 20 amperes. g 12 milliamperes.
b. 10 amperes.
rC'. 5amperes.
d. 1ampere.

20
 64e-eic)

ee,5‘1548e
MAW/ Schools

EACH DAY COUNTS

Each day of our life offers its own reward for work well done, its
own chance for happiness. These rewards may seem small, and
these chances may seem petty in comparison with the big things
we see ahead.

As aresult, many of us pass by these daily rewards and daily

opportunities, never recognizing that the final goal, the shining
prize in the distance, is just asum of all these little rewards we
must win as we go along.

LT2217(901) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

 P"
0 rd

fi
fió

m-.4 wum> 4
Using Your Digital Multimeter 5788

p a

g NRI Schools V

1
ADivision of The McGiapp•Ifill Companies

Washington, DC 20008

M
•

•
•

Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Figure References 3

Copyright © 1996 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

 •

Objectives

When you have completed the experiments in this

•
manual and listened to the accompanying audio tape
you will know:

• How to make ac and dc voltage measurements.

• How to make resistance measurements.

• How to measure circuit current.

• Which measurements are made in series and which

measurements are made in parallel with the circuit.

•
e

Introduction

Please refer to the figures in this booklet as you listen

to NRI's Action Audio Cassette, which you received as
part of your training unit 4976K. Before you begin the
tape, make sure you have your DMM handy.

The tape leads you step-by-step through the basic op-

eration of your DMM. You'll be asked to perform various
operations and to make visual observations with your
DMM as you listen to the cassette — that's NRI's Action

•
Audio Learning.

This Action Audio Learning Unit was written and pro-

duced by the NRI development staff for the exclusive use
of NRI students. Ithink you'll find this NRI Action Audio
Learning Unit an exciting way to learn electronics.

•
1
USING YOUR DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Figure References

Figure 1. The DMM with the leads connected for voltage and resistance
measurements.

2
e

Figure 2. The DMM should be in parallel with the voltage being measured.

Figure 3. Connect the meter in series for current measurements.

•
3
USING YOUR DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Figure 4. Resistance readings are also taken in parallel.

Figure 5. Internal view of the DMM.

4
•

Figure 6. The overrange indicator.

e
c, ..,...[Link]-., v.
la . ,a

au, • Ile

IlIh • • U.

• he

. he. •
the le
%PI Ans e.

MAS1ICH. M92A

Figure 7. Current gain for a 2N4124 transistor using the special transistor-
testing socket of the OMM. Note that the leads of the DMM are removed.

•
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
•
you may want to review during your studies.

•
•

•
AVM/Schools

AraW Graduates Say...

"Through NRI Inot only received the experience Iwas looking for, I
also gained the confidence Isought to return to college and upgrade
my skills and further my career ambitions. Iparticularly enjoyed the
way you structure the course into smaller sections; it provided me the
opportunity to move through the lessons at my own pace without fear
of missing something important.

Ichose NRI because right from your first correspondence with me I

felt as though Ihad to mail out my application right away It sounded
so exciting, Icouldn't wait to get started, which is what Idid. Ilooked
forward to each new lesson because it felt so good to read and
comprehend almost immediately, and those times Ididn't understand,
after one or two re-reads, Igot it. Ionly needed the help of an
instructor once, but his reply was prompt and clear. Iwas almost

•
sorry once Ihad completed the course, but I've since enrolled in
college and my studies continue. Would Irecommend NRI to others?
Ialready have! Ising your praises often to workmates and Ithink a
couple of them have applied.

So all Ican say is thanks to you Iam far better off than Iwas three
years ago, and my future looks bright. I'm sure there are many others
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Groton, Connecticut

0M5788(806) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

•

Working with the 8085 Microprocessor

4427

• NRI Schools
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Washington. DC 20008
0

•
 •

Copyright © 1995 By NR! Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN KM4427
•
03
• Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Examination Questions 2

•
 •

Objectives •
In this training manual, you will. ..

• Understand the instruction set for the 8085 microprocessor.

• Convert hexadecimal code into binary numbers.

• Learn to read the instruction stored at an address in ROM.

• Learn the most, and least, significant bits of abinary ad-

dress.

•
•

Introduction

In this training unit, you will build and If at any time you find that the programs
program the 8085 microprocessor trainer. in the lesson do not execute properly, check
The projects in this training unit will enable the program entry using the following
you to better understand the operation of a method:
microprocessor.
• Set the ADO-AD7 and the A8 switches to
In the experiments in this unit, you will exam- the correct address.
ine RAM, ROM, displays, and data entry. Your • Press the ALE switch to latch the address.

• experiments will show how address, data, and

control buses carry information to and from the
processor and how the Arithmetic/Logic Unit
• Press the RD switch to read the data
stored at that address.

Remember that the ALE switch must be

(ALU) registers operate.
pressed every time the address switches are
The assembly of the 8085 microprocessor changed.
is divided into lessons. Each lesson is de-
After you complete the assembly and pro-
signed to demonstrate a particular micropro
gramming of your microprocessor trainer, re-
cessor function. As you go through the lesson
turn to this manual and answer the Kit
in the assembly manual, follow the instruc-
Questions.
tions carefully. Do not skip lessons. The
trainer is assembled in stages, and later ex-
periments may not work if the preceding step
was skipped.

•
WORKING WITH THE 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

Examination Questions
This is Examination Number 4427.

Make sure you print your name, student num-

ber, and examination number (Lesson No.) in Name Jotr stye
Pmt
the space provided on the Answer Form. Be Lesson No.
Student Na
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student
number and examination number (Lesson No.).
XY o 23 t914 !MI
Reminder: A properly completed Answer
Form allows us to evaluate your answers and
speed the results and additional study mate-
rial to you as soon as possible. Do not hold
your Answer Forms to send several at one
time. You may run out of study material if
you do not send your answers for evaluation
promptly.

1. During the programming of your micro- 2. The data to be stored at an address is a

processor trainer, the address switches jump instruction (C3). What is the binary

are set as shown below. The switches are code for this instruction?
set to store data at which memory ad- a. 0011 1100.

dress? b. 0110 1100.

a. 0012. c. 1100 0110.

b. 002A. d. 1100 0011.

c. OICA.
d. 01FF.

A8 AD7 AD6 ADS AD4 AD3 AD2 AD1 ADO

2
•
3. At what addresses in ROM is the pattern 8. What is the memory location where the
code for the display stored? KEY FOUND (K FND) routine is stored?
a. 0030-003E a. 00A2-00AF.
b. 0040-004F. b. 00B8-00CA.
c. 0050-005F. c. 00D4-00E1.
d. 0060-006F. d. 00EF-00FE

4. The ROM IC of the trainer is: 9. In the instruction set for the 8085 micro-
a. IC1. processor, what is the hex code for a
b. IC2. jump (JMP) command?
c. ica a. 00.
d. IC4. b. 24.
c. C3.

5. The switch which enables instruction to be d. DE

written to ROM is the:

a. EN RAM switch. 10. What is the hex code for amove to mem-
b. EN ROM switch. ory command (MOV MA)?
c. WR switch. a. 00.
d. WEN switch. b. 77.
C. AA.

• 6. Which switch(es) set the least significant d. FE

bit of the address?

a. ADO-AD3.
b. AD4-AD7.
c. A8.
d. TIM.

7. What ROM addresses contain the display

information?
a. 0040-006A.
b. 0077-00A4.
c. 00A5-00FE
d. 0177-01A4.

•
3
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
•
notes you may want to review during your studies.

•
•

•
MAW/ Schools

[Link] Say...
"My training with NRI was very good. Ilike the way that you broke
up the major topics into smaller, more "digestible" segments. Then
all of the extra material that added support was just incredible. You
did not leave any rock unturned."

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Lawrenceville, Georgia

e
KM4427 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
 6748

Student's Guide
for Computer-Aided
Troubleshooting

NRI Schools
A Division of The McGraweill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
.
1

t
 DC Electronics

Computer-Aided Troubleshooting
 Imprint 1998
Copyright © 1997 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008
Table of Contents

Introduction 1

What You Need to Know 2

How to Use this Manual 2
What You Get 3
What You Must Have 3

Installing the Program 4

Installing on aNetwork 6
Installing with [Link] 6
Removing the Program 6

Operating the Program 7

Mouse and Keyboard 7
Scroll Bar 7
Buttons 9

Using the Program 10

Student Workdisks 10
Starting the Program 10
Running the Program 11
Menus and Screens 13
Using the Tools 18
Leaving the Program 22

Evaluating Yourself 23
Using the Tb Files 23
Factors to Consider 24
Additional Ways to Use the Program 27

The Problems 28
Objectives of the Program 28
Series Resistors 29
Series/Parallel Resistors 29
Resistor Bridge 30
R/C Combination 30

Answer Sheet 31
 Acknowledgments

We wish to express our thanks to the staff of Heathkit

Educational Systems. Their contribution to this team
effort, in providing our students with quality educa-
tional materials, has been significant.
Introduction

Welcome to Computer-Aided Troubleshooting (CAT)

from NRI Schools. NRI's DC Electronics Computer-Aided
Troubleshooting Package is an interactive software
program. With this troubleshooting software, you, the
student, actually interact with "life-like" equipment mal-
functions. Full-color animations bring asense of realism to
problem-solving interactions. You are placed in achallenging
electronics troubleshooting environment where you are not
restricted simply to reading from atextbook. The program
draws you into actual troubleshooting situations where you
participate in complete safety and privacy. It provides you
with both rewarding responses and constructive reinforce-
ment. It is beneficial in that it provides an alternate,
game-like method of teaching electronic troubleshooting.

The program offers you the opportunity to learn trouble-

shooting through fast-paced, hands-on simulations in a
totally nonthreatening environment. By performing these
experiments on the computer, you experience the real and
practical side of electronics first-hand without worry of
damaging equipment or yourself.

1
DC ELECTRONICS

What You Need to Know

How to Use this Manual

This Student's Guide contains the documentation for

the NRI DC Electronics Computer-Aided Troubleshooting
program. This manual is written for the electronics student
and the licensed site installer. It is assumed that the
student or the installer has some limited computer knowl-
edge of hardware and software, MS-DOS in particular.

This manual is divided into sections. The first, which

you are reading, introduces the program and the manual
itself. It contains alist of what is included in this product
and the system requirements needed to successfully run
the program.

The next three sections cover installing, operating, and

using the program. Here, you'll find asimple installation
procedure. It covers how to use the mouse, keyboard, and
other features. These sections also tell you what you'll see
in the program: menus, screens, windows, and tools.

The remainder of the manual contains further informa-

tion and adetailed list of the troubleshooting examples,
plus an answer for each problem. Because the answer to
each of the troubleshooting problems is included in this
manual, it is merely regarded as an adjunct, not as an
examination, within your course. Thus, it will serve to
enhance your troubleshooting knowledge and abilities.

2
What You Get

The NRI DC Electronics Computer-Aided Trouble-

shooting (CAT) program consists of:

• one or more 3.5" program disks

• one Student's Guide

What You Must Have

In order to run the CAT Program, the computer must

be equipped with this hardware:

• 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486 or better processor

(PC compatible)
• 640 KB or more of RAM
• Hard disk drive with 2MB or more of free disk space
• EGA or VGA color monitor and driver
• One or more 3.5" floppy drives
• Mouse

And this software:

• MS-DOS 3.1 or higher

NOTE: Most of the functions of this program can be

accomplished using only the keyboard. However, amouse is
required for afew operations and is highly recommended
for efficient use of the program.

3
DC ELECTRONICS

Installing the Program

Through ajoint effort by NR! and Heathkit Educa-

tional Systems, this interactive electronic troubleshooting
program has been made available. You will note appropriate
credits as you start the program each time. If, by chance,
some fault occurs in the installation or operation of this soft-
ware program, please contact NRI to obtain instructions
concerning software correction or replacement procedures.

NOTE: The following installation instructions assume

that the floppy drive designator on your computer is "A:." If
your floppy drive is designated with aletter other than
"A:," substitute that letter in the instructions.

To install the CAT program, do the following:

1. Insert Disk 1into floppy disk drive A.

2. Type: A:
Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)
(This logs you onto drive A.)

Type: INSTALL
Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)
This will start the installation program.
3. Before installation actually begins, the program first
checks to make sure your computer's operating environ-
ment is compatible with the hardware/software
requirements necessary to operate the CAT program
(see "What You Must Have" for the hardware/software
requirements). If your computer's environment is in-
compatible in any way, the program will NOT install.
In this case, asimple explanation as to the incompati-
bility will appear, and you will be returned to the DOS
prompt.
A typical example is when the installation program
does not find ahard drive with enough space for the

4
 A typical example is when the installation program
does not find ahard drive with enough space for the
program. In this case, you need to free up space on the
hard drive before you run the installation program again.
If the installation program verifies that your system is
compatible, it will continue with the installation.
4. Next, the program will ask you for the hard drive desig-
nator where you wish to install the program. The pro-
gram will list possible choices based on your system.
Simply press the letter for the drive where you want
the program installed. Caution: Do not simply press
the RETURN (or ENTER) key. You must press the
letter of the desired drive.
You will then be given the opportunity to modify the in-
stallation path, or accept the default path. The default
directory is CAT_DC. Unless you specify otherwise the
program will be installed in this directory. If you prefer
that it be installed in another directory use the backspace
key to remove the CAT_DC path and enter the new path
name.
5. The installation program will begin copying files from
Disk 1onto your hard drive. If there is more than one
disk for the installationof the program, the installation
process will ask you to insert the next disk after it fin-
ishes copying the necessary files from Disk 1. If you insert
an incorrect disk, the installation process will notify
you of this situation.
6. Continue this process until all disks have been inserted
and copied. Some disks contain many files, and may take
afew minutes to install onto your hard drive. When all
the CAT disks have been installed, the installation
program will automatically exit and return to the DOS
prompt.

All of the program files will be contained in asubdirec-

tory on your hard drive called "CAT_DC", or whatever
path you specified during installation. To access that
sub-directory, type in CD \CAT_DC and press RETURN
(or ENTER). To run the program, refer to the "Operating
the Program" section of this manual.

5
DC ELECTRONICS

Installing on aNetwork

The program may be installed on some types of networks.

Follow the preceding installation procedure to install the
program on the server. Make sure each user is granted
read, write, and file access to the directory the program
was installed into.

For more information, refer to your network manuals

and your distributor.

Installing with [Link]

[Link] provides file sharing and locking to the

MS-DOS operating system. If it is running on your
computer while you are installing NRI Computer-Aided
Instruction (CAI) software, it may cause the INSTALL
program to not recognize that the correct disk has been in-
serted in the floppy drive. If you encounter this problem,
check your [Link] file and make sure SHARE is
not being loaded. Once the CAI software has been in-
stalled, you can re-enable loading of [Link] if other
software requires it to operate properly. The NRI CM soft-
ware should have no problem running with or without
SHARE loaded. Only during installation might you encoun-
ter this problem.

Removing the Program

The CAT program can be removed from the hard drive

at any time. Simply delete the "CAT_DC" subdirectory (or
whatever path you specified during installation) and its
files from DOS.

6
Operating the Program

Mouse and Keyboard

The CAT program can be operated by both amouse

and akeyboard. Both input devices control the position
of an arrow cursor ( 4)over program selections. While a
mouse is not absolutely required to run the program, we
strongly recommend using one for the ease it provides in
moving through the program. Also, there are afew opera-
tions that can be performed only with the mouse. For com-
puters not equipped with amouse, the arrow keys on the
keyboard (<— t—> 1) move the arrow cursor. These arrow
keys, as well as the rest of the keyboard, can be used in
addition to amouse.

Scroll Bar

There are times when the text information appearing

in awindow is much larger than the window itself. In
these instances, all of the information can be reviewed by
scrolling. This is accomplished with the help of ascroll
bar, located at the edge (usually the left side for this pro-
gram) of the window. See figure 1on the next page.

The scroll bar consists of an up direction button (located

at the very top), adown direction button (located at the very
bottom), and aslider button (located along the vertical path
between the up and down direction button). The up and
down buttons move the view of the text in small incre-
ments, while the slider allows for large, rapid movements
of the text body. In order to use these buttons, the user
must position the cursor over the button using the mouse,

7
DC ELECTRONICS

1. This is text material.

2. Unseen text can be brought into

view by moving the scroll bar
downward.

Figure 1. Window with Scroll Bar.

by using the cursor direction keys (<— is —> 1), page up

(PgUp), and page down (PgDn) keys of the keyboard.

The student has three options for moving text:

1. To scroll text line by line, position the arrow cursor at

either the up direction button or the down direction
button, and click the mouse button (or press RETURN)
once. Keeping the mouse button (or RETURN) depressed
continues the scrolling action.
2. FOR MOUSE USERS. Position the arrow cursor directly
on the slider button, then press and hold the mouse but-
ton. Vertical mouse movement positions the slider button
to any desired location on the scroll bar. The text follows
the movement of the slider button.
3. FOR KEYBOARD USERS. The PgUp, and PgDn keys
may be used. PgUp and PgDn move the up/down
direction button in large steps along the scroll bar.

8
Buttons

A student can also move around in the program by

using the mouse to press "buttons" as shown in figure 2
that appear on the screen. Buttons are activated by
moving the cursor over the button and either clicking the
mouse button or pressing RETURN. Using buttons is a
procedure that students will pick up very quickly. When a
button is selected in ascreen, it depresses like anormal
switch.

Button
Figure 2. Window Button.

9
DC ELECTRONICS

Using the Program

Student Workdisks

To access and operate the installed program, you must

provide and use astudent workdisk. This disk is your
"workbook" for the course. It records every move that
you make as you progress through each troubleshooting
experience.

Your workdisk must be inserted into afloppy drive to

gain access to the program. The first time this is done, the
program will ask for your name, and records that informa-
tion on the disk. The disk then becomes unique for you
and the course. Anyone else who tries to access the pro-
gram must have his or her own workdisk. If astudent
plans to continue through NRI's CAT series, another disk
will be needed for each course. Any blank, formatted floppy
disk may be used as aworkdisk.

It is important that you take good care of your work-

disks, as the information on each disk is unique. Damaging
or losing adisk will result in lost data.

Starting the Program

To start the DC Troubleshooting program:

• Type: CD\ CAT_DC (or path specified in installation)

• Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)

This logs you into the program subdirectory.

• Type: DC EXPLORE
• Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)

10
 NOTE: This program is incompatible with some disk
caching utility software. If you are having problems start-
ing or running the program, make sure you are not running
autility such as [Link]. Also, because the program is
graphics intensive, it requires about 500K bytes of free
memory. You can free up memory by removing TSR
programs such as screen savers, network drivers, etc.

Running the Program

Opening Screens

The program begins with an introductory graphics

screen followed by an acknowledgment screen that includes
copyright information. These two screen displays continue
to alternate until the student clicks amouse button or
presses the RETURN key on the keyboard.

Check/Verify Workdisk

Following the opening graphics screen, the program

will verify the presence of astudent workdisk. The pro-
gram must see agood workdisk before it will move on.
The following outline details the procedure for verifying
workdisks.

I. Insert Workdisk. You will first see awindow telling

you to insert aworkdisk (even if you have one already
inserted). There are two buttons to choose from at this
point.
1. Continue. Press this button if you have aworkdisk
inserted in one floppy drive for your system. This
will move you to "Verify Workdisk," which is item II
in this outline.
2. Exit to DOS. If you select this button, another window
will appear asking to verify your exit. At this point,
you have two choices:
a. Resume the Program. If you select this, the pro-
gram will move back to "Insert Workdisk," which
is item Iabove.
b. Confirm Exit to DOS. If you select this, the pro-
gram will initiate an exit procedure, which includes
creating and using apassword. The "Leaving the
Program" portion of the User's Guide explains
this part of the program.

11
DC ELECTRONICS

II. Verify Workdisk. The program will search the

floppy drives installed on your system for aproper
Student Workdisk. If you have two floppy drives, the
program will search the "A" drive first. If it does not
find aWorkdisk in the "A" drive it will then search
the "B" drive. There are three possible results during
this operation:
1. New Correct Workdisk Present. If the program
finds agood workdisk which has never been used
before, the program will prompt the student to
enter the first name, then the last name. Simply
type in each name, and press RETURN. After
the last name has been entered, that workdisk will
be configured to work for that name, and for this
course only. The program will then move to "Help
Request," which is Item III in this outline.
2. Used Correct Workdisk Present. If the program
finds agood workdisk which has been used before,
the program will immediately move to "Help
Request," which is Item III in this outline.
3. Incorrect Workdisk or No Workdisk Present. If
the program fails to find aproper workdisk, a"Disk
Read Error" message will appear on the screen.
You have two choices at this point:
a. Exit to DOS. You may select this option to return
to aDOS prompt via the password screen as ex-
plained later in "Leaving the Program."
b. Continue. If you select this option, you will
return to "Insert Workdisk," which is Item Iin
this outline.

III. Help Request. Once aproper workdisk has been

installed and verified by the program, awindow will
appear offering the chance to review the information
in the "Help" portion of the program prior to begin-
ning. This option is offered regardless of whether
the student has previously used the program or not.
There are two options at this point:
1. Access Help Window. By pressing this button, you
enter the "Help" portion of the program. See the
"Help Window" portion of this User's Guide for
more information on the "Help" section.
2. Begin the Program. By pressing this button you
move to the Main Option Menu of the program,
which is the first menu.

12
Menus And Screens

This troubleshooting program uses aseries of menus

that allows the student to move around smoothly and effi-
ciently. Figure 3shows the general path that the student
follows through the program. The arrows point to the
direction of the path, and the boxes contain other screen
options and options for exiting the current screen.

MAIN OPTION MENU

1. Series Resistors
2. Series /Parallel Resisitors
3. Resistor Bridge
4. R /C Combination
5. Insert New Student VVorkdisk
6. Exit to DOS

FAULT OPTION MENU

PI HELP SCREEN
1. Fault #1
2. Fault #2
Defines each function and
3. Fault #3
operation of the
4. Fault #4
troubleshooting screen.
5. Random Fault
6. Previous Menu

SUPPORT SCREENS

1. General Guidelines
2. The Problem (defined)

1
TROUBLESHOOTING SCREEN

1. Make voltage tests.

2. Make resistance tests.
3. Use Signal Generator to apply input.
4. Replace faulty parts with good ones.
5. Review the schematic.
6. Check the circuit board layout.
7. Ideas are available to assist you.
8. Check to see that the problem has been
located and repaired.
9. Exit to main Menu.

Figure 3. Program Flowchart.

13
DC ELECTRONICS

There are five main sections of the program. Each is

explained in more detail in the following paragraphs:

Main Option Menu

Fault Option Menu
Support Screens
Troubleshooting Screen
Help Screen

Main Option Menu

The Main Option Menu lists the four basic trouble-

shooting problems, as shown in figure 4. These are: Series
Resistors, Series/Parallel Resistors, Resistor Bridge, and
R/C Combination problems. The student selects one of
these and proceeds to the Fault Option Menu. The Main
Option Menu also offers the opportunity to change to anew
student workdisk. This is done when changing students or
when the present workdisk is full.

Fault Option Menu

The student selects one of the faults or returns to the

previous menu. The Random Fault is one of the four faults
randomly picked by the program, as shown in figure 5.

Support Screens

These are several screens of text that give general

guidelines for troubleshooting DC circuits and describe
the problem that the student has selected.

Circuits Troubleshooting Menu Version 1.0 1

,1Help

Direct Coupled DC Amplifier Circuit

Dual-Stage Voltage Amplifier Circuit

Emitter-Follower Regulator Circuit

Wein-Bridge Oscillator Circuit

Initert Student Work Disk

Exit to DOS

Figure 4. Main Option Menu.

14
 Circuits Troubleshooting Menu Version 1.0 Fl Help

Fault #1

Fault #2

Figure 5. Fault Option Menu.

General Guidelines

Figure 6shows the General Guidelines screen. This

screen gives the student several important guidelines for
troubleshooting DC Circuits. The student can use the
scroll bar to move the additional guidelines into view.
This screen is dispayed at the start of the first problem
(Series Resistors) or it can be called up at any time from
the Help Screen. The "Exit Guidelines" button takes the
student to the next screen.

Circuits Troubleshooting Fl Help

GENERAL GUIDEr rNES FOR TROUBLESHOOTING ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

1. In order to have acomplete circuit, you need apower source, a

load, and acomplete path for current flow.

2. If acomponent is faulty and breaks the path for current; this

is called an open. When an open occurs, the resistance measured
across the open is INFINITE OHMS. Sometimes you will find faulty
components that have not opened completely; the resistance mea-
sured across these components will be much higher than normal.

3. When an open occurs in acircuit, no current can flow through

the circuit. Therefore, all other components in the circuit will
have a measured voltage drop of 0VOLTS. If you attempt to
measure voltage across the open component, the measured voltage
will equal the voltage applied to the circuit.

4. Another type of fault occurs when acomponent offers little

Figure 6. General Guidelines Screen.

15
DC ELECTRONICS

Problem Screen

A typical Problem Screen is shown in figure 7. Problem

screens are used to set up the troubleshooting scenario. They
place the student in areal life servicing situation. Two or
more problem screens explain the problem in enough detail
to lead the student into the actual problem.

Troubleshooting Screen

As shown in figure 8, this screen shows components on

acircuit board. Students can turn power on and off to the
circuit, make voltage and resistance tests, unsolder compo-
nents and place them on the workbench, replace bad
parts with good ones, look at the schematic or the compo-
nent view, inquire to get troubleshooting ideas, and finally
check to see if they have fixed the problem.

Help Screen

The Help Screen, figure 9, may be accessed at any time

by pressing the Fl key. To operate the Help Screen, just
click on atool or button. A short message indicates exactly
what that tool or button does. You can also click on other
screen areas such as the push-button switch, circuit
board, workbench, meter display and test log. Here again, a
message will tell you the purpose or function of the object
selected.

When finished, click on the top EXIT button.

Circuits Troubleshooting Fi Help

THE PROBLEM: The alarm system that you installed in your car is
malfunctioning. The alarm siren no longer operates. The system is over
two years old, and its warranty has expired. The alarm system is located
under the hood, connected to the driver's side of the firewall. Since the
system is now "out of warranty," you risk nothing by breaking the seal
and correcting the problem yourself.

_...--

411 ileW
II
6Ott -- -
-------

44 Return to Main Menu Next Page I>

 Figure 8. Troubleshooting Screen.

Fault #1 F1Help
PREVIOUS NEXT GENERAL GUIDELINES

Test Log -Keeps record of measurement

results and test locations. (Readings
in red are with the Power switch turned
on). For quick changing voltages and
resistances, only the final reading is
recorded.

WORKBENCH

Figure 9. Help Screen.

17
DC ELECTRONICS

Using the Tools

Students will spend most of their time in the Trouble-

shooting Screen. In this screen, they have access to a
number of tools and buttons that allow them to simulate
real world troubleshooting. Each of these tools and buttons
are explained below.

Schematic /Component-View Button

This button allows you to examine either

the component view of the circuit or the
schematic. You switch from one view to
the other by clicking on the button.

Soldering Iron

The Soldering Iron allows you to remove

components from the circuit. It is selected
by clicking on the button. When you select
this tool, the cursor will be replaced by a
small soldering iron icon. Simply click
this icon on the component you wish to
unsolder. The component will be auto-
matically removed from the circuit and
placed on the workbench.

Swap Component

The Swap Component tool allows you to

replace acomponent with a"known good"
component. When you select this tool, the
cursor will be replaced by the soldering
iron icon. Simply click the icon on the com-
ponent you wish to replace or the space
where a previously removed component
belongs. The component will be automat-
ically replaced with a"known good"
component of exactly the same type as
the one removed.

18
Idea or Hint Button

The hint button can give alittle nudge if

the student gets bogged down. When this
button is clicked, abrief message is dis-
played where the workbench normally
appears. The message remains until the
mouse is clicked again. For each fault
there are three different hints.

Check Button

This button is used to check the results

of the repair. If the repair has been ac-
complished, acongratulations message
will appear. Otherwise a"sorry, please
continue" message is given.

1
Exit Button

The Exit Button allows you to leave the

troubleshooting Screen at any time. It

EXIT takes you to the Main Options Menu

which was discussed earlier.

Power Button

This button controls power to the circuit

under test. Click to turn power on. Click
POWER
again to turn power off Generally there
ON will be no voltages present in the circuit
until power is turned on. Power should
be turned on before making voltage
measurements. Conversely, power should
be turned off before making resistance
measurements.

19
DC ELECTRONICS

Board /Schematic Icon

This icon performs the same function as

the Schematic/Component-View Button
explained above. That is, it allows you to
switch back and forth between the sche-
matic diagram and the component view
of the circuit under test.

Switch

Sometimes acircuit will contain aswitch.

In this case, the switch may be operated
by clicking on its top button. This will
open and close the contacts like areal
switch. The switch will stay closed for as
long as you hold down the mouse button.

The Workbench

The Workbench area serves two purposes.

First, it is the area where components
are placed when removed from the cir-
cuit with the soldering iron. Resistance
and continuity checks can be made on
components in this area. Second, it acts
as amessage display area. Both hint
and warning messages appear here.

The Multimeter

The Multimeter is the primary instru-

ment used to troubleshoot the circuit. This
L%6I
...tUC meter is an autoranging digital multi-
meter capable of measuring DC Volts and
Resistance. The appropriate mode is
chosen by clicking on the DC Volts or

20
 Ohms Button on the meter. The meter's
input impedance is high enough that it
will not load the circuit under test. The
autoranging feature means that it will
automatically choose the right range.

The meter also has an autoblanking fea-

ture that blanks out the display until the
digital count stops its runup. Therefore,
quick changes in voltage or resistance
may be missed. As with many digital
meters, infinite ohms are indicated by
asingle 1in the far left display.

To use the test leads, first click on the

test lead button. Then click on the com-
ponent lead and the test lead will con-
nect itself there. To reposition the lead,
click on the test lead and then on the
new destination.

The Recording Log

The Recording log provides arecord of

all the measurements made. It automat-
ically scrolls up as new measurements
are added. By using the scroll arrows,
measurements that have scrolled out of
sight can be brought back into view Volt-
age readings are red when power is on
and black when power is off. Once again,
for fast changing conditions, only the final
reading is recorded. The log will record up
to 200 readings in asingle "fault." After
200, any new reading will replace the
last one.

21
DC ELECTRONICS

Leaving the Program

The program periodically "updates" your student work-

disk. Normally, you should leave the program by using
the Exit Button. When this is not done there is agood
chance that the summary of actions may not be recorded
on your student disk.

If you select the Exit to DOS button at the bottom of

any screen, and do not have the proper password, you will
be audibly and visually alerted. The Exit to DOS button
returns the user to the DOS prompt only when the correct
password is given.

The password you establish may be changed at any

time to avoid compromise or to reestablish asecure sys-
tem. To establish anew password, you will need to type
NEW (at the password-to-DOS screen) and the screen
prompts.

If power is lost, due to power failure or inadvertently

turning the computer off while still in the troubleshooting
program, the last Fault will not be updated onto the work-
disk. The proper shut down procedure is to first use the
Exit to DOS button, then enter the proper password, re-
turn to DOS, and then remove power.

22
Evaluating Yourself

One of the prime advantages of using the CAT pro-

gram is its ability to help you evaluate your performance.
For the first time, you have apractical, private, and sys-
tematic way of judging your own troubleshooting tech-
niques and procedures. It is as if you have an assistant to
stand behind you and, with astop watch and memo pad,
unerringly time and record every step you take.

Using the Tb Files

Your performance while using the CAT program is re-

corded on your workdisk as aTb file. The identification of
these files are easily recognized as the first two letters of
such afile will be Tb. These files are created when you be-
gin atroubleshooting scenario of the CAT program. Each
and every sequential step performed during the scenario
is recorded with atime marker noted to the left of the per-
formed step. The contents of these files can be reviewd us-
ing ageneric text file editor or word processing application
program.

After completing your troubleshooting assignment(s),

you can review the Tb files for your actions during the sce-
narios. Keep in mind that the Tb files are named sequen-
tially (i.e. Tba, Tbb, Tbc, Tbd, etc.). If you happen to
troubleshoot the first fault more than once, the Tb files
will record one file per attempt. You will not be able to
determine which scenario you completed by viewing the
file names alone.

23
DC ELECTRONICS

Once afile is open you may see information similar to

that shown in the figure on the following page. This file con-
tains awealth of information including:

1. The Problem name and Fault number.

2. A statement of what the fault was. For example: The
problem was: Resistor R1 is open.
3. Date and time that the problem was started.
4. A simple circuit representation to refresh your memory
(if needed) of the schematic diagram.
5. Under the heading "Recordings," the step by step proce-
dure that you performed. The number of steps may be
lengthy and require you to move to the next page to
see all of the recorded actions taken.
6. Each step indicates the time the step occurred in minutes
and seconds.
7. Each step indicates the procedure performed and its
outcome.

Factors to Consider

As you progress through the CAT program, every step of

your performance is captured on the student workdisk.
By carefully analyzing the "trail" that you have followed,
you can accurately evaluate your performance through
the various troubleshooting scenarios.

However, troubleshooting is as much an art as it is a

science. Keep in mind that it is your technique you will
be judging as well as the final result. Because of trouble-
shooting's very nature, evaluating one's performance is
somewhat subjective. No two technicians will approach
troubleshooting in exactly the same way. And while there
are general guidelines, it is difficult to list specific rules
that are right for every situation. Indeed, troubleshooting
philosophy varies widely from one company to the next,
and you will even find diverse views among experienced
technicians. Consequently, as astudent, you will have to
make many judgment calls as to how you carry out
the troubleshooting assignment. Even so, the following
guidelines will be of some use to you in evaluating your
performance.

24
Direct-Coupled DC Amplifier$1$Solved
CIRCUITS TROUBLESHOOTING
Direct-Coupled DC Amplifier
Fault # 1
The problem was: Resistor 2is OPEN

DATE: Thursday, 11 /23/1996

TIME: [Link]

Circuit Setup:

12 VDC RY1A
1 o o TP7 TP =TEST POINT
TP1 o/o----1 1 R =RESISTOR
I II Q =TRANSITOR
I 11 M1 M =MOTOR
R2 2200 Ohm TP6 II
1 1 RY1B 11 1
1 ---o--o- -0-1 TP8
TP5-1 / o
1 1Q2
I \
TP3 TP4 1 1 ( o FWD/REV
I I/ I ( Input
INPUT o- -R1 1Q1 1 (
47K ohm \ 1 ( GRND
I I
TP2-1 1 160 Ohm
5VDC
I
GRND

Recordings:

10:081 The technician took areading on TP1,TP5 -- Infinite ohms

10:121 Technician replaced RESISTOR 2with anew one

10:151 The technician checked the result and got aright answer

25
DC ELECTRONICS

There are several factors you should consider in evalu-

ating your performance. These include:

1. Did you find the fault and fix it?

This is the most fundamental question to ask. After all,
this was the assignment. Failing repeatedly in this task
indicates that you do not fully understand the assign-
ment, or how the program works, or you may have
serious deficiencies in your knowledge of the subject.
Even so, this is not an unusual situation the first or
second time that you are exposed to the program. Usually
it indicates that you are not yet comfortable with the pro-
gram. Examining one's actions as recorded on the work-
disk should go along way toward pointing out your weak
areas.

2. Did you approach the problem in alogical way?

This is perhaps the single hardest question to answer.
Normally, you will be expected to make voltage or
resistance measurements prior to replacing acompo-
nent. Did you do this in asystematic way, making all
voltage measurements before moving on to resistance
measurements or vice versa? Did you make enough
measurements and the right types of measurements
to uniquely identify the fault? Did you make far more
measurements than were necessary?

3. Did you use the equipment properly?

Did you attempt to measure voltage with the power off? A
minor infraction. Or did you attempt to measure resistance
with the power on? A more serious offense.

4. Did you follow good safety practices?

Did you attempt to remove acomponent with the
power applied?

5. How many components did you replace before fixing the

problem?
Ideally you should replace only the malfunctioning
component. Wholesale replacement of parts will eventually
result in a"fix" but is not considered good practice.

6. How long did it take you?

By reading the Tb file(s) on the student workdisk, you
can determine the exact amount of time spent on each
step of the troubleshooting scenario as well as the over-
all problem. You may want to take this into considera-
tion. Time can play acrucial factor in troubleshooting
when customers and their money is involved.

26
 As the student, it is your responsibility to decide how
much weight will be placed on each of the above factors
and any other factors you may consider important. Also,
you may want to change the weight of some factors as you
progress. For example, forgetting to shut off the power
before working on the circuit might be attributable to
unfamiliarity with the program the first time it happens.
But, it might be judged more severely on subsequent
occurrences.

Additional Ways to Use the Program

Once you become proficient at finding and repairing

the faults using your own individually developed tech-
niques, some additional variety can be introduced by
setting up special scenarios which will cause you to rethink
their techniques. For example, you may want to run
through the program under one of the following scenarios:

1. Find and fix the fault as quickly as possible. There are

situations in which time to repair is the most impor-
tant factor. A failure of akey piece of equipment on an
assembly line comes to mind. Every second that the
line is down costs the company money. When time is
the overriding concern, the troubleshooting technique
may be radically different.
2. Find and fix the fault with minimum soldering. Soldering
is an intrusive procedure. Anytime you remove or replace
acomponent by soldering you risk damage to adjacent
components, the circuit board, or the component being
removed. This is especially true with today's micro-
miniaturized electronics devices and multilayer circuit
boards.
3. Find and fix the fault making measurements only with
the voltmeter. Limiting the use of test equipment to
the voltmeter will cause you to use Ohm's Law and
other theoretical concepts. So while this may not be a
legitimate technique, it makes an interesting learning
experience.

27
DC ELECTRONICS

The Problems

The Problems and Faults were chosen to give the student

across section of troubleshooting experience. The early
scenarios are designed to ease the student into trouble-
shooting while the later ones provide amore thought pro-
voking challenge. There are no trick problems although in
the last two problems component values and the charac-
teristic of the meter are selected to prompt discussion. All
malfunctions are either open or shorted components.
There is only one malfunction per fault.

Objectives of the Program

Upon completion of this exercise you will be able to:

1. Use aschematic diagram and acomponent view of a

circuit, match each component and test point on the
schematic with its counterpart on the circuit board.
2. Demonstrate that widely separated points on acircuit
board may be "electrically" identical.
3. Demonstrate the proper use of avoltmeter and ohmmeter.
4. Use aseries circuit with an open component, find and
replace the faulty part.
5. Use aseries circuit with ashorted component, find and
replace the faulty part.
6. Use aseries-parallel circuit with an open component, find
and replace the faulty part.
7. Use aseries-parallel circuit with ashorted component,
find and replace the faulty part.
8. Use abridge circuit with an open component, find and re-
place the faulty part.

28
 9. Use abridge circuit with ashorted component, find
and replace the faulty part.
10. Demonstrate the proper method of testing aswitch
with an ohmmeter.
11. Demonstrate the proper method of testing acapacitor
with an ohmmeter.
12. Demonstrate that the resistance value measured
across acomponent connected in acircuit may be
vastly different from the value measured across the
same component removed from the circuit.
13. Demonstrate that power should be removed from the
circuit before any repair is attempted.
14. Demonstrate that power should be removed from the
circuit before using the Ohmmeter.
15. Demonstrate that because of component and meter
tolerances, resistance and voltage measurements are
not always exactly what the student expects.
16. Demonstrate the value of being able to estimate what
voltage or resistance reading to expect.
17. Demonstrate the unique abnormalities caused in
various types of circuits by opens and shorts.

Series Resistors

This first problem is designed to get the student comfort-

able with using the CAT program. The resistance readings
match the color codes exactly and the voltages are about
what you would expect from Ohm's Law. The resistance
values make it easy for the student to estimate what the
voltages should be. The faults introduce avariety of
shorts and opens, with symptoms that are easy to spot.

Series/Parallel Resistors

In this problem, the student begins to experience toler-

ances but still not enough to confuse the outcome. The
resistance readings begin to diverge slightly from the
"ideal." Here again, resistor and voltage values are such
that estimations are fairly easy. The four faults that are
introduced will give the student an excellent grasp of the
unique characteristics of shorts and opens in the series/
parallel combination.

29
DC ELECTRONICS

Resistor Bridge

In this problem, the concept of "tolerances" is driven

home. Some of the resistance readings are deliberately
chosen to cause the student to think about component and
meter tolerances. By the time you complete all four faults,
you should begin to realize that the readings obtained in
the real world may vary from the ideal values predicted by
theory alone.

A/C Combination

In this final problem, three additional types of compo-

nents are introduced: the capacitor, the switch, and the
lamp. Also the added feature of being able to open and close
the switch, both in and out of the circuit, adds variety,
realism, and interest for the student. Here again, compo-
nent values and the characteristics of the meter are chosen
to make the student think. In particular, the value of the
capacitor is small enough so that its charge and discharge
are hidden by the initial blanking of the meter. Also, when
power is removed, the capacitor quickly discharges back
through the power supply load resistance (not shown).

30
Answer Sheet

DC Electronics Troubleshooting

Series Resistors

Fault #1 Control Panel Lights R1 open

Fault #2 Control Panel Lights R3 shorted

Fault #3 Control Panel Lights R3 open

Fault #4 Control Panel Lights R2 shorted

Series/Parallel Resistors

Fault #1 Snowmobile R2 open

Fault #2 Snowmobile R3 open

Fault #3 Snowmobile R1 shorted

Fault #4 Snowmobile R1 open

Resistor Bridge

Fault #1 Bridge Circuit R2 open

Fault #2 Bridge Circuit R4 open

Fault #3 Bridge Circuit R3 shorted

Fault #4 Bridge Circuit R1 shorted

R/C Combination

Fault #1 Test Equipment R1 open

Fault #2 Test Equipment Li open

Fault #3 Test Equipment Cl shorted

Fault #4 Test Equipment Cl open

31
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.
 •

.•-•1

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A r7 Schools

Alir~ Graduates Say...

"I would highly recommend anyone to give NRI atry The lessons are
easy to understand and are set up in away that makes them easy to
remember. The reason Ichose NRI is because Iwas recovering from a
back injury and surgery and it seemed like agreat way to pass the
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The money Ihave made as aresult of NRI has more than paid for
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b
0M6748(807) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
 fP:op
•

'p p .

113 "
Working with Wilts 98 7322
p F Study Guide to
Accompany
Windows 98
Made Easy
0

•
•

Working with Windows 98

•
 •

Copyright 0 1998 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN SG7322 e
04
• Table of Contents

Module Overview 1

Assignment 1: Internet Explorer and the Active Desktop 4

Introduction 4
Objectives 5
Reading Assignment 5
Self-Test Questions 5
Examination 6

Answers to Assignment 1Self-Test Questions 7

Assignment 2: Email, Newsgroups, and Web Pages 10

Introduction 10
Objectives 11
Reading Assignment 11
Self-Test Questions 11

•
Examination 12

Answers to Assignment 2Self-Test Questions 13

Assignment 3: Web Servers, NetMeeting,

and Mobile/Remote Computing 15
Introduction 15
Objectives 16
Reading Assignment 16
Self-Test Questions 16
Examination 17

Answers to Assignment 3Self-Test Questions 18

Assignment 4: Configuration and Management

of Windows 98 20
Introduction 20
Objectives 21
Reading Assignment 21
Self-Test Questions 21
Examination 22

• Answers to Assignment 4Self-Test Questions

Assignment 5: Working with Windows 98

23

26
•

•
•

Module Overview

Welcome to the second part of your Windows 98 learn-

ing experience! In this module, you'll go beyond the basics
and learn about Web browsing and communication, as
well as Windows 98 configuration and management. Your
training consists of atextbook, Windows 98 Made Easy:
The Basics and Beyond, in conjunction with this study
guide, Working with Windows 98. We'll cover Chapters
12-22 of your textbook in this module.

• This study guide is your key to navigate your way

throughout this course. It consists of objectives, reading
assignments, self-test questions, and instructions for a
graded examination at the end of the first four assign-
ments. Be sure to read the introduction and objectives
presented in the study guide before you read the material
in the textbook. We strongly suggest that you carefully fol-
low each assignment as it's presented in this study guide.
Each assignment provides basic information that you'll
use as "stepping stones" to understand later concepts.

Don't forget that you must take an examination after

each of the first four assignments. You'll find instructions
in each assignment for taking these exams. Before taking
an examination, however, please review that assignment's
Self-Test Questions. Although the questions don't cover all
of the examination material, they do cover many of the
assignment's objecives. Working through the Self-Test
Questions will help you better understand the reading.
Remember, you should feel comfortable with the assign-
ment objectives and textbook reading before taking an

•
assignment examination.

1
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

There are five assignments in this module. Let's take a

look at them:

Assignment 1: Internet Explorer and the Active

Desktop

This assignment covers Chapters 12-13 in your text-

book. Here, you learn the ins and outs of surfing the Inter-
net using Internet Explorer, Microsoft's Web browser
that's included with Windows 98. You learn how to search
for information on the Web and manage the information
that you view in Internet Explorer. Of special interest is a
section on blocking unwanted Internet sites from your
computer. You also learn all about the Active Desktop,
subscriptions, and Web channels. These are all new com-
munications capabilities with Windows 98, and we're
certain that you'll be amazed and impressed as you learn
about these features.

Assignment 2: Email, Newsgroups, and Web Pages

This assignment covers Chapters 14-16 in your text-

book. You'll take alook at using Windows 98's email pack-
age, Outlook Express, to communicate with other users.
Newsgroups and discussion groups are also covered.
Finally, you'll learn some basics of FrontPage Express, a
software program that comes with Windows 98 and lets
you create pages to place on the Internet.

Assignment 3: Web Servers, NetMeeting, and Mobilel

Remote Computing

This assignment covers Chapters 17-19 in your text-

book. Here, you delve into some advanced features of
Windows 98 — Personal Web Server, NetMeeting, and
mobile and remote computing. Personal Web Server is a
desktop Web Server that lets you actually publish Web
pages on an intranet or the Internet. NetMeeting is a
software program that lets you communicate with others
over computer networks. With NetMeeting, you can set up
videoconferences and share applications and information
online. Finally, you'll take alook at how Windows 98 can
help you hit the road and still remain connected to your
home or office computer and networks.

2
 Assignment 4: Configuration and Management of
Windows 98
This assignment covers Chapters 20-22 in your text-
book. Here, you examine the necessary steps for installing
devices — such as printers, modems, or multimedia equip-
ment — on your computer. You also learn about the
Windows 98 tools and utilities — such as Disk Cleanup,
ScanDisk, and Disk Defragmenter — that maintain your
system. This is avery important section because you learn
how to back up files and prevent loss of information. And
finally, you check out some tips for optimizing your sys-
tem's performance and for troubleshooting.

Assignment 5: Working with Windows 98

This assignment is ahands-on practical project that

you must turn in to your instructor for grading. Be sure to
follow the directions carefully for completing the project
and sending it in for grading.

•
3
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Assignment 1:
Internet Explorer and
the Active Desktop

Introduction

Welcome to the Information Superhighway! No matter

if you're an experienced "Net Surfer" or if you've never
been on the Internet before, this assignment shows you
how Microsoft has made the Internet easy to access and
manage with its Internet Explorer. If you're anewcomer
to the Internet, we recommend reading Appendix B in the
back of your textbook to get abetter idea of what the
Internet is all about. Here, you'll get an introduction to
the Internet and how you can access it. While you may
not have Internet access at this time, this section still
provides you with the necessary information and know-
how for getting connected and maneuvering your way
around the 'Net.

When using the Internet, it's important to keep in mind

that in terms of what's out there, "anything goes." That is,
there are no rules or regulations, no standards, no quality-
control mechanisms, and no monitoring. What you basi-
cally need to know is that just because you find something
on the Internet, it might not necessarily be correct infor-
mation. You see, anybody — and that means you, too! —
can publish aWeb page on the Internet. As amatter of
fact, you will learn how to create and publish aWeb page
in this course! What this comes down to is that if you
wanted, you could publish a"History of America" Web
page that says, for example, "Christopher Columbus dis-
covered America in 1776 and named it America because
that was his mother's maiden name." No one would stop

4
 you from making this very incorrect information available

• to everyone in the world with an Internet connection. So,

just aword of warning: As you explore the Internet, it's
okay to have fun and even get alittle carried away with
all the information available at your fingertips, but please
take care to note where your information is coming from.

Objectives

After completing this assignment, you should be able to:

• Browse the Internet using Internet Explorer.

• Use an Internet search engine.
• Mark your favorite Web sites.
• Use the Internet Explorer's multimedia, security, and
add-in features.
• Understand how Webcasting, subscriptions, channels,
and WebTV work.
• Manage the Active Desktop.

• Reading Assignment

Read and study Chapters 12 and 13 in your textbook.

When you've finished the reading, return here and answer
the Self-Test Questions for this reading assignment.

Self-Test Questions

Please check your answers on page 7.

1 Name four ways to launch the Internet Explorer.

2 Explain how Windows 98 provides integrated access to
both local files and the Internet.
3 What is the Links toolbar?
4 How can you make sure that the Web page you're view-
ing is the most up-to-date version?
5 What does the History list keep track of?
6 What is one problem with the RSACi rating system?

•
7 What kind of information would you put on the Active
Desktop?

5
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

8 What is the difference between channel-defined sites

and non-channel defined sites in Windows 98?
9 True or false. It's possible to subscribe to asite but
just have Internet Explorer tell you (via email or via
the Favorites menu) that the site has been updated.
10 How is it possible to browse the Web without being
connected online? What do you think is an advantage
and adisadvantage to this method?

Examination

The examination for Assignment 1is packed separately

in this module. Once you've completed the work for this
assignment, locate Examination 7323 and complete it
according to the instructions provided with it.

Be sure to phone or send in your answers for grading

as soon as you complete the exam and check your
answers. This should help prevent any unnecessary
shipping delays in your study materials.

Once you've completed the examination and sent in

your answers for grading, you can go on to the next
assignment. You don't need to wait for the graded
response to this examination.

6
•
Answers to Assignment 1
Self-Test Questions

1 Four ways to launch the Internet Explorer are:

• Click on the Internet Explorer icon on the Desktop,
Taskbar, or Quick Launch toolbar.
• Open any folder window and type aWeb address in
the Address field.
• Click on the Start menu and choose Find IOn the
Internet.
• Click on the Start menu, select Favorites, and choose

•
aWeb page that you want to open.
2 Windows 98 provides integrated access to both local
files and the Internet. For example, if you open My
Computer and Drive C, you can browse the directories
located there for information. When you type an
Internet address in the Address window, you'll be
taken directly to the Internet. When you click on the
Back button, you'll be taken right back to your local file
system. This is integrated access.
3 The Links toolbar is atoolbar that contains links to
some Web sites, such as Microsoft's Best of the Web,
Welcome to My Yahoo!, Channel Guide, and Internet
Start. You can delete any links that you don't want on
the Links toolbar, as well as add new ones that you
want to access easily.
4 You can make sure that the Web page you're viewing is
the most up-to-date version by clicking on the Refresh
button, located on the toolbar. When you click this
button, Internet Explorer reloads the page for you,
ensuring that you've got the latest "edition."

•
7
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

5 The History list keeps track of all the places that

you've visited on the Web. It organizes your "trips"
every day, providing you with daily, weekly, and
monthly lists of addresses you've visited on the Web.
You can adjust the History list's settings for the
number of days that addresses are maintained in the
list. For example, as adefault, the list keeps addresses
that you've visited within the past twenty days. How-
ever, you can change the default to two days (if you
have limited hard disk space, for example) or even as
much as 999 days.
6 One problem with the RSACi rating system is that not
all Web sites use it. Therefore, by default, Internet
Explorer blocks any sites that don't use this rating
system. Because of this, children may be blocked from
suitable sites that don't happen to use the RSACi
rating system. An alternative is to permit Internet
Explorer to show sites without ratings, but this defeats
the purpose of preventing children from gaining access
to sites that may not be suitable.
7 The Active Desktop is the place to run active Web
content. Some examples of information that you could
put on the Active Desktop are news from Web sites
such as CNN or MSNBC. You could also put informa-
tion such as stock quotes, weather reports, and sports
scores. Basically, you can put any programs that were
created with ActiveX and Java.
8 Channel-defined sites are Web sites that support
Windows 98 channel technology. Channel-defined sites
have aCDF file (channel definition file) that Internet
Explorer reads to find out what information at the site
has been recently updated. This process is aquick one
because Internet Explorer doesn't have to read through
all the pages (called crawling) to find out what infor-
mation has been updated, which is what it has to do on
non-channel defined sites.
9 True. It's possible to subscribe to asite but just have
Internet Explorer tell you (via email or via the Favorites
menu) that the site has been updated. To do this, go to
the Internet site that you want to subscribe to. Choose
the Add to Favorites on the Favorites menu and choose
the option "Yes, but only tell me when this page is
updated." You may want to select this option if you
want to download the new information at your own
convenience and not at apredetermined time.

8
 10 You can browse the Web without being connected

•
online if you take advantage of Windows 98's offline
browsing feature. Basically, this feature lets you
download the contents of aWeb site at night or when
you're not using your computer. Then, when you go to
view the information, you access the site as if you
were online. An advantage of this method is that you
save time by downloading content when you're not at
your computer. This way, you don't have to wait for it
to load. A disadvantage is that the information you're
viewing offline isn't the most up-to-date information,
which is amain feature of the Internet. While this
wouldn't be abig deal if you were looking up, for ex-
ample, the role of the United States in World War II,
it might matter agreat deal if you were trying to
catch up on the day's current events. As acomparison,
it would be like reading yesterday's newspaper
tomorrow.

•
9
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Assignment 2:
Email, Newsgroups,
and Web Pages

Introduction

"Just email it to me" is an attitude that's sweeping the

world. While we used to have to wait several days for a
letter to arrive via the Postal Service, with aclick of the
mouse we can send and retrieve information within seconds
over email (short for "electronic mail"). Email is an amaz-
ing technological advancement which may soon rival the
telephone for ease of use and popularity. However, many
people still aren't comfortable with the email process —
whether it's writing abasic message, sending an attach-
ment, retrieving mail, or filing messages. This assignment
will show you the basics and beyond of email messages.

You'll also learn about newsgroups in this assignment.

We think that you're going to really enjoy this section!
Newsgroups are public discussion groups via email about
pretty much anything. You can join anewsgroup that dis-
cusses Seinfeld, the Gulf War, Shintoism, or even child
care, just to name few topics. Be forewarned, however:
Newsgroups can be very addictive! Before you know it,
you can easily spend three or four hours reading and
replying to messages. This is natural in the beginning, as
you're learning and discovering the power of communica-
tion in newsgroups. But be careful: Remember that life
does go on outside of the newsgroups! (We're telling you
this information from personal experience!) Try not to
spend too much time wrapped up in anewsgroup.

Finally, this assignment will show you how to publish

Web pages with FrontPage Express. Take aminute to
think about what this means: You will be able to put
something of yours on the Internet for the whole world to
see! Maybe you've always wanted to write abook but

10
 never had the chance to get it published. Well, if you want,

• you can put your book online for anyone to read. This as-
signment won't show you how to write your book, but it
will show you how to use FrontPage Express, which is in-
cluded with Windows 98. FrontPage Express is basically a
Web page-layout program. It uses HTML (hypertext
markup language) — alanguage used to place informa-
tion on Web pages.

Objectives

After completing this assignment, you should be able to:

• Format, send, and receive email messages with attach-

ments using Outlook Express.
• Access Web pages with Outlook Express.
• Organize your email in folders and make your email
messages secure.
• Access, subscribe to, participate in, and respond to
newsgroups using Outlook Express.

• • Manage newsgroup messages and change newsgroup

properties.
• Understand the Web publishing process.
• Use FrontPage Express to publish and edit your Web
pages.

Reading Assignment

Read and study Chapters 14-16 in your textbook.

When you've finished the reading, return here and answer
the Self-Test Questions for this reading assignment.

Self-Test Questions

Please check your answers on page 13.

1 Where are newly received messages located in Outlook

Express?

•
2 If you receive amessage that has apaperclip icon next
to it, what does it mean?
3 What does the Reply to All feature do?

11
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

4 Explain how you can format Outlook Express email

messages in HTML, and why you might want to do
this.
5 How can you create asignature in Outlook Express?
6 How would you go about getting adigital ID?
7 Why is it important to follow anewsgroup's etiquette
conventions?
8 How can you ask Outlook Express to not show news-
group messages that contain the words "sell" or "sale,"
for example?
9 Explain what FrontPage Express is and what you'd
use it for.
10 How do you create ahyperlink in FrontPage Express?

Examination

The examination for Assignment 2is packed separately

in this module. Once you've completed the work for this
assignment, locate Examination 7324 and complete it
according to the instructions provided with it.

Be sure to phone or send in your answers for grading

as soon as you complete the exam and check your
answers. This should help prevent any unnecessary
shipping delays in your study materials.

Once you've completed the examination and sent in

your answers for grading, you can go on to the next
assignment. You don't need to wait for the graded
response to this examination.

12
•
Answers to Assignment 2
Self-Test Questions

1 Newly received messages in Outlook Express are

located in the Inbox. However, keep in mind that you'll
only receive new messages if you're connected to the
appropriate mail server.
2 If you receive amessage that has apaperclip icon next
to it, it means that the email message contains an
attachment. An attachment is afile that was delivered
along with the email message.

•
3 When you select the Reply to All feature when respond-
ing to an email message, you're replying to every single
person who received that email message, not just the
email message's author. For example, let's say that you,
Sarah Smith, and Jake Smith received an email mes-
sage from John Smith. If you select Reply to All, you're
replying to Sarah, Jake, and John. However, if you only
want to reply to John, you'd want to select the Reply to
Author button.
4 You can create email messages with HTML content in
Outlook Express by choosing Options on the Tools
menu, clicking the Send tab, and then enabling the
HTML in the Mail sending format and News sending
format fields. You might want to do this so that readers
of your messages can view the formatting in your
messages.
5 You can create asignature in Outlook Express via the
Stationery dialog box. Click on the Signature button to
open the Signature dialog box. You can create the text
of your signature here, or you can designate asigna-
ture file. This dialog box is also the place to create a

•
business card, which is an attachment that contains
personal information about you.

13
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

6 To get adigital ID, open the Tools menu and select

Options. Next, select the Security tab. You can click
on the More Information button to learn more about
digital IDs. Or, you can select the Get Digital ID
button and it will connect you to Microsoft's digital
information site.
7 It's important to follow anewsgroup's etiquette
conventions because if you don't, you're likely to get
flamed. That is, newsgroup users will send you lots of
mean email messages and tell you about the mistakes
you've made in using the newsgroup.
8 You can ask Outlook Express to not show newsgroup
messages that contain the words "sell" or "sale" by
using the Newsgroup Filters feature, located in the
Tools menu in Outlook Express. Click on the Add
button to make anew filter.
9 FrontPage Express is aprogram for creating Web
pages. It basically looks and works like aword-
processing or page-layout program. With FrontPage,
you can format pages to post them on the Internet.
FrontPage Express formats your pages in HTML
code, but you don't even need to know this program-
ming language to use FrontPage Express. It works
just like apage-layout program! For example, if you
want to bold asection of text, you simply highlight
the text and press the Bold button on the Format
toolbar — It's that easy. FrontPage Express even
contains aNew Page Wizard that walks you through
the process of creating atypical home page. FrontPage
Express also makes it easy to create hyperlinks to
other pages or Web sites.
10 To create ahyperlink in FrontPage Express, type
some text and highlight the part that you want to be
the hyperlink. Next, select Hyperlink from the Insert
menu. You can select where you want your hyperlink
to go: On an existing open page, apage on the World
Wide Web, or anew page that you haven't yet created.
Next, choose the type of link that you want to create.
(See Table 16-1 in your textbook for adescription of
the various links that are available.) Now you can
type in the link's address in the URL field and then
click OK.

14
•
Assignment 3:
Web Servers, NetMeeting, and
Mobile/Remote Computing

Introduction

This assignment will show you the real power of

Windows 98 with its Personal Web Server (PWS),
NetMeeting, and remote computing options. While these
may not be programs that you'll use every day, they are
features that can make your life much easier!

PWS is asoftware program, included with Windows 98,

• that basically puts Web pages out on the Internet for you.
Your textbook calls PWS a"desktop Web server," which is
an accurate description. With PWS, you can publish Web
pages for the entire Internet community to see. The differ-
ence between FrontPage Express and PWS is that Front-
Page Express helps you create and format your Web
pages, while PWS acts as aserver that serves up the
pages for the Internet. If you're interested in creating
and publishing Web pages, you'll want to study the PWS
section in your textbook in detail.

NetMeeting is also included with Windows 98. It's a

software program that lets you communicate with people
over computer networks. With NetMeeting, one of the
neat things that you can do is set up avideoconference.
Keep in mind that to take advantage of the videoconfer-
encing capabilities, you'll need acamera. Before you rush
out and buy one, you should decide if you'll even need to
use the videoconference feature. It is anice program if you
have aneed for it. You might want to look beyond its obvi-
ous business advantages and see how you might use it in
your personal life. Do you have family members living all
over the country or even the world? NetMeeting could be
agreat communication tool for keeping in touch with

15
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

them. This assignment provides you with the ins and outs
of using NetMeeting.

Finally, you discover the power of remote computing.

This is awonderful feature for people who are on the go
but who need access to an office or home computer network.
Just think: Wouldn't it be great if you could access the
office computer from your laptop when you're actually
three states away from the office? It can be done with
Windows 98's remote computing.

Objectives

After completing this assignment, you should be able to:

• Create and publish aWeb page.

• Make non-HTML documents available on your Web
site.
• Create aguest book and collect information from
visitors.
• Use NetMeeting to communicate with others.
• Understand how NetMeeting can be used to share
applications and documents with multiple users.
• Understand the many mobile/remote features of
Windows 98.

Reading Assignment

Read and study Chapters 17-19 in your textbook.

When you've finished the reading, return here and
answer the Self-Test Questions for this reading
assignment.

Self-Test Questions

Please check your answers on page 18.

1 Where is PWS located?

2 What is adrop box?
3 If you create ahome page with FrontPage Express,
where should you save the files?
4 What equipment is necessary to make phone calls and
to set up videoconferences with NetMeeting?

16
 5 How can you transfer files to members of your

• NetMeeting session?
6 What is NetMeeting's Whiteboard?
7 What is docking?
8 What is deferred printing?
9 Explain the idea of the Briefcase.
10 What is Windows CE?

Examination

The examination for Assignment 3is packed separately

in this module. Once you've completed the work for this
assignment, locate Examination 7325 and complete it
according to the instructions provided with it.

Be sure to phone or send in your answers for grading

as soon as you complete the exam and check your
answers. This should help prevent any unnecessary
shipping delays in your study materials.

• Once you've completed the examination and sent in

your answers for grading, you can go on to the next
assignment. You don't need to wait for the graded
response to this examination.

•
17
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Answers to Assignment 3
Self-Test Questions

1 PWS is included with Windows 98, but it's not included

with the normal installation. To use PWS, you must
install it from the Windows 98 CD-ROM. Choose Run
from the Start menu and type in the following line:
d:\add-ons\pws\[Link]
After you've installed PWS, you can access it from
the Publish icon on your Desktop.
2 A drop box is aprivate mail box where visitors to your
Web site can leave messages for you. Visitors just need
to click on the "Leave aPrivate Message" option that's
set up on your home page. You can access your private
messages through the Personal Web Manager. Click the
Web site icon in the left pane and then click the Open
Your Drop Box option.
3 If you create ahome page within FrontPage Express,
you should save the files in the wwwroot folder. You
should also put any graphic elements or any other of
your home page inserts into this folder.
4 To make phone calls and set up videoconferences with
NetMeeting, you would need amodem, sound card, mi-
crophone, and speakers. You should have aPentium-
type computer with at least 32MB of RAM. To video-
conference, you'll also need acamera.
5 There are two ways to transfer files to members of your
NetMeeting session. One way is simply clicking and
dragging the file into the NetMeeting window, where
it's automatically delivered to members of the session.
Or, if you don't have the file that you want to transfer
handy, you can use the File Transfer option on the
Tools menu.

18
 6 NetMeeting's Whiteboard is basically awhiteboard
program. You've probably been to meetings where a
whiteboard was used; it's basically awhite board that's
hung on awall. You can write on the whiteboard with
special markers that easily erase with adry sponge.
It's like agrown-up version of ablackboard. NetMeet-
ing has expanded this idea for use over the Internet or
an intranet. The program works like the Paint pro-
gram. You can draw graphics or whatever you want;
participants in the session can view your drawings and
even add to them or create their own.
7 Docking is when you quickly attach or detach your lap-
top to and from adesktop connection. Hot-docking is
when you can remove your laptop from adocking port
without even having to turn it off. You can reconnect it
at another docking station or use it as astand-alone
computer as soon as you detach it from the docking
station.
8 Windows 98's deferred printing feature allows you to
send print jobs to aprinter even when you're away
from that printer. Basically, the print jobs are saved
to adisk and then when you reconnect to that printer,
the print jobs go through.
9 The Briefcase is designed to help you keep track of
files when you're working off adesktop computer and
alaptop. What you do is this: When you're ready to
travel with your laptop, copy the files you'll need from
your desktop computer into the Briefcase —just like
you'd place files inside an actual briefcase. Then, copy
the files from your briefcase onto your laptop. You can
edit the files on your laptop, and then copy them back
into the briefcase again when you plan to return to
your desktop computer. When you copy them from the
Briefcase onto your desktop, the Briefcase automati-
cally updates the files that have changed in their
original location; you don't have to copy the files to
their original location.
10 Windows CE is the travel version of Windows 98. It's
an operating system that's used by many handheld
PCs (H/PCs) and palm computers. The CE operating
system runs versions of the same applications that
are on Windows 98: Microsoft Excel, Word, Internet
Explorer, and Outlook Express, for example. The sys-
tem is set up so that you can plug your H/PC into your
Windows 98 desktop computer. You can share informa-
tion back and forth between the two computers.

19
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Assignment 4:
Configuration and
Management of Windows 98

Introduction

This assignment touches on the configuration and

management of your Windows 98 system. You will exam-
ine how to install and configure any devices (such as a
printer, modem, or multimedia equipment) that you may
want to add to your system. Don't think that just because
you purchased abrand-new computer fully loaded with
devices, you won't need to worry about add-ons. With the
way technology is expanding these days, you will always
need to know how to add and install devices.

You'll find that this assignment is alittle technical in

nature, due to the many different hardware options and
configurations required for installing devices. Don't feel
threatened! Just try to get an overall understanding of
the configuration-and-management process rather than a
micro view of the various steps that you need to do for a
specific task. As with any type of skill, it's difficult to
understand something until you have to do it. By under-
standing the general way that devices are added on, when
it's time for you to install and configure one, you'll know
the basics about what to do, and then you can consult a
manual or even your textbook for the detailed steps.

This assignment also covers hard drive maintenance

and troubleshooting for your Windows 98 system. While
these topics may sound like something that you'd rather
leave to the "techies," you should really think again! It's a
smart idea to be aware of the behind-the-scenes workings
and controls of your system, and with Windows 98, it's
easy to understand and implement the techniques and
options that you'll learn about in this assignment. Take
some time to really get to know how you can optimize and

20
exercise preventive maintenance on your computer — It's
well worth it!

Objectives

After completing this assignment, you should be able to:

• Install and set up devices, such as printers, modems,

and multimedia technologies.
• Understand how you can change and configure device
settings.
• Use the Windows Maintenance Wizard, Disk Cleanup,
ScanDisk, Disk Defragmenter, and DriveSpace to
perform system maintenance and enhancement tasks.
• Scan your system for viruses and back up your system
and data files.
• Adjust and optimize your system's performance
configurations.
• Use Microsoft System Information Utility and System
Monitor.

Reading Assignment

Read and study Chapters 20-22 in your textbook.

When you've finished the reading, return here and answer
the Self-Test Questions for this reading assignment.

Self-Test Questions

Please check your answers on page 23.

1 Where is the main place for installing and configuring

new devices for Windows 98?
2 If you're viewing your system properties in the Device
Manager and see an exclamation point over alisted
device, what does this mean?
3 When you view the currently installed printers in the
Printers folder in the Control Panel, what do the
"check," "hand," "disk," and "cable" placed near a
printer icon signify?
4 Where can you set up and configure amodem?
5 What is the Windows Maintenance Wizard?

21
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

6 Where is the Windows 98 program for scanning for

software viruses?
7 True or false. You can easily back up your hard drive
right to another file or folder on the same hard drive.
8 Where do you check your Windows 98 system
performance?
9 How can you get the latest Windows 98 updates?
10 True or false. Windows 98's System Monitor is atool
that directly lets you know when you have aproblem
with your operating system and computer.

Examination

The examination for Assignment 4is packed separately

in this module. Once you've completed the work for this
assignment, locate Examination 7326 and complete it
according to the instructions provided with it.

Be sure to phone or send in your answers for grading

as soon as you complete the exam and check your
answers. This should help prevent any unnecessary
shipping delays in your study materials.

Once you've completed the examination and sent in

your answers for grading, you can go on to the next
assignment. You don't need to wait for the graded
response to this examination.

22
•
Answers to Assignment 4
Self-Test Questions

1 The main place for installing and configuring new

devices for Windows 98 is the Control Panel. You can
use the Add New Hardware utility to start up awizard
that will help you with the installation and configura-
tion process.
2 If you're viewing your system properties in the Device
Manager and see an exclamation point over alisted de-
vice, it means that there is aproblem with that device.

•
You can select the device and click Properties to see
information about the device and resolve any problems.
3 When you view the currently installed printers in the
Printers folder in the Control Panel, the "check" symbol
placed near aprinter icon means that the printer is the
default printer. A "hand" symbol placed near aprinter
icon means that the printer is available for other
network users to access. The "disk" symbol placed near
aprinter icon means that the printer prints to afile.
Finally, the "cable" symbol placed near aprinter icon
means that the printer is anetwork printer that's
attached to another computer.
4 You can set up and configure amodem with the
Modems utility in the Control Panel. You can use the
Install New Modem Wizard to easily add amodem.

•
23
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

5 The Windows Maintenance Wizard is afeature of

Windows 98 that schedules disk housekeeping tasks
for times when you're not going to be using your
computer. It arranges for activities such as the Disk
Defragmenter, which rearranges the way that pro-
grams are stored on your computer so that the pro-
grams will run faster. Another activity that it can
schedule is the ScanDisk utility, which scans for and
corrects hard drive errors. Disk Cleanup, which
removes unnecessary files to free up disk space, is
also scheduled by the Windows Maintenance Wizard.
Keep in mind that you don't have to wait for the
Windows Maintenance Wizard to schedule these
tasks for you; you can run any of them at any time
you choose.
6 Windows 98 doesn't contain aprogram for scanning
for software viruses. The authors of your textbook
recommend software programs from Symantec or
McAfee.
7 False. You don't want to back up your hard drive right
to another file or folder on the same hard drive be-
cause if you lose your hard drive, your backup files
will be lost, too! You want to back your files up to any
of the following:
• A floppy disk
• A zip-type drive
• Another hard drive on your system
• Another computer on your network
• A tape drive
• A server on the Internet
8 You can check your Windows 98 system performance
in the System utility. You can open the System utility
either by right-clicking on the My Computer icon
or by opening it up in the Control Panel. Once you
open the System Properties dialog box, click on the
Performance tab. Here, you'll find performance infor-
mation such as Memory, System Resources, File
System, and Virtual Memory.

24
 9 You can get the latest Windows 98 updates by going

• to Microsoft's Web site. All you have to do is select

Windows Update on the Start menu. This will take
you to the Windows 98 update site. There, you can
access the Update Wizard.
10 False. Windows 98's System Monitor doesn't directly
let you know when you have aproblem with your
operating system and computer. Instead, you need to
run the program over aperiod of time to see how your
system performs.

•
25
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Assignment 5:
Working with Windows 98

Congratulations! You've arrived at the last assignment

in your Windows 98 course: the hands-on project. This
project is packed separately in this module. Locate
Project 7327 and complete it according to the instructions
provided with it.

Keep in mind that this project requires you to complete

five exercises on your computer and mail us your work for
grading. Be sure to set aside enough time to do the project
carefully and completely. Don't rush through the work.
Have fun with your project, and if you have trouble
remembering how to perform aparticular task, feel free
to consult your textbook for more information.

Good luck, and we wish you success as you work with

Windows 98!

26
 NOTES
• Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
•

•
•

•
A WAr
Schools

PRACTICE WHAT YOU LEARN

Everyone knows that steady practice is needed to master asport.
But did you ever stop to consider the importance of steady applica-
tion to acourse of study? To be able to use what you know, you
have to practice.

As you read through these lessons, make aspecial note of sections

that seem difficult. You must ask yourself if you understand each
idea presented. Develop confidence in your knowledge of the basics
before you attempt to go on.

It has been said that children must learn to walk before they run.
So, too, must students practice what they learn before they can
apply their knowledge effectively. Review your lessons at every
opportunity. Each section will require aknowledge of what has
come before.

How do beginners become experts? By recognizing and mastering

each detail of the job set before them.

SG7322 A Division of The McGraw -Hill Companies

 •

0,'

m-4 um.
Solving Computer Problems 6133

• • NR1 :
S
4cto
ol,.. Hilt c,mpwvies e

Washington, DC 20008
•

•
 •

Copyright @ 1997 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN KM6133
•
05
• Table of Contents
Overview 1

Computer Troubleshooting 2

Using Troubleshooter 4
Making aBackup Copy of Troubleshooter 4

Setting Up Your Computer 5

CD-ROM Testing 8

Computer Troubleshooting 12
Computer Won't Start 12

Computer Will Not Boot 13

Computer Runs Slow 14

Examination Questions 16

•
 •

Lesson Objectives

After you complete this training unit you will be able to:

• Explain the use of loop-back plugs.

•
• Describe the testing procedures for CD-ROM drives and
sound cards using Troubleshooter.

• Describe the steps of atypical troubleshooting procedure.

• List the values of the voltages provided to the mother-

board from the power supply.

• Describe the effects of an IRQ conflict.

•
•

Overview

Servicing microcomputers can be along, Diagnostic software can also be of great value
tedious process. Often one has no idea where in "burning in" anew computer for delivery to
to start when confronted with acompletely acustomer. Diagnostic software can test the
"dead" machine. In other cases, an intermittent RAM and other circuits that are prone to early
problem that occurs randomly can take agreat failure. Running avariety of tests over a24
deal of time and patience to track down. To add to 48-hour period can often identify marginal
to these problems, the physical construction parts and avoid early failure in the customer's
and layout of the various computers available location. Frequently, such software also is used

• is far from "standard," which means that after acomputer has been repaired, in order to
knowing the layout and construction of one gain some assurance that additional break-
machine will not help when dealing with an- downs will not occur after the machine is
other machine. returned to its owner. Diagnostic software is
also useful for isolating and identifying problems
Even with the use of expensive and sophis-
associated with peripheral devices, such as
ticated test equipment, it can be quite difficult
serial and parallel ports, display adapters,
to pinpoint troubles that develop in computers.
and disk drives, as well as special-purpose
Oftentimes, diagnostic software or diagnostic
devices.
cards are of little use if the computer is not
functioning enough to get the diagnostic In this training unit, we have supplied you
equipment running on the computer. These with the Troubleshooter diagnostic software
situations require amore basic approach to package. It has all the features you need to
troubleshooting. thoroughly analyze and test computers that
are at least minimally operational. It is an
If the computer will turn on, and begin to
excellent tool for checking almost every com-
boot, diagnostic software is the best bet to find
ponent in acomputer. Troubleshooter will
the problem. The better software packages on
prove invaluable to you when you service
the market have their own operating system.
computers.
By booting from the diagnostic software dis-
kette, problems caused by software and hard-
ware conflicts are eliminated.

•
SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Computer Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is alogical step-by-step office manager or other contact person, rather

procedure used by atechnician to solve prob- than the actual user. The information provided
lems. This applies to auto mechanics, air- to you may not be complete. Talking to the
conditioning technicians, telephone repairmen, actual user will provide you with astarting point
or computer technicians The procedure used for your troubleshooting. For example, suppose
by the technician has been developed over time that the service call was for acomputer that
into asystem that works best for that techni- locks up. When you talk to the user, you will
cian. To solve computer problems, you'll need find that the actual complaint is that the
to develop your own systematic troubleshooting mouse does not work in DOS application on
procedure. In this manual, well give you some aWindows 95 machine.
ideas or steps to follow; however, the procedure
As you can see, the problem varies greatly
you use will evolve as you gain experience solving
depending on who's reporting it. Also, the
computer problems.
solution has been changed from ahardware
All troubleshooting procedures have com- repair to simply loading the mouse driver in
mon elements. For example, ageneric trouble- the [Link] file of the computer.
shooting procedure is shown below. This
Confirm the problem: Any problem reported
generic procedure can be adapted to auto
by auser must be confirmed by the technician.
repair, air-conditioning service, or computer
This step may give you some insight to the
servicing.
cause of the problem. Also, you could spend
• Talk to the user hours trying to fix a problem with the com-
• Confirm the problem puter only to find out that the actual problem
• Diagnose the problem is operator error or caused by something
• Repair the problem other than the computer.
• Verify repairs
Diagnose the problem: This is where the
Talk to the user: In order to establish a troubleshooting becomes very personalized
starting point in your troubleshooting, you will and complaint-specific. The steps you take to
need to talk to the user. Often, the computer locate the source of the problem will depend
technician will receive aservice call from an on the type of complaint. Also, the steps you
follow may not be the same as those used by

2
• another technician. For acomputer that will not
boot, for example, you may start by measuring
the power supply output voltage, while another
find that the initial repair caused another
problem, or hid additional problems. Check-
ing the operation of the computer after the
technician may start with the hard drive. repairs is an essential part of the complete
troubleshooting procedure.
Repair the problem: Fixing computer prob-
lems can be anything from replacing the power Now, let's take alook at the use of Trouble-
supply, motherboard, or other hardware to in- shooter. Then, we will discuss some of the
stalling and/or reconfiguring software. most common computer complaints.

Verify repairs: Once the previous step is

complete, you need to make sure that the
problem is, in fact, fixed. Sometimes, you'll

•
3
 SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Using Troubleshooter

ForeFront's Troubleshooter is aself-booting Turn on your computer, if it's not already

computer diagnostic software package. Since running. Once your computer completely boots,
the software is self-booting, it does not rely insert the 3 1
2 "Troubleshooter diskette in
/
on the operating system of the computer to drive A. Double click on the My Computer icon.
boot. This eliminates conflicts from hardware This will display the devices that are available
drivers and tests the components directly for within, or connected to your computer. Single
true accuracy. click the left mouse button on the icon for the
In this training unit, we'll look at some of A: drive.

the features of Troubleshooter. As you will see, With the A: drive icon highlighted, single
the software is easy to use and understand, click the right mouse button. From the menu
and comes with an extensive user's manual. shown in Figure 1, left click Copy Disk. The
window shown in Figure 2 will be displayed.
As you can see, the information in this window
Making a Backup Copy of
Troubleshooter
g_pen
Explore
As this manual is written, the Trouble- FM..
shooter software is provided in two ways: on
Cop2 Disk_
asingle 5 1
4 "360K diskette and on asingle
/ Find using QuickFinder
31
2 "720K diskette. These diskettes are not
/ System Information

copy protected, so you will need to back up the Format__

original for safety and use the backup copy for Paste
all your experiments. You also should use the
Create Shortcut
backups for testing unknown computers. That •._.•-.---____ .•
way, even if some flaw should destroy the data Properties

on your working diskettes, you can replace them

with fresh backups and continue your tests. Figure 1. When you right click on the A: drive icon, you
will see this menu.

4
•
Once your Troubleshooter software is
copied, you are ready to begin troubleshooting
computer problems.

Setting Up Your Computer

Close all Windows 95 applications and shut

down your computer in the normal manner.
When directed, turn off the power to your
Figure 2. The Copy Disk window allows you to select a computer. Once the computer is off, disconnect
source drive and a destination drive.
any peripheral devices such as the printer, the
mouse, and the joystick.
tells you how the copy procedure will be per- With the Troubleshooter, you received three
formed. Click Start.
loop-back plugs. These loop-back plugs are
The information on the diskette will be read attached to the serial and parallel port of your
into memory. At some point during the proce- computer. These plugs provide an input/output
dure, you will be asked to insert the destination path for testing the operation of these ports.
diskette. Remove the Troubleshooter diskette In the package, you received a25-pin male plug
and insert ablank 3 1
2 "diskette into your
/ which is connected to the parallel port; a

• A: drive and click OK. This diskette does not 25-pin female plug, which is connected to
need to be formatted; the Copy Disk procedure 25-pin serial connectors (typically used for
will format the diskette before any information external modems), and a9-pin female plug which
is written to the disk. is connected to 9-pin serial connectors (typi-
cally used for the mouse). Remove these plugs
While the diskette is copying, fill out adisk
from the package and connect them to the
label for your backup copy of the Trouble-
correct ports on the back of the computer.
shooter diskette. When the copying is complete,
NOTE: Your computer may not have a25-pin
remove the diskette and affix the label. Place
serial port Also, many of the computers you'll
the original diskette in a safe place.
service in the field will not have all three
Also, if you have not already done so, now connectors.
is agood time to register your software. Once
When the loop-back plugs are in place, turn
the registration is complete, you will have access
on your computer and insert the Trouble-
to technical support from the manufacturer.
shooter diskette (your backup copy) in the
The software manufacturer will also inform
A: drive. (As you probably noticed. Troubleshooter
you of any updates to the software package.
is provided in both 3 1
2 "and 5 1
/ /4"formats.
Generally, software registration places you on
This way, you can use the software on com-
the company's mailing list so you'll also receive
puters that have a5 1/
4"floppy as the A: drive.)
offers to purchase other products from the
Once the computer boots, you will be at the
manufacturer, often at a discount from the
MAIN MENU of the Troubleshooter software,

•
retail price. As you can see, it's agood idea to
shown in Figure 3, on the following page.
register any software you purchase.

5
 SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

MAIN MENU option, since, without MS-DOS being loaded,

no drivers are available. We'll show you how
meale-rne:ion to check the driver later. When you have seen
Advanced Diagnostic Tests
Continuous Burn-In Tests the results for all of the options, press ESC
Low Level Format Utility
SCSI Utilities
until you return to the MAIN MENU.
Show Results Summary
Print Results Report From the main menu, select Advanced
Exit to Operating System Diagnostic Tests and press ENTER. You will
receive the menu shown in Figure 4. Some of
the options from this menu activate atest
Figure 3. From the Main Menu of Troubleshooter you
can get system information, go to the diagnostic menu,
directly; others, such as the memory test, bring
or select any of the features of Troubleshooter. up another menu where you can select options
for the test.

NOTE: If the computer you are testing boots Select all of the options from this menu so
to the normal operating system, Windows 95 that you are familiar with the testing performed.
or MS-DOS, you will need to change the boot Some of the tests, such as the memory test,
sequence of the system bios. Reboot the com- will take several minutes to complete. Also,
puter and press the DEL key during the startup some of the tests, such as the mouse and
sequence. Depending on the brand of bios, Multimedia test, will not operate without the
the boot sequence is set under the Advanced drivers loaded. Refer to the Troubleshooter
CMOS Setup option. Set the boot sequence User's Manual before you perform the Non-
to A:,C:. After the sequence has been set, save Destructive Write Test. In some circumstances,
the settings and exit to the operating system. this test may result in corruption of data.
The computer should now boot from the
During the tests, you may find that some
A: drive. If there is no diskette in the A: drive,
of the tests failed on your computer. For in-
the computer will look to the C: drive.
stance, your computer may have failed the
As you can see on the bottom of the screen, Turbo Switch Test under the Input Device
the up and down arrow keys move the bar Menu, or it may have failed the Handshaking
through the menu options. The ENTER key
selects the highlighted option. With the System
Information Menu option highlighted, press DIAGNOSTIC MENU
ENTER.
Processài .
Test
Co-Processor Test
The options from the System Information Motherboard Tests
menu will cause the software to examine the Memory Tests
Floppy Disk Tests
computer configuration and produce a report Hard Disk Tests
of the results of the examination. This will often Input Device Tests
Video Tests
give you astarting point for your diagnosis. Serial Port Tests
Parallel Port Tests
With the arrow keys, select the option from Printer Output Test
the menu and observe the reports displayed Multimedia Tests

on the screen. As you make your selections,

you can skip the Device Driver Information
Figure 4. From the Advanced Diagnostic Menu, you can
select atype of testing you wish to perform.

6
• Test when testing COM2 under the Serial
Port Test Menu. Don't be concerned about the
test results at this time. Your computer may
will run on the computer. However, you cannot
enter both the number of passes and the length
of time. For this demonstration, enter 5 in the
not have aturbo switch, or your modem Passes column for each of the tests listed.
(COM2) may not be connected to the phone when you are finished, press F10 to start the
line and therefore cannot provide ahandshake burn-in process.
signal for this test.
The burn-in process will start with the first
When you have tried all of the Advanced test listed and continue through the listed tests
Diagnostic Tests, press ESC until you return in order. When all of the tests are completed,
to the main menu. the process will start from the first test again,
and continue until all of the tests have run the
.Now, move the highlight bar to the
selected number of passes or for the length
Continuous Burn-In Tests option and press
of time entered. When the burn-in process is
ENTER The Burn-In menu, shown in Figure 5,
completed, asummary of the results will be
will be displayed. From this menu, you can
displayed on the screen. Look through the
select the test that will be performed during
summary of the results for your computer,
burn-in. For the purpose of this experiment,
when finished, press ESC until you return
select only the first three tests. When you've
to the MAIN MENU.
selected the tests, press F10 to continue.
The Low Level Format Utility is used to
The next screen, shown in Figure 6, on the
correct problems in the sectors of ahard drive.

•
next page, gives you alisting of the tests selected.
DO NOT RUN THIS UTILITY NOW. You should
On this screen, the duration of the burn-in
only run the utility when all other tests and
tests are selected. You can select the number
repairs to a hard drive have been attempted.
of passes (from 1to 9999) or the length of
This utility will reformat the hard drive. There
time (from 00:01 to 99:59) the burn-in tests
is no way to recover the data from the drive once
it has been low-level formatted.

The remaining options on the MAIN MENU

BURN-IN MENU
are self-explanatory, or are fully covered in the
-Processor User's Manual. Select Exit to Operating System.
Co-Processor
Be sure to read through the instructions in
Motherboard
Floppy Disks the manual, and be sure that you are familiar
Hard Disks
with all of the testing procedures before you
Memory
Video Memory take Troubleshooter to the field.
Serial Port
Parallel Port One of the many advantages of Trouble-
Printer
CD-ROM Drives
shooter over other forms of diagnostic software
Keyboard is the fact that it is self-booting and eliminates
Mouse
problems caused by driver conflicts. However,
Troubleshooter will also operate under MS-
DOS so that you can check the sound card
Figure 5. From the Burn-In Menu, you can select the tests

•
you wish to perform during the bum-in process. It is also a and CD-ROM drives. Just start the computer
good idea to run these tests as part of regular maintenance in the normal fashion. From the Windows 95
on the computer.

7
 SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Troubleshooter Diagnostics Burn-In

Test Description Passes Time HH:MM

PROCESSOR Processor Exercise «

le
CO-PROCLOR Math Coprocessor Exercise
MOTHERBOARD DMA Controller Tests
System Timer Tests
Interrupt Test
Keyboard Controller Tests
PCI Bus Tests
CMOS RAWCIock Tests

Press <F10> to Continue with Tests, <F1> for Help

Figure 6. Once the tests have been selected, you'll need to set the number of passes or the length of time each test is
run. New computers should have the burn-in tests run for a minimum of 24 hours.

desktop, click START Click "Shut Down", and CD-ROM drives. The first is the Troubleshooter
select "Restart the computer" in MS-DOS mode. CD-ROM Test Disc. This CD is used in con-
Insert the Troubleshooter diskette in drive A:, junction with the Troubleshooter diagnostic
type A:TS and press ENTER. Troubleshooter software. The other CD is the CD Trouble-
will now be able to test any devices whose shooter Pro. This CD works independently of
drivers are loaded in the [Link] file. the Troubleshooter software and will operate
under the MS-DOS, Windows 3.1, or Windows
NOTE: Windows 95 does not automatically
95 operating system.
load drivers into the [Link] file. If
you are going to test the mouse, sound card, To use the CD-ROM test disc, insert this CD
and CD-ROM drive with Troubleshooter, you into the CD-ROM drive. From a DOS prompt
will need to add a line to the [Link] type "A:TS" and press the ENTER key. From
file so that these drivers are loaded. Refer to the MAIN MENU, select Advanced Diagnostic
the manual that came with the device for the Tests. From the DIAGNOSTIC MENU, select
correct procedure to load these drivers. Multimedia Tests. Here, you can test the PC
speaker, sound card, and CD-ROM drive. These
tests will only work provided that the drivers

CD-ROM Testing for the CD-ROM and sound card have been
loaded.

The Troubleshooter software package comes The CD Troubleshooter Pro operates inde-
with two CD-ROMs which are used to test pendently of the Troubleshooter software. The
CD Troubleshooter Pro was designed to give

8
• an impression of the speed of CD-ROM drives
in a simple way. It also contains advanced
diagnostic procedures as well as detailed
File: From this menu, you can close the
current window, save the contents of awindow,
set up your printer, print the contents of the
information about the hardware and software current window, and exit CD Troubleshooter.
used. If any of the actions cannot be performed, the
menu item will appear gray.
The CD Troubleshooter Pro can run under
either Windows (3.1 or 95) or MS-DOS. To Benchmark: Like hard drives, CD-ROM
run the DOS version, log onto the CD-ROM drives are quite different with respect to the
drive (usually d:), and type CDTS from the amount of time needed to access specific data
D:CDTS\DOS directory To run the Windows 95 in the space acompact disc offers. Usually,
version of the software, click Start. From the CD-ROM drives are classified in asimilar way
Start menu, click Run and enter "D:\CDTS\ as hard drives. The speed for finding data on
WINDOWS\[Link]" and click OK the disc and the time required to transfer that
Both versions have extensive on-line help files data to the main memory are measured.
to help you use the CD Troubleshooter Pro.
The CD-ROM benchmark of CD Trouble-
For the purpose of this discussion, we will be
shooter measures the performance of your
using the Windows 95 version of the software.
CD-ROM subsystem and gives you individual
The CD Troubleshooter Pro starts with a results for each parameter as well as an over-
typical Windows style interface, as shown in all performance index called ROMarks. Most
Figure 7. Each item on the taskbar activates

•
manufacturers use different technologies to
apull-down menu. As we did with the Trouble- measure the performance of their CD-ROM
shooter software, we'll only discuss afew of drives, and this information is not usually
the most common features of the CD Trouble- easy to use. One major benefit of CD Trouble-
shooter Pro. You can experiment with the vari- shooter is that it provides information that can
ous features of the software, and refer to the be compared. To ease this comparison between
on-line help for features not covered here. different drives, in addition to measured
results, the program combines the individual

ANCIE3
file Benchmaik Diagnostics Infoimation Tools 1:Iptions Windows Help

R E:

•
Figure 7. The CD Troubleshooter Pro has its features listed on the taskbar.
Each listing on the taskbar activates a pull-down menu.

9
SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

results into a single number which identifies Diagnostics: The diagnostic functions of
the speed of the drive. CD Troubleshooter is CD Troubleshooter Pro will detect errors in
distributed on aspecial CD called aReference CD-ROM drives and media errors on the CD.
CD. This CD contains special data used by The diagnostic functions include:
the program to ensure accurate and reliable
• Sequential Read: The entire CD is read
performance measurements. Although you
from beginning to end. This is the fastest
could use other CD-ROMs with CD Trouble-
way to test aCD-ROM for defects.
shooter, the manufacturing process is different
• Random Read: The entire CD is read in
and could produce results that are not accurate.
small blocks using random positions. Since
The Benchmark feature of the CD Trouble- the drive has to seek blocks at different
shooter tests the data transfer rate and data positions on the disk. the mechanical parts
access time of the CD-ROM drive. Trouble- of the drive are being tested. The time
shooter then compares the test results against required to run this test depends mainly
the data on the reference CD. The results of on the average access time of the drive.
this comparison are then displayed on the • Reverse Read: The entire CD is read from
screen, as shown in Figure 8. To start the end to beginning. Since CD-ROM technology
Benchmark feature, click on Benchmark and was not designed to work this way, the
select CD-ROM Benchmark from the pull down mechanical parts of the drive are stressed.
menu or press F6. This test takes some time As with the random read test, the time
to complete. so be patient. required to run this test depends mainly
on the average access time of the drive.

Benchmark-Results 714

CD-ROM drive :E: Aft.

Reference disc :Yes

Disc name :CD Troubleshooter 06/96
Disc size :680943616 byte
ROMarks :3.3
Speed factor :8-speed drive
Minimum access time :0.085 seconds
Average access time :0.213 seconds
Maximum access time :0.806 seconds
Data transfer rate :1237711 bytes/second

YourCID-ROM

1-Speed :P*s Cte.,05;1

2-Speed (Sony CDU-S61)

3-Speed Ott:[Link] F;CDO)

4-Speed (Pionee..r DR-U1 24X)

6-Speed (Plextor PX-6-

3CS)

v e Close

Figure 8. When the Benchmark is complete, you will receive a report on the
performance of the CD-ROM drive.

10
• • Butterfly Read: The entire disk is read in
small blocks alternating from the beginning
and from the end. This test may last along
with either the drive or the CD. Since the tests
are designed to read the entire CD, you can
repeat the tests with adifferent CD. If the error
time because the drive is always reposi- does recur with another CD, try cleaning the
tioning itself. The mechanical parts of the lens of the drive with a standard CD cleaner.
drive are thoroughly tested. If this does not solve the problem, your CD-
ROM drive is probably defective and should
Since atypical CD-ROM contains alarge
be replaced.
amount of data, these tests take along time
to complete. During the tests, you will receive The CD-Troubleshooter has many opera-
adisplay, as shown in Figure 9, showing the tional options. Read the help files to learn how
status of the test. to customize the operation to fit your needs.

Each diagnostic function produces a Now, let's move on to solving some of the
detailed analysis of all data contained on a most common computer problems.
CD-ROM. Any error reported shows aproblem

6.5 Certifying drive E:

Performing sequential cfmc certification. Oerror(s) found.

Actual throughput 00:0203

Aveacie throuahput [Link]

Figure 9. During the diagnostic tests on the CD-ROM drive, you will receive a status screen
to show you how much of the test is completed.

•
11
SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Computer Troubleshooting

In this section, we'll discuss some of the power strips which have been known to fail.
most common computer problems. We'll Check the power strip with amultimeter to
discuss the steps used to find the cause of be sure that the correct voltage is available
these problems and the necessary repairs. at the outlets of the power strip. If the correct
This section is by no means a complete com- voltage is present, check the power cord to
puter troubleshooting manual, because it does the computer. If not, the problem is either the
not cover all possible computer problems, or power strip or the AC receptacle that the power
all of the possible causes of any problem — strip is plugged into. In either case, this is
only the most common. As you gain experience not a problem for acomputer technician.
in computer repair, you will develop your own
Once you have determined that power
troubleshooting procedures that will allow
reaches the computer, you are left with three
you to solve computer problems efficiently.
possible faults — power supply, power switch,
One thing to remember: With today's com- or motherboard. To locate the problem, you
puters, you will not troubleshoot to the com- will need to remove the case of the computer.
ponent level — you will only troubleshoot to (Note: Some newer computers such as the
the board level. Once the problem has been Monorail and the Compaq Presario are not
isolated to aparticular board, that board will serviceable. They must be returned to the
be replaced. This also applies to the mother- manufacturer for service. Do not attempt to
board, with the exception of the processor and remove the cover from these computers.)
the memory (both system RAM and cache).
Once the cover has been removed, turn the
computer on and observe the operation of the
cooling fan on the power supply. Power for
Computer Won't Start this fan is provided from the power supply.
If the fan is operational, it indicates that at
As with any problem, always check the least part of the power supply is working.
simple solution first. For acomputer that won't
Now, measure the voltage output of the
turn on, always check the power to the com-
power supply at the motherboard. The power
puter before you begin troubleshooting the
supply connects to the motherboard by way
computer. Often, computers are plugged into

12
• of two connectors as shown in Figure 10.
Measure the voltage at all of the connectors
from the power supply and compare your
Do not disconnect all of the power supply
connectors from the drives and the mother-
board. The power supply needs aload connected
readings with those shown in Figure 10. If the to the output in order to operate properly.
voltages are correct, replace the motherboard. Without this load, either from the drives or
If you have no voltage on any of the wires, the motherboard, your voltage readings will
replace the power supply. If you measured not be correct.
voltages but the voltages are not correct, turn
off the switch and disconnect the two connec-
tors. Turn on the computer and repeat the
Computer Will Not Boot
voltage measurements. Again, if the voltages
are correct, replace the motherboard. If the
The computer starts, displays the startup
voltages are still not correct, reconnect the
sequence on the screen, and then either stops
power supply to the motherboard. Be sure
or gives an error message. This problem is
that the connectors are positioned correctly.
typical of ahard drive crash, but could be
Now, disconnect the power supply connec- caused by other problems as well. Before
tors to all floppy drives, hard drives, and removing the case of the computer, try to
CD-ROM drives. Repeat the voltage measure- isolate the problem first. To do this, reset the
ments. If the voltages are still not correct, computer and insert abootable diskette (such
replace the power supply. If the voltages are as your Troubleshooter diskette) into the

•
correct, one of the drives is loading down the A: drive. The computer should try to read the
power supply. Reconnect the power supply to A: drive (the light on the drive should turn
the drives, one at atime, and repeat the voltage on). If the computer boots from the A: drive,
measurement When you have located the drive the problem is in the hard drive. Run Trouble-
that is loading the power supply, replace that shooter to determine the problem with the
drive. hard drive.

} RED +5

1
WHITE -5

BLACK GROUND

BLUE -12
YELLOW +12
RED +5
ORANGE +5

•
Figure 10. The power supply is connected to the motherboard via two connectors. The
orientation of the connectors can be different on different motherboards. However, the black or
ground wires from the connectors will always be next to each other.

13
SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

If the computer still does not boot, and the built into the motherboard.) Be sure that the
light on the A: drive does not light, reboot the cables are fully seated. If you find any loose
computer and press the Delete key during the connection, try to start up the computer after
boot process. This will give you access to the the connection has been secured. If the com-
BIOS setting of the computer. Select the puter still does not boot from either drive, you
STANDARD CMOS SETUP from the menu. are faced with the prospect of replacing the
This will display the types of drives that are controller card or motherboard. Since the con-
set for A, B, and C. Make sure that the A: and B: troller is the easiest to replace, try it first.
drives are set correctly and make anote of
If the computer boots from one drive but not
the parameters that are set for the C: drive.
from the other, the problem could be caused
When you are ready, press Esc to return to
by the drive or the cable, with the controller
the main menu.
card or the motherboard being much less
Next, select BIOS FEATURE SETUP from likely since only one drive is affected.
the main menu. The only item on this screen
that you should be concerned with at this time
is the BOOT SEQUENCE. Make sure that
Computer Runs Slow
the boot sequence is set to A:,C:. Setting the
sequence establishes the order that the com-
This problem is becoming more common
puter will look for boot information. With the
with the use of Windows 95 and is often not
sequence set A,C, the computer will first look
caused by the computer itself. Windows 95 and
at the A: drive. If no system disk is present,
applications written specifically for Windows 95
the computer then looks at the C: drive. When
require more system RAM than applications
the boot sequence is set, press Esc to return
written for Windows 3.1. Although the mini-
to the main menu.
mum system requirement of the software is
From the main menu, select SAVE AND 8 Meg of RAM, the application runs extremely
EXIT and answer Yes to any questions dis- slow with only 8 Meg of RAM. Increasing the
played. When the computer starts its boot system memory to 16 Meg will usually correct
process, insert your Troubleshooter diskette the problem.
into the A: drive. If the computer boots, run
Another factor in overall computer speed
Troubleshooter to determine the problem
is the hard drive. As hard drives reach their
with your hard drive. If the computer does
capacity, the access time of the drive slows. The
not boot, remove any diskettes from the
system must search through more information
drives, and turn off the computer.
to locate the data requested. Also, the data on
With the computer turned off, remove the ahard drive can become fragmented — this
case and check the connection to the drives. Be also slows the access time of the drive. The use
sure to check both the data cable and the power of disk compression software such as Defrag
connections to the hard and floppy drives. or Norton's Speedisk will compress the infor-
Also, check the connection of the data cables mation on the disk and increase the access
to the controller card. (If you have aPentium time.
computer, the IDE and floppy controller are

14
• The actual operating speed of the computer
can be checked with Troubleshooter, and is
All of these problems can be pinpointed
using Troubleshooter. This diagnostic software
displayed in the System Information section will test the drives and interfaces, sound card
of Troubleshooter. If there is any question about and driver, and the memory (both RAM and
the actual operational speed, run the Advanced cache). If the computer locks up, it is usually
Diagnostic test on the processor, coprocessor caused by aconflict between the IRQ or DMA
(if applicable), and the motherboard using channels of devices such as the sound card and
Troubleshooter. Any problem reported by this bus mouse. Troubleshooter will also provide
test could affect the operational speed of the information on the IRQ, DMA, and addresses
computer. used by various parts of the computer. This
information is displayed in both the Interrupt
In addition to the tests listed above, some of
Vector Information and the IRQ Information
the common complaints from computer users
screens under the System Information menu.
are:
Any conflict can be resolved by resetting the
• Can't read disk (floppy, hard, or CD) device either by software provided with the
• No sound from sound card device, or by jumpers or switches on the device.
• Computer locks up
• Memory errors

•
15
SOLVING COMPUTER PROBLEMS

Examination Questions

This is Examination Number 6133.

•
Make sure you print your name, student
number, and examination number in the space nine John Smith
Rint
provided on the Answer Form. Be sure to fill in
Student No. Lesson No.
the circles beneath your student number and
examination number. XYoi 213 9L4 1
I1 113 3,

Reminder: A properly completed Answer

Form allows us to evaluate your answer and
speed the results and additional study mate-
rial to you as soon as possible. Do not hold
your Answer Forms to send several at one
time. You may run out of study material if
you do not send your answers for evaluation
promptly.

1. Why is it desirable to boot the computer 2. Why would Troubleshooter be started from
being tested from the Troubleshooter an MS-DOS prompt when it uses its own
diskette? operating system?
a. Because the computer being tested may a. To test the operation of the hard drive.
not be able to boot. b. To test the operation of the sound card.
b. To eliminate hardware and software c. To test the operation of printers.
conflicts. d. You should never start Troubleshooter
c. This is the only way to correctly start from MS-DOS.
Troubleshooter.
d. Because Troubleshooter will not operate
under an MS-DOS operating system.

16
• 3. In order to test the operation of the serial
port, you must:
a. Run Troubleshooter from MS-DOS.
7. IRQ conflicts will most likely cause:
a. The computer to run slowly.
b. Lines on the display.
b. Run Troubleshooter for the operating c. Printer errors.
system on the diskette. d. The computer to lock up.
c. Have aprinter or mouse connected.
d. Connect aloop-back plug to the serial
8. During the burn-in testing, you can set
port.
the number of passes for each test any-
where from:
4. After you have talked to the user, what is a. 1to 99.
the next step in a troubleshooting proce- b. 1to 999.
dure? c. 1to 9999.
a. Diagnose the problem. d. 1to 1000.
b. Remove the cover of the computer.
c. Verify the problem.
9. If the computer boots from the floppy
d. Run Troubleshooter.
drive but not from the hard drive, which
of the following is the most likely cause?
5. When checking the voltage from the power a. The hard drive.
supply to the motherboard, all of the b. The motherboard.
following voltages should be present c. The controller card.

•
except: d. The power supply.
a. +10 volts.
b. +5 volts.
10. On aPentium computer, the IDE and
c. -12 volts.
floppy drive controllers are:
d. +12 volts.
a. On aseparate card attached to the PCI
bus.
6. All of the following could cause slow b. On aseparate card attached to the
computer operation except: local bus.
a. Insufficient RAM. c. Part of the motherboard.
b. IRQ conflicts. d. Part of the drive.
c. Fragmented data on the hard drive.
d. A full hard drive.

•
17
 NOTES •
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
• NOTES
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
 NOTES •
Please use this page to record any notes
you may want to review during your studies.

•
•

e
 P7 Sch oo Is

AraWIr Graduates Say...

"The NRI training Ireceived greatly broadened my horizons. My
father once showed me amagazine advertisement for your course and
Ijust up and enrolled. Now Isee all the good it has done for me!

Thanks to everyone at NRI for your continued support for the 'little
guy'-"

Vincent R. Salvaterra
Freelend, Pennsylvania

KM61 33 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

Manual for AC Electronics 6750

Student's Guide
for Computer-Aided
Troubleshooting

p
(11 [Link] A Division of The McGmeHill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
4.

e
Manual for AC Electronics

Computer-Aided Troubleshooting
 Imprint 1998
Copyright © 1997 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008
Table of Contents
Introduction 1

What You Need to Know 2

How to Use this Manual 2
What You Get 3
What You Must Have 3

Installing the Program 4

Installing on aNetwork 6
Installing with [Link] 6
Removing the Program 6

Operating the Program 7

Mouse and Keyboard 7
Scroll Bar 7
Buttons 9

Using the Program 10

Student Workdisks 10
Starting the Program 10
Running the Program 11
Menus And Screens 13
Using the Tools 18
Leaving the Program 22

Evaluating Yourself 23
Using the Tb Files 23
Factors to Consider 24
Additional Ways to Use the Program 27

The Problems 28
Objectives of the Program 28
RC Circuit 29
RL Circuit 29
RLC Circuit 30
Transformer Circuit 30

Answer Sheet 31
 Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to the staff of

Heathkit Educational Systems. Their contribution
to this team effort, in providing our students with
quality educational materials, has been significant.
Introduction

Welcome to Computer-Aided Troubleshooting (CAT)

from NRI Schools. NRI's AC Electronics Computer-Aided
Troubleshooting Package is an interactive software pro-
gram. With this troubleshooting software, you, the stu-
dent, actually interact with "life-like" equipment
malfunctions. Full-color animations bring asense of real-
ism to problem-solving interactions. You are placed in a
challenging electronics troubleshooting environment
where you are not restricted simply to reading from atext-
book. The program draws you into actual troubleshooting
situations where you participate in complete safety and
privacy. It provides you with both rewarding responses
and constructive reinforcement. It is beneficial in that it
provides an alternate, game-like method of teaching elec-
tronic troubleshooting.

The program offers you the opportunity to learn trou-

bleshooting through fast-paced, hands-on simulations in
atotally nonthreatening environment. By performing
these experiments on the computer, you experience the
real and practical side of electronics first-hand without
worry of damaging equipment or yourself.

1
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

What You Need to Know

How to Use this Manual

This Student's Guide contains the documentation for

the NRI AC Electronics Computer-Aided Troubleshooting
program. This manual is written for the electronics stu-
dent and the licensed site installer. It is assumed that the
student or the installer has some limited computer knowl-
edge of hardware and software, MS-DOS in particular.

This manual is divided into sections. The first, which

you are reading, introduces the program and the manual
itself. It contains alist of what is included in this product
and the system requirements needed to successfully run
the program.

The next three sections cover installing, operating, and

using the program. Here, you'll find asimple installation
procedure. It covers how to use the mouse, keyboard, and
other features. These sections also tell you what you'll see
in the program: menus, screens, windows, and tools.

The remainder of the manual contains further informa-

tion and adetailed list of the troubleshooting examples,
plus an answer for each problem. Because the answer to
each of the troubleshooting problems is included in this
manual, it is merely regarded as an adjunct, not as an ex-
amination, within your course. Thus, it will serve to en-
hance your troubleshooting knowledge and abilities.

2
 What You Get

The NRI AC Electronics Computer-Aided Troubleshoot-

ing (CAT) program consists of:

• one or more 3.5" program disks

• one Student's Guide

What You Must Have

In order to run the CAT program, the computer must

be equipped with this hardware:

• 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486 or better processor (PC

compatible)

• 640 KB or more of RAM

• Hard disk drive with 2MB or more of free disk space

• EGA or VGA color monitor and driver

• One or more 3.5" floppy drives

• Mouse

And this software:

• MS-DOS 3.1 or higher

NOTE: Most of the functions of this program can be ac-

complished using only the keyboard. However, amouse is
required for afew operations and is highly recommended
for efficient use of the program.

3
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Installing the Program

Through ajoint effort by NR! and Heathkit Educa-

tional Systems, this interactive electronic troubleshoot-
ing program has been made available. You will note
appropriate credits as you start the program each time.
If, by chance, some fault occurs in the installation or op-
eration of this software program, please contact NRI to
obtain instructions concerning software correction or
replacement procedures.

NOTE: The following installation instructions assume

that the floppy drive designator on your computer is "A:."
If your floppy drive is designated with aletter other than
"A:," substitute that letter in the instructions.

To install the CAT program, do the following:

1. Insert Disk 1into floppy disk drive A.

2. Type: A:
Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)
(This logs you onto drive A.)

Type: INSTALL
Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)
This will start the installation program.
3. Before installation actually begins, the program first
checks to make sure your computer's operating envi-
ronment is compatible with the hardware/software re-
quirements necessary to operate the CAT program (see
"What You Must Have" for the hardware/software re-
quirements). If your computer's environment is incom-
patible in any way, the program will NOT install. In
this case, asimple explanation as to the incompatibil-
ity will appear, and you will be returned to the DOS
prompt.

4
 A typical example is when the installation program
does not find ahard drive with enough space for the
program. In this case, you need to free up space on the
hard drive before you run the installation program
again. If the installation program verifies that your sys-
tem is compatible, it will continue with the installation.
4. Next, the program will ask you for the hard drive desig-
nator where you wish to install the program. The pro-
gram will list possible choices based on your system.
Simply press the letter for the drive where you want
the program installed. Caution: Do not simply press
the RETURN (or ENTER) key. You must press the let-
ter of the desired drive.
You will then be given the opportunity to modify the in-
stallation path or accept the default path. The default
directory is CAT_AC. Unless you specify otherwise the
program will be installed in this directory. If you prefer
that it be installed in another directory, use the back-
space key to remove the CAT_AC path and enter the
new path name.
5. The installation program will begin copying files from
Disk 1onto your hard drive. If there is more than one
disk for the installation of the program, the installa-
tion process will ask you to insert the next disk after it
finishes copying the necessary files from Disk 1. If you
insert an incorrect disk, the installation process will
notify you of this situation.
6. Continue this process until all disks have been inserted
and copied. Some disks contain many files, and may
take afew minutes to install onto your hard drive.
When all the CAT disks have been installed, the instal-
lation program will automatically exit and return to
the DOS prompt.
All of the program files will be contained in asubdirec-
tory on your hard drive called "CAT_AC", or whatever
path you specified during installation. Th access that sub-
directory, type in CD\ CAT_AC and press RETURN (or
ENTER). Th run the program, refer to the "Operating the
Program" section of this manual.

5
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Installing on aNetwork

The program may be installed on some types of net-

works. Follow the preceding installation procedure to
install the program on the server. Make sure each user is
granted read, write, and file access to the directory the
program was installed into.

For more information, refer to your network manuals

and your distributor.

Installing with [Link]

[Link] provides file sharing and locking to the

MS-DOS operating system. If it is running on your com-
puter while you are installing NRI Computer-Aided
Instruction (CM) software, it may cause the INSTALL
program to not recognize that the correct disk has been in-
serted in the floppy drive. If you encounter this problem,
check your [Link] file and make sure SHARE is
not being loaded. Once the CM software has been in-
stalled, you can re-enable loading of [Link] if other
software requires it to operate properly. The NRI CM soft-
ware should have no problem running with or without
SHARE loaded. Only during installation might you en-
counter this problem.

Removing the Program

The CAT program can be removed from the hard drive

at any time. Simply delete the "CAT_AC" subdirectory (or
whatever path you specified during installation) and its
files from DOS.

6
Operating the Program

Mouse and Keyboard

The CAT program can be operated by both amouse

and akeyboard. Both input devices control the position
of an arrow cursor (4)over program selections. While a
mouse is not absolutely required to run the program, we
strongly recommend using one for the ease it provides in
moving through the program. Also, there are afew opera-
tions that can be performed only with the mouse. For com-
puters not equipped with amouse, the arrow keys on the
keyboard ((— i—> 1)move the arrow cursor. These arrow
keys, as well as the rest of the keyboard, can be used in
addition to amouse.

Scroll Bar

There are times when the text information appearing

in awindow is much larger than the window itself. In
these instances, all of the information can be reviewed by
scrolling. This is accomplished with the help of the scroll
bar located at the edge (usually the left side for this pro-
gram) of the window. See figure 1on the next page.

The scroll bar consists of an up direction button (located

at the very top), adown direction button (located at the
very bottom), and aslider button (located along the verti-
cal path between the up and down direction buttons). The
up and down direction buttons move the view of the text
in small increments, while the slider button allows for
large rapid movements of the text body. In order to use
these buttons, the user must position the cursor over the
button using the mouse or by using the cursor direction

7
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

1. This is text material.

2. Unseen text can be brought into

view by moving the scroll bar
downward.

Figure 1. Window with Scroll Bar

keys Os1), page up (PgUp), and page down (Pgdn) keys of

the keyboard.

The student has three options for moving text:

1. To scroll text line by line, position the arrow cursor at

either the up direction button or the down direction
button, and click the mouse button (or press RETURN)
once. Keeping the mouse button (or RETURN) de-
pressed continues the scrolling action.
2. FOR MOUSE USERS. Position the arrow cursor di-
rectly on the up/down direction button, then press and
hold the mouse button. Vertical mouse movement posi-
tions the up/down button to any desired location on the
scroll bar. The text follows the movement of the
up/down direction button.
3. FOR KEYBOARD USERS. The PgUp, and PgDn keys
may be used. PgUp and PgDn move the up/down di-
rection button in large steps along the scroll bar.

8
Buttons

A student can also move around in the program by

using the mouse to press "buttons" (Figure 2) that appear
on the screen. Buttons are activated by moving the cursor
over the button and either clicking the mouse button or
pressing RETURN. Using buttons is aprocedure that
students will pick up very quickly. When abutton is
selected in ascreen, it depresses like anormal switch.

Button
Figure 2. Window Button

9
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Using the Program

Student Workdisks

To access and operate the installed program, you must

provide and use astudent workdisk. This disk is your
"workbook" for the course. It records every move that
you make as you progress through each troubleshooting
experience.

Your workdisk must be inserted into afloppy drive to

gain access to the program. The first time this is done,
the program will ask for your name and record that infor-
mation on the disk. That disk then becomes unique for
you and for that course. Anyone else who tries to access
the program must have his or her own workdisk. If astu-
dent plans to continue through NRI's CAT series, another
disk will be needed for each course. Any blank, formatted
floppy disk may be used as aworkdisk.

It is important that you take good care of your work-

disks, as the information on each disk is unique. Damag-
ing or losing adisk will result in lost data.

Starting the Program

To start the AC Troubleshooting program:

• Type: CD \CAT_AC (or path specified in installation)

• Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)

This logs you into the program subdirectory.

• Type: AC EXPLORE
• Then press: RETURN (or ENTER)

10
 NOTE: This program is incompatible with some disk
caching utility software. If you are having problems start-
ing or running the program, make sure you are not run-
ning autility such as [Link]. Also, because the
program is graphics intensive, it requires about 500K
bytes of free memory You can free up memory by remov-
ing TSR programs such as screen savers, network drivers,
etc.
•

• Running the Program

Opening Screens

The program begins with an introductory graphics

screen followed by an acknowledgment screen that in-
cludes copyright information. These two screen displays
continue to alternate until the student clicks amouse but-
ton or presses the RETURN key on the keyboard.

Check/Verify Workdisk

Following the opening graphics screen, the program

will verify the presence of astudent workdisk. The pro-
gram must see agood workdisk before it will move on.
The following outline details the procedure for verifying
workdisks.
I. Insert Workdisk. You will first see awindow telling you
to insert aworkdisk (even if you have one already in-
serted). There are two buttons to choose from at this
point.
1. Continue. Press this button if you have aworkdisk
inserted in one floppy drive for your system. This
will move you to "Verify Workdisk," which is item II
in this outline.
2. Exit to DOS. If you select this button, another win-
4 dow will appear asking to verify your exit. At this
point, you have two choices:
a. Resume the Program. If you select this, the pro-
gram will move back to "Insert Workdisk," which
is item Iabove.
b. Confirm Exit to DOS. If you select this, the pro-
gram will initiate an exit procedure, which in-
cludes creating and using apassword. The
"Leaving the Program" portion of the User's
Guide explains this part of the program.

11
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

II. Verify Workdisk. The program will search the

floppy drives installed on your system for aproper
Student Workdisk. If you have two floppy drives, the
program will search the "A" drive first. If it does not
find aWorkdisk in the "A" drive it will then search
the "B" drive. There are three possible results dur-
ing this operation:
1. New Correct Workdisk Present. If the program
finds agood workdisk which has never been used
before, the program will prompt the student to en-
ter the first name, then the last name. Simply
type in each name, and press RETURN. After
the last name has been entered, that workdisk
will be configured to work for that name, and for
this course only. The program will then move to
"Help Request," which is Item III in this outline.
2. Used Correct Workdisk Present. If the program
finds agood workdisk which has been used be-
fore, the program will immediately move to "Help
Request," which is Item III in this outline.
3. Incorrect Workdisk or No Workdisk Present. If
the program fails to find aproper workdisk, a
"Disk Read Error" message will appear on the
screen. You have two choices at this point:
a. Exit to DOS. You may select this option to re-
turn to aDOS prompt via the password screen
as explained later in "Leaving the Program."
b. Continue. If you select this option, you will re-
turn to "Insert Workdisk," which is Item Iin
this outline.
III. Help Request. Once aproper workdisk has been
installed and verified by the program, awindow will
appear offering the chance to review the information
in the "Help" portion of the program prior to begin-
ning. This option is offered regardless of whether
the student has previously used the program or not.
There are two options at this point:
1. Access Help Window. By pressing this button, you
enter the "Help" portion of the program. See the
"Help Window" portion of this User's Guide for
more information on the "Help" section.
2. Begin the Program. By pressing this button you
move to the Main Option Menu of the program,
which is the first menu.

12
Menus And Screens

This troubleshooting program uses aseries of menus

that allows the student to move around smoothly and effi-
ciently. Figure 3shows the general path that the student
follows through the program. The arrows point to the direc-
tion of the path, and the boxes contain other screen options
and options for exiting the current screen.

MAIN OPTION MENU

1. RC Circuit
2. RL Circuit
3. RLC Circuit
4. Transformer Circuit
5. Insert New Student VVorkdisk
6. Exit to DOS

FAULT OPTION MENU

HELP SCREEN
1. Fault #1
2. Fault #2
Defines each function and
3. Fault #3
FIF operation of the
4. Fault #4
troubleshooting screen.
5. Random Fault
8. Previous Menu
A

SUPPORT SCREENS

1. General Guidelines
2. The Problem (defined)

TROUBLESHOOTING SCREEN

1. Make voltage tests.

2. Make resistance tests.
3. Use Signal Generator to apply input.
4. Replace faulty parts with good ones.
5. Review the schematic.
6. Check the circuit board layout.
7. Ideas are available to assist you.
8. Check to see that the problem has been
located and repaired.
9. Exit to main Menu.

Figure 3. Program Flowchart

MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

There are five main sections of the program. Each is

explained in more detail in the following paragraphs:

Main Option Menu

Fault Option Menu

Support Screens

Troubleshooting Screen

Help Screen

Main Option Menu

The Main Option Menu lists the four basic trou-

bleshooting problems, as shown in figure 4. These are:
RC Circuit, RL Circuit, RLC Circuit, and Transformer Cir-
cuit problems. The student selects one of these and pro-
ceeds to the Fault Option Menu. The Main Option Menu
also offers the opportunity to change to anew student
workdisk. This is done when changing students or when
the present workdisk is full.

Fault Option Menu

The student selects one of the faults or returns to the

previous menu. The Random Fault is one of the four
faults randomly picked by the program, as shown in fig-
ure 5.

Direct Coupled DC Amplifier Circuit

Dual-Stage Voltage Amplifier Circuit

Emitter-Follower Regulator Circuit

Wein-Bridge Oscillator Circuit

1

Insert Student Work Disk

Exit to DOS

Figure 4. Main Option Menu

14
Circuits Troubleshooting Menu Version 1.0 Fl Help

Figure 5. Fault Option Menu.

Support Screens

These are several screens of text that give general

guidelines for troubleshooting AC circuits and describe
the problem that the student has selected.

General Guidelines

Figure 6shows the General Guidelines screen. This

screen gives the student several important guidelines for
troubleshooting AC Circuits. The student can use the
scroll bar to move the additional guidelines into view.
This screen is dispayed at the start of the first problem
(RC Circuits) or it can be called up at any time from the
Help Screen. The "Exit Guidelines" button takes the stu-
dent to the next screen.
Circuits Tritubleshiiiiting 1
, 1 Help

.GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR TROUBLESHOOTING ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

1. In order to have a complete circuit, you need a power source, a

load, and a complete path for current flow.

2. If a component is faulty and breaks the path for current; this

is called an open. When an open occurs, the resistance measured
across the open is INFINITE OHMS. Sometimes you will find faulty
components that have not opened completely; the resistance mea-
sured across these components will be much higher than normal.

3. When an open occurs in a circuit, no current can flow through

the circuit. Therefore, all other components in the circuit will
have a measured voltage drop of 0 VOLTS. If you attempt to
measure voltage across the open component, the measured voltage
will equal the voltage applied to the circuit.

4. Another type of fault occurs when a component offers little

IllreM,P,M59r

Figure 6. General Guidelines Screen.

15
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Problem Screen

A typical Problem Screen is shown in figure 7. Prob-

lem screens are used to set up the troubleshooting sce-
nario. They place the student in areal life servicing
situation. Two or more problem screens explain the prob-
lem in enough detail to lead the student into the actual
problem.

Troubleshooting Screen

As shown in figure 8, this screen shows components on

acircuit board. Students can turn power on and off to the
circuit, make voltage and resistance tests, unsolder com-
ponents and place them on the workbench, replace bad
parts with good ones, look at the schematic or the compo-
nent view, inquire to get troubleshooting ideas, and fi-
nally check to see if they have fixed the problem.

Help Screen

The Help Screen, figure 9, may be accessed at any time

by pressing the Fi key. To operate the Help Screen, just
click on atool or button. A short message indicates ex-
actly what that tool or button does. You can also click on
other screen areas such as the push-button switch, circuit
board, workbench, meter display and test log. Here again,
amessage will tell you the purpose or function of the ob-
ject selected.

When finished, click on the top EXIT button.

Circuits Troubleshooting FIHelp

THE PROBLEM: The alarm system that you installed in your car is
malfunctioning. The alarm siren no longer operates. The system is over
two years old, and its warranty has expired. The alarm system is located
under the hood, connected to the driver's side of the firewall. Since the
system is now "out of warranty," you risk nothing by breaking the seal
and correcting the problem yourself.

----

4 Ilie\‘hbN,J1
.I
illW f1
_
....,,
-
go

44 Return to Main Menu I Next Page lib

Figure 7. Atypical Problem Screen.

16
 Figure 8. Troubleshooting Screen.

Fault #1 Fl Help
PREVIOUS NEXT GENERAL GUID

Test Log - Keeps record of measurement

results and test locations. (Readings
in red are with the Power switch turned
on). For quick changing voltages and
resistances, only the final reading is
recorded.

WORKBENCH

Figure 9. Help Screen.

17
 MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Using the Tools

Students will spend most of their time in the Trou-

bleshooting Screen. In this screen, they have access to a
number of tools and buttons that allow them to simulate
real world troubleshooting. Each of these tools and but-
tons are explained below.

Schematic /Component-Mew Button

This button allows you to examine

either the component view of the circuit or
the schematic. You switch from one view to
the other by clicking on the button.

Soldering Iron

The Soldering Iron allows you to re-

move components from the circuit. It is
selected by clicking on the button. When
you select this tool, the cursor will be
replaced by asmall soldering iron icon.
Simply click this icon on the component
you wish to unsolder. The component will
be automatically removed from the circuit
and placed on the workbench.

Signal Generator

The Signal Generator tool allows you

to apply asteady or sweeping input sig-
nal while monitoring the output with an
oscilloscope. Simply click on the Signal
Generator button to select either asteady
or sweeping input signal. When the but-
ton appears showing one cycle of asine
wave, the steady input is selected. When
the button appears showing asine wave
increasing in frequency, the sweeping
input is selected. Once you have selected
the type of input, click on the Power
Button to turn the Signal Generator on.

18
Swap Component

The Swap Component tool allows you

to replace acomponent with a"known
good" component. When you select this
tool, the cursor will be replaced by the sol-
dering iron icon. Simply click the icon on
the component you wish to replace or the
space where apreviously removed compo-
nent belongs. The component will be auto-
matically replaced with a"known good"
component of exactly the same type as
the one removed.

Idea or Hint Button

The hint button can give alittle nudge

if the student gets bogged down. When
this button is clicked, abrief message is
displayed where the workbench normally
appears. The message remains until the
mouse is clicked again. For each fault
there are three different hints.

Check Button

This button is used to check the re-

sults of the repair. If the repair has been
accomplished, acongratulations message
will appear. Otherwise a"sorry, please
continue" message is given.

Exit Button

\ The Exit Button allows you to leave

the troubleshooting Screen at any time.

EXIT It takes you to the Main Options Menu

which was discussed earlier.

19
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Power Button

This button controls power to the cir-

POWER cuit under test. Click to turn power on.

le
ON Click again to turn power off. Generally
there will be no voltages present in the
circuit until power is turned on. Power
should be turned on before making volt-
age measurements. Conversely, power
should be turned off before making resis-
tance measurements.

Board /Schematic Icon

This icon performs the same function
as the Schematic/Component-View But-
ton explained above. That is, it allows
you to switch back and forth between the
schematic diagram and the component
view of the circuit under test.

The Workbench

The Workbench area serves two pur-

poses. First, it is the area where compo-
nents are placed when removed from
WORKBENCH the circuit with the soldering iron. Resis-
tance and continuity checks can be made
on components in this area. Second, it
acts as amessage display area. Both hint
and warning messages appear here.

The Multimeter

The Multimeter is the primary instru-

ment used to troubleshoot the circuit.
This meter is an autoranging digital mul-
timeter capable of measuring DC Volts
and Resistance. The appropriate mode is
chosen by clicking on the DC Volts or
Ohms Button on the meter. The meter's
input impedance is high enough that it
will not load the circuit under test. The

20
 autoranging feature means that it will
automatically choose the right range.

The meter also has an autoblanking fea-

ture that blanks out the display until the
digital count stops its runup. Therefore,
quick changes in voltage or resistance
may be missed. As with many digital me-
ters, infinite ohms is indicated by asingle
1in the far left display.

'Ib use the test leads, first click on the

test lead button. Then click on the compo-
nent lead and the test lead will connect
itself there. 'Ib reposition the lead, click
on the test lead and then on the new
destination.

The Recording Log

The Recording log provides arecord of

all the measurements made. It automat-
ically scrolls up as new measurements are
added. By using the scroll arrows, meas-
urements that have scrolled out of sight
can be brought back into view. Voltage
readings are red when power is on and
black when power is off. Once again, for
fast changing conditions, only the final
reading is recorded. The log will record up
to 200 readings in asingle "fault." After
200, any new reading will replace the last
one.

21
 MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Leaving the Program

The program periodically "updates" your student work-

disk. Normally, you should leave the program by using
the Exit Button. When this is not done there is agood
chance that the summary of actions may not be recorded
on your student disk.

If you select the Exit to DOS button at the bottom of

any screen, and do not have the proper password, you will
be audibly and visually alerted. The Exit to DOS button
returns the user to the DOS prompt only when the correct
password is given.

The password you establish may be changed at any

time to avoid compromise or to reestablish asecure sys-
tem. To establish anew password, you will need to type
NEW (at the password-to-DOS screen) and follows the
screen prompts.

If power is lost, due to power failure or inadvertently

turning the computer off while still in the troubleshooting
program, the last Fault will not be updated onto the work-
disk. The proper shut down procedure is to first use the
Exit to DOS button, then enter the proper password,
return to DOS, and then remove power.

22
Evaluating Yourself

One of the prime advantages of using the CAT program

is its ability to help you evaluate your performance. For
the first time, you have apractical, private, and system-
atic way of judging your own troubleshooting techniques
and procedures. It is as if you have an assistant to stand
behind you and, with astop watch and memo pad, unerr-
ingly time and record every step the you take.

Using the Tb Files

Your performance while using the CAT program is re-

corded on your workdisk as aTb file. The identification of
these files are easily recognized as the first two letters of
such afile will be Tb. These files are created when you be-
gin atroubleshooting scenario of the CAT program. Each
and every sequential step performed during the scenario
is recorded with atime marker noted to the left of the per-
formed step. The contents of these files can be reviewed
using ageneric text file editor or word processing applica-
tion program.

After completing your troubleshooting assignment(s),

you can review the Tb files to retrieve and review your ac-
tions during the scenarios. Keep in mind that the Tb files
are named sequentially (je. Tba, Tbb, Tbc, Tbd, etc.) If
you happen to troubleshoot the first fault more than once,
the Tb files will record one file per attempt. You will not
be able to determine which scenario you completed by
viewing the file names alone.

23
 MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

Once afile is open you may see information similar to

that shown in figure on the following page. This file con-
tains awealth of information including:

1. The Problem name and Fault number.

2. A statement of what the fault was. For example:
The problem was: Resistor R1 is open.
3. Date and time that the problem was started.
4. A simple circuit representation to refresh your memory
(if needed) of the schematic diagram.
5. Under the heading "Recordings", the step by step proce-
dure that you performed. The number of steps may be
lengthy and require you to move to the next page to
see all of the recorded actions taken.
6. Each step indicates the time the step occurred in min-
utes and seconds.
7. Each step indicates the procedure performed and its
outcome.

Factors to Consider

As you progress through the CAT program, every step

of your performance has been recorded on the student
workdisk. By carefully analyzing the "trail" that you have
followed, you can accurately evaluate your performance.

However, troubleshooting is as much an art as it is a

science. Keep in mind that it is your technique you will be
judging as well as than the final result. Because of trou-
bleshooting's very nature, evaluating one's performance is
somewhat subjective. No two technicians will approach
troubleshooting in exactly the same way. And while there
are general guidelines, it is difficult to list specific rules
that are right for every situation. Indeed, troubleshooting
philosophy varies widely from one company to the next,
and you will even find diverse views among experienced
technicians. Consequently, as astudent, you will have to
make many judgment calls as to how you carry out the
troubleshooting assignment. Even so, the following guide-
lines will be of some use to you in evaluating your per-
formance.

24
Direct-Coupled DC Amplifier$1$Solved
CIRCUITS TROUBLESHOOTING
Direct-Coupled DC Amplifier
Fault # 1
The problem was Resistor 2 is OPEN

DATE Thursday . 11 /23/1996

TIME: [Link]

Circuit Setup:

12 VDC RY1A
1 -o o TP7 TP = TEST POINT
TP1 0 /0---- II R = RESISTOR
II Q = TRANSITOR
11 M1 M = MOTOR
R2 2200 Ohm TP6 11
1 1 RY1B 11 1
1 --- °-- °--- °-I TP8
TP5-1 / o
1 1Q2
I \
TP3 TP4 1 1 ( o FWD/REV
I I/ I ( Input
INPUT o----R1 1Q1 1 (
47K ohm \ 1 ( GRND
I I
TP2-1 1 160 Ohm
5VDC

GRND

Recordings:

10:081The technician took a reading on TP1,TP5 -- Infinite ohms

0:121 Technician replaced RESISTOR 2with a new one

10151 The technician checked the result and got a right answer

25
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

There are several factors you should consider in evalu-

ating your performance. These include:

1. Did you find the fault and fix it?

This is the most fundamental question to ask. After all,
this was the assignment. Failing repeatedly in this
task indicates that you do not fully understand the as-
signment, or how the program works, or you may have
serious deficiencies in your knowledge of the subject.
Even so, this is not an unusual situation the first or
second time that you are exposed to the program. Usu-
ally it indicates that you are not yet comfortable with
the program. Examining one's actions as recorded on
the workdisk should go along way toward pointing out
your weak areas.

2. Did you approach the problem in alogical way?

This is perhaps the single hardest question to answer.
Normally, you will be expected to make voltage or resis-
tance measurements prior to replacing acomponent.
Did you do this in asystematic way, making all voltage
measurements before moving on to resistance measure-
ments or vice versa? Did you make enough measure-
ments and the right types of measurements to
uniquely identify the fault? Did you make far more
measurements than were necessary?

3. Did you use the equipment properly?

Did you attempt to measure voltage with the power
off? A minor infraction. Or did you attempt to measure
resistance with the power on? A more serious offense.

4. Did you follow good safety practices?

Did you attempt to remove acomponent with the
power applied?

5. How many components did you replace before fixing the

problem?
Ideally you should replace only the malfunctioning compo-
nent. Wholesale replacement of parts will eventually re-
sult in a"fix" but is not considered good practice.

6. How long did it take you?

By reading the Tb files on the student workdisk, you
can determine the exact amount of time spent on each-
step of the troubleshooting scenario as well as the over-
all problem. Time can play acrucial factor in trouble-
shooting when customers and their money are involved.

26
 As the student, it is your responsibility to decide how
much weight will be placed on each of the above factors
and any other factors you may consider important. Also,
you may want to change the weight of some factors as you
progress. For example, forgetting to shut off the power
before working on the circuit might be attributable to
unfamiliarity with the program the first time it happens.
But, it might be judged more severely on subsequent
occurrences.

Additional Ways to Use the Program

Once you become proficient at finding and repairing

the faults using your own individually developed tech-
niques, some additional variety can be introduced by set-
ting up special scenarios which will cause you to rethink
their techniques. For example, you may want to run
through the program under one of the following scenarios:

1. Find and fix the fault as quickly as possible. There are

situations in which time to repair is the most impor-
tant factor. A failure of akey piece of equipment on an
assembly line comes to mind. Every second that the
line is down costs the company money. When time is
the overriding concern, the troubleshooting technique
may be radically different.
2. Find and fix the fault with minimum soldering. Solder-
ing is an intrusive procedure. Anytime you remove or
replace acomponent by soldering you risk damage to
adjacent components, the circuit board, or the compo-
nent being removed. This is especially true with to-
day's micro-miniaturized electronics devices and
multilayer circuit boards.
3. Find and fix the fault making measurements only with
the voltmeter. Limiting the use of test equipment to
the voltmeter will cause you to use Ohm's Law and
other theoretical concepts. So while this may not be a
legitimate technique, it makes an interesting learning
experience.

27
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

The Problems

The Problems and Faults were chosen to give the stu-

dent across section of troubleshooting experience. The
early scenarios are designed to ease the student into trou-
bleshooting while the later ones provide amore thought
provoking challenge. There are no trick problems al-
though in the last two problems component values and
the characteristic of the meter are selected to prompt dis-
cussion. All malfunctions are either open or shorted com-
ponents. There is only one malfunction per fault.

Objectives of the Program

Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to:

1. Use aschematic diagram and acomponent view of a

circuit, match each component and test point on the
schematic with its counterpart on the circuit board.
2. Demonstrate that widely separated points on acircuit
board may be "electrically" identical.
3. Demonstrate the proper use of asignal generator, volt-
meter, and ohmmeter.
4. Use aRC circuit with an open component, find and
replace the faulty part.
5. Use aRC circuit with ashorted component, find and
replace the faulty part.
6. Use aRL circuit with an open component, find and
replace the faulty part.
7. Use aRL circuit with ashorted component, find and
replace the faulty part.
8. Use aRLC circuit with an open component, find and
replace the faulty part.

28
 9. Use aRLC circuit with ashorted component, find
and replace the faulty part.
10. Use aTransformer circuit with an open component,
find and replace the faulty part.
11. Use aTransformer circuit with ashorted component,
find and replace the faulty part.
12. Demonstrate the proper method of testing acapacitor.
13. Demonstrate the proper method of testing an inductor.
14. Demonstrate the proper method of testing aspeaker.
15. Demonstrate the proper method of testing atrans-
former.
16. Demonstrate that an input signal should be re-
moved from the circuit before any repair is at-
tempted.
17. Demonstrate that an input signal should be re-
moved from the circuit before using the Ohmmeter.
18. Demonstrate that because of component and meter
tolerances, resistance and voltage measurements
are not always exactly what the student expects.
19. Demonstrate the value of being able to estimate
what voltage or resistance reading to expect.
20. Demonstrate the unique abnormalities caused in
various types of circuits by opens and shorts.

RC Circuit

This circuit is an RC Low-Pass Filter circuit with acut-

off frequency of 8kHz. This problem introduces the Sig-
nal Generator as auseful piece of troubleshooting test
equipment. The Signal Generator is used to show the cir-
cuit's response to inserting the cut-off frequency or a
sweeping frequency.

RL Circuit

This circuit is an RL Low-Pass Filter circuit with acut-

off frequency of 10.6 kHz. The Signal Generator is used
again in this problem to show the circuit's response to
inserting the cut-off frequency or asweeping frequency.

29
MANUAL FOR AC ELECTRONICS

RLC Circuit

This circuit is an RLC Band-Pass Filter with areso-

nant frequency of 50 kHz. It demonstrates that when a
component shorts, the circuit configuration and its charac-
teristics change. In this circuit, when Cl is shorted the
circuit turns into an RL Low-Pass filter configuration
with acut-off frequency of 15 kHz. When Li is shorted,
the circuit turns into an RC High-Pass filter configura-
tion with acut-off frequency of 159 kHz. Obviously, this
will greatly affect all voltage test results.

Transformer Circuit

This circuit is the audio output circuit of an antique,

tube type radio. The transformer is a5:1 step-down cou-
pling transformer that matches the high impedance of the
last tube amplifier stage to the low impedance of the
speaker.

30
Answer Sheet

AC Electronics Troubleshooting
RC Circuit
Fault #1 PA System R1 open
Fault #2 PA System Cl shorted
Fault #3 PA System Cl open
Fault #4 PA System R1 shorted
RL Circuit
Fault #1 PA System Li shorted
Fault #2 PA System R1 shorted
Fault #3 PA System Li open
Fault #4 PA System R1 open
RLC Circuit
Fault #1 Garage Door Opener Li open
Fault #2 Garage Door Opener Cl shorted
Fault #3 Garage Door Opener Li shorted
Fault #4 Garage Door Opener Cl open
Transformer Circuit
Fault #1 Antique Radio Ti primary open
Fault #2 Antique Radio Ti secondary open
Fault #3 Antique Radio Ti primary shorted
Fault #4 Antique Radio Speaker open

31
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES
Please use this page to record any
notes you may want to review during your studies.
••7, 4

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II
WI/ Schools

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Introduction to Electronics 4409

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Introduction to Electronics
 I

McGraw-Hill
irg
A Division of The McGnzavlial Companies 1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS (First Edition)

Copyright © 1995 by McGraw-Hill, Washington, DC 20008. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in adata base retrieval system, without prior
written permission of McGraw-Hill.

ISBN LT4409

01
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
What Is Electronics? 2

Overview of the Electronics Industry 3

Communications 3
Computers 4
Control 4
Test and Measurement 4
Other Uses of Electronic Equipment 5

Self-Test Questions 5

Who Uses Electronic Equipment? 6

Consumer Electronics 6

Business 6

Industry 6
Government and Military 7
Electrical vs. Electronics Industries 8

Self-Test Questions 9

The Physics of Electronics 10

Origin of the Term Electronics 10

Basic Electronic Applications 11

The Atomic Structure of Matter 12

The Law of Charges 15
Conductors and Insulators 16
Self-Test Questions 16

Answers to Self-Test Questions 17

Lesson Questions 18
Lesson Objectives

In this lesson, you will...

• Become familiar with the general areas of electronics.

• Learn about the atomic structure of matter.

• Discover how atomic particles are involved with electronics.

t
r Introduction
i.

Welcome to the exciting world of electron- lives. Knowing electronics in depth will give
ics. The NR! Electronics lessons are designed you agreater awareness of what it can do for
to help you learn more about this dynamic you and others, and will help you to apply it
field. They will give you afirm understanding to your personal life and career. Further, be-
of electronic components, circuits, equip- cause it is an exciting and rapidly changing
ment, and systems. As aresult, you will bet- field, there is always something new to learn.
ter understand and appreciate how this You will find electronics to be agreat hobby
technology has changed and enhanced our or career.

1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

THESE ELECTRONIC ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT SUCH EQUIPMENT

COMPONENTS LIKE. SUCH AS ... IS USED TO FORM
SYSTEMS LIKE..
Resistors Amplifiers Transmitters
Capacitors Oscillators Receivers Satellite
Inductors Rectifiers TV Sets Communications
Transformers Filters VCRs Cellular Telephone
Relays Mixers Telephones Guidance
Modulators Garage Door Openers Computer
Solenoids
Multiplexers Security Alarms Navigation
Motors
Logic Gates Computers Automated
Diodes
Flip-Flops Printers Manufacturing
Transistors
Registers Copiers Military
Vacuum Tubes
Memories Fax Machines Communications,
Integrated Circuits Phase-Locked Loops Radar Weapons, etc.
.and others ... Detectors Satellites
Decoders Modems
..• MAKE UP Encoders Robots AND ON AND ON...
THESE... Regulators Machine Tools
...and others. ..

... and others

TO CREATE...

Figure 1. The hierarchy of electronics: Components make up circuits, which make up equipment used to make systems.

What Is Electronics?

Electronics is the study of the behavior of everchanging, due to the creation of new and
subatomic particles called electrons, and the better components and circuits which form
development and application of circuits and the electronic instruments and systems with
devices that manipulate electronic currents to which you are probably familiar. The block
perform avariety of useful tasks. The general diagram in Figure 1lists some common
principles of electricity and electronics are de- electronic components and circuits and the
rived from physics and are widely known types of electronic equipment and systems
and understood. Electronics, however, is that are made from them.

2
Overview of the Electronics
Industry

The electronics industry can be roughly di- Also included in this category is two-way
vided into four major areas: communications, radio communications. There are so many ap-
computers, control, and test and measure- plications for two-way radio that it is almost
ment. Almost every type of electronic equip- impossible to list them all. You are probably
ment made, regardless of the application, familiar with many of them and may even
falls into one of these four major areas. Let's use one of these services yourself. They in-
take alook at each in more detail. clude aircraft, marine, military, police, fire,
taxi, government service, and even personal
two-way radios, such as Citizens' Band (CB)
and amateur (ham) radio. Cellular telephones
Communications
also fall into this group.

Communications is the largest field of elec- A special area of communications is data

tronics, as well as the oldest It includes all of communications, which is essentially the
the equipment and technologies people and transmission and reception of digital data be-
machines use for communicating with one an- tween computers. Information is transmitted
other. The earliest electronic communications from one computr to another through the
system was the telegraph, followed ageneration telephone system and often by microwave re-
later by the telephone. Today, the telephone lay or satellite links. Even personal comput-
system is by far the largest communications ers communicate through their local area
network in the world. Communications also in- networks (LANs) and modems attached to re-
cludes all radio and television broadcasting. mote information sources, such as bulletin
This is ahuge industry with thousands of AM board systems (BBS) and commercial on-line
and FM radio and TV stations. services (CompuServe, Prodigy, GEnie, and

3
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

America Online). There also are many other function. Some examples are the microproc-
special types of communications systems and essors inside TV sets, automobiles, appli-
equipment. These include fiber optics, satel- ances, and factory machine tools.
lites, cable and interactive TV, radar, navigation
The computer field also encompasses pe-
systems, and facsimile (fax) machines.
ripheral devices. These include color and
Communications is an enormous field that monochrome video monitors, disk drives,
has an impact on all of us every day. You no printers, mice, and any other device used for
doubt use many communications devices computer input or output operations.
every day, particularly the telephone, radio,
and television.

Control

Computers Electronic control equipment is used to

automatically manipulate or operate equip-
The computer industry is aclose second ment or machinery. One example of control
in size to the communications industry. Com- equipment is adevice which varies the speed
puters and related devices are almost as of amotor. Another example is the program-
widely used as communications equipment. mable logic controller (PLC), which is aspe-
Large mainframe computers have been cial type of computer used in industrial
around since the late 1940s and early 1950s, applications. PLCs are used to control all
and, since that time, have greatly evolved in kinds of factory machine tools and other
power and capability over the years. There equipment. There are also control circuits for
are also the large, fast supercomputers used dimming lights, switching solenoids and re-
in scientific research and engineering applica- lays, operating valves, and sequencing the cy-
tions. Smaller, powerful minicomputer sys- cles in dish and clothes washing machines.
tems provide nearly the same computing Control equipment also includes systems
capacity as the larger mainframes, but at a used in automated manufacturing plants, such
lower price. Then there are the hundreds of as computer-controlled machine tools, lathes,
millions of personal computers that are used mills, conveyers, and other robotic devices.
in offices and homes around the world. Other
faster and more powerful desktop comput-
ers, basically souped-up personal computers,
Test and Measurement
are engineering and graphics workstations.

Then there are the billions of microcomput- The test and measurement segment of the
ers that are built into other pieces of equipment. electronics industry is devoted to making pre-
While most of these are not programmable cise and accurate measurements of physical
general-purpose computers, they are com- and electrical phenomena. The design, devel-
puters in the classic sense of the word. How- opment, repair, and maintenance of electronic
ever, they are built into or embedded in other equipment requires instruments that can accu-
devices, and are therefore dedicated to asingle rately measure voltage, current, resistance,

4
frequency, etc. A large part of this field is de- As you may have realized, most electronic
voted to general-purpose testers, such as mul- applications are amixture of equipment and
timeters, oscilloscopes, signal generators, techniques from two or more of the major ar-
and frequency counters. eas. For example, an electronic control's out-
put usually is dependent on some input
Of course, test and measurement capabili-
signal from atest or measurement device.
ties are required in many areas. In manufac-
Also, many personal computers use commu-
turing and process control, instruments are
nications techniques in the form of LANs or
needed to make accurate measurements of
modems connected to remote data sources.
physical characteristics, such as tempera-
ture, liquid level, fluid flow rate, pressure, hu- Another example is factory control applica-
midity, and vibration. tions. Most of these include amaster control
computer that operates other equipment that
Medical electronics is asignificant special-
performs the specific control task. These are
ized area of the test and measurement field.
often also networked, thus adding the com-
It's critical that precise measurements of
munications function. Such mixtures of the
physiological properties be made so that
various fields are said to be interdisciplinary.
physicians can make accurate diagnoses.

Self-Test Questions
Other Uses of Electronic Equipment
Please check your answers on page 17.
While most electronic equipment falls into
one of the four areas discussed, there are many 1 From what field of study do the principles
special areas of electronics that are not so eas- of electronics come?
ily classified. Electronic security systems for 2 Communications between computers is
homes and cars are good examples. There known as
also is the electronic music industry, which 3 In the field of electronics, what is meant
encompasses synthesizers, stereo receivers, by interdisciplinary?
compact disc (CD) players, digital audio tape
(DAT) recorders, and signal conditioning
equipment.

5
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

Who Uses Electronic Equipment?

Another way to categorize electronic equip- is hospitals, which use administrative comput-
ment and systems is by the type of end user. ers and related items and medical electronic
That is, who is the customer for the equip- equipment, such as patient monitoring devices
ment, and where is it used? The four major and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ma-
customer categories are consumer, business, chines. Almost all businesses use telephones,
industrial, and government/military. fax machines, photocopiers, personal comput-
ers (and other computers), intercoms, dictating
machines, security systems, building environ-
ment controls, fire alarms, etc.
Consumer Electronics

Consumer electronics includes everything

that individuals use for personal entertainment Industry
or convenience. The telephone is one example.
Your CD player and stereo system, TV set, and Because business and industry seem simi-
electronic keyboard also fall into this category lar, industrial uses could logically be lumped
as do home computers, security alarms, garage under the category of business. But industrial
door openers, and many others. Notice that applications are considered separately be-
these consumer electronic products can be cause of the different types of equipment
sorted by the different categories of communi- used. For example, industries use manufactur-
cations, computing, and control. ing equipment, such as robots, computer-
controlled lathes and mills, conveyer belts,
and other types of manufacturing machines.
Industrial applications also include comput-
Business
ers, control equipment, and test and measure-
ment equipment.
By business, we mean nonprofit as well as
profit-making corporations. One example is Industries use test and measurement
large insurance companies with massive equipment in manufacturing and process con-
mainframe computers and hundreds of net- trol applications to produce chemicals, phar-
worked personal computers. Another example maceuticals, fertilizer, and other kinds of bulk

6
 THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY - A PROFILE

COMMUNICATIONS COMPUTERS CONTROL TEST &

MEASUREMENT

CONSUMER TVs Home Computers Security Alarms Thermometers

Telephones Calculators Blenders Sphygmomanometer
Radios Washer/Dryers (Blood Pressure
CD Players Auto Ignition & Fuel Device)

BUSINESS Telephones Mainframes Copiers Surveying

Fax Machines Minicomputers Building Security Construction
Satellite Personal HVAC
Teleconferencing Computers
(PCs)

INDUSTRY Local Area Networks Programmable Embedded Micros Manufacturing

(LANs) Logic Controllers Machine Tools Process Control
(PLC) Robots Quality Assurance
Telemetry Engineering
Workstations

GOV'T & Satellites Administrative Weapons Weather

MILITARY — Comm. Database — Missiles Environment
— Navigation Planning — Tanks Protection
Navigation Systems Simulation — Artillery
Global Two-Way

Figure 2. Electronics Industry Profile.

materials. And let's not overlook utilities, and military offices use telephones, comput-
such as the telephone companies, electric power ers, fax machines, copiers, and other types of
companies, and gas and water companies, all standard business equipment.
of which make extensive use of electronic
Also, consider operations like NASA, the
equipment. These only scratch the surface of
FAA, the FBI, the CIA, and the military. The
industrial applications of electronic equipment.
military, in particular, has many special elec-
tronic weapons and systems for communica-
tions, command, and control. Computing is
Government and Military used extensively, as are satellites and many
weapon-related special control and communi-
Since government, including the military, is cations systems. Radar and navigation equip-
now the largest employer in our nation and ment are also in wide use.
takes in more money than all of the top busi-
Figure 2 shows examples of how the various
nesses and industries in the country, it is by far
electronic applications are used in the different
the biggest user of electronics. All government

7
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

marketplaces. This table puts into perspective power. This includes the electrical generating
the variety of applications and markets, which plants of utilities and their distribution sys-
tend to mesh and overlap. tems and wiring of electricity to our homes, of-
fices, factories, schools, and hospitals.

Figure 3 is asimplified diagram of the gen-

Electrical vs. Electronics Industries eration and distribution of electricity. Energy
is produced by burning coal or oil or through
Electronics is the u_e_21-sleareftie,-sonapo- nuclear fission. The energy, in turn, produces
nents, circuits, and equipmçntSupgrform heat, steam, and pressure, which are used to
teeful functions, such as computing, commu- drive turbines. A turbine convertheat enery
nications, and control. Related to and associ- into mechanical energy, which is used to drive
ated with electronics is the electrical industry. agenerator that produces electrical energy.
This vital industry is primarilysoncern0 with The generators produce alternating current.
the generation and distribution of electrical The alternating current is stepped up to a

RESIDENCE
USING
ELECTRICITY

NUCLEAR
POWER
PLANT

STEAM
TURBINE

FISSIONABLE MATERIAL TURNING TURBINE

`-"-' GENERATES HEAT GENERATES ELECTRICITY

(" HEAT CREATES STEAM WIRES CARRY ELECTRICITY FROM

\"--
I FROM WATER POWER PLANT TO RESIDENCE

pz, STEAM TURNS TURBINE pz, RESIDENCE USES

L1.5) = WORK ELECTRICITY

Figure 3. Generating electricity by nuclear fission.

8
higher voltage level by transformers and then Self-Test Questions
distributed by power lines. Transformers, in
usage areas, step the voltage down before it is 4 What is the largest [Link] of electronic
wired to homes, offices, and other facilities. systems? Cet-»-t-,--/
-

In addition to the generation and distribu- 5 What is the main difference between the

tion of electrical power, the electrical industry electrical and electronic industries?
6 What are the three forms of energy pro-
also encompasses the distribution and the
wiring in homes and buildings; this includes duced when electricity is generated in anu-
clear, coal, or oil power plant?
wire, outlets, lighting, switches, circuit break-
7 What form of energy oes agenerator gen-
gen-
ers, and other equipment found in homes
erate? 1_,L)
and businesses throughout the country
8 How are transformers used in, the electrIj
cal industry? 57`-ar) é/,•-e„. ,
9 Where does théérgy
tier eiii>‘th
eátR
lt ope(jrát/es
lieein
5fosi-ja-i
t
•
electronic equipment originate?-2,-,- ,

9
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

The Physics of Electronics

Origin of the Term "Electronics" by small batteries or by big generators at your

electrical power utility. These power sources

The word electronics is derived from the cause current to flow, which produces light and

word electron. An electron is asubatomic heat and which powers all other electrical and

particle. All matter (things that we can feel, electronic equipment in homes and offices.

see, hear, smell, and otherwise sense) is Electronics is different from electricity in
made up of tiny particles called atoms. These that we precisely control the electron flow to
are combined in an infinite number of ways to produce avariety of useful effects. For exam-
produce all physical things. ple, varying the amount of electrons moving

Atoms are made up of other tiny compo- in alamp filament allows us to control the
nents: protons, neutrons, and electrons. You lamp brightness, as with alight dimmer. The
will learn more about these subatomic parti- key to understanding electronics is to realize

cles in the next topic. For now, just remem- the many thousands of ways that electron

ber that electrons can be freed from atoms. flow can be controlled. You are about to learn
how electronic components and circuits are
With an external force or pressure, elec-
used to control current flow.
trons can be pulled away from the atoms and
caused to move. If this external force is great Figure 4 is asketch of ageneric electronic
enough, it can cause alarge number of elec- application. There is asource of electrical en-
trons to move or, as we say, toflow. This col- ergy, such as abattery or power from autility

lective movement of electrons in one direction company. Its output is called voltage, which is

through some material, such as awire or a the name of the force that causes the elec-

component (like atransistor), is known as cur- trons to flow. The electrons make up the cur-

rentflow. When electrons can be made to flow rent, which flows through aload. A load is a

in aconcise way, the results can be very useful. device, such as alight bulb, motor, or antenna,
that produces the useful or desired end effect.
When electron flow is used primarily as an
Note that the electrons must also flow through
energy or power source, we normally call it elec-
acontrol element. It is this control element
tricity. Electricity or electrical power is produced that produces the desired effect in the load. It

10
 VARIES OR MODIFIES
CURRENT IN SOME WAY

CONTROL ELEMENT
(SWITCH, TRANSISTOR,
ELECTRICAL POWER --
ETC.)
SOURCE (BATTERY,
GENERATOR, ETC.) VOLTAGE PATH OF ELECTRONS LOAD
(MOTOR, LAMP
ANTENNA, ETC.)

PRODUCES ENERGY PRODUCES SOME

TO CAUSE USEFUL END
CURRENT FLOW RESULT

Figure 4. General model or concept for all electronic circuits and equipment.

may be a simple resistor, a transistor, a through the light bulb (the load). The control
switch, or some complex collection of parts element is the OFF/ON switch. If the switch is
that form acircuit to produce the desired result. open, or acting as an insulator, no current
can flow because we have broken the path
the electrons would have followed. If the
switch is closed, or acting as aconductor, it
Basic Electronic Applications
completes the circuit and allows electrons to
flow and the lamp to light.
A flashlight is an example of abasic elec-
tronic application. (See Figure 5.) Two flash- Another example, avariable speed electric
light cells are connected to form abattery motor, is shown in Figure 6, on the next page.
supply voltage. This causes electrons to flow The electrical power comes from awall outlet

SWITCH
(CONTROL PRESENCE
OR ABSENCE OF
CURRENT FLOW)

BULB

FLASHLIGHT
CELLS
(SUPPLY
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY)

FILAMENT
(PRODUCES
ELECTRON LIGHT)
FLOW

Figure 5. How a basic flashlight operates electronically.

11
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

KNOB

VARIES
MOTOR
SPEED

VOLTAGE

UTILITY L _....
PLANT
GENERATOR

LOAD MOTOR
(ROTATES A
SHAFT TO
PRODUCE
MECHANICAL
ENERGY)

Figure 6. Basic operation of avariable speed electric motor.

and causes electrons to flow in the load, in this enough, the thermostat will again close, turn
case, amotor. The electron flow produces a on the heater, and restart the cycle of control
magnetic field which, in turn, causes the motor operation.
to rotate. The control element is aspecial elec-
tronic circuit that controls motor speed.

Another example, shown in Figure 7, illus- The Atomic Structure of Matter

trates automatic temperature control. A special
heat-sensitive switch, called athermostat, is You don't have to be aphysicist or arocket
connected as the control element between the scientist to know, understand, and enjoy elec-
electrical power outlet and the load — a tronics, but it helps if you know alittle about
heating element. Normally, the thermostat is the nature of electricity, which forms the ba-
closed, which allows current to flow to activate sis of electronics. Let's explore some basic
the heater. As warmer air from the heater principles of atomic structure and current
reaches the thermostat, the increase in tem- flow to start you on your way.
perature is sensed and will eventually cause
There are two basic types of electricity,
the thermostat to open. This will, in turn,
static and dynamic. Both involve charges. A
cause the heater to turn off, which allows the
charge is an invisible electrical force somewhat
air around it to cool. When the air gets cool
like amagnetic field. Charges are created by

12
 An atom is not solid. At its center is anu-
cleus, which has apositive electrical charge.
POWER
SOURCE Traveling around the nucleus in elliptical paths,

1D I
I
1
or rings, are small particles called electrons,
HEATER
ELEMENT which have anegative charge. Every electron has
the same mass and the same negative charge.
Most atoms have enough electrons in the rings
to balance the positive charge of the nucleus.

The lightest element, hydrogen, has the

simplest atomic structure. It has one positive
THERMOSTAT
charge in the nucleus and one electron in orbit
Figure 7. Diagram of athermostat-controlled heating around the nucleus, as shown in Figure 8(A).
system.
Helium, the second element, has two positive
charges in the nucleus and two electrons in
orbit, as shown in Figure 8(B). Next is alight
the basic atomic structure of materials. So,
metal, lithium, with three positive charges in
to begin our discussion of electricity and elec-
the nucleus and three electrons in orbit, as
tronics, let's start with atoms.
shown in Figure 8(C).
As stated earlier, all substances are made
Notice in Figure 8(C) that lithium's third
up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are
electron travels in asecond ring. The first
so small that apiece of copper the size of a
electron ring of an atom can hold two elec-
grain of sand contains biffions of copper atoms.
trons; once the ring is filled, additional elec-
All of these copper atoms take the same form,
trons must orbit in other rings. The maximum
and each copper atom can be regarded as an
number of electrons in each of the first four
actual piece of copper. There is no smaller unit
rings of any atom is shown on the next page in
of copper than one copper atom; this principle
Figure 9. In general, to fmd out the maximum
is true for all other elements, as well.

(
13) (c)

Figure 8. (A) The Hydrogen atom. (B) The Helium atom. (C) The Lithium atom.

13
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

is not held closely to the atom and can be

moved easily out of the ring (into space, or to
another atom). This leaves the atom short
one electron, and the positive charge of the
nucleus is not neutralized. The atom, then,
will be positively charged.

The copper atom is an excellent example

of an atom with one electron in its outer ring.
The positive charge of the nucleus of the cop-
per atom is 29. There are 29 electrons in or-
bit around the nucleus, as shown in Figure 10.
The first three rings of the atom are filled;
they have all the electrons they can hold.
However, the twenty-ninth electron required
to neutralize the charge of the nucleus is in
Figure 9. The maximum number of electrons possible in
each of the first four rings of any atom. a fourth ring by itself. This electron is
loosely bound to the nucleus. Under the
right conditions, it can move easily from
number of electrons that each ring can con- one atom to another. This configuration al-
tain, you simply use the 2n 2 law, where "n" is lows electricity to move easily along a cop-
the ring number. For example, for the third per wire, and is one reason why copper
ring, the maximum number is 2(3) 2,or 18. conductors are widely used in electronic

When the sum of the negative charges on equipment and electrical power distribution.

the orbiting electrons exactly balances the

positive charge of the nucleus, the atom has
no overall electrical charge. When the outer-
most electron ring contains the maximum
number of electrons it can hold, the atom is
very stable electrically and chemically. It is
very difficult to get an electron to move out of
astable atom or to force another electron
into it. On the other hand, if the outer ring
lacks one or two electrons, it is very easy to
force electrons into position to fill the ring. If
an extra electron is forced into an atom,
whether the outermost ring is filled or not,
the atom will have one more electron than it
needs to neutralize the charge of the nucleus.
The atom itself will then acquire anegative
Figure 10. The nucleus of acopper atom has apositive
charge. In acomparable fashion, if the outer charge of 29. There are normally 29 electrons around
ring has only one electron in it, that electron the nucleus.

14
The Law of Charges
<Kg34W6<t;W
One characteristic of electrical charges is
that like charges repel, and unlike charges
f>./»»i/5
(A)
attract. This is known as the Law of Charges.
Since like diarge's repel, the electrons in an A
EXTRA
atom all tend to repel one another, and, at the BALL t:
same time, are attracted by the positive
charge of the nucleus. A piece of copper con-
tains billions of atoms. Each atom has anu- (B)

cleus consisting of 29 positive charges, Figure 11. An example with ping-pong balls showing
surrounded by 29 negatively charged elec- how instantaneous chain reactions can occur in
wires. (A) The ping-pong balls remain stationary when
trons, which neutralize this positive charge. no force is applied. (B) When an additional ball is
The electrons are held by the positive charge added, the original group of balls shifts to the side,
forcing one out of the tube.
on the nucleus which attracts them. At the
same time, these electrons repel other elec- Except for the fact that electrons can move
trons in the atom and in nearby atoms. There much faster than ping-pong balls, the same
is adynamic balance established between the thing happens when you apply an electromo-
attraction of the nucleus and the circling elec- tive force (EME), or voltage, to move an elec-
trons as they repel other electrons. tron at one end (point A) of awire, as shown

If we connect acopper wire to something in Figure 12. Although the electrons do not

that pulls electrons from one end and pushes touch each other, the force of repulsion be-

electrons into the other end, an instantane- tween them causes electrons all along the

ous chain reaction occurs along the wire. The wire to move. If you apply aforce great

instant an electron moves out of the fourth enough to move two electrons, as shown on

ring of one copper atom, its negative charge the next page in Figure 13(A), two electrons

pushes an electron out of the fourth ring of a would move all along the wire. Similarly, if you

nearby atom. This, in turn, pushes an elec- increase the force again, three electrons mov-

tron out of the fourth ring of another atom. ing at end A, as shown in Figure 13(B), cause

This happens along the entire length of wire; achain reaction of three electrons moving

at the instant an electron moves at one end of throughout the length of the wire.

the wire, an electron moves at the other end. The movement of electrons along the wire

You can get abetter idea of what's happen- is called current flow. An electric current is

ing if you imagine ahollow tube filled with ping- the movement of electrons that have been

pong balls, as shown in Figure 11(A). Each forced out of atoms.

ping-pong ball is in contact with the next. When

you force an additional ball into one end, as
shown in Figure 11(B), all the balls in the tube
move, and aball falls out the other end. The
FORCE
-0-0-0-0-0
movement is nearly instantaneous throughout
the length of the tube. Figure 12. Instantaneous reaction of electrons in awire.

15
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

that it is usually considered insignificant. Sil-

FORCE
ver is the best known conductor, but it is
used only in special applications because of
FORCE
its high cost. Copper is the next best, and be-
(A) cause it is relatively inexpensive, it is used in
most electrical wiring.

FORCE Most copper wire used in electronic equip-

ment is covered with aplastic coating. This
FORCE
cover is an insulator, which is used to pre-

FORCE
vent ashort circuit. If we did not use an insu-
lator over the wire, and two wires accidentally
(B)
came into contact, ashort circuit would occur.
The current would simply flow out one wire
Figure 13. The number of electrons set in motion along
and back through the other and perform no
awire depends on the force applied. (A) Two electrons
move along the wire when force is applied. (B) useful function.
Increased force causes three electrons to move along

Conductors and Insulators Self-Test Questions

e
-
,41,e'fre
When parts are assembled into an elec- 10 State the Law of Charges. uud i; ke Cliem efe4,,e—w
tronic circuit, there are paths along which the 11 What things are made up of atoms? /1" «ret»`-5
designer wants current to flow, and paths 12 From which of the three subatomic parti-
along which no current should flow. Conduc- cles does the word "electronics" come
tors are used to provide the path for current from? (
flow, and insulators are used to block cur- 13 Which part of an atom has apositive
rent where it is necessary to prevent current charge?
from flowing. 14 Which part of an atom has anegative
charge? )
Conductors are materials with one or two
15 If acopper atom, which normally has 29
electrons that can be easily removed from the
electrons and 29 protons, loses one of its
outer ring. There is no such thing as aperfect
electrons, which kind of charge does the
conductor, because all conductors offer some
atom have? -1-
resistance or opposition to electric current.
16 What is the definition of current _go
__
‘i

Materials that do not readily give up elec- 17 What is the maximum number' of elec-
trons are used as insulators. Although there trons that can fit into the fifth shell of any
is no perfect insulator, materials used as insu- atom? 5
lators have such ahigh resistance, and pass 18 Will two protons attract or repel each
so little current, that we can say that these other? -, e
are nonconducting materials. The weak cur- 19 Are materials with three or four electrons
rent that is passed through insulating mate- in the outer ring good conductors? Ab-
-

rial is called leakage current, and is so low

16
Answers to Self-Test Questions

1 The principles of electronics come from 9 The energy that operates most electronic
physics. equipment originates at an electrical util-
2 Communications between computers is ity or apower plant.
known as data communications. 10 The Law of Charges states that unlike
3 Interdisciplinary refers to acombination charges attract; like charges repel.
of electronic specialties used in asingle ap- 11 All things are made up of atoms.
plication. 12 The word "electronics" comes from the
4 The government is the largest single user word electron.
of electronic systems. 13 The proton has apositive charge.
5 The function of the electrical industry is to 14 The electron has anegative charge.
generate and distribute electrical power; 15 The atom has 29 protons and 28 elec-
whereas the function of the electronic in- trons, which yields anet positive charge.
dustry is the production of electronic com- 16 Current flow is the movement of elec-
ponents, circuits, and equipment to trons along aconductor.
perform useful functions, such as comput- 17 2(5) 2,or 50 electrons, is the maximum
ing, communications, and control. number of electrons that can fit into the
6 Heat energy, mechanical energy, and elec- fifth shell of any atom.
trical energy are the three forms of energy 18 Two protons will repel each other.
produced when electricity is generated in a 19 No, materials with three or four electrons
nuclear, coal, or oil power plant. in the outer ring are not good conduc-
7 A generator generates electrical energy. tors.
8 Transformers are used to step up the voltage
before transmission and to step down the
voltage after transmission.

17
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

Lesson Questions

This is Lesson Number 4409.

Make sure you print your name, student num-

ber, and lesson number in the spaces pro- Name Jot)" Sniff?

vided on the Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to Prit

Student No. Lesson No

fill in the circles beneath your student num-
ber and lesson number. XY o 2 37 9 LL
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Reminder: A properly completed Lesson An-
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evaluation promptly.

1. Which discrete component might be used 2. The oldest electronic communication sys-
to make up an amplifier? tem is the:
a. Rectifier. a. Telephone.
CD Transistor. b. Telecom.
c. Logic Gate. 0 Telegraph.
d. Modulator. d. Intercom.

18
3. Which of the following is acomputer periph- 7. Gold has the simplest atomic structure.
eral? a. True.
0 Printer. 0 False.
b. Transistor.
c. Relay. 8. If an atom is neutral and it has two dec-
d. Transformer. trons in the first ring and seven elec-
trons in the second, how many protons
4. Which of the following would most likely are in the nucleus?
be considered an electronic control device? In Nine.
a. Lathe. b. 'IWo.
® Thermostat. c. Seven.
c. Capacitor. d. Eleven.
d. Resistor.

9. The Law of Charges states:

5. Which type particle is not part of an atom? a. Like charges attract.
a. Proton. b. Dislike charges repel.

C) Photon. Positive charges attract negative

c. Electron. charges.
d. Neutron. d. Negative charges never attract positive
charges.

6. What is the name of the force which

causes electrons to flow? 10. Materials that do not readily give up elec-
() Current. trons are used as:
b. Resistance. a. Inductors.
c. Voltage. & Insulators.
d. Inductance. c. Transmission cable.
d. Conductors.

19
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 r•

-,r

•• •
•
;
MAW Schools

HOW TO BUILD CONFIDENCE

Self-confidence — an active faith in your power to accomplish what-

ever you try to do — is apersonal asset that can do big things for
you.

Nothing builds confidence like success. Each lesson you successfully

complete builds your confidence. The more you accomplish, the more
confident you become, and the more you are able to achieve.

Success is habit-forming. Once you get started, you'll find yourself

doing something successful every day. Before you know it, your little
successes will have built up to that big success you've dreamed of.
Get into the success habit as fast as you can, by resolving to study
every day, even if only for afew minutes.

Another confidence builder is adeep, firm faith in yourself — in your

ability to get ahead. If you believe in yourself and are willing to back
up this faith with hard work, you can safely let the rest take care of
itself. With self-confidence grounded in hard work, you can look for-
ward to success in any field you choose.

Act as if you cannot possibly fail, and you will surely succeed.

LT4409
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
eg
Series Circuits 2218

NRI Schools
ADivision of The McGraw •Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
Series Circuits
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 Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Resistance in Series Circuits 2

Review 5
Self-Test Questions 5

Current in Series Circuits 6

A Simple Series Circuit 6
Multiple Resistor Circuits 7
Review 8
Self-Test Questions 8

Voltages in Series Circuits 9

Voltage Drop 9
Kirchhoff's Law 10
Review 11
Self-Test Questions 11

Power in Electrical Circuits 12

The Watt 12
The Kilowatt Hour 13
Review 14
Self-Test Questions 14

Answers to Self-Test Questions 15

Lesson Questions 18

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

SERIES CIRCUITS

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you will ...

• Use Ohms law to find current and voltage in series

circuits.

• Apply Ohm's law in different forms to determine the

relationship between current, voltage, and resistance
in aseries circuit.

• Learn how Kirchhoff 's law establishes the voltage drops

in aseries circuit.

• Learn the basic units of electrical power and how electrical

power relates to current, voltage, and resistance.
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION through the battery to the negative terminal.

There is only one path for current flow.

A series circuit may contain many resistances.

You have studied voltage, current, resistance,
The resistors are connected end-to-end so that
and the units of measure for each. You know that
electrons flow through each resistor moving
current is measured in amperes, milliamperes,
from one to the next.
and microamperes. You have also learned that
volts, millivolts, microvolts, and kilovolts are A parallel circuit has multiple paths for current
units of voltage. In addition, you should remem- flow. Each resistance may connect directly to the
ber that resistance is measured in ohms, voltage source, or several resistances may branch
kilohms, and megohms. These should all be from ajunction. We say that the entire resistive
familiar terms. You should know what they load is "across" the battery in parallel, and there
mean, and know how to make aconversion from may be many parallel paths for current flow.
one unit to another. Electrons leaving the negative terminal of the
power source will flow through several different
So far, we have shown you simple series cir-
paths to get to the positive terminal.
cuits. In aseries circuit, there is only one path
for current to travel. If a resistor is connected You will study series circuits in this lesson,
between the negative and positive terminals of and parallel circuits in the next. All circuits
abattery, electrons must leave the negative ter- found in electronic equipment are either series
minal of the battery, flow through the resistance circuits, parallel circuits, or combinations of
to the positive terminal of the battery, and back

1
SERIES CIRCUITS

R3
RESISTANCE IN SERIES + 5OHMS —

CIRCUITS
eV\Ae

I E
+
A series circuit has only one current path, as R2
— 15 V
shown in Fig.1. The current is the same in all parts 7OHMS
_.1 -
in the circuit. The current flowing through RI is
the same as the current flowing through R2 and
R3. We will use examples of circuits made up of
MA.
resistors. A series circuit may use many different — R1 +
types of electronic components, however. For 3OHMS

example, you could have aseries circuit containing

several resistors, atransistor, and acoil.
Figure 2. A series circuit.
Battery voltage and resistor values for the
circuit shown in Fig.I are provided in Fig.2. In
this series circuit, each resistor opposes the flow
The three resistors together have atotal resis-
of current. The total opposition to current flow is
tance of 15 ohms. That is, in this series circuit,
equal to the sum of the resistances of the
the same current would flow if the three resistors
individual resistors. We can express this math-
were replaced with one 15-ohm resistor.
ematically as:
Polarity. In Fig.2, electrical current leaves the
RT= RI +R2 +R3 negative terminal of the battery and flows
through R1, R2, and R3. The flow of current
Therefore, in Fig.2, the total resistance is:
through each resistor creates avoltage polarity
RT= 3+7+5= 15 ohms across it. The polarity of voltage across RI, for
example, makes the end connected to the battery
more negative than the end connected to R2. The
same applies to the junction of R2 and RI; it is

1
R3 more negative than the junction of R2 and R3.

i §R2
The concept of polarity applies to any com-
ponent through which current flows. If you were
measuring the voltage at different points in the
circuit, your knowledge of polarity would enable

L you to properly connect a meter to the circuit,

with the positive meter lead connected to apoint
ET more positive than the connection of the negative
lead. Polarity is frequently marked on diagrams
with small +and —signs. We will discuss this in
Figure 1. A series circuit. greater detail later.

2
 RESISTANCE IN SERIES CIRCUITS

R5 R4 R5 R4
3.3k 1.2k 0.470M 1M
— MA/ MA• —/VV‘• Wi—

e
E
E
— 45 V R3
1800 R3
45 V
OHMS 560k

R1 R2
1200 1.5k
R1 R2
OHMS
2.2M 330k

Figure 3. A series circuit with five resistors. Figure 5. A series circuit with five resistors.

Calculating Series Resistance. A more com- tance is the sum of all five resistance values, or
plex series circuit is, which has five resistors 9000 ohms.
instead of three, shown in Fig.3. Some resistance
Another circuit containing five resistors is
values in the circuit are provided in ohms, others
shown in Fig.5. Some of the resistor values are
in kilohms (k). To find the total resistance in the
circuit, we must convert all resistor values to the given in megohms (M), others in kilohms. Before
same unit. you can add the values together to get the total
resistance, you must convert all the resistances
Let's convert the values to ohms. R1 is already to the same unit. You can convert all the values
given in ohms— as 1200 ohms. R2 is 1.5 kilohms. to ohms, kilohms, or megohms. It doesn't matter
To convert this to ohms, simply multiply by 1000, which unit you convert to, as long as they are all
moving the decimal points three places to the the same.
right, so that 1.5k equals 1500 ohms. R3 is given
in ohms, as 1800 ohms. R4 is 1.2k, which equals To convert megohms to kilohms, move the
1200 ohms. Similarly, R5 is 3.3k, which is equal decimal point three places to the right. To con-
vert megohms to ohms, move the decimal point
to 3300 ohms. As shown in Fig.4, the total resis-
six places to the right. To convert kilohms to
ohms, move the decimal point three places to the
right. To convert kilohms to megohms, move the
1200 decimal point three places to the left.
1500
The five resistors we have examined are
1800
1200
shown converted to the same unit in Fig.6, on the
+3300 next page. In the first column, all resistance
9000 OHMS values have been converted to ohms. In the
second column, all have been converted to
kilohms, and in the third column, all have been
Figure 4. Total value of the resistors in Flg.3. converted to megohms.

3
SERIES CIRCUITS

Does this mean that we can ignore the

OHMS KILOHMS MEGOHMS presence of the other components? No. We point
this out because it is important to remember that
2,200,000 2200 2.200
current flow in aseries circuit with one or more
330,000 330 .330
560,000 560 .560 high-value resistors and one or more low-
1,000,000 1000 1.000 resistance resistors is determined primarily by
+470.000 +470 +.470 the high-value resistors. However, the low-value
4,560,000 4560 4.560 resistances probably have very specific pur-
poses. Because of their small values, the low-
value resistors could be shorted out of the circuit,
Figure 6. The resistances in Fig.5 converted to the same and not significantly affect the total current. But
units. the loss of their special function in the circuit
might drastically affect its overall performance.

You can see from Fig.6 that we get the correct

answer in each case. You can see that 4,560,000
ohms is equal to 4560k, and to 4.560 megohms.
R5 R4
For practical purposes of calculation, you can 300 400
ignore low-value resistors in aseries circuit if one OHMS OHMS

or more resistors has amuch higher value than

the others. In this case, the low resistances will
not appreciably change the total circuit resistance. E

§ R3
In Fig.7, for example, resistors R1, R2, R4, and ...'— 45 V
4.7M
R5 have very small resistances compared to
R3. With only R3 in the circuit, its 4.7M produces
a current of 9.57 microamperes. If we add the
other resistor values, the total becomes
—NM, Wi----
4,704,700 ohms. Using that value as the total RI R2
resistance, the current is 9.56 microamperes. 100 3.9k
OHMS
The difference is 0.01 1.1A, which is insignificant.
Thus, for practical purposes, we could say that
the circuit resistance is effectively 4.7 megohms. Figure 7. A series circuit where R1, R2, R4, and R5 can be
ignored when determining the total resistance.

4
 RESISTANCE IN SERIES CIRCUITS

Review Self-Test Questions

A series circuit is a circuit in which there is Please check your answers on page 15.
only one path through which the electrons can
flow. The electrons leave the negative terminal 1 What is aseries circuit?
of the voltage source and flow through one part 2 If R1 equals 3ohms, R2 equals 4ohms, and R3
after the other, and back to the positive terminal. equals 5ohms, what is the total resistance of
The current is the same in all parts of aseries the three resistors in series?
circuit. The direction of current flow establishes 3 If these five resistors are connected in series:
avoltage polarity across each component. R1 equals 1500 ohms, R2 equals 2.2k, R3
equals 2700 ohms, R4 equals 4.7k, and R5
equals 1000 ohms, what is the total resis-
tance? /.2,jo o
4 If these five resistors are connected in series:
R1 equals 3.3M, R2 equals 680k, R3 equals
560k, R4 equals 2.2M, and R5 equals 470,000
ohms, what is the total resistance?

¿8ók
«70 K
)
k

3 ,i1c)e
k
11

5
SERIES CIRCUITS

CURRENT IN SERIES CIRCUITS

As atechnician maintaining electronic equip- R1

L
ment, you will seldom have to calculate the cur-
rent flow in the circuit. However, occasionally
you will want to know what the current should 1 I
be. Calculating the current flow in a circuit is
very simple — you use Ohm's law in the form:

E
I=-
à- Figure 8. A simple series circuit.

where I= current, E = voltage, and R = resis-

tance.
If you have apocket calculator, you can enter
the numbers and perform the division. Your
A Simple Series Circuit answer will be 0.01 ampere. Rather than work
with a decimal number, we simply move the
Figure 8is aschematic of the simplest series decimal point three places to the right and say
circuit you will encounter. It is made up of a12 V that the current is 10 milliamperes (mA).
voltage source and asingle resistor. Suppose R1 If you don't have apocket calculator, and don't
has aresistance of 6ohms, and we want to find like working with decimals, you can multiply by
the current flow in the circuit. To do this, we 1000 and you'll get the current in milliamperes.
substitute 12 for E and 6for R in the Ohm's law For example:
formula and we have:
12 1000
12 I- x
I= =2A 1200 1
6
Next, simply cancel out two of the Os above the
You will seldom find resistances as low as 6 division line and the two Os below the division
ohms in electronic equipment. Most often the line:
resistance will be in kilohms or megohms. You
use the same form of Ohm's law to find the , 12 10
current flow, but you must first convert the resis- I=i2 1
x
tance to ohms.
Finally, divide 12 into 12 and multiply by 10:
As an example, suppose R1 in Fig.8 has aresis-
tance of 1.2 kilohms. To find the current flow, we
first convert 1.2k to 1200 ohms. Then we sub- I=—
12 X 10 = 1 X 10 = 10 mA
12
stitute for E and R in the formula, and we have:
Now let's suppose the resistance of R1 in Fig.8
12 is 600 kilohms. First, you convert this to 600,000
I-
1200 ohms. If you have acalculator, you can enter the

6
 CURRENT IN SERIES CIRCUITS

values for E and R. Your answer will be either Cancelling the five Os leaves you with:
0.00002 or 2 x 10 -5 ,depending on the type of
calculator you have. This is the current in 12 x 10
I=
amperes. You can move the decimal point six 6
places to the right to convert 0.00002 A to 20
microamperes (µA). Finally, you divide 6 into 12 to get 2, then
multiply by 10, or you can multiply 12 by 10 to
If you do not have a calculator, you can still get 120, and divide by 6 to get the current,
find the current. Simply enter the values for E 20 microamperes.
and R in the formula and you have:

12 Multiple Resistor Circuits

600,000
If you multiply by 1000 to get the answer in The same form of Ohm's law can determine
milliamperes, you will still have the problem of the current flow in aseries circuit containing two
dividing 600 into 12. You can get around this by or more resistors. However, you must first add
multiplying by 1,000,000. Your answer will be in up the total resistance in the circuit. For ex-
microamperes: ample, if in Fig.9, R1 equals 1.2k, R2 equals 1.8k,
and R3 equals 1000 ohms, you first convert the
= 12 x1,000,000 values of R1 and R2 to ohms, and then add the
I three resistance values. The total resistance in
600,000
the circuit is 4000 ohms. This value fits into the
This looks complex, but allows you to simply formula:
cancel five Os above and below the division
line: 12
I. 4000
12 x1,000,000
I- To get milliamps:
600,000

12 x1000
I-
4000
R1
e‘/VNe Cancel Os above and below the line:

12,000
4000
:if
E F2
L V
R2
12
=4

=3mA
R3
The total current flow in the circuit is 3 milli-
amperes. The battery supplies 3mA; the current
Figure 9. A series circuit with three resistors.
through R3 is 3mA; the current through R2 is

7
SERIES CIRCUITS

3 mA; and the current through R1 is 3 milli- Self-Test Questions

amperes. It is aseries circuit, and the current in
all parts of the circuit is the same. 5 What is the current in aseries circuit made
up of three 4-ohm resistors if the applied
You use the same procedure for aseries circuit,
voltage is 24 volts?
regardless of the number of resistors in the cir-
cuit. First, you find the total resistance in the 6 A 3k, a1000-ohm, and a2k resistor are con-
nected in series across a12 V battery. What is
circuit by converting all resistances to ohms and
the current?
adding them. Use the total resistance in the
circuit, along with the source voltage, to calcu- 7 Four resistors are connected in series across a
120 V battery If R1 equals 2.2M, R2 equals
late the current flow in the circuit.
600k, R3 equals 1.2M, and R4 equals 2,000,000
ohms, what is the circuit current?
Review

In this section we have demonstrated how to

find the current in aseries circuit. In each case,
we use Ohm's law in the form:

I=

To find the current flow in a series circuit,

first find the total resistance in the circuit. The
voltage must be expressed in volts and ihe
resistance in ohms, To avoid a decimal
division, you can multiply by 1000 to get the
current in milliamperes. If necessary, you can
multiply by 1,000,000 to get the current in
microamperes.

‘\-

8
 VOLTAGES IN SERIES CIRCUITS

VOLTAGES IN SERIES
CIRCUITS

In aseries circuit having several resistances,

if you know the current flow and the resistance
values in the circuit, you can find the voltage
across each resistor by using Ohm's law in the
form:

E=IxR
We shorten this formula by leaving out the mul-
tiplication sign and writing it as:

E =IR

Voltage Drop

Voltage creates, or forces, the flow of electric

current through resistances in a series circuit. Figure 10. A series circuit showing the polarity of the
Each resistance uses up some of the total voltage voltage drop across each component.
in the process. The voltage across the resistance,
or across any load, is the amount necessary to
force current through it. The voltage across a
positive. The portion of the 24 V used up across
part in acircuit is called the "voltage drop." The
the resistor is the voltage drop.
direction of current flow establishes the polarity
of the voltage drop. To determine the voltage drop across R3, we
must first determine the circuit current. Adding
Look at Fig.10, which shows three resistors
the resistance of the three resistors to get 12,000
connected in series. As illustrated, avoltmeter
ohms, we divide 24 V by 12,000, and calculate a
can be connected across each resistor to measure
current of 0.002 ampere. Now, using the resis-
the voltage, according to the polarity of the volt-
tance in ohms and the current in amperes, we
age that appears across the resistor. Reversing
can determine the voltage E3 across R3. We
the connections to the voltmeter will result in a
substitute 0.002 for I, and 5100 for R to get:
reading of negative voltage on the meter.
In the circuit shown, electrons leave the nega- E3 =0.002 x5100 = 10.2 V
tive terminal of the 24 V battery and flow through
We can go ahead and calculate the voltage
R3 in the direction indicated by the arrow. The
across R2 and the voltage across R1 in the same
current flow through R3 produces avoltage across
way. We will find that the voltage across R2 is
the resistor. The end that the electrons enter is
4.4 V and the voltage across R1 is 9.4 volts.
negative, and the end from which they leave is

9
SERIES CIRCUITS

Now, add the three voltage drops together and rent must flow through the battery as flows
we have: through the rest of the complete series circuit.

Therefore, to add the voltage drops around the

E =9.4 +4.4 + 10.2 =24
circuit, you have to assign anegative value to the
Notice that the sum of the voltage drops is equal voltage across the battery, and positive values to
to the applied voltage. This is always true in any the voltages across the resistors. The voltage
series circuit. In any closed series circuit, the drops around the circuit are: +10.2 for R3, +4.4
sum of the voltage drops will be equal to the for R2, +9.4 for R1, and therefore —24 for the
source voltage. battery. The algebraic sum of these values is
zero, as Kirchhoff's law states. This is true of all
electronic circuits. It is also another way of
KirciihifsTrs-L-aw— saying that the sum of the voltage drops across
the resistances in aseries circuit is equal to the
Kirchhoff's law is an important rule source voltage.
electronics. It states that in any closed series \
Another important thing to notice is that R3
circuit, the sum of the voltage drops will be equal \
has the highest resistance and the largest volt-
to zero. Let's look again at Fig.10 and see exactly
age drop. R2 has the lowest resistance and the
hat this means.
lowest voltage drop across it. In any series circuit,
If you eginrung -from the the size of the voltage drop across a resistor
negative terminal of the battery, you first arrive depends upon the resistance of the resistor. The
at R3. The voltage polarity across R3 is such that higher the resistance, the greater the voltage drop;
you move from negative to positive as you go the lower the resistance, the smaller the voltage
through R3. Again, at R2 you move from nega- drop.
tive to positive following the current path, and
In acircuit like the one shown in Fig.10, if the
once again from negative to positive through R1.
voltage drop across two of the resistors is known,
When you reach the battery, however, you you can use Kirchhoff's law to find the voltage
encounter the positive terminal. If you continue across the third. For example, suppose the voltage
moving in the direction of current flow, you across R1 is 9.4 V and the voltage across R3 is 10.2
travel from positive to negative, not negative to volts. What is the voltage drop across R2?
positive as you did with the resistors in the
We know that the sum of the three voltages
external circuit. The source voltage polarity is
must be equal to 24 volts. Adding together the
opposite from the polarity of the voltage drops in
voltages across R1 and R3, we get 19.6 volts.
the load resistances.
Since the sum of all three must be 24, we sub-
Reflecting back to Kirchhoff's law, we are look- tract 19.6 from 24, for adifference of 4.4 V, the
ing for the sum of the voltage drops in the circuit. voltage across R2.
If we consider the voltage drops across the resis-
There is another way to use Kirchhoff's law.
tors as being positive voltage values, then the
Suppose you have a6-ohm and a9-ohm resistor
battery must be regarded as anegative voltage
connected in series, and the voltage drop across
drop because it is of opposite polarity. Don't
the 6-ohm resistor is 12 volts. How can you
forget that the battery is just as much apart of
calculate the battery voltage?
the circuit as the resistors, since the same cur-

10
 VOLTAGES IN SERIES CIRCUITS

You know that the sum of the voltage drops is Self-Test Questions
equal to the source voltage. You also know that in
aseries circuit, the current is the same in all parts 8 Four 3k resistors are connected in series
of the circuit, so the current through the 9-ohm across a 12 V battery. What is the voltage
resistor is the same as the current through the across each resistor? ;
6-ohm resistor. The current through the 6-ohm 9 Find the voltage drop across each resistor in
resistor is equal to the voltage drop divided by the the circuit shown below.
resistance value. Since 12 divided by 6is 2, the
current in the circuit is 2amperes. The voltage R1
drop across the 9-ohm resistor is equal to: 2k

E =IR
R2
E =9x2 5k
E = 18 V

Add 18 V and 12 V to find the source voltage — ,ii E - 24 V

30 volts.
e
R3
3k
Review
2( 1 VV‘t

We have covered some very important points GI V ::

I (I •

•-
in this section of the lesson; points that you
should remember. First, you learned that the
voltage across the resistor in acircuit is called a 10 In the circuit below, if the battery voltage is
voltage drop. As Fig.10 shows, of the 24V applied 9V, the voltage drop across R1 is 2V, and
by the battery, part is being dropped across each the voltage drop across R2 is 3V, what is
resistor. You also learned that in any closed cir- the voltage drop across R3?
cuit the sum of the voltage drops around the
complete circuit must be equal to zero. This is
simply another way of saying that the sum of all
the voltage drops is equal to the source voltage.
R1
You also learned that the voltage across a 111--MAr- ‘
resistor in aseries circuit has acertain polarity.
The end that the electrons enter is negative and
the end from which they leave is positive. This
will be true of all dc circuits. You also learned 9V E -

that by multiplying the current (in amperes) by

the resistance (in ohms), you can find the voltage
drop across aresistor.

;i3 v

11
SERIES CIRCUITS

POWER IN ELECTRICAL A 60 W light bulb draws somewhat less current:

CIRCUITS 60
= — =0.5 A
120
Power in an electrical circuit is the rate at The power in an electrical circuit can also be
which energy is consumed. The basic unit for expressed in terms of current and resistance by
electrical power is the watt (W). This is afamiliar combining the power formula with Ohm's law.
term — electric light bulbs are rated in watts. A For example, from Ohm's law we know that:
60 W bulb consumes 60 W of electrical energy
per hour. A 100 W electric bulb consumes 100 W E=IxR
— almost twice as much power as a60 W bulb.
If we substitute I x R for E in .the power
formula we have:
The Watt
P=Ex
=IxRxI=IxIxR
In an electrical circuit, power is equal to the
product of the voltage and the current, or: If we drop the multiplication sign and write
IxIas 1 2,we have the formula:
P=ExI
P =I
2R
We generally drop the multiplication sign and
simplify the formula as: You will see this expression many times in
electronics: "P equals Isquared R." Later you'll
P =EI see how useful this form of the power equation
is. (The expression 12 means Itimes I.)
This formula tells us that if a power source
supplies a voltage of 1 V to a circuit, and a We can also express the power in an electrical
current of 1A flows, the power being supplied is circuit in terms of voltage and resistance. Going
1watt. If the power source supplies 10 V and a back to our original formula:
current of 2A, the power being supplied is
20 W (10 x2=20 watts). P=ExI

You can see that the current used by a 100 W and Ohm's law in the form of:
electric bulb operating on a120 V line is slightly
less than 1ampere. We can find the exact value E
I=
by rearranging the power formula to:
")
E
if we substitute —
R for Iwe get:
I=

Substituting 100 W for P and 120 V for E we get:

E
P = E x—

100
I= =0.83 A
120

12
 POWER IN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

We usually write this as: In electronics you will seldom run into the
term megawatt or microwatt. However, you will
E2 frequently encounter milliwatt, watt, and
P= kilowatt.

The expression E2 means E times E. This is

read, "P equals E squared over R." This form of The Kilowatt Hour
the power equation can be used when we know
the voltage across the part and the resistance of The kilowatt hour, or kWh, is the unit that the
the part. er company uses to measure how much
en though you may never have to do any elect city you consume. If you use 1 kW of
lculating with these three power formulas, you electn ty (1000 W) for 1hour, you have used 1
àhould remember them because they tell you a kilowa hour.
great deal about what is happening in acircuit. If y turn on a 100 W bulb it will use 100 W
The three formulas are: of po er. If you turned on 10 of them, you would
be u ng 1kW of power. If you leave them on for
P =EI
1 •ur, you will have used 1kilowatt hour. You
c n also use 1kWh of electricity by burning one
P =IR
4.00 W bulb for 10 hours.

E2 The burner on an electric stove uses about

1500 W of electricity. This is equal to 1.5
r =
kilowatts. So, if you leave it on for 1hour, you'll
Some devices use large amounts of power. use 1.5 kWh of electricity. You would have to
When the watt is too small aunit of measure, we burn a 100 W electric light bulb for 15 hours to
use the kilowatt. Kilowatt is abbreviated kW. A use the same quantity of electricity.
kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts. 10,000 W equal
If you ever want to check your electric bill,
10 kilowatts. Some radio broadcast stations
operating on the standard AM broadcast band all you need to do is multiply the number of
kilowatt hours used by the charge per kilowatt
operate with apower of 50 kilowatts. These are
the stations that you can hear all over the hour. For example, if you used 120 kWh in a
country after sundown. Local radio stations month, and the power company charges 6e per
broadcasting to a metropolitan area usually kilowatt hour, your bill for the month would
have apower of about 5kilowatts. An even larger be $7.20 (120 x0.06 = 7.20). If you live in an
unit than the kilowatt is the megawatt (MW). area where most of the electricity is generated
The megawatt is equal to 1,000,000 watts. by hydroelectric power, the charge for a kilo-
watt hour will be quite low. On the other hand,
In the opposite case, sometimes awatt is too if you live in an area where the electricity is
large aunit, so power is measured in milliwatts. generated by burning coal or oil, the rate per
There are 1000 milliwatts (mW) in awatt; 1mW kilowatt hour will be much higher.
is one thousandth of awatt. An even smaller unit
is the microwatt (tW), a millionth of a watt.
There are 1,000,000 OV in awatt.

13
SERIES CIRCUITS

Review Self-Test Questions

The unit of electric power is the watt. The 11 How much power is being consumed in acir-
power in watts is equal to the product of the cuit if the voltage is 100 V and the current
voltage multiplied by the current in the circuit. is 5amperes? 4 ))

Two other units of power that you will encounter 12 How much power is being consumed in acir-
are the kilowatt, which is equal to 1,000 W, and cuit if the current is 1A and the resistance is
the milliwatt, which is equal to one thousandth 1000 ohms?
of awatt. 13 How much power is being consumed in the
The kilowatt hour is the unit by which the circuit if the voltage is 100 V and the
resistance is 1000 ohms? ) N•
power company charges you for the power
used. If you use 1000 W of electricity (or 1kW) 14 How many kilowatt hours will be consumed
for 1 hour, you will have consumed 1 kWh of in operating aportable oven for 2hours if
electricity. the oven is operating on a 120 V power
line and draws 5amperes?

14
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST 3,300,000 3300

680,000 680
QUESTIONS 560,000 560
2,200,000 2200
+470,000 +470
1 A series circuit is acircuit in which the volt-
7,210,000 7210
age source and the parts are connected so
(ohms) (kilohms)
there is only one current path. The current
leaving the negative terminal of the voltage 24
5 I= =2A
source flows first through one part and then 12
another to the positive terminal of the voltage
source, and through the source back to the 6 In this example, the total resistance is 6000
negative terminal. There is only one path ohms. To find the current we use:
through which current can flow.
12
I-
2 The total resistance in the circuit will be equal 6000
to the resistance of the sum of the resistors.
To get rid of the decimal division, we multi-
RT =3+4+5= 12 ohms
ply by 1000, which will give us our answer
in milliamperes:
3 To find the total resistance, you express all
resistances in ohms and add them: 12
6-
I=-066 Xwoo
1500
2200
Now, we cancel three Os above and below
2700
the division line and divide 6into 12 and get
4700
2milliamperes.
+1000
12,100
I- 12 04:Pe -2mA
The total resistance is 12,100 ohms, or 12.1
690e
kilohms.
7 The total resistance in the circuit is 6M, or
6,000,000 ohms. Substituting 120 for E and
6,000,000 for R we have:
4 To obtain the total resistance, you must first
express the resistance of all resistors in the
120
same unit and then add them. You need to I-
express the resistance in ohms, or kilohms, 6,000,000
as shown at the top of the next column.
Next, we multiply by 1,000,000 to avoid the
decimal division.

120
x1000 000 µA
6,000,000 '

15
SERIES CIRCUITS

Now, we cancel the six Os above and below E =0.0015 x2000 =3volts. Using this same
the division line, and divide 6into 120, to procedure of multiplying the resistance of each
give us our answer, 20 microamperes. resistor by the current of 0.0015, we find the
remaining voltages: R2 equals 7.5 V, R3 equals
120 000 098 4.5 V, and R4 equals 9volts. The four voltages
I= " -20
6,00000 total 24 V, so we know that your answer is
correct.
8 You do not have to find the current to get the
answer here. Since all resistors have the 10 Here we know that the voltage across R1 is
same value, 3k, they will have the same volt- 2V, the voltage across R2 is 3V, and the total
age across them. So, to find the voltage across voltage is 9volts. To find the voltage across
each of the four, you simply divide 4V into R3, we simply add the voltage across R1 and
12 V and find that the voltage across each R2 and get 5V, and then subtract this from
resistor will be 3volts. 9V to get the voltage across R3 — 4volts.

9 The first step in this problem is to find the 11 To find the power in this case we use the
total resistance by adding the resistance of power formula P =E xI. Substituting 100 V
each resistor. The total resistance is 16k, which for E and 5A for I, we have:
is equal to 16,000 ohms. Now that we know
the resistance, we can find the current in P = 100 x5=500 W
the circuit:
12 In this case, we use the power formula
24
P =IR. We substitute 1for Iand 1000 for
T

= 16,000 R and we have:

Next, we multiply by 1000 to get the current P = 1x1x1000

in millamperes, and to avoid the decimal = 1000 W, or 1kW
division:

24 13 In this case, we use the power formula

I- x
16,0001000
P =E2/R. Substituting 100 V for E and
1000 ohms for R, we have:
Now, cancel the three Os above and below
the division line, and divide 16 into 24 to get 100 x 100
P- = 10 W
the current 1.5 millamperes. 1000

I= 24 '
€4)6 - 1.5 mA
16,000
14 To find the number of kilowatt hours used,
we first find the power being used. We do
this by multiplying the voltage by the
We use the formula E=IxR to find the volt- current to get 600 watts. Next, we multiply
age. The current must be in amperes and the by the time, which is 2hours. Thus we will
resistance in ohms. 1.5 mA is 0.0015 ampere.
have 1200 Watt hours, or 1.2 kilowatt hours.
The resistance of R1 is 2k, so we have

16
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are:

• Ohm's law describes the simple relationship between

current, voltage, and resistance in electrical circuits.

• Ohm's law takes three basic forms; one determines

resistance, one determines current, and one deter-
mines voltage in acircuit.

• Kirchhoff 's law states that the sum of the voltage

drops in aseries circuit is equal to the source voltage.

• Current, voltage, and resistance determine the power

used in acircuit.

17
SERIES CIRCUITS

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2218.

Make sure you print your name, student num-

Smlh
ber, and lesson number in the space provided on Name
Pelt
the Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the
Student No Lesson Na
circles beneath your student number and lesson
number. XYo 237 9LL Min
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Reminder: A properly completed Lesson An- 00000000 oo•®
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swers and speed the results and additional study
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••••

1. The total resistance of three 15-ohm resis- 4. A 3-ohm, 5-ohm, and 4-ohm resistor are con-
tors connected in series is: nected in series across abattery. The volt-
45 ohms. age drop across the 3-ohm resistor is 6volts.
b. 30 ohms. The battery voltage is:
c. 15 ohms. a. 6volts.
d. 5ohms. b. 8volts.
c. 10 volts.
2. A 1000-ohm, a2200-ohm, and a4700-ohm re- d) 24 volts.
sistor are connected in series. Their total resis-
tance will be: 5. If three resistors are connected in series
a. 6900 ohms. across a12 V battery, and the voltage drop
b. 7500 ohms. across one resistor is 3V and the voltage
C. 7900 ohms. drop across the second resistor is 2V, the volt-
d. 8900 ohms. age drop across the third resistor will be:
a. 2volts.
3. What is the total resistance of a5.6k, a b. 3volts.
2200-ohm, a4.7k, and a1000-ohm resistor 6 7volts.
connected in series? d. 12 volts.
a. 3303 ohms.
b. 10,000 ohms.
c. 13,500 ohms.
d. 15,000 ohms.

18
 LESSON QUESTIONS

6. Three 2.2k resistors are connected in series 9. In the circuit shown below, the power dis-
across a12 V battery. The voltage drop across sipated by R2 is:
each resistor will be: a. 4watts.
a. 2volts. ( 8watts.
& 4volts. c. 12 watts.
c. 6volts. d. 16 watts.
d. 8volts.
R3
7. A 3-ohm, 4-ohm, and 5-ohm resistor are con- 3OHMS
A/V‘d
nected in series across a12 V battery The volt-
age drop across the 3-ohm resistor will be:
a. 2volts. +1 30
R2 P )

TL
b. 3volts. 2OHMS

c. 4volts.
d. 5volts.
NAA.
R1
8. In the example described above in Question 10 OHMS
7, how much power is the battery supplying
d
to the circuit?
a. 12 watts.
b. 24 watts. 10. How much will it cost to operate five 100 W
c. 48 watts. bulbs for 24 hours if electricity costs 6e per
kilowatt hour?
d. 96 watts.
a. 24 cents.
b. 48 cents.
c. 72 cents.
d. 96 cents.

LCL

f_r
iÍ

19
NOTES
A riW Schools

BELIEVE IN YOURSELF

Here are anumber of statements made by famous, successful people

on the subject of believing in yourself. Iquote several of them just to
show you how important self-confidence really is:

"Anything that you have areal desire to do, you have the capacity to
do. Believe that and act upon your belief. There are no dreams that
can't come true."

"Believe in yourself. Believe in humanity. Believe in the success of

your undertakings. Fear nothing and no one. This way, you cannot
fail!"

"I CAN IF ITHINK ICAN! Write these words in letters an inch high
and put them where you can see them every day. Memorize and re-
peat them — aloud and to yourself — adozen times aday."

d
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
E.g
LT2218(901)
 2219

NRI Schools
ADivision of The McGnnvilill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
MO.

I
d

i
1
Parallel Circuits
)

I
 Table of Contents

Introduction 1
Parallel Circuits 2
Resistors in Parallel 2
Voltage and Current in Parallel Circuits 7
Review 7
Self-Test Questions 7
Series-Parallel Circuits 8
Resistance in Series-Parallel Circuits 8
Voltage and Current in Series-Parallel Circuits 9
Review 11
Self-Test Questions 11
Answers to Self-Test Questions 12
Lesson Questions 15

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you will

• Learn how to identify parallel circuits.

• Discover how resistance in parallel behaves differently

from resistance in series.

• Learn how to determine voltages and currents in parallel

circuits.

• See how combinations of parallel and series circuits work.

 INTRODUCTION

lamps are connected in parallel. There is a

INTRODUCTION
separate current path through each lamp.

If you rotate the switch once more, all three

Electronic circuits can be connected in two lamps light. This illustrates the way that cur-
basic ways: in series and in parallel. Because of rent moves in three parallel circuit paths. If
their simplicity, we have discussed only series one light bulb burns out or is removed, the other
circuits so far. In this lesson we will move for- two still light. This is because there is an inde-
ward to parallel circuits. Later you will study pendent path for current flow through each bulb.
circuits in which some parts connect in parallel If the three bulbs were in series, removing one
and other parts connect in series. These com- would keep the other two from lighting, because
bination circuits are called series-parallel cir- only one current path would exist. If the cur-
cuits. Most pieces of electronic equipment are rent path is broken in aseries circuit, there is no
composed of many combinations of series and path for current flow.
parallel circuits.
Just as there are rules for series circuits, there
A 3-bulb floor lamp is a good example of a are also rules for parallel circuits. In this lesson
parallel circuit. Many of these lamps have a you'll learn what these rules are, and you'll see
3-position switch. Rotating the switch from the how they will help you in future lessons and in
OFF position to the ON position lights one lamp. your career in electronics. Now let's go ahead
The next rotation turns on two lamps. The two with the study of parallel circuits.

1
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

PARALLEL CIRCUITS half flow through the other resistor. In this case,
the electron flow divides exactly in half, since the
two resistors are of equal value. In contrast,
In a series circuit, the same current flows resistors of different values would cause a
through all parts of the circuit. Aparallel circuit proportional difference in current flow through
may have anumber of different branches, each each parallel branch.
with a different amount of current flow. If two
The electrons flowing in each resistor join
resistances connect in parallel, there are two
again at the other junction of the two resistors,
paths for current; if three resistances are in
and flow back to the positive terminal of the
parallel, there are three paths for current. The
battery Figure 1(C) shows a different way to
current flowing in each path or branch of the
draw the same circuit, but its difference from the
circuit can be, and usually is, different. Let's look
diagram in Fig.1(B) is that it does not indicate a
at some typical parallel circuits.
change in the basic operation of the circuit.
Electrons flowing from the negative terminal of
the battery divide at the junction; half go
Resistors In Parallel
through one 6-ohm resistor and half through the
other. The two currents join at the other junction,
In Fig.1(A) two 6-ohm resistors are connected
and return to the positive terminal of the battery.
in parallel. Figure 1(B) shows how these resis-
tors could be connected across abattery. When Remember that two 6-ohm resistors in series
electrons from the negative terminal of the bat- create atotal resistance equal to the sum of the
tery reach the junction of the two resistors, half two values, or 12 ohms. What about two 6-ohm
of the electrons flow through one resistor, and

,-
i
(A) (B) (C)

Flgure 1. Simple parallel resistor circuits.

2
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

resistors connected in parallel? What effect does The resistance of two 6-ohm resistors connected
this have on the total resistance? in parallel is 3ohms. Remember to calculate the
total circuit current first, then divide that into
To find the total resistance of the two 6-ohm
the applied voltage to get the total circuit resis-
resistors connected in parallel, let's first assume
tance. Each resistor is still 6ohms individually.
that the battery voltage is 6volts. As you can see,
It is the combination of the two in parallel that
the battery voltage is directly applied across
makes the difference.
each resistor, so each resistor has avoltage drop
equal to 6volts. This is unlike the case for voltage Notice that the total resistance becomes exactly
drops in aseries circuit, where the source voltage half the value of either resistor. This will always
is distributed among the resistances in the cir- be true; when two resistors of equal value are
cuit because only one current path exists. Here, connected in parallel, the total resistance of the
each resistance experiences the full force of ap- parallel combination is half the value of one of
plied voltage. the resistors alone.

With 6V applied from the battery, the current By the same token, the combined resistance of
flow through each resistor will be: three equal resistors in parallel is one-third the
resistance of one. A parallel connection of four
E equal-value resistors has one-fourth the resis-
I=—
R
tance of one resistor alone.

where Iis the current in amperes, E is voltage The relationships described above hold true for
in volts, and R is resistance in ohms. any value of applied voltage. For example, if the
battery voltage is 12 V, the current flow through
each resistor is 2 A, for a total current of 4
1A
6 amperes. The resistance is equal to 12 V divided
by 4A, so once again the resistance is 3ohms.
Since 1A flows through each resistor, the total
current flow in the circuit is 2amperes. This is Unequal Resistances in Parallel. What if the
an important point to remember: parallel cir- resistors are not equal in value? In Fig.2(A), on
cuits draw more current than series circuits the next page, we have a4-ohm and an 8-ohm
containing the same resistance values. In com- resistor connected in parallel. In the circuit
parison, aseries circuit with two 6-ohm resis- shown in Fig.2(B), these two resistors are shown
tors has a total current flow of 0.5 A, or 500 connected to an 8V battery.
milliamperes. To find the total resistance of the two unequal
To find the total resistance in acircuit voltage of resistors in parallel, we must again calculate the
6V and acurrent of 2A, use this formula: total current flow. In the branch with the 4-ohm
resistance, the current is 2A, or 8V divided
E by 4 ohms. In the other branch the current is
RT —
1 1A, or 8V divided by 8ohms. The total current
flow is the sum of the currents in the branches:
6 2+1= 3amperes. The total resistance of the two
2 resistors in parallel is equal to 8V divided by 3
A, or approximately 2.67 ohms.
«3ohms

3
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

8V
I0
_1
—
(
2 AMPERES
4 e 8
0
1AMPERE
e
1
E
(A) (B)

Figure 2. Finding the value of a4-ohm resistor in parallel with an 8-ohm resistor.

The preceding examples are quite simple be- This equation confirms the result of our
cause the resistance values are low, and it is easy original calculations from the current and volt-
to divide the voltage by the resistance to get the age present in the circuit. Let's try the formula
current. However, this is not always the case. For on the 4-ohm and 8-ohm resistors from Fig.2.
this reason, there is another method of finding the Here we have:
value of resistors in parallel. We use the formula:
8x4 32
R1 xR2 RT= 84 = 12 = 2.67 ohms
+
RT=
R1 +R2
Multiple Unequal Resistors. Figure 3 shows
What you are doing is multiplying the resistor three resistors connected in parallel. The total
values, and then dividing the result by the sum resistance in the circuit is found by using the
of the resistor values. For the case of the equal- formula for two resistors twice, or by finding the
value resistors in the section above, this equa- total current flow in the circuit and then using
tion becomes: Ohm's law to get the total resistance. Let's do it
both ways to check our results. First, let's find
6x6 36 the total current that will flow in the circuit from
RT= = =3ohms
6+6 12 agiven battery voltage.

(A) 12 Q (B)

Figure 3. A parallel circuit with three current paths.

4
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

•_22:Lt
11

Let's use as an example a voltage of 24 V,

which is the lowest voltage that all three resis-
tance values will divide into evenly. Since 24
divided by 6is 4, the current through the 6-ohm
branch is 4amperes. And 24 divided by 8is 3, so
R1
12 S2 § 24
R2 Q 6Q
§ R3 §8
R4S2 eR5
4S2
the current through the 8-ohm branch is 3
amperes. Finally, 24 divided by 12 is 2, so the
current flow through the 12-ohm branch is 2
amperes. Therefore, the total current flow in the • • •
circuit with avoltage of 24 V applied will be 9A
(4 + 3 + 2 = 9). Now, by using Ohm's law and Figure 4. Five resistors in parallel.

substituting 24 V for the voltage, and 9 A for

the current, we get:
resistors in groups of two and working out the
E problem using the parallel resistance formula.
R= Let's use the latter method first.
Take R1 and R2 and substitute 12 and 24 in
24 the formula. This will give us:
=9
12 x24 288
=2.67 ohms R =224 = 36 =8ohms
1 +
Let's solve the same problem using the for- The total resistance of R1 and R2 in parallel
mula for two resistors in parallel. Group the is 8ohms. However, R4 is asingle 8-ohm resistor,
6-ohm and the 12-ohm resistors first, and find so R1 and R2 in parallel with R4 are the same as
their parallel resistance. Substituting 6 and 12 two 8-ohm resistors in parallel. Since the resis-
in the formula we get: tance of two equal-value resistors in parallel is
half the resistance of one, the total combination
6x12 72 of R1, R2, and R4 must be 4ohms.
R= 12 = 18 =4ohms
6+
By fortunate coincidence, R5 has aresistance
This means that the total resistance of a6- and of 4ohms. The 4-ohm combination of RI, R2, and
a12-ohm resistor connected in parallel is 4ohms. R4 is in parallel with R5, so the total parallel
We can treat this combination as asingle 4-ohm resistance of these four resistors must be 2ohms.
resistor and find its resistance in parallel with All we have to do now is find the equivalence of
an 8-ohm resistor. Using the formula we get: 2ohms in parallel with 6ohms. That will be the
total resistance of the entire parallel combina-
4x8 32 tion. We use the formula to do this:
R =4+8 = 12 =2.67 ohms
6x2 12
Figure 4 shows five resistors in parallel. We RT= 6 + 2 - 8 =1.5 ohms
can easily find the total resistance of this com-
bination either by assuming avoltage and find- Calculating the resistance of many resistors
ing the total current, or by grouping the in parallel will not always be as easy as in the

5
PARALLEL CIR CUITS

previous example. In general, using pair-grouping numbers together. The resulting fraction will be
and the formula is asimple, reliable method of 16/24. The formula will now be:
finding parallel resistance. There are usually
only two or three resistors involved, so the sys- 1
tem works quite well. However, there is another RT =
formula for finding the resistance of any number 24
of resistors in parallel. It is amore complicated
To perform the final division, simply convert
process, but you may see it in other books, and you
should know what it is. The formula is: the fraction to 24/16. Then divide 24 by 16 to get
1.5 ohms. This is the answer you got with the
1 other method.
RT=
1 1 1 1 1
24
R1 +R2 4- R3 4. R4 4. R5 RT —
16 1.5 ohms
To find the parallel resistance of the five resis-
Another method is to assume avoltage across
tors in Fig.4, substitute the value of each resistor
the parallel combination, find the total current,
in to this formula:
and use Ohm's law to get the total parallel resis-
tance. Let's assume avoltage of 24 V, since this
1
RT= is the lowest value you can assume and have
1 1 1 1 1
f each resistance divide into it evenly.
12 24 6 8 4
With a voltage of 24 V, the current flow
You must find acommon denominator for the
through R1 is 2amperes. There is 1A of current
fractions beneath the division line before they
through R2, 4A through R3, 3A through R4, and
can be added together. (Again, the lowest common
6A through R5. Thus, the total current flow in
denominator is the smallest number into which all
the circuit is 16 A (2 +1+4+3+6=16). Now, using
the values will divide.) In this case it is 24. So, by
Ohm's law, the total resistance turns out to be:
using 24 as our lowest common denominator,
each fraction is converted to an equal number of E 24
twenty-fourths, and the numerators are com- RT= 1.5 ohms
bined over the common denominator.
Notice that, in each of the preceding examples,
To convert to acommon denominator, divide
the total resistance of resistors connected in
the numbers into 24 and put the result above the
parallel is always less than the resistance of the
line. For example, 12 into 24 equals 2, or 2/24.
smallest one. This is true because aresistor con-
Similarly, 6goes into 24 four times, which equals
nected across avoltage source conducts acertain
4/24. Do the same for all the fractions.
current; if you add another resistor in parallel,
regardless of how large aresistance you add, the
1
RT= total current flow in the circuit increases be-
2+1+4+3+6
cause you have added acurrent path. Ohm's law
24 tells you that the resistance is equal to the volt-
After all the fractions have been converted to age divided by the current; if the current in-
their common denominator (24), add the top creases, the effective resistance decreases
because the voltage remains the same.

6
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Voltage and Current in Parallel Circuits Self-Test Questions

In aseries circuit, the current is the same in Please check your answers on page 12.
all parts of the circuit. The voltage drop across a
part depends upon the resistance of the part. A 1 What is the total resistance of two 50-ohm
parallel circuit behaves in an opposite fashion. resistors connected in parallel?
Since the parts are all connected in parallel 2 What is the total resistance of a24-ohm
directly across the power source, the voltage resistor connected in parallel with a 12-ohm
drop is the same across all of the parallel parts. resistor? ((-;
You cannot have two parts connected in parallel 3 If a3-ohm and a4-ohm resistor are connected
and have unequal voltages across them. in parallel across a 12 V battery, what will be
the total current flow from the battery? What
Current flow through each branch of aparallel
will be the total resistance of the 3-ohm and
circuit depends upon the resistance in the branch.
4-ohm resistance in parallel?
The lower the resistance, the higher the current,
4 If two 8-ohm resistors are connected in
the higher the resistance, the smaller the current.
parallel with a1000-ohm resistor, what will
be the approximate resistance of the parallel
combination?
Review
5 In aparallel circuit, the voltage across all
branches of the parallel circuit will be
When two or more resistors are connected in , .
parallel, the total resistance of the parallel com-
6 In aparallel circuit, the current that flows
bination is less than the resistance of the small-
through each branch of aparallel circuit will
est resistor. When equal-value resistors are
depend upon the, .-cof the branch.
connected in parallel, the total resistance is
The largest current will flow through the
equal to the individual resistor value divided by
branch having the resistance, and
the number of resistors. When resistors are con-
the smallest current will flow through the
nected in parallel, each has the same voltage
branch having the resistance.
across it. The current that flows through each
resistor depends upon its value. The highest
current flows through the smallest resistor.

The combined resistance of parallel resistors

can be calculated by assuming an applied volt-
age, and then dividing the value of each resistor
into the voltage to find the branch current. The
total current divided into the assumed voltage
equals the combined parallel resistance. You can
also take the resistors two at atime and use the
following formula to find the total resistance of
the parallel combination:

xR2
RT= R1 + R2

7
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS In this circuit, electrons leave the negative ter-

minal of the battery and flow through Rl. The
current divides after leaving R1, and flows
Series and parallel circuits can be found in all through R2 and R3. However, since this parallel
types of electronic equipment. In addition to these combination is in series with R1, the total current
two types of circuits, there are many circuits that flow through R2 and R3 must be equal to the
are combinations of series and parallel circuits. battery current and the current through R1.
These circuits are called series-parallel circuits.
An example of aseries-parallel circuit is shown
Resistance in Series-Parallel Circuits
in Fig.5. In this circuit, R2 and R3 are in parallel.
Current flowing in the circuit splits into two
Figure 6shows aseries-parallel circuit similar
smaller currents when it reaches the junction of
to the one in Fig.5. In this example, R1 is the
R2 and R3. The current that flows through each
series resistor, with avalue of 10 ohms. R2 and
resistor is proportional to the resistance of the
R3 form the parallel resistor combination. R2
branch. If the resistors are equal, half the total
has aresistance of 12 ohms and R3 has aresis-
current flows through each. On the other hand, if
tance of 24 ohms. What we want to find is the
one resistor is much larger than the other, more
total resistance in the circuit, since it determines
current flows through the smaller resistor. Also,
the current flow from the battery
since the two resistors are in parallel, the same
voltage drop is present across each resistor. First, find the resistance of R2 and R3 in
parallel by using this formula:
The combination of the two parallel resistors
R2 and R3 is in series with resistor R1 and the
R2 xR3
battery. While part of the circuit is a parallel
R P- R2 +R3
circuit, part of it is asimple series circuit. In the
series circuit you have the battery, R1, and the Then substitute 12 ohms for R2, and 24 ohms for
parallel combination of R2 and R3. R3, as shown at the top of the next page.

,
R2 I> R3 '
12 Q e 24 Q

R1
10 Q

/
Figure 5. A series-parallel circuit. Figure 6. A series-parallel circuit with resistances shown.

8
 SERIES-
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

y 12 x24
A‘
P - 12 +24

288
- 36

8Q
=8ohms
Therefore, the combined resistance of R2 in
parallel with R3 is 8ohms. For our purposes, R2
and R3 can be replaced by asingle 8-ohm resistor, R1
10 Q
as shown in Fig.7. Notice the symbol used to
*Me
indicate that R2 is in parallel with R3. The two
parallel lines between R2 and R3 mean "in parallel
with." This produces an equivalent simple series
circuit with atotal resistance of 18 ohms. Let's look Figure 7. Series equivalent of the circuit in Figure 6.
at amore complicated circuit. Figure 8, on the next
page, shows resistor R1 in series with aparallel
combination of R2, R3, and R4. R5 is a second Now you have asimple series circuit like the one
series resistor, followed by another parallel com- shown in Fig.9, on page 11. To find the total
bination of R6 and R7. To find the total resistance resistance, all you need to do is add the resis-
in the circuit, we first have to find the equivalent tance of each resistor:
series resistance of the parallel pair R6 and R7,
plus the equivalent resistance of the R2, R3, and RT 3+2+4+4
R4 combination.
- 13 ohms
First, looking at R2, R3, and R4, notice that
each resistor is a-eo m resistor. h4hree
equal-value resistors are connected in para 1,
Voltage and Current in Series-Parallel
the total resistance of the combination is on
Circuits
thit
rd the resistance of any one of the resisto5
Th refore, the resistance of this combinatioli is
6di ided by 3, which is 2ohms. Usi efor- Now let's see how the current divides, and
mula tsjind the total resist R6 and R7, what voltage is across each part of the series-
we get: parallel circuit shown in Fig.8. Since the total
resistance of the circuit is 13 ohms, let's pick an
12 x6 easy battery voltage so our calculations will
RT come out in whole numbers. Let's assume a
12 +6
battery voltage of 39 volts. With abattery volt-
age of 39 V and a total circuit resistance of
72
13 ohms, the total current flow for the entire
▪ 18
circuit is provided on the next page.
-4ohms

9
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

R7
6Q
-AvAA,

R5
4Q

R6
12 Q
AAA
VV)6,

R2 R3
6Q 6Q 6Q

R4

R1
3Q
'VV\t

Figure 8. A series-parallel circuit with two series resistors and two parallel branches.

R6 is 12 ohms, and R7 is 6 ohms. R6 has twice

E
I= the resistance of R7, so R7 conducts twice as
much current. This means that 1 A flows
through R6, and 2A through R7.
39
= 13 The voltage drop can be calculated across R6,
across R7, or across the resistance of the parallel
=3A combination. The current through R6 is 1A, so
the voltage drop across it is 12 V (1 x 12 = 12).
This means that the current flow through R1,
The current flow through R7 is 2A, so the voltage
which is one of the two series resistors, must be
drop across it is 12 V (2 x6 = 12). R6 and R7 in
3amperes. Therefore, the voltage drop across it
parallel have aresistance of 4ohms. The current
is:
flow through the parallel combination is 3A, so
the voltage drop across the parallel combination
E =IR
is 12 V (3 x4=12). Regardless of which way you
calculate it, the answer is the same, as it should
=3x3
be for aparallel combination of resistors.
=9V In the case of the parallel combination of R2,
Look at R5, the other series resistor. Current R3, and R4, each resistor carries 1A of current.
flow through R5 is also 3A, so the voltage drop If you multiply 1A by 6ohms you get avoltage
across it will be 12 V (3 x4=12). What about the drop of 6 volts. Using the other method, the
parallel combination of R6 and R7? The value of parallel combination has an effective resistance

10
 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS

t
Self-Test Questions ote •

7 Draw aseries-parallel circuit containing a

E battery and three resistors in which R1 and
R2 are in parallel and connected to the
negative terminal of the battery, and R3 is a
series resistor connected to the positive ter-
minal of the battery.
8 If R1 equals 20 ohms, R2 equals 30 ohms,
and R3 equals 12 ohms, find the total resis-
tance in the circuit.
Figure 9. Series equivalent of the circuit in Figure 8. 9 Using the values of R1, R2, and R3 for the
preceding problem, if the battery voltage is t»ie
48 V, find the voltage drop across each re-
of 2 ohms, and carries a combined current of 3 sistor and the current flow through each
resistor in the circuit.
amperes. Again, E =IR =2x3=6 volts. The voltage
drop across the parallel combination works out to
10 If, in acircuit like the one shown on page 8 9-
be 6V by any method of computation. in Fig.5, R1 equals 5ohms, R2 equals 10
ohms, and R3 equals 10 ohms, what is the
source voltage if the current through R2 is
Review 1ampere?

In aseries-parallel circuit, the total current flow

is the same in all series branches of the circuit. In
the parallel branches, the sum of the currents in
the individual branches must be equal to the series
current flow. The voltage drop across all com-
ponents in the parallel branch is the same, and the
voltage drop across the series components depends
on the resistance of the component and the total
current flow in the circuit.

To find the total resistance in aseries-paraller.\

circuit, reduce the parallel branch to its
equivalent series resistance, and add the series
branches to the equivalent resistance of the 4
parallel branches. The total current flow in the
circuit can be determined from the source volt-
age divided by the total resistance of the circuit.
The voltage drop across the individual parts in
the circuit can be found by Ohm's law.

11
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
R = I =—
12 = 1.7 ohms
QUESTIONS 7
4 Slightly less than 4ohms. The resistance of
two 8-ohm resistors in parallel will be 4ohms
1 25 ohms. The total resistance of two equal
— half the resistance of either resistor. The
resistors connected in parallel is always one-
1000-ohm resistor is so large that we can
half the resistance of either resistor.
almost ignore it because it will not appreciably
affect the total resistance of this circuit. How-
2 8ohms. You find the resistance of the two
ever, it will reduce it slightly below 4ohms;
resistors in parallel by using the formula:
the exact value would be about 3.98 ohms. If
R1 xR2 you said 4ohms is the correct answer rather
RT= than slightly below 4ohms, you are close
R1 +R2
enough.
Substituting 24 ohms and 12 ohms for R1 and
R2 you get:
5 In aparallel circuit, the voltage across all
24 x12 branches of the parallel circuit will be the
RT= same.
24 +12

288 6 In aparallel circuit, the currents through

= 36 =8ohms each branch of the parallel circuit will depend
3 The current flow through each resistor can be upon the resistance of each branch. The
found from Ohm's law: largest current will flow through the branch
having the lowest resistance, and the small-
E est current will flow through the branch
I=É
having the highest resistance.
The current through the 3-ohm resistor will
be: 7

12 = 4 A
I. —
3
The current through the 4-ohm resistor will
be:

12
I=—
4 -3A

The total current flow will be the sum of

these two currents: 7amperes. You can use
this value of current and the voltage of 12 V
to find the resistance of the two resistors in
parallel. (See the formula at the top of the
next column.)

12
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

8 24 ohms. The total resistance of the parallel 10 20 volts. If the current through R2 is 1A,
combination of RI and R2 can be found from and the resistance of R2 is 10 ohms, the
the parallel resistor formula. Substituting voltage across R2 must be:
these values we get:
E = 1x10 =10 V
20 x30 Since R2 and R3 are in parallel, the same
RT=
20 +30 voltage must be across R3, and therefore, the
current R3 must also be 1ampere. This
600 means the total current must be 2A, so the
50 voltage across R1 must be:

E =2x5=10 V
=12 ohms
Therefore, the source voltage must be 20 V
This resistance is in series with R3, which
(10 + 10 =20).
also has aresistance of 12 ohms, so the total
resistance of the circuit is 24 ohms.

9 With avoltage of 48 V and atotal resistance

of 24 ohms, the current flowing in the circuit
will be:

48
I= =2A
24
This means that the voltage drop across R3
will be:

E =2x12 =24 V
Therefore, the voltage dropped across the
parallel combination of Rl and R2 must
also be 24 volts.

The current through R1 must be:

24
I= =1.2 A
20
The current through R2 must be:

24
I= =0.8 A
30

13
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are:

• Parallel circuits provide multiple paths for current flow.

• Adding resistance in parallel decreases the total resistance

of the circuit.

• The same voltage exists across parallel circuit branches, but

the current may be different in each branch.

• Parallel circuits can be in series with other parallel

networks in the same circuit.

14
 LESSON QUESTIONS

LESSON QUESTIONS

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4
1. The total resistance of three 15-ohm resistors 3. R1 and R2 are two resistors of the same
connected in parallel is: value connected in parallel. This parallel
a. 45 ohms. combination is connected in series with R3, a
b. 30 ohms. 10-ohm resistor. The series-parallel network
§ 15 ohms. is connected to a15 V battery. If the voltage
d. 5ohms. across R3 is 10 V, what are the values of R1
and R2?
2. If one 9-ohm, one 18-ohm, and two 24-ohm 5ohms.
sistors are all connected in parallel, the b. 10 ohms.
resistance of the parallel combination will be: c. 15 ohms.
a. 2ohms. d. 20 ohms.
b. 3ohms.
4ohms. 4. When two unequal resistors are connected in
d. 6ohms. parallel across abattery, the voltage drop
across the two will be:
a. Equal to the battery voltage.
b. Greater across the larger resistor.
e Greater across the smaller resistor.
d. Zero.

15
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

5. Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in paral- 8. If a 10-ohm, a 100-ohm, a 1000-ohm, and a

lel. The resistance of R1 is 5ohms, and the 10,000-ohm resistor are connected in parallel,
current through it is 2amperes. The current the total resistance of the parallel combination
through R2 is 0.5 A, and the resistance of R? will be:
is: a. Greater than 10 ohms.
a. 5ohms. b. 10 ohms.
b. 10 ohms. Less than 10 ohms.
c. 15 ohms. d. Approximately 100 ohms.
se' 20 ohms.
9. If a100-ohm resistor is connected in series
6. Three 6-ohm resistors are connected in with three 100-ohm resistors that are con-
parallel. A fourth 6-ohm resistor is connected nected in parallel, the total resistance of the
in series with the parallel combination. The series-parallel combination will be:
series-parallel network is connected to abat- (i) Greater than 100 ohms.
tery. If the voltage drop across the series 6-ohm b. 100 ohms.
resistor is 6V, the voltage drop across the c. Less than 100 ohms
parallel-connected 6-ohm resistor combination d. 400 ohms.
is:
a. 2volts. 10. In the circuit shown below, if the voltage
b. 3volts. across R1 is 10 V, the voltage across the para-
@ 6volts. llel combination of R2, R3, and R4 will be:
d. 18 volts. 9., Greater than 10 volts.
(b.' 10 volts.
7. In the circuit shown below, the battery volt- c. Less than 10 volts.
age is: d. 30 volts.
a. 4volts.
b. 6volts.
\
@) 8volts.
R6 = 50
d. 10 volts. R8 = 150

R7 = 75
E
R5 =200 §
R2 = 300

R1 = 100 R3 =300

R4 = 300

16
 NOTES

,vi e .r
-
1-,
-fre .
t'
10

r
r
/V
e 5

e 1.

\i
I

b
t
\
1
/

ri
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
 MAW Schools

NOTHING SUCCEEDS LIKE SUCCESS

"How can Ibe asuccess?" The simplest answer to this question is

"Finish what you start."

Until you have achieved success, the individual tasks facing you are
relatively unimportant in themselves. The important thing is the ef-
fect they have on you, what you learn from them, the practice they
give you in succeeding at what you do.

It's easy to find reasons for quitting, especially when things get tough,
but what do we accomplish if we do things the easy way? What can we
possibly learn by quitting? We only learn how to quit — how to fail.

If success in any undertaking depends on effort (and we all know it

does) then the more effort we put into an undertaking, the greater
our success will be. You may not be able to detect the potential suc-
cess present in every individual effort, but it is there. You have to
keep in mind, as you take each step, that success can't be reached in
one leap; it has to be approached strategically, carefully, and one step
at atime.

"Nothing succeeds like success." What does the old saying mean?
Simply that each success paves the way for future successes. Failure
is merely afailure of effort — giving up too easily. You can't really fail
unless you quit trying, so stick with each job until you win, and can
add it to your list of successes. It's not the jobs themselves that make
the success: it's what you do with them, what you take from them to
the next job.

d
LT2219(901) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
 2220

NRI Schools
ADivision of The McGmet,Rill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
.1
Power Sources
McGraw-Hill
A Division of The McGraw•Hill Companies

POWER SOURCES (First Edition)

Copyright © 1995 by McGraw-Hill, Washington, DC 20008. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in adata base retrieval system, without prior
written permission of McGraw-Hill.

ISBN LT2220

01
 Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Batteries 2
Primary Batteries 2
Secondary Cells 5
Review 8
Self-Test Questions 8
Magnetism 9
Permanent Magnets 9
Electromagnets 11
Review 14
Self-Test Questions 14
Generators 15
Direct and Alternating Current 15
A Simple Generator 16
How Voltages Are Pictured 17
DC Generators 19
AC Values 22
Review 24
Self-Test Questions 24
Answers to Self-Test Questions 25
c
Lesson Questions 28
POWER SOURCES

Lesson Objec Ives

In this lesson, you will

• Study primary and secondary storage batteries as electrical

power sources.

• Review magnetism and electromagnetism.

• Apply electronic principles to magnetic circuits that generate

electric current.

• Learn how ac and dc power are generated.

• Learn the waveform characteristics of ac voltage and current.

 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

There are two common methods of producing

e
electricity. One method is by chemical action, the
other uses mechanical action. Both techniques + _
provide a primary source for electrical power.
The everyday application of chemical power
generation is in the use of batteries of all kinds.
In this lesson you will study several types of
batteries and explore how they work and how
they are best applied. You will then learn how
large amounts of electricity are produced by
motor-driven generators and other mechanical
systems.

1
POWER SOURCES

BATTERIES several years, where rechargeable secondary

cells will discharge in arelatively short period of
time, with or without aload.
Two types of batteries are typically used in
A simple electric cell consists of pieces of two
electronic applications: primary and secondary.
different metals submerged in an acid solution.
rimar-y batteries are composed of primary cells,
The voltage produced by the cell depends on the
whic not be effectively recharged. An ordi-
metals used, as has been mentioned. For ex-
nary flashlight battery is an example of a
ample, zinc and copper produce acell voltage of
primary battery. A flashlight battery is simply
about 1.1 volts. Copper and silver increase the
discarded when it wears out. In contrast, asecon-
output level to 1.5 volts. In contrast, gold and
ttery is made from rechargeable-celfi,
manganese are quite reactive, and can generate
such as the storage batteries used in automobiles
avoltage as high as 3.7 volts. Of course, abattery
and the familiar nicad (nickel-cadmium) bat-
with this relatively high voltage is not economi-
teries used for children's toys and other small
cally practical because of the high costs of gold
electronic products.
and manganese.
A battery produces electricity through a
Dry Cells. Dry cells are not really "dry." They
chemical reaction of two different materials; in
are called dry cells because their chemical mix-
this reaction, electrons transfer from one to the
ture is in the form of apaste rather than aliquid.
other. By intercepting the flow of electrons at
The construction of an ordinary carbon and zinc
some point, you can put them to work. The volt-
dry cell battery is shown in Fig.l. Carbon-zinc
age and current produced by the two materials
cells are widely used for general-purpose bat-
from which the battery is made are determined
teries.
by the degree of reactivity they have with respect
to oxygen, since the chemical action of batteries Zinc is one of the two reactive metals in the
is what we call an "oxidation" reaction. The cell. Zinc metal plate formed into a can con-
greater the reactivity between the two stitutes the anode. The zinc can also act as the
materials, the greater voltage and current

1
potential they have.

METAL CAP— METAL COVER

Primary Batteries ASPHALT

EXPANSION INNER SEAL
SPACE
Primary batteries are not rechargeable. The CENTERING
WASHER
generation of electrical power through transfer ZINC CAN
of electrons in the battery material eventually BOBBIN
uses up the battery. That is, the materials SEPARATOR
CARBON ROD
(INSULATION)
making up the battery stop reacting, and the
battery is dead. This may seem to be a major
drawback, but primary batteries may be more OUTER
STAR BOTTOM INSULATED
cost-effective than secondary batteries in certain WASHER CASE
applications, especially since they boast an ex-
tended shelf-life, holding a useful charge for Figure 1. Principal parts of atypical carbon-zinc dry cell.

2
 BATTERIES

container for the acid solution and the man-

ganese compound. Zinc cans are usually
enclosed in a thin steel jacket to increase
durability and reduce the possibility of leakage,
since pure zinc is structurally weak.
Inside the can is aseparator made of paper or
paste. It acts to physically and electrically iso-
late the positive and negative electrodes, while
permitting electrolytic transmission in the acid-
electrolyte solution. Paste separators are made
of electrolyte plus agelling agent such as starch
or flour. Paper separators provide superior
separation and power-to-weight ratio. The
paper is coated with agelling agent and impreg- Figure 3. A drawing showing how the six cells are arranged
nated with electrolyte from the cathode in a9V battery.

material. Ordinary general-purpose dry cells

use an electrolyte made of ammonium chloride,
zinc chloride, and water. In heavy-duty cells, the Although these cells are frequently called
electrolyte has amuch higher percentage of zinc carbon-zinc batteries, carbon is not apart of the
chloride. chemical reaction that produces electricity.
Carbon is not ametal; the active metals are zinc
Most of the material composing the cell is the and manganese. A carbon rod inserted in the
cathode mix. This is the black mix, also known center of the black mix helps protect the mix
as the "bobbin." It is made of manganese dioxide, from internally-generated heat, and is used as
carbon black, and electrolyte. The carbon does an electrode attachment point. The porous carb-
two things: it holds the electrolyte in asemisolid on rod also acts as avent for hydrogen gas.
state, and it increases the electrical conductivity
of the mix. Some cells use avery pure form of The no-load voltage developed by a carbon-
manganese dioxide, known as EMD (Electrolytic zinc cell is nominally 1.5 V, although an unused
Manganese Dioxide), in the black mix. They are cell may measure as high as 1.6 volts. Figure 2
more expensive, but the pure compound makes is a drawing of a 9 V transistor radio battery.
an extra heavy-duty cell. This battery is made up of six 1.5 V cells ar-
ranged as shown in Fig.3. The cells are con-
nected in series; each provides avoltage of 1.5 V
to give atotal voltage of 9volts.
Alkaline Cells. Alkaline cells get their name
from the highly caustic base (potassium
hydroxide) used in the electrolyte, rather than a
slightly acidic one containing asalt such as am-
monium- or zinc-chloride. An alkaline cell is
similar to acarbon-zinc cell, but has significant
differences, as Fig.4 illustrates (on the next
Figure 2. A 9V transistor radio battery. page).

3
POWER SOURCES

OUTER CAN
are best where moderate to high currents are
(POSITIVE drawn for an extended time. Carbon-zinc and
TERMINAL)
alkaline cells are both available in awide range
of packages and voltages. Although alkaline cells
BRASS CURRENT have (mostly) replaced carbon-zinc types, there
COLLECTOR are places where carbon-zinc gives better perfor-
mance for price. Typically, where current drain
SEPARATOR is low but constant, and operating temperature
is not extreme, carbon-zinc cells are more
POTASSIUM
HYDROXIDE
economical. However, they have a relatively
ELECTROLYTE short shelf life, so they are best suited to applica-
tions where they will be replaced regularly.
MANGANESE Alkaline cells can produce higher currents than
DIOXIDE MIX
(CATHODE) carbon-zinc cells, and recover more quickly after
heavy use. They are ideal for much of today's
GRANULAR ZINC consumer-electronics equipment: cassette
(ANODE) players, portable TVs, and radios. Electronic
NEGATIVE products can operate for several hours on
TERMINAL alkaline cells, but would drain carbon-zinc bat-
teries in 30 minutes.
Figure 4. Principal parts of an alkaline cell. Alkaline cells have a longer shelf life, and
their output voltage decreases more slowly than
carbon-zinc cells. You can extend the shelf life of
The cathode material of an alkaline cell is carbon-zinc cells by refrigerating them to slow
EMD, the pure manganese dioxide sometimes the chemical reactions that take place even
used in carbon-zinc cells to improve perfor- when they are not being used. These reactions
mance. It is mixed with water, carbon, and some are at a much lower level in unused alkaline
potassium-hydroxide electrolyte. Like adry cell, cells. Even with the benefit of refrigeration,
the anode is zinc, but the zinc metal is apowder however, carbon-zinc cells still have a much
held in a steel jacket. The highly purified zinc shorter shelf life than alkaline cells.
powder is mixed with small amounts of mercury,
Low temperatures cause voltage output
forming an amalgam that greatly reduces
reductions in all types of batteries. Alkaline cells
hydrogen production in the cell. The separator is
have aconsistent output over agreater temper-
made of a porous woven, felted, or bonded
ature range than do carbon-zinc cells. In
material.
temperatures below freezing, acarbon-zinc cell
Alkaline cells have ano-load voltage of about is incapable of delivering more than afraction of
1.52 volts. Their performance exceeds that of its rated current, and is generally considered
carbon-zinc types. Alkaline cells have greater unusable. Alkaline cells have reduced output at
temperature tolerance, and their low current- low temperatures, but are still better than the
drain performance is better. However, alkalines best carbon-zinc cells.

4
 BATTERIES

Secondary Cells PROTECTED CELL CONNECTOR

MICROPOROUS
CELL COVER
The most desirable quality of secondary cells RUBBER SEPARATOR
TERMINAL POST
is their ability to be recharged. Lead-acid second-
ary cells, frequently called "storage" batteries,
are used in automobiles, making them probably
the best known example of a secondary cell.
There are several other designs for rechargeable
batteries. Along with their operating charac-
teristics, we will review the advantages and dis-
advantages of each.

Lead-Acid Batteries. This type of cell has two

sets of internal plates. One set of plates is con-
nected, or "bussed," together for the positive
terminal; the other set of plates is bussed
together and brought out at one point as the PLATE

negative terminal. The set of positive plates is BRIDGE [Link] CASE

treated chemically to change it to an oxide of PLATE STRAP SEDIMENT CHAMBER

lead, the negative set is pure lead. They fit
together as shown in Fig.5.
Figure 6. A 6-cell, 12 V battery.

Between the plates are sheets of insulating

material called separators, made either of
POSITIVE
PLATE
NEGATIVE CELL porous wood, perforated wood, or fiberglass. The
PLATE TERMINAL
GROUP GROUP separators keep the plates from touching, which
would short-circuit and destroy the cell. Both
PLATE
STRAP
sets of plates and separators are sealed into a
container of sulphuric acid and water. This type
of cell produces approximately 2 volts, plus or
minus 10% depending upon conditions. Storage
batteries used in modern automobiles are made
of six cells connected in series so that the battery
output voltage is 12 volts. A 6-cell battery is
shown in Fig.6.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
PLATE PLATE The lead-acid battery is charged by applying
avoltage slightly higher than the battery volt-
SEPARATORS
age. The charger forces current through the bat-
tery, as shown on the next page in Fig.7. This
current causes achemical change in the battery,
which restores the battery to essentially the
Figure 5. The construction of astorage battery.

5
POWER SOURCES

able devices. However, rechargeable lithium-

.r."-..r.r
j ie;;5.1'
;11'
;i..irrj
;.rre;f:rer manganese oxide cells have made an ap-
j : 1 1 1 e".r.,
r r ..1.

-peeper
Jeer ...1W
pearance. They are intended primarily as
'eer.
.5'[Link] replacements for nicad cells and large-value
ej:erete.
[Link]
reer r capacitors used in keeping memory circuits alive
>el '.
1,
. fir, e during equipment "off' periods. The internal con-
5arie
aj•.:rP
struction of aflat lithium battery and acylindri-
• t -.3

'-'- -if;e"
./irie,-r
Jrire.e
cal lithium battery are shown in Fig.9(A) and
f;ie'
[Link].;:ter
[Link]
.rjef
. 9(B), on the next page.
-rrerer'er
;-.,-
;-.,-
,
,-.
r
Lithium is an extremely reactive metal, which
Ar
-

makes it an excellent component in energy cells.

"ere. e• .r- ...r.'r e• Unfortunately, its high reactivity (it decomposes
.re.e.?";e.1:
1 .re;17Pr..rrifTre
rapidly in water, for example) makes it difficult
to work with. Many of these difficulties have
Figure 7. The direction in which current flows when a
been overcome, however, and lithium-based cells
storage battery is charged. are now found in watches and calculators —
wherever atrickle current is needed.
same reactive chemical state it had before being The output of alithium cell is nominally 3V;
used as apower source. in some applications you can replace two 1.5 V
Notice the direction of current in Fig.7, as carbon-zinc or alkaline cells with one lithium
cell. A lithium battery with a1.5 V output is also
compared to Fig.8. When the battery is being
available. Lithium cells have an extremely long
charged, the current is forced through the bat-
tery in the opposite direction to which it flows shelf life: 5, or even 10, years. Under conditions
when the battery is supplying current. In an of low drain, their useful working life may also
be five to seven years.
automobile, the battery is connected to an alter-
nator. As long as the car runs at a reasonable
speed, the alternator both charges the battery
*frfr'f;,-'3
1,*.5:5-'.5-7-1'r
and supplies operating current to the car.
er-rarer
er
.erayr
.e.
Both small and large lead-acid batteries are
•

available with a gelled electrolyte that allows f,,,e./.5.

them to be used in portable equipment without .,-.,;-;:e>' -
r"
e'fr
i
rrer-i .j.
:11
:'
spilling. Lead-acid cells are also available in the de
jerrer
;
tar

form of sealed D-size cells. Lead-acid batteries frfr..:ere.

are capable of sustaining very high rates of dis- ,..e
,..;;.,...r.
;*.
charge. However, like most chemical reactions, arrefiieeir
the performance of lead-acid cells falls off at cold a
.rm
eir
. r?1';
and very warm temperatures. They must also be j:e
j [Link]
ee
r .ti
s r
e
j
.

kept well charged to achieve good performance .;:,feerty../.

.',..?;;;;—
over along lifetime.

Lithium Cells. Until recently, lithium cells Figure 8. The direction current will flow when the battery
were not generally regarded as recharge- is supplying current.

6
 BATTERIES

Nickel-Cadmium Cells. The internal details of a

NEGATIVE
ELECTRODE(L1) typical nickel-cadmium cell are similar to those
CURRENT STAINLESS of lithium cells. The active materials are nickel
STEEL
COLLECTOR
LID oxide, which forms the cell's positive plate,
SEAL (NEC. TERM.) cadmium for the negative plate, and caustic
potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Several
manufacturing techniques are used, but typi-
cally, the positive and negative electrodes
sandwich the separator in the middle. Those
three layers are rolled up into aspiral package.
ORGANIC CAN The separator may be nylon or polypropylene. A
ELECTROLYTE (POS. TERM.)
POSITIVE safety vent is provided to help prevent cell rup-
ELECTRODE Mn02
ture from pressure buildup during charging.

(A)
The normal rate at which anicad recharges is
at one-tenth the rated output current. For ex-
ample, 60 mA is the correct charge current for a
cell with a rating of 600 mAh (milliampere
POSITIVE ELECTROLYTE hours). The charging time should be about 14 to
Mn02
16 hours. However, this is anominal rate, and is
ORGANIC ELECTROLYTE dependent upon the cell design. Some quick-
AND SEPARATOR
charge cells can be recharged in four to six hours,
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE and fast-charge devices can be charged at much
LITHIUM higher currents in two hours or less. The true
limitation on cell charging rate is afunction of
the temperature increase produced by the charg-
ing current, and the possibility of cell rupture or
internal plate damage due to internal pressures.

Nickel-cadmium cells do not lose voltage out-

put at the same rate as carbon-zinc and alkaline
cells. Fully charged, nicad no-load output volt-
age is about 1.4 V, which drops almost immedi-
ately to 1.25 V, and is then maintained until the
charge is nearly exhausted. Nicads can provide
very large amounts of current when needed, and
perform consistently under conditions of con-
tinuous drain. They also have good power output
under extremes of temperature.

(B)
Nickel-cadmium cells give lasting service
when worked hard. In light use, they may
Figure 9. Lithium batteries. (A) Construction of an Li/Mn02
develop a"memory" and eventually lose some of
button cell. (B) Construction of an Li/Mn02 cylindrical cell. their capacity. However, recent developments in

7
POWER SOURCES

battery technology have made that much less of Self-Test Questions

a problem. The charge duration of a nickel-
cadmium cell on a single charge is only about Please check your answers on page 25. .i‘
70% of that of an equal size alkaline cell.

Nickel-cadmium cells are very convenient to 1 Name the two basic types of batteries.
use in asituation where they can be built into a What is the principal difference between a ,
device and the charging current supplied from primary and asecondary battery?
the outside through ajack. If you use recharge- 1,3- The production of electrical power in abat-
ables to replace throw-away primary cells, it is tery is by means of a • . reaction.
inconvenient to remove and replace them for One advantage of primary cells is their
charging. Old or worn-out cells in anickel-cadmium longer .
battery pack should be replaced all at once. V5 The chemical reaction in adry cell takes
Mixing old and new can cause the weakest one place between two reactive
to reverse polarity and drag down the life and 6 A fresh carbon-zinc battery has an unloaded
performance of the entire pack. output voltage of approximately .
7 Why are high-perfor ance dry cells called
alkaline batteries?
Review 8 When would you choose acarbop-ziric
tery over an alkaline battery? • ,
In this section of the lesson, we have covered 9 What is the no-load output voltage of alead-
four important primary cells and two important acid cell? t
secondary cells. We do not expect you to remem- 4o What is the normal recharge rate for a
ber how these cells are made, but you should nickel-cadmium cell?
remember the voltage of each cell and remember 11 Output voltage from afully charged nickel-
their important characteristics. cadmium battery starts out at about •V,
and quickly drops to aconstant ...volts.
The most important characteristic of adry cell V 12 Which secondary cell has the longest shelf
is its economy. Its disadvantages are its limited life? /,
shelf life and its limited current capabilities. The
alkaline cell has amuch longer shelf life than adry
cell, and a given size alkaline cell is capable of
supplying amuch higher current than adry cell.
It can also supply the same current as the dry cell
for amuch longer time. Secondary cells have the
advantage that they can be recharged and used
again. There are two important types of storage
cells: the lead-acid and the nickel-cadmium. The
lead-acid cell has avoltage of about 2V and the
nickel-cadmium cell has a voltage of about 1.2
volts. The advantages of the nickel-cadmium cell
over the lead-acid cell are that it is lighter, it can
be sealed, and it does not require periodic main-
tenance, as most lead-acid cells do.

8
 MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM

Here we are going to briefly study magnetism,

because magnetism makes devices like trans-
formers and electric motors possible. Indeed, MAGNETIZED
throughout your entire study of electronics, and NEEDLE

your future work in the electronics field, you will

find that magnetism plays a key role in many
critical electronic functions.

Permanent Magnets

Some types of iron ore will pick up or attract

small pieces of iron or steel. These minerals are
Figure 10. If a magnetized needle is suspended at its
natural magnets. A piece of iron can be made into balance point, the needle will line up in anorth and south
a magnet by stroking it several times in one direction because it lines up with the earth's magnetic
direction with amagnet. Iron or steel converted field.

in this way is said to be "magnetized." Natural

magnets are also called permanent magnets, be-
cause they retain their magnetism almost in- earth is called the north pole. The pole that
definitely. Modern magnets are made of an alloy points toward the South Pole of the earth is
called alnico rather than iron. Alnico is amix- called the south pole.
ture of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt. Alnico
When two magnets are brought close together,
magnets are much lighter, stronger, and retain
the north poles repel each other, as do the south
their magnetism better than magnets made of
poles. However, the north pole of each magnet is
iron or steel.
attracted to the south pole of the other. We
When amagnetized steel needle is suspended describe this phenomenon by saying that like
at its balance point by alight thread (as shown poles repel, and unlike poles attract. This is the
in Fig.10), the needle will always line up in a basic law of magnetism.
direction corresponding closely to north and
A compass points in a north-south direction
south. This phenomenon led to the first practi-
because the earth itself is alarge magnet. The
cal use of magnets in compasses by early sea
magnetic poles of the earth affect the magnetic
voyagers and travelers.
needle of the compass. The South Pole of the
Poles of the Magnet. The ends of apermanent earth is actually amagnetic north pole, because
magnet are called poles. This name was given it attracts the south pole of the magnetic com-
because, when the magnet is free to pivot on an pass needle. The North Pole of the earth is a
axis, the ends point toward the poles of the earth. magnetic south pole, since it attracts the north
The pole that points toward the North Pole of the pole of the compass.

9
POWER SOURCES

-N. -

S N
N

.... ill...

\
N S

--r-
/ )1 /
,
"----II.

..., ..d... s ---e /-

----r.
N
----r'

COMPASS

Figure 11. A small compass can be used to trace magnetic lines of force near apermanent magnet.

Notice the similarity between the attraction By bringing the north pole of two magnets
and repulsion of magnetic poles, and the attrac- together and performing the experiment again,
tion and repulsion of electric charges. You al- you can see the repulsion between the two poles,
ready know that like charges repel, and unlike as Fig.12(B) shows. Figure 12(C) shows the pat-
charges attract. In magnets, like poles repel, and tern set up by the attraction between the north
unlike poles attract. This is afundamental law pole of one magnet and the south pole of another.
of magnetism that you should remember.
Magnetic Lines of Force. There are lines of
force surrounding a magnet. You can trace the
lines of force around amagnet by using asmall (Al
compass, as shown in Fig.11. When you move the
compass near the north pole of the magnet, the
south pole of the compass is attracted to it. The
compass needle lines up with the magnetic lines
of force. As you move the compass, as shown in (B)
Fig.11, you can trace out the lines of force.

You can also see the lines of force around a

magnet by placing athin sheet of cardboard over
the magnet, then sprinkling iron filings evenly
over the cardboard. Tap the cardboard gently (C)
and the iron filings will arrange themselves in a
definite pattern, as shown in Fig.12(A). As you
see, the filings are lined up with the lines of
force. Figure 12. If iron filings are placed on asheet of cardboard
over permanent magnets, they will trace out lines of force.

10
 MAGNETISM

Electromagnets

Electric current flowing in awire generates a

magnetic field in the space around the wire. The
production of this type of magnetic field is com-
MAGNETIC LINES monly known as "electromagnetism." The num-
OF FORCE ber of lines of force is greater close to the wire,
and decreases with distance, as shown in Fig.13.

The relatively weak magnetic field around a

single conductor can be made much stronger by
Figure 13. Cross-section of a wire. When electrons flow
winding the wire in the form of acoil, as shown
through a wire, magnetic lines of force surround it.
in Fig.14. In acoil, the circular magnetic rings
pass through the center of the coil in the same
direction and reinforce each other, as shown.
The lines of force associated with amagnet are This type of magnet is an electromagnet. The
call: Similar lines of magnetic effect exists only as long as the current
force surround electrically charged objects. They is flowing through the wire.
are called electric lines of force.

COMPASS
TINY
MAGNETIC
RING

MAGNETIC
FIELD

DIRECTION OF
ELECTRON FLOW

Figure 14. The more turns of awire in acoil, the stronger the magnetic field becomes when electrons flow through the coil.

11
POWER SOURCES

the magnetic field collapses. Most of the par-

ticles return to arandom state, although some
residual magnetism remains.

Induced Currents. We have seen that current

flowing through acoil produces an electromag-
net. Is the opposite true? If amagnet is placed
inside acoil, will acurrent flow? A flashlight bulb
connected to a coil wound on a hollow form is
shown in Fig.16. When the magnet is moved
rapidly from outside the coil to inside the center
of the coil, the bulb will light while the magnet
is moving. When the magnet stops inside the coil,
the light goes out. The bulb lights again when
ELECTRON the magnet is moved quickly out of the coil. If the
FLOW
magnet is moved rapidly back and forth in the
WIRE coil, the bulb will light and remain lit as long as
the magnet is in motion.

What is happening? Well, the magnetic lines

of force that surround the magnet move through
BATTERY
the turns of the wire coil. The magnetic lines of
force are said to "cut" the turns of the coil as the
Figure 15. (A) In an unmagnetized bar of iron, the tiny magnet moves. This action generates, or "in-
magnets in the iron do not line up. (B) If the iron bar is duces," asmall voltage in each turn of the coil.
magnetized, they will line up.

The electromagnet shown in Fig.14 can be

made much stronger by inserting an iron bar, or
abar of some magnetic material, inside the coil.
The bar is called acore. The actual increase in
It
the strength of the magnet will depend upon the
type of core material used.

The magnetic core is composed of tiny par-

ticles, each one asmall magnet with anorth and
south pole. Under normal conditions, these par-
ticles are randomly arranged, as shown in
Fig.15(A). In the magnetic field inside the current-
carrying coil, the core particles arrange in a
single orientation, as shown in Fig.15(B). The
entire bar becomes a single strong magnet.
Figure 16. An illustration of how magnetic lines of force
When the circuit opens and current flow stops, induce avoltage.

12
 MAGNETISM

This effect continues for as long as the number

of magnetic lines of force cutting the coil is
changing. The voltages induced in each turn of
wire add together. The total induced voltage
produces a current flow through the coil and
through the bulb. We call the voltage produced
an induced voltage and the current an induced
current, because no physical contact is made,
and no chemical action takes place.
Figure 17 shows another way to induce volt-
age. Two coils are wound on the same form so
that they are close together. One coil is labeled
Li and the other L2. Coil Li is connected to a
flashlight battery through aswitch labeled SW. Figure 17. When the circuit to L1 is opened or closed, a
Coil L2 is connected to aflashlight bulb. An iron voltage will be induced in 12.
core is inserted through the form on which the
coils are wound to increase the strength of the
magnetic field. quickly, but is not instantaneous. The expansion
Closing the switch starts current flowing in of the magnetic field around Li causes magnetic
Ll. The flow of current in Li induces avoltage lines of force to cut the turns of L2. This chang-
in L2, causing the bulb to glow briefly. The glow ing, expanding field induces a voltage in L2.
lasts for only an instant after the switch is Once the field reaches its limit, the number of
closed. Opening the switch interrupts the cur- lines of force cutting L2 is not changing. Voltage
rent flow through Ll. Again, the bulb glows for induction then stops in L2. Opening the switch
an instant, indicating that opening the switch causes the field around Li to collapse. Once
also caused avoltage to be induced in L2. again, achanging field cuts the turns of L2. As
the field collapses, voltage is again induced in
The action of the two coils looks much dif-
L2, and the lamp glows briefly.
ferent from the effect obtained with the moving
magnet shown in Fig.16. However, the basic It is important to remember that achange in
principle is much the same. When the switch is a magnetic field around a coil will induce a
closed, current flows in Li, causing amagnetic voltage. It is achanging field that does the job;
field to build around it. The magnetic field builds aconstant field does not induce avoltage.

13
POWER SOURCES

Review Self-Test Questions

Lib Jet,:eve-4
A magnet has anorth pole and asouth pole. 13 State the basic law of magnetism. e
Invisible magnetic lines of force exist in space 14 If apole magnet attracts the south pole of a
between the north and south poles of amagnet. compass, is this anorth pole or asouth pole? d
Like magnetic poles repel, and unlike magnetic 15 Are the magnetic lines of force around a
poles attract. current-carrying wire stronger close to the
wire, or at adistance?
There is a magnetic field around a current-
16 What effect will placing an iron core inside
carrying wire. An electromagnet can be made by
passing a current through a coil. Inserting an an electromagnet have on the strength of the
magnetic field?
iron core into an electromagnet will result in a
17 If the ends of acoil are connected to aflash-
stronger magnetic field.
light bulb and avery strong permanent
If the number of magnetic lines of force cutting magnet is placed inside the coil, will the
aturn of acoil change, voltage is induced in that flashlight bulb light? How long will the flash-
turn of the coil. If the magnetic lines of force light bulb remain lit?
cutting all the turns of acoil change, there will
be avoltage induced in each turn of the coil, and
these voltages will add together. If the coil is
connected to acomplete circuit, current will flow
in the circuit.

14
 GENERATORS

GENERATORS A dc generator is a device that generates

direct current. In other words, the current com-
ing from adc generator always flows in the same
Batteries are very useful, but their ability to direction. This means that the generator ter-
supply large amounts of power is limited. Even minals always have the same polarity. One ter-
apowerful storage battery cannot supply large minal is the negative terminal, and the other
amounts of current without soon being ex- terminal is the positive terminal. The polarity of
hausted and in need of recharging. Even if agiven terminal, negative or positive, does not
storage batteries could supply the large amounts change.
of energy consumed daily by the average large
Devices connected to the generator make up
city, we would still need to have some way of
the load. The load could be alight bulb, amotor,
recharging the battery. Thus, we would have
or acombination of light bulbs and amotor. The
need for a device other than a battery that is
dc generator and the load connected to it are
capable of supplying large amounts of electricity.
called the dc circuit. In a dc circuit where the
You have learned that a varying magnetic generator voltage is constant and the resistance
field cutting through acoil induces avoltage in of the load is constant, the current flowing in the
the coil. If the magnetic field is made to vary circuit is constant.
constantly, acontinuing voltage is induced. The
Alternating current, or ac current, is different
induced voltage can supply current to an exter-
from direct current. It does not have aconstant
nal circuit. This is the basic principle of an
value or a constant polarity. It changes con-
electric power generator.
tinuously, according to its characteristic rate
Before studying generators, let's learn the dif- (frequency) and voltage potential (amplitude).
ferences between direct current and alternating
Alternating current begins with azero voltage
current.
and polarity. It first flows in one direction, build-
ing up to amaximum value, then returns to zero.
It then reverses direction and polarity, builds up
Direct and Alternating Current
to a maximum value in the opposite direction,
and returns again to zero. This complete process
Current supplied by a battery always flows
is called acycle.
from the negative terminal through the external
circuit, and back to the positive terminal. The While there are many devices that operate
current always flows in one direction. We call it only on direct current, alternating current has
direct current, or dc current. The voltage sup- many useful applications. Indeed, our modern
plied by a battery, or any other voltage source industries depend upon large amounts of alter-
that causes adirect current to flow, is referred to nating current being readily available.
as a de voltage. One terminal on a battery is Let's proceed and learn more about alternat-
always the negative terminal and the other ter- ing current and ac voltage, and how a simple
minal is always the positive terminal. generator operates.

15
POWER SOURCES

A Simple Generator strength of the magnetic field and the speed at

which the coil is rotated.
A simple generator of electric current and What is the nature of the voltage produced by
voltage can be built as shown in Fig.18. This is
this generator? When the coil is in the position
intended only as an example, and consists of a
shown in Fig.19(A), it is moving mostly in a
single turn of wire placed between the poles of a
direction parallel to the lines of force between the
magnet. As the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic
magnetic poles. Therefore, it is not cutting
lines of force between the north and south poles
through any lines of force, but only moving paral-
of the magnet. This induces avoltage in the coil. lel to them. Remember, to induce avoltage, the
The amount of voltage produced depends upon
turns of the coil must cut through magnetic lines
the number of magnetic lines cut by the coil as
of force. In Fig.19(A) the coil is not cutting lines
it rotates, which in turn depends upon the of force, so no voltage is induced.

As the coil rotates towards the position shown

in Fig.19(B), it begins moving at an angle to the
lines of force, and cuts through an increasing
MAGNET number as it moves. Thus, a proportional
amount of voltage is induced in the coil. As
movement continues toward the position shown
in Fig.19(C), more voltage is induced as the coil
moves at a sharper angle to the lines of force.
Finally, when it reaches the position shown in
Fig.19(D), it is moving directly perpendicular to
the lines of force, cutting through them at a
maximum rate. The voltage induced is at its
highest value as the coil moves through the
SUP RINGS POLE perpendicular point. Continuing to turn, the coil
SHAFT
moves through the positions shown in Figures
BRUSHES 19(E) and 19(F). It cuts fewer and fewer lines of
AC VOLTAGE force until it reaches the position shown in
Fig.19(G). Here, the coil is once again moving
parallel to the lines of force, so no voltage is being
Figure 18. A simple ac generator. induced.

16
 GENERATORS

MAGNET

ROTATION(
UNES
OF FORCE

(A) (B) (C)

(D) (E) (F)

(G)

Figure 19. In this illustration, the coil is rotating counterclockwise. The voltage produced by this generator depends upon
the movement of the coil in relation to the magnetic lines of force.

How Voltages Are Pictured agenerator. You can use one lead as the ground
or common lead and measure the voltage at the
When we discussed series-connected bat- other lead as either positive or negative with
teries, we said that one terminal of the two respect to the common lead.
batteries could be considered zero, and the volt-
If we assume that one lead is a common or
age at the other terminals marked in reference ground lead (or has zero voltage), we can repre-
to this terminal. You can do the same thing with
sent the voltage at the other lead as aline on a

17
POWER SOURCES

graph. In Fig.20, the horizontal line across the As the coil rotates through the remaining half-
center of the graph is the zero voltage line; it turn, the voltage polarity reverses. It will be
represents the voltage at the ground, or common negative with respect to the ground terminal
lead. Each horizontal step above the zero line because the coil cuts through the magnetic lines
represents a positive voltage. Lines below the of force from the opposite direction. This
center zero line represent negative voltages. The produces a curve on the graph like Fig.21(A).
vertical lines each represent one position of the Removing the horizontal and vertical reference
coil from Fig.19. lines, we can get abetter look at the shape of the
output voltage, as in Fig.21(B). This is called a
To have the convenience of round figures, let's
waveform.
assume the coil generates 100 V at the instant it
is in the position shown in Fig.19(D). If the This waveform is how ac voltage supplied by
voltage is +100 V with respect to the common the power company is commonly represented. It
terminal, we would place amark (X) on the graph is called a sine (pronounced sign) wave. The
at the point where the +100 V line crosses the voltage represented by one complete turn of the
vertical line running through D, as shown in coil in the magnetic field is a cycle. The power
Fig.20(A). Similarly, the voltages induced at the suppied by most power companies in this
other points would be marked on the graph. This country is 60-cycle power.
would look like Fig.20(B). We then draw a
When we say 60 cycle, we mean 60 cycles per
smooth curve joining all these points, as shown
second. That is, the voltage goes through 60
in Fig.20(C). This curve represents the voltage
cycles, like the one shown in Fig.14, each second.
produced by the generator through one-half
This is called the frequency of the ac voltage. To
turn.
make the two-pole generator like the one in

+100 X +100 X +100

+80 +80 X X +80
+60 +60 +60
+40 +40 X X +40
+20 +20 +20
0 0 X 0
—20 —20 —20
—40 —40 —40
—60 —60 —60
—80 —80 —80
—100 —100 —100
,

ABCDEFG ABC DEFG ABCDEFG

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 20. Construction of agraph of the voltage produced by the generator in Figure 11.

18
 GENERATORS

+100

+80

+60

+40

+20

o
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100

IA1 ([31

Figure 21. The appearance of the output voltage produced by the generator as it travels through one complete turn.

Fig.18 produce this type of voltage, it must turn The voltage generated by this one-turn primi-
at aspeed of 60 revolutions per second, which is tive generator would be extremely low, even with
3600 revolutions per minute (rpm). The part of avery strong magnetic field. But higher voltages
the cycle above the line is called apositive half- can be obtained by putting more turns of wire on
cycle. The half-cycle below the line is the negative the coil. In fact, 10 times as much voltage is
half-cycle. The highest voltage reached du' induced in a10-turn coil as in asingle-turn coil.
the cycle, 100 V in this case, is called the peak If one-tenth of avolt is induced in a 1-turn coil,
voltfige. There exe-two peaks: a positive and a one-tenth of avolt is induced in each turn of a
/negative peak. Each peak is 100 volts_Tti_e ppak- 10-turn coil. These voltages add together to
to-peak voltage, which is the total voltage be- make a total of 1 V available at the output
tween the positive peak and the negative peak, terminals. With 100 turns of wire, we can get 10 V;
is 200 volts. Remember these terms; they will be 1000 turns on the coil would produce 100 volts.
used frequently in this course. Thus, by putting the required number of turns
on the coil of agenerator, we can generate any
Another term for frequencyöFac voltage is
desired voltage.
hertz, abbreviated Hz. Hertz and cycles-per-
second mean exactly the same thing. These ex-
pressions are interchangeable, though hertz is
DC Generators
the preferred term. When you see the expression
60 Hz, it refers to an alternating voltage, or
A practical generator does not use apermanent
current, that completes 60 cycles per second.
magnet. Instead, an electromagnet supplies the

19
POWER SOURCES

magnetic field. Operating current for the

electromagnet can be obtained from the gener-
ator itself, from another generator, or even from
a battery However, de current is required to
make an electromagnet. The voltage produced
by the generator we discussed is ac. How can we
get dc current from an ac generator? A practical
ac generator does not use direct physical connec-
tions to the wire winding of the coil. The coil
rotates at a high speed, which would quickly
twist and break off solid connections. So, the
ends of the coils connect to slip-rings. Brush
contacts ride on the slip-rings, allowing ac volt-
age to be tapped from agenerator. The slip-ring
and brush surfaces are precisely-machined
parts; the brushes glide over the surface of the
slip-rings as the coil rotates, keeping excellent
electrical contact with minimum abrasion.
However, we can get dc output if we use two
slip-rings and acommutator, as shown in Fig.22.
A commutator resembles a slip-ring, but it is
split in half and the two halves are insulated Figure 23. (A) Section 1of the commutator is negative, and
section 2is positive. (B) Section 1is positive, and section
from each other. The brushes are placed so that
2is negative. Brush A is always connected to the negative
each brush contacts one section of the commuta- section of the commutator, and brush B to the positive
tor as the coil makes the first half-revolution, and section. Current flows in only one direction.

the other section of commutator as the coil

makes the second half-revolution. The result is
MAGNET
that current in the external circuit always flows
in the same direction, as shown in Fig.23. As a
result, at the output we have avoltage like that
shown in Fig.24.
This is essentially the same wave shape as in
Fig.21. The difference is that the negative half-
cycle below the line is made positive by the
COMMUTATOR
automatic reversing of the connections to the coil
achieved by the commutator and brushes.
Voltage like that shown in Fig.24 is called
DC VOLTAGE
pulsating dc. It is defined as ade voltage because
the current flows in one direction. However,
Figure 22. A simple dc generator. since the voltage varies, the amount of current

20
 GENERATORS

/V\
further into the magnetic field, cutting still more
lines of force and generating a proportional
amount of voltage. Coil D-D' is cutting directly
across the lines of force and the maximum volt-
age will be induced in it. These coils are con-
Figure 24. Output of asimple dc generator. nected in series and brought out to the
connections on the commutator. Two brushes are
used on the commutator. The output voltage
also varies. The current flows in pulses and from this type of machine will be nearly constant
actually drops to zero twice during each turn of because there will always be one coil in or near
the coil. Pulsating current can be used in some each position shown in Fig.25. The voltage
applications, but it is troublesome because it is produced by the generator will be the voltage of
not pure dc, like the dc supplied by abattery. all the coils in series.

A more efficient generator design is shown in While some of the coils are producing very
Fig.25. Here there are anumber of coils wound little voltage, the coils near the position D-D' will
on an iron form called an armature. The coils are produce considerable voltage. The commutator
in different positions around the armature. In used with this type of generator has 12 sections
the position shown, coil A-A' does not cut any instead of two. There will be some fluctuation in
lines of force and has no voltage induced in it. the output voltage, but not nearly as much as in
Coil B-B' is in aposition to cut afew lines of force, agenerator with asingle coil.
and has some voltage induced in it. Coil C-C' is

ARMATURE

COMMUTATOR

Figure 25. The armature of adc generator with six series-connected coils.

21
POWER SOURCES

If we designed the 6-coil generator shown in that a certain number of electrons flow past a
Fig.25 so that its maximum output voltage was given point in the circuit in a period of one
100 V, during the first half-revolution the voltage second. This same number of electrons continues
would rise from 95 V to 100 V, then fall back to to flow as long as the current is 1ampere.
95 V six times. The same thing would happen What happens with ac current? With the volt-
during the next half-cycle. The advantage is that age rising and falling twice each cycle, the cur-
we can reduce the voltage variation with a6-coil
rent flow has two maximum and two minimum
machine. The single-coil machine, on the other
points in each cycle. Therefore, the number of
hand, would vary between 0 and 100 V every electrons flowing in the circuit is not constant.
half-turn. Compare the output from a 100 V
In fact, it changes continuously as the ac voltage
single-coil de generator to the output from a100
goes through its cycle.
V 6-coil dc generator shown in Fig.26.
To get around the difficulty caused by its con-
stant variation, we measure ac in terms of
AC Values equivalent dc. When we say that the ac current
flowing in the circuit is 1A, we mean that the
Look back at the 1-cycle ac waveform shown current is the equivalent of 1 A of dc. This
in Fig.21. At the start of the cycle, the voltage is equivalence is established on a basis of com-
zero. After the coil rotates one-quarter of aturn, parable heat produced. For instance, ade current
the voltage reaches its maximum value. At the of 1 A flowing through a heating element
halfway point, its back to zero again. At three- generates acertain measurable amount of heat.
quarters of aturn, the voltage is at its maximum When ac current flowing through the same heat-
negative value, and at the end of the cycle the ing element produces the same amount of heat,
voltage is back to zero. The voltage reaches a we define that ac current as 1ampere.
maximum value twice in each cycle. Basically, the same system is used to measure
Since ac voltage fluctuates constantly, how do ac voltage. If a de voltage of 100 V forces a
we measure its applied value? When we talk current of 1A through astandard resistance, the
about ade current, we might say that the current ac voltage that forces an ac current of 1 A
flowing in the circuit is 1ampere. This means through the same resistance is said to be 100
volts. This is called the effective, or rms voltage.
An ac current that flows as a result of this
voltage produces the same heating effect as the
equivalent amount of de current.

nn (A)
From looking at an ac voltage waveform, you
can see that the actual voltage is greater than
the effective value during part of the cycle, and
less than the effective value during the rest. The
maximum voltage that the ac reaches during a
(B) half-cycle is called the peak voltage, as we men-
tioned before. The peak voltage is approximately
1.4 times the effective voltage. Since each peak is
Figure 26. (A) Voltage from asingle-turn generator.
(B) Voltage from agenerator with coils like in Figure 25.
1.4 times the effective voltage, the peak-to-peak

22
 GENERATORS

voltage is twice that, or 2.8 times the effective

+140
voltage. Figure 27 shows an effective ac voltage
of 100 volts. The peak value is 140 V, and the +100
PEAK

peak-to-peak value 280 volts. Study this figure EFFECTIVE

140 V
1
100 V
carefully to be sure that you understand it. PEAK TO
o PEAK
It is important to remember that when we are 280 V
PEAK
talking about ac voltages, unless we specifically 140 V
refer to the peak or peak-to-peak voltages, we
are talking about effective voltages. Also remem- -140

ber that the peak voltage is 1.4 times — the

peak-to-peak voltage is 2.8 times — the effective
voltage. Peak voltage, peak-to-peak voltage, and Figure 27. AC waveform showing effective (rms), peak,
and peak-to-peak voltages.
rms voltage are terms you will see many times
during your career in electronics. Remember
that rms voltage is the same as the effective
voltage. tant not only because it is the type of power
supplied by the power companies, but also be-
A good example for comparison of voltage
cause ac signals are used throughout the entire
measurements is the voltage supplied to most
electronics industry The sound that comes from
homes in this country The average power com-
the loudspeaker in aradio or telephone receiver,
pany supplies avoltage of somewhere between
or the sound from your telephone, is produced by
115 and 120 volts, 60 Hz ac, for lighting and
ac signals having a frequency not too much
general domestic use. This is the effective value
higher than the power-line frequency. The radio
of the voltage. Let us assume that the voltage
waves that travel through space to bring you
supplied to your home is exactly 120 volts. What
radio and TV programs are actually ac signals of
is the peak voltage reached during each half-
amuch higher frequency. AC signals are used in
cycle? It will be 1.4 x120, which is 168 volts. The
every branch of electronics. In later lessons you
peak-to-peak voltage supplied to your home will
will learn how these signals are produced and
be 336 V (or 2.8 x120). The net effect of this ac
how they are used. You will also learn that many
voltage is the same as supplying adc voltage of
circuits and components have different be-
120 V to the electric light.
haviors when an ac voltage is applied, as com-
The Importance of AC. You may wonder why pared to when a de voltage is applied. You will
we have gone into so much detail in describing learn how we take advantage of these dif-
alternating current. Alternating current is impor- ferences.

23
POWER SOURCES

Review Self-Test Questions

We have covered agreat deal of material in the 18 What are the two kinds of electrical current
preceding sections. There are several important produced by power sources? /-}c (-
things that you should remember, including 19 What kind of voltage produces acurrent
what an ac cycle looks like, and that this ac that flows in only one direction? L=-
voltage is called asine wave. 20 What do we call voltage that causes current
to flow first in one direction, then in the other
Remember that when we speak of ac voltage
direction, many times in asecond?
and current, we are speaking of the voltage and
21 What is the name given to the ac voltage
current that will produce the same effect as the
waveform supplied by the power company? t ,e
)
equivalent values of dc. Remember that the peak
22 What is acycle? 2--eite «*--° 4 e-'4142.0 e-
1.11 -
value of the ac cycle is 1.4 times the effective
23 What do we mean by 60 Hz?
value, and the peak-to-peak value is 2.8 times
24 What device on ade generator reverses the '
the effective value.
connections of the coil to produce direct cur-
rent instead of alternating current?
25 What type of current is produced by a,
simple dc generator? • •
26 What is the difference between 1A of de
r
current, and 1A of ac current?
27 If we say the ac voltage is, 100 V, are we
referring to the ,effective dr the peak value
of the ac voltage?
28 If the rms voltage is 200 V, what is the peak
value of the voltage?

24
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST 14 The basic law of magnetism addresses this

statement: If one pole of the magnet
QUESTIONS attracts the south pole of the compass, the
pole must be an unlike pole, and therefore
must be anorth pole.
1 Primary and secondary are the two basic
15 The magnetic lines of force around acurrent-
types of batteries.
carrying wire are stronger close to the wire.
2 Secondary batteries are rechargeable.
3 Electrical power in abattery is the result of 16 Placing an iron core inside an electromagnet
will increase the strength of the field.
chemical reaction.
4 Primary batteries have the advantage of a 17 The flashlight bulb will light while the mag-
longer shelf life (storage period) without net is being placed inside the coil. Once the
magnet is inside the coil and no longer
severe loss of charge.
moving, the flashlight bulb will no longer light.
5 The chemical reaction in adry cell is caused
by metals such as zinc or lead, and their 18 Electrical current power sources produce
oxides. both direct current and alternating current.
6 A fresh carbon-zinc battery has a1.5 V un- 19 DC voltage flows in only one direction.
20 AC voltage causes current to flow first in
loaded output voltage. The typical no-load
voltage of adry cell, or zinc-manganese (carbon- one direction, then in the other direction,
many times asecond.
zinc) battery, is 1.5 volts.
7 Alkaline batteries get their name from their 21 The waveform supplied by the power com-
pany is called asine wave.
caustic alkaline base of potassium hydroxide,
which is used as part of the electrolyte. 22 The waveform shown in Fig.21(B) repre-
8 In conditions of low current drain at acon- sents one cycle. In acycle of an alternating
current, the voltage between the two ter-
stant warm temperature, carbon-zinc batter-
minals of the generator starts at zero, then
ies may be more economical than alkaline
builds up to amaximum value with one
batteries.
polarity, then drops back to zero; it then
9 The no-load voltage of alead-acid cell is 2V,
builds up to amaximum value with the other
plus or minus 10%, depending on conditions.
polarity, and then drops back to zero. During
10 The normal recharge rate for anickel-
cadium cell is approximately 10% of the the next cycle it will simply repeat the first
cycle.
rated current output.
23 The measurement of 60 Hz means 60 cycles
11 A fully-charged nickel-cadmium battery
per second, which means that there are 60
starts at about 1.4 V and quickly drops to
aconstant 1.25 volts. complete cycles in asecond. This means that
the voltage starts at zero, builds up to a
12 The lithium battery has the longest shelf
life. maximum with one polarity, drops back to
zero, builds up to amaximum value at the
13 The basic law of magnetism states: Like
poles repel, and unlike poles attract. opposite polarity, and drops back to zero a
total of 60 times in asecond.

25
POWER SOURCES

24 A commutator reverses the connections of 27 An ac voltage that is not specified as apeak

the coil to produce de voltage. value is assumed to be the effective or rms
25 A simple de generator, like the one shown in value. If we want to provide the peak value,
Fig.22, would produce apulsating de (shown in we should specifically state that it is the peak
the waveform in Fig.24). A pulsating de of this value, or assume the effective (rms) value.
type is normally not desirable, and the 28 With arms voltage of 200 V, the peak value
excessive pulsating can be eliminated by of the voltage is 280 volts. The peak value of
means of an armature, such as that shown in an ac voltage is 1.4 times the rms value. Thus,
Fig.25. The armature holds several coils if the rms value is 200 V, the peak value
connected in series to produce asmoother dc is 280 V (or 200 x1.4).
output.
26 Actually, 1A of dc current and 1A of ac cur-
rent flowing through aheater produces the
same amount of heat as ade current of 1A
flowing through the same heater.

26
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts you should
remember about this lesson are:

• Primary storage batteries are not rechargeable;

secondary batteries are.

• The movement of aconductor within amagnetic field

generates current and voltage in the conductor.

• The voltage that is produced in aconductor coil, by

movement in a magnetic field, is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field and the number of turns
in the coil.

• Both ac and dc generators are constructed from multiple

sets of magnets and multiple windings of wire.

• AC current is in the form of asine wave with peak,

effective, and peak-to-peak voltage and current
characteristics.

27
POWER SOURCES

LESSON QUESTIONS
This is Lesson Number 2220.

Make sure you print your name, student

Join Sme
number, and lesson number in the space
Prht
provided on the Lesson Answer Form. Be
Student Na Lesson No.
sure to fill in the circles beneath your stu-
dent number and lesson number. XY o 2 3 7 9 BEE o
Reminder: A properly completed Lesson
Answer Form allows us to evaluate your an-
swers and speed the results and additional
study material to you as soon as possible.
Do not hold your Lesson Answer Forms to
send several at one time. You may run out
of study material if you do not send your
answers for evaluation promptly.

1. The basic difference between aprimary cell 3. If two 9V batteries are connected in series
and asecondary cell is: as shown, what is the polarity and voltage of
a. A secondary cell can be recharged. ,terminal B with respect to terminal C?
b. A primary cell can be recharged. a. +9 volts.
c. A secondary cell has ahigher voltage. b. —9 volts.
d. A primary cell has ahigher voltage. c. +18 volts.
d. —18 volts.
2. Notice how the cells are connected in the
diagram. If each cell has avoltage of 2V, the
voltage applied to the bulb is:
a. 2volts.
rij, 4volts.

c. 6volts.
d. 8volts.

4. If apermanent magnet is held motionless in-

side acoil, will avoltage be induced in the coil?
a. Yes.
No.
c. Only if there is acomplete circuit.
d. Only if there is an iron core.

28
 LESSON QUESTIONS

5. When we say that the effective ac current is 8. If you find that when you bring two mag-
1A, we mean: netic poles together they attract each other:
a. A constant current of 1A flows. a. The two poles must be north poles.
b. The peak current is 1ampere. b. The two poles must be south poles.
i() The current flowing has the effect of 1A dc. @) One pole must be anorth pole and the
d. The average current is 1ampere. other asouth pole.
d. Both answers aand bmay be correct.
6. If the effective ac voltage produced by agen-
erator is 10 V, the peak voltage is: 9. The chief advantage of the dry cell over the
a. 10 volts. lead-acid cell is:
b. 0volts. a. It supplies ahigher voltage.
c. 28 volts. b. It can supply agiven current longer.
14 volts. C It has alonger shelf life.
d. It is cheaper to manufacture.
7. If atwo-pole, single-turn ac generator is
turning at 1800 rpm, what is the frequency of 10. To induce avoltage in aconductor, what
eac produced? two things are needed?
30 Hz. dD Magnetic field and motion.
60 Hz. b. Copper and magnetism.
c. 15 Hz. c. Electrolyte and reactive metal.
d. 75 Hz. d. Current and resistance.

29
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
MAW, Schools

CASHING IN ON DISCONTENTMENT
Discontentment is agood thing — if it makes you want to do some-
thing worthwhile. If you had not been discontented with your current
situation, you never would have enrolled in your NR! course.

Practically everyone is discontented from time to time. If we allow

ourselves to be floored by discontentment, we can easily become
complainers who find fault with anything and everything and end
up bitter and resentful failures.

If we're smart, we learn to use our discontentment to motivate us.

We use it to keep us focused on the goals we have set for ourselves.
We know that we are creating abetter life for ourselves, so sacrifices
are worth making. We are happy in our work. We face defeat squarely
and come out winners.

At this moment, you may be discontented with many things — your

progress in this course, your current earning ability, or your life in
general.

Make that discontentment work for you. Don't let it get you down.
If you do, you may not be able to pick yourself back up again. Keep
striving to beat the causes of your discontentment. Remember that
it's always darkest before the dawn. And remember, the people who
are real successes in life work their hardest when they are face to
face with the greatest discouragements and disappointments.

LT2220 A Division eThe McGraw-Hill Companies

 r•

f j•

How Resistors Are Used 2221

NRI Schools

d
ADivision of The McGruielfill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
14*.itigl0a.
How Resistors Are Used
McGraw-Hill
A Division of TheMcGnneHill Companies
e
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED (First Edition)
Copyright © 1995 by McGraw-Hill, Washington, DC 20008. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in adata base retrieval system, without prior
written permission of McGraw-Hill.

ISBN LT2221

01
 Table of Contents
How Resistors Are Used 1

Physical Characteristics of Resistors 2

Resistor Types 2
Resistor Values 3
Tolerances 3
EIA Values 4
Color Code 5
Precision Resistors 6
Thermistors 6
Varistors 7
High-Voltage Resistors 7
Resistor Wattage Ratings 7
Review 9
Self-Test Questions 9

Using Resistors to Set Circuit Voltages 10

Voltage Division 10
Series-Dropping Resistors 11
Bleeder Resistors 13
Review 14
Self-Test Questions 14

Answers to Self-Test Questions 15

Lesson Questions 18
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will ...

• Review resistor types, constructions, and tolerances.

• Learn the resistor color code for identifying resistors.

• Examine how resistors are used to establish circuit voltages.

• Study how resistors can stabilize voltage sources.

 HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

HOW RESISTORS ARE USED There are many uses for resistors. Different
circuits require different operating voltages but,
for economy, the required operating voltages
This lesson is devoted almost entirely to resis- must all be obtained from asingle power source.
tors and their uses. It is important that you learn Resistors are used to drop the voltage to the
how they are used so that you can determine if correct value. Resistors are also used to isolate
acircuit is working properly. You also need to be parts from each other so that one will not inter-
able to select asuitable replacement for aresis- fere with the operation or action of another.
tor when one is needed.

1
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS There are twos of carbon resistors. — one is

m
---—a
-deof a carba compound held together by a
OF RESISTORS cement-type binder, and the other is made by
depositing afilm of carbon on athin ceramic rod.
Resistors come in many shapes and sizes, and Carbon resistors are manufactured in 1/4 W,
with several different design parameters. The 1W. and 2WÉes. Devices such as video
design of aresistor depends mostly upon the ap- cassette recorders and microcomputers contain
plication for which it is intended. Special variable hundreds of carbon resistors. Most of the carbon
resistors, called
___13(gentionzeters, are widely used resistors in these devices are 1/4 W or 1/2 W
in electronic equipment to control the volume restafors.-Priure 1is aphotograph showing the
and tone in radio and TV receivers, and to control Téralive physical size of the four different watt-
picture brightness and contrast in TV receivers age carbon resistors as compared to apenny.
and video displays. They also control the level of
There are also wire-wound resistors. A wire-
the sound signal in radio transmitters, and the
wound resitgis made by winding aresistance
level of both sound and picture signals in TV
wire on aform. Resistance wire is aspecial type
transmitters. There is no end to the uses of
of wire that has a relatively high resistance.
resistors in electronic equipment, so it is impor-
Wire-wound [Link] have wattage ratings that
tant that you understand how they work and are
startái nr.-4-W, and range upward to very high
used.
wattage ratings. Very high wattage rating resis-
tors are large and heavy and are often suspended
Resistor Types on mounting brackets, bolted, or riveted to the
chassis. Wire-wound resistors cannot be made
conveniently in high resistance values. Since
We have already introduced several types of
they are made by winding wire in acoil on an
resistors used in electronic equipment, of which
insulated support, they often take on some of the
the most frequently used is the carbon resistor.
characteristics of a coil, which may not be
desirable.

.Metal-oxide resistors are anafter_type. These

resistors can be made in higher wattage ratings
than carbon resistors, yet still have many of the
advantages of carbon resistors. Where larger
values of resistance are necessary, metal-oxide
resistors must be used instead of wire-wound
resistors. The metal-oxide resistor is made by
depositing a metal-oxide film on a ceramic or
glass tube or rod. The oxide film is in a linear
path rather than awinding path, so it does not
act like acoil.

The rheostat is one kind of variable resistor.

Figure 1. Relative physical size of the four different watt- Rheostats may be wire-wound devices, or may be
age carbon resistors compared to apenny. made from acarbon element. A rheostat has a

2
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTORS

sliding contact which rotates to allow selection controls; most, however, are carbon controls.
of the desired resistance. The resistance is deter- Carbon controls are preferred over wire-wound
mined by the position of the sliding contact with controls because they are less likely to develop
respect to the total resistance available. dirty or burned spots on the resistance element.
These spots produce noise as the control is
The variable resistor shown in Fig.2 is apo-
rotated.
tentiome er. A potentiometer has three termi-
nals. The ràistarrebetween the two outside
terminals is constant — equal to the entire re-
Resistor Values
sistance of the carbon or wire-wound element
inside the control. The center terminal connects
You should know from your previous lessons
to asliding contact and is adjustable across the
that a wide range of resistor values are used in
resistance element. Like the rheostat, the resis-
electronic equipment. You should also remember
tance between the sliding contact and either end
that in abbreviating resistor values the letter k
of the total resistance is selected by turning the
represents athousand and the letter M represents
control. Since the total resistance is constant,
amillion. Thus, aresistor marked 2.2k has avalue
when the resistance between the slider and one
of 2200 ohms. A resistor marked 2.2 M has a
end of the resistance element decreases, the re-
resistance of 2,200,000 ohms. To convert from
sistance between the slider and the other end
kilohms to ohms, move the decimal point three
increases.
places to the right. To convert from ohms to
Potentiometers with high resistances are usu- kilohms, move the decimal point three places to
a1-13i-ertrarredrttrats. Low-resistance potentiom- the left. To convert from megohms to ohms, move
eters may either be carbon or wire-wound the decimal point six places to the right, and to
convert from ohms to megohms, move the
decimal point six places to the left.

Sometimes you must convert from megohms to

kilohms. For example, aresistor might be marked
0.1 M. To convert this to ohms, move the decimal
3L
: point six places to the right. Thus, 0.1 M becomes
100,000 ohms. To convert from megohms to
kilohms, move the decimal point three places to
the right. Therefore, a0.1 M resistor is the same

•te
as a 100k resistor. You will find resistors marked
470k on some diagrams, and 0.47 M on others.
Remember that both mean the same thing: the
resistance of the resistor is 470,000 ohms.

To

h most [Link]
Figure 2. A potentiometer. resistor ilueleetronizegvipment. These resistors

3
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

aremanufactured with atolerance of either 5or Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Megs Megs
ent. Occasionally, you wi come across a
carbon resistor with atolerance of 20%, but these 021 11 51 2.1 110 510 2400 11k 51k 240k 1.1 51
resistors are infrequently used.
0.27 1.2 5.6 27 120 560 2700 12k
The tolerance of aresistor indicates how close 56k 270k 1.2 5.6

its actual resistance is to its rated resistance.

0.30 1.3 6.2 30 130 620 3000 13k 62k 300k 1.3 6.2
Consider a100-ohm resistor with a5% tolerance.
You will find that 5% of 100 is 5 ohms. If the
0.33 1.5 6.8 33 150 680 3300 15k 68k 330k 1.5 6.8
resistor has a5% tolerance, its actual resistance
is within 5ohms of 100 ohms. That is, the resis- 036 1.6 75 36 160 750 3600 16k 75k 360k 1.6 7.5
tor may have avalue anywhere between 95 and
105 ohms. A 10% tolerance in a100-ohm resistor 0.39 1.8 8.2 39 180 820 3900 18k 82k 390k 1.8 8.2
is 10 ohms. A 10% resistor may have a value
anywhere within 10 ohms of 100 ohms, avalue 0.43 2.0 9.1 43 200 910 4300 20k 91k 430k 20 9.1
between 90 and 110 ohms.
0.47 2.2 10 47 220 1000 4700 22k 100k 470k 2.2 10
Resistor tolerance is indicated on the body of the
re-griFv-Viira-71Wèrei• dband. A silver band
0.51 2.4 11 51 240 1100 5100 24k 110k 510k 2.4 11
indicates a to erance of 10% and a gold band a
tolerance o 5percent. A carbon resistor without 0.56 2.7 12 56 270 1200 5600 27k 120k 560k 2.7 12
sihrén:Yrgold tolerance band is a20% resistor.
062 30 13 62 300 1300 6200 30k 130k 620k 3.0 13

EIA Values 0.68 3.3 15 68 330 1500 6800 33k 150k 680k 3.3 15

The EIA (Electronics Industries Association) 075 36 16 75 360 1600 7500 36k 160k 750k 3.6 16

has set up standard values for carbon resistors.

In designing electronic equipment, you will rare- 0.82 3.9 18 82 390 1800 8200 39k 180k 820k 3.9 18

ly need aresistor of an exact value. Although, for

example, an engineer might calculate that a 0.91 4.3 20 91 430 2000 9100 43k 200k 910k 4.3 20

particular circuit requires a 3721-ohm resistor,

that is anonstandard value. However, 3600 is a 1.00 4.7 22 100 470 2200 10k 47k 220k 1M 4.7 22

standard value, and so is 3900 ohms. Minor

changes in the circuit would easily allow one of
the standard values to be used. Figure 3. Standard EIA resistor values.

Standard EIA carbon resistor values are shown

in Fig.3. All these values are available in resistors Older equipment usually has higher percent-
having a5% tolerance. You can get acarbon resis- ages of 10% tolerance resistors. These resistors
tor having aresistance as low as 0.24 ohm, and as were less expensive to manufacture, and a5% resis-
high as 22 megohms. However, 10% resistors are tor was seldom needed. However, new and im-
available only in the values that are shaded. proved resistor-manufacturing hardware can
produce, measure, and sort resistors to the nearest

4
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTORS

5% value. Today most resistors are 5%, because Color First Band Second Band # of Zeros
they are pii-
ce-dcomparably to 10% resistors. or Multiplier

_n_en replacing a10% resistor you can always

substitute a5% unit. However, this allowance is Silver — — 0.01
on-i-way; you cannot replace a 5% tolerance
resistor with a 10% part. It is possible that
Gold — — 0.1
substituting a10% resistor for a5% resistor will
alter the performance of the circuit. However, if
the industry trend toward 5% tolerance con- Black 0 0 none
tinues, it may soon be impossible to buy a 10%
resistor at all. Brown 1 1 0

Color Code Red 2 2 00

The resistance value of a carbon resistor is Orange 3 3 000

specified by three color bands around the body.
To determine the value of aresistor, first find the Yellow 4 4 0000
tolerance band; it will either be silver or gold.
Hold the resistor so that the tolerance band is on
Green 5 5 00000
the right, as shown in Fig.4. The three color
bands are to the left of the tolerance band. From
iefffóright, the color of the first band represents Blue 6 6 000000
thcfirst digit of the resistance value, the second
band color indicates the second digit, and the
Purple 7 7 —
color of the third band (sometimes called the
mültiptier) indicates the number of zeros to add
Gray 8 8 _
to the two-digit number formed by the first and
seecnid bands.
White 9 9 —
\

Figure 5. Standard resistor color codes.

NUMBER OF ZEROS
FIRST FIGURE
The standard resistor color codes are shown in
the chart in Fig.5. Referring to this chart, sup-
pose the first band is yellow, the second band is
purple, and the third band is orange. The yellow
SECOND FIGURE band stands for the first digit in the resistance,
TOLERANCE
BAND or 4. The purple band means the second digit is 7,
and the orange band adds three Os after the 7.
Figure 4. Resistor values and tolerance are identified by Therefore, the resistance value is 47,000 ohms,
color bands as shown. or 47 kilohms.
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

GREEN 11 RED BROWN WHITE BROWN GRAY

BLUE RED GRAY BROWN BLUE RED
RED 11 RED BLUE SILVER YELLOW BLACK
GOLD GOLD SILVER GOLD GOLD SILVER

(A) (0 (D) (r)

Figure 6. (A) 5600 ohms, 5.6k, 5%; (B) 2200 ohms, 2.2k, 5%; (C) 18,000,000 ohms, 18M, 10%; (D) 0.91 ohms, 5%; (E) 160,000
ohms, 160k, 5%; (F) 82 ohms, 10%.

A resistor coded red, red, brown has a resis- Precision Resistors

tance of 220 ohms. A black band in the third

C
position means no Os are added, so a resistor
evri
In some equipment, usually electronic test
coded red, red, black has aresistance of 22 ohms. equipment, resistors having tolerances of 1% or
A gold band represents a 0.1 multiplier; there- 1/2% are used. These resistors are made by
fore, a resistor coded red, red, gold has aresis- a different process than the carbon resistors
tance of 2.2 ohms, because you move the decimal used in most equipment, and are significantly
point one place to the left to indicate multiplica- more expensive than standard resistors.
tion by 0.1. If, in addition to the third gold band,
the fourth band (or tolerance band) is gold, the These 1% and 1/2% resistors are called
resistor value is 2.2 ohms with a5% tolerance. If precision resistors. Their value is usually
the tolerance band is silver, it means that the stamped on the resistor body, along with their
resistor value is 2.2 ohms with a tolerance of tolerance. Although many precision resistors
10%. are available "over the counter," some special-
application units have to be ordered from the
A few resistors have afifth color band after the manufacturer or an authorized distributor.
tolerance band. This is areliability indicator, and
is of little concern to the electronics technician.
Resistors rarely fail unless there is aan overload Thermistors
failure in the circuit. When the circuit fails, the
resistor may burn out regardless of its A thermistor is a special type of resistor.
reliability. Eiir are made of a material that
Figure 6shows several resistors, and the cap- decreases in resistance as its temperature in-
tion gives the value of each of these resistors. creases. We say that athermistor has a_"ji_qgf-
Cover the caption and try writing out the resistor tive temperature coefficient." This means that
values. After you write out all the values, check as the-temperatue thermistor goes up,
your answers against the values given in the its resistance goes down.
caption.

6
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTORS

quently used in color TV receivers and video

displays.

High-Voltage Resistors

In some applications, resistors are used across

circuits where there is avery high voltage. The
resistance of the resistor may be so high that the
power dissipation is less than 1/2 W, but a1/2 W
Figure 7. A typical thermistor and its schematic symbol. carbon resistor is not suitable for high-voltage
applications.

A typical high-voltage resistor is shown in

Fig.9, on page 8. It is made by depositing carbon
A typical thermistor and its schematic symbol in aspiral groove cut in aceramic-type body. The
are shown in Fig.7. These devices are frequently resistor is deliberately made several inches long
used in circuits where there is likely to be ahigh so that there is no possibility of the high voltage
current surge when the equipment is turned on. arcing across it. Resistors of this type are found
When the thermistor is cold it has ahigh resis- in TV receivers, especially color TV receivers.
tance, and most of the applied voltage is dropped
across the thermistor. This limits the amount of
current that can flow in the circuit. However, as Resistor Wattage Ratings
the thermistor warms up, its resistance
decreases (sometimes to avery low value) so that As you know, electrical power is measured in
normal current can flow in the circuit. watts. In a previous lesson, you were intro-
duced to three forms of the power equation:

Varistors

Another special type of resistor is the vçgistor.

This type of resiito-ris also called a, voltage -
dependent resistor, which means that the resis-
tance of the device depends upon the voltage
across it. As the voltage across a varistor in-
creases, the resistance of the varistor decreases.

A drawing of a varistor and its schematic

symbol are shown in Fig.8. Varistors are used in
circuits where ahigh voltage might appear sud-
denly. When this happens, the resistance of the
varistor decreases rapidly, drawing off a large
current from the voltage source, and preventing
damage to other components. Varistors are fre- Figure 8. A typical varistor and its schematic symbol.

7
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

electrical power by dissipating, or radiating, it

as heat. In actual practice, if the power in a
(A) circuit is 1/2 W, we typically use a1W resistor,
which has twice the dissipation capability neces-
sary. When carbon resistors get hot, they tend to
change value. Therefore, it is agood idea to use
alarger resistor with ahigher power dissipation
tin to avoid this problem.

The deposited-film type of resistor is made in

ratings of between 2 W and about 10 watts.
(8) These resistors are larger than carbon resistors
and can handle more power. Unlike carbon resis-
Figure 9. A high-voltage resistor.
tors, they do not have the tendency to change
value when hot, and can be operated closer to
their full wattage rating.
Wire-wound resistors can be made with ex-
P =EI, P = I 2R, and P =E2/R. In most cases, a tremely high wattage ratings. You will seldom
resistor in an electrical circuit conducts some find wire-wound resistors rated at higher than
amount of current flow. For a1/4 W resistor, the 10 W in aradio, TV, or microcomputer. However,
square of the current 1 2 times the value of the in radio and TV transmitting equipment, as well
resistor R should not exceed 1/4 watt. For a 1/2 as industrial equipment, some wire-wound
W resistor, I2R must not exceed 1/2 watt. This is
resistors can dissipate several thousand watts or
the case for any wattage rating, because exceed- more. These high-wattage resistors are made
ing the rating may result in the destruction of from large-diameter resistance wire that can
the component. carry a high current. They are wound on big
/The wattage rating of aresistor is sometimes ceramic tubes to provide alarge area to dissipate
lied its dissipation ratin .
A 1/2 W resistor can the heat produced by the current flowing
dissipate power. The resistor consumes through the resistance wire.

8
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTORS

Review Self-Test Questions

You have reached the point in your course Please check your answers on page 15.
where you should be able to convert ohms to
kilohms and to megohms, and then back again 1 What is 4.7k equal to in ohms? "(7 ü °°
without any trouble. This is important because 2 Express 0.39 M in kilohms and in ohms. )/d 19c

all three units are used by manufacturers on 3 What is 680,000 ohms in kilohms and in
circuit diagrams. megohms? • /)-1

4 A 2200-ohm, 10% resistor actually has a

You should memorize the resistor color-code
value of 2000 ohms. Is this resistor within its
chart. Start by writing it out several times; start
rated tolerance?
with black 0, brown 1, red 2, and so on. It is not
5 A 10,000-ohm resistor has atolerance of 5
very important to remember gold and silver in
percent. What is the maximum resistance
the third band, because you seldom encounter
that the resistor might have and still be
small-value resistors. However, remember the
within tolerance?
meanings of the tolerance bands: gold is more
6 Reading from left to right, the color bands
valuable than silver and has avalue of 5%, and
on aresistor are orange, white, yellow, and
silver has avalue of 10 percent. The fifth band
gold. What is the value and tolerance 9.f the
is a reliability band. Any time you have to
replace a10% resistor you can use a5% resistor
resistor? é
o0-9 m -2 a
7 If aresistor is color-coded brown, black, green,
of the same value.
and silver, w)14 0iit,yilu and tolermey
A thermistor is a resistor which has a resis- 8 If aresistor is color-coded green, blue, orangé,
tance that decreases as the resistor warms up. A and gold, w_p.e.ièsite*,lue and tolerAkce?
varistor is a resistor with a resistance which 9 If aruie2ràs cplor-coded red, red, red, and
decreases as the voltage across it increases. A silver, wIat Is41,Kvalue and tolerAne?
high-voltage resistor is a special resistor made 10 In apiece of electronic test equipment, a
several inches long so that the high voltage in 100k, 1% resistor is burned out. You have
the circuit will not jump across it. available a 100k, 1/2% resistor. Can you use
this resistor as areplacement?
11 What do we mean when we ay that a
tor is dissipating 10 watts?
12 If the voltage across a 1000-ohm resistor is
100 V, how much power is the resistor dissi-
pating?

13 If the voltage across a5000-ohm resistor is

50 V, what is the power dissipated by the
resistor? 4.2 Atts
14 If the current through aresistor is 2A, and
the resistance of the resistor is 25 ohms,
what is the power dissipated by the resistorip'?
t
I b

9
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

USING RESISTORS TO SET ticular resistor, without figuring out the current
first. To do this, use the formula:
CIRCUIT VOLTAGES
ER= xET
RT
We mentioned earlier that in electronic equip-
ment several different operating voltages may be Where ER is the resistor voltage drop you
required for different loads. In most cases, these want to calculate, R is the value of the resistor,
voltages are taken from asingle power supply to RTis the total resistance in the circuit, and ETis
reduce equipment cost. Resistors are often used the source voltage applied to the series circuit.
to reduce the voltage from the power supply to
For example, if three 50-ohm resistors are in
the required value.
series across an applied voltage of 100 V, as
You have seen anumber of circuits where one shown in Fig.10, what is the voltage drop across
or more resistors connect across abattery to form each resistor? Since all of the resistors are equal,
aseries circuit. You also know that the current each has one-third the total resistance of the
is the same in all parts of a series circuit, and circuit, and one-third the total applied voltage,
that each voltage drop is the product of the or 33.3 volts.
current multiplied by the resistance. In asingle
You can easily verify this relationship by
series circuit, a higher resistance has a higher
making the complete current and voltage drop
voltage drop across it than asmaller resistance;
calculations. The total resistance in the circuit is
equal resistances have equal voltage drops.
150 ohms, so the series circuit current is 100 V
It is important for you to remember all of this
so you will recognize that each voltage drop in a
series circuit is proportional to the size of the 33.3 V
resistance creating the drop. The greater the VOLTAGE DROP

resistance, the higher the voltage drop across it. R1

I = 0.667A x 50
IR = 33.3 V

Wv
50

Voltage Division

A string of resistors in series can be regarded

as avoltage divider. Each resistance produces a
100 V 33.3 V
voltage drop equal to its proportional part of the 50 § R2
VOLTAGE
DROP
applied voltage. Since the current remains the
same throughout the circuit, the source voltage
divides itself among the resistors in the circuit
according to the value of each. (Remember
50
Kirchhoff's law: the sum of the voltage drops in
_Mni +
aseries circuit is equal to the source voltage.)
For a series loop, there is a direct means of 33.3 V
VOLTAGE DROP
calculating the voltage drop across any par-
Figure 10. Voltage drops in aseries circuit.

10
 USING RESISTORS TO SET CIRCUIT VOLTAGES

divided by 150 ohms, or 0.667 amperes. When you ohms) accounts for 18.9% of the total; the largest
multiply the current by the value of resistance to resistor, R3 (1800 ohms), accounts for 72.3% of
find the voltage drop (using Ohm's law) you find the source voltage.
that each resistor has avoltage drop equal to 50
Given a source voltage of 100 V, the voltages
ohms multiplied by 0.667 A, or 33.3 volts.
would be 8.8 V across R1, 18.8 V across R2, and
Unfortunately, circuits will rarely be as simple 72.3 V across R3. If the source voltage is changed
as those in this example. Suppose the resistors to 150 V, as shown in Fig.12, we can find the
are of unequal value: R1 = 20 ohms, R2 = 30 voltage drop across each resistor by simply
ohms, and R3 =50 ohms, like in Fig.11. Add up taking its percentage of the source voltage. In
the total resistance in the circuit (20 + 30 + 50) this case, that would be 150 x0.088, or 13.2 V
to get 100 ohms. By itself, R1 is 20/100, or 20% across R1, 150 x0.188, or 28.2 V across R2, and
(0.2) of the total resistance. Therefore, the volt- 150 x0.723, or 108.4 V across R3.
age drop across R1 is equal to 20% of the total
voltage (0.2 x100 =20 volts).

Coincidentally, the numbers come out to

Series-Dropping Resistors
round figures in the above example. But, the
calculation works for odd numbers as well. Sup-
In the circuit shown in Fig.13, on page 12, the
pose that the resistors in the circuit are more
source voltage is a 100 V battery, and R2 is the
realistic: R1 =220 ohms, R2 =470 ohms, and R3
load. Let's assume that the load requires an
= 1800 ohms. By adding up the total resistance
operating voltage of 50 volts. This means that
(220 +470 +1800), you get 2490 ohms total. Divide
R1, the series-dropping resistor, must reduce the
R1 (220 ohms) by 2490 to get 8.8 percent. R2 (470
voltage applied to R2 to 50 volts. We know that
current flowing through R1 produces a voltage
drop across it, so we must select avalue for R1
VOLTAGE DROPS:
that will drop enough voltage to leave 50V across
RI = 20 VOLTS
R2 = 30 VOLTS
RI R3 = 50 VOLTS
RI

20
220

100 V 30 R2
150 V 470 R2

50 1800
_e\AA/ V‘Ai
4
R3 R3

Figure 11. Voltage divider action.

o
Figure 12. A possible voltage divider arrangement.

11
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

R1
/V\Ar
What happens if the resistance of the load (R2)
changes? Suppose the resistance of R2 varies by
as much as 2500 ohms, as in Fig.14. The resis-
E
R2 tance of R2 can go as low as 2500 ohms, or as
100 V LOAD
high as 7500 ohms. We show this range of resis-
tances by writing 5000 +/- 2500 and saying "five
thousand plus or minus twenty-five hundred."
If the resistance of R2 drops to 2500 ohms, the
total resistance in the circuit made up of R1 and
Figure 13. The series-dropping resistor R1 is used to drop R2 is only 7500 ohms. The total current flow
the battery voltage to 50 V for the load R2.
increases to:

100
R2. With a source voltage of 100 V, this means I= =0.013 A
7500
that R1 must drop 50 volts.
This changes the voltage drop across R1 to:
In this case, since each resistance drops 50 V,
R1 and R2 will be equal. However, this isn't E =0.013 x5000 =65 V
always the case. When the voltage drops are
unequal, you need to know the load resistance Subtracting this from 100 V leaves only 35 V
and the voltage it requires. You can then use across R2.
Ohm's law (I = E/R) to find the current flow in If the resistance of R2 increases to 7500 ohms,
the circuit. The difference between the source the total resistance in the circuit is 12,500 ohms.
voltage and the voltage required by the load is The total current flow in the circuit drops to
the voltage that must be dropped by R1. To find 0.008 amperes. Now the voltage drop across R1 is:
the resistance of R1, use Ohm's law in the follow-
ing form: E =0.008 x5000 =40 V

Assume R2 has aresistance of 5000 ohms, with

RI
50 V across it. The current through R2 is: 5000

50
I=5000 -0.01 A
LOAD
R2
To find the resistance of R1, subtract the 50 V — 100 V 5000
*2500
required by R2 from the source voltage of 100 volts.
The voltage across R1 must be 50 V:

E 50
=I 0.01 -5000 ohms
Figure 14. When the values of R2 vary, the voltage across
it will vary.

12
 USING RESISTORS TO SET CIRCUIT VOLTAGES

RI
2500
causes the combined resistance of R2 and R3 in
parallel to drop to 1667 ohms. The total resis-
tance in the circuit (consisting of R1 in series
E LOAD with the parallel combination of R2 and R3)
- R2
drops to 4167 ohms. Current flow in the circuit
— 100 V 5000
*2500 increases from 0.02 to 0.024 ampere.

If the current flow through R1 increases from

0.02 A to 0.024 A, its voltage drop increases from
50 to 60 volts. The voltage across the load drops
to 40 volts. Remember that in the first example,
Figure 15. Adding a bleeder resistor, R3, in parallel to R2, before R3 was added, the voltage dropped to 35
will help stabilize the voltage across R2.
volts. Here we have achange of 10 V, as opposed
to achange of 15 volts.

All of this means that one series-dropping Suppose R2 increases to 7500 ohms. The
resistor is not particularly effective as avoltage parallel resistance of R2 and R3 will be 3000
regulator. Under the conditions given, the voltage ohms, and the total resistance in the circuit is
applied to the load, R2, can change from 35 V up 5500 ohms. With a source voltage of 100 V, the
to 60 V as the resistance of R2 changes. current flow in the circuit decreases to 0.018 A,
the voltage drop across R1 drops to approximate-
By adding a third resistor, called a bleeder ly 45.5 V, and the voltage drop across the load to
resistor, in parallel with R2, we can take astep 54.5 volts. Remember that in the last case, before
closer to stabilizing the voltage across R2. we added R3, the voltage drop across the load
climbed to 60 volts. The addition of the bleeder
resistor has stabilized the voltage across the load
Bleeder Resistors to asignificant degree.

Figure 15 shows the same 100 V source, and The addition of ableeder resistor increases the
R2 as the load with anominal resistance of 5000 current through R1, allowing the use of asmaller
ohms. We've added a third resistor, R3, which series-dropping resistor. Changes in load cur-
also has avalue of 5000 ohms. We know that two rent, therefore, have less effect on the voltage
equal-value resistors connected in parallel have drop across the series resistor and the voltage
one-half the resistance of one, so the resistance across the load remains more constant. The
of R2 and R3 in parallel is 2500 ohms. We want greater the current through the bleeder resistor
a voltage drop of 50 V across the two-resistor (that is, the smaller the resistor), the greater the
network, so we expect the combined current in voltage-stabilizing effect. However, since the
the parallel pair to be 50 divided by 2500, or 20 current through the bleeder is wasted current, a
milliamps (I = E/R). That 20 mA flows through compromise between voltage stability and power
R1 in series, and R1 drops the remaining 50 lost in the bleeder is generally reached.
volts. So, the value of R1 must be 50 V divided At one time, bleeder resistors were widely used
by 0.02 A, or 2500 ohms (R =E/I). in electronics applications to stabilize the volt-
Let's see what happens when the value of R2 age in various circuits. They are still found in
changes. Suppose R2 drops to 2500 ohms. This electronic equipment, but usually for adifferent

13
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

purpose, as you will learn later. There are better Self-Test Questions
and more economical ways to maintain a con-
stant voltage in modern equipment. 15 In aseries circuit containing 10-, 20-, and
,
30-ohm resistors, what is the voltage drop
across each resistor if the source voltage is
Review 30 volts?
4'
0 16 dpetermine the voltage drops of the circuit
Resistors can be used to establish fixed volt-1,' coel, •
shown in Fig.12 by using Ohm's law to calcu-
ages in a series circuit. Their values can be-'' late the circuit current first. Do these figures
calculated easily by following the principle of correspond with the percentage values listed
voltage division, where the voltage drop across in the text above (8.8%, 18.9%, and 72.3%)?
each resistor is directly proportional to the rela- '\17 What is aseries-dropping resistor used for?
tive value of that resistor with respect to the /f 18 What is the purpose of the bleeder?
source voltage. 19 Which type of bleeder is more effective, a
Resistors are often used to drop avoltage from high-resistance bleeder that draws very little
a power source to a lower value needed in a current, or alow-resistance bleeder that
circuit. Bleeder resistors are used across aload draws a substantial current?
through which the current varies to stabilize the 20 If aload that requires an operating voltage
voltage across the load. Bleeders were widely of 60 V is to be operated from a 150 V source,
used for this purpose, but now there are better what voltage must the series-dropping
devices available and bleeders are used less resistor drop?
often. 21 If, in the preceding example, the resistance
of the load is 1200 ohms, what should the
resistance of the series-dropping resistor be?

14
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST Substitute 100 for E and 1000 for R:

QUESTIONS
100 x100
P=
1000
1 4.7k is equal to 4700 ohms. (Canceling three Os above the line and three
2 0.39 M equals 390k, and 390,000 ohms. Os below the line gives you P = 10 watts.)
3 680,000 ohms equals 680k, or 0.68 M. 13 1/2 watt. To solve the problem use the formula:
4 The resistor is within its rated tolerance. A
2200 resistor with atolerance of 10% may p E2
vary as much as 220 ohms above or below its 4 = R
indicated value. Subtracting 220 from 2200
gives 1980 as the lowest limit of the resistor. Substitute 50 V for E and 5000 ohms for R:
Since 2000 ohms is between this lower limit
50 x50
and the indicated value of the resistor, the P=
resistor is within tolerance. 5000
5 The resistor may have aresistance of 10,500
2500
ohms. Five percent of 10,000 ohms is 500 ohms. _
Therefore, the maximum value the resistor 5000
can have and still be within tolerance is
1
10,500 ohms. -- w
6 390,000 ohms, or 390k. The tolerance is 5%. 2
7 1,000,000, ohms or 1M. The tolerance is 14 100 watts. To solve the problem use the for-
10%. mula:
8 56,000 ohms, or 56k. The tolerance is 5%.
P =I
2R
9 2200 ohms, or 2.2k. The tolerance is 10%.
10 Yes, the 1/2% resistor has acloser tolerance Substitute 2for Iand 25 for R:
than the 1% resistor. It is abetter resistor.
You can always use abetter resistor, one with P =2x2x25
acloser tolerance, as areplacement.
11 When we say aresistor is dissipating 10 W, = 100 W
we mean that the resistor is using 10 W of
electrical energy. We say it is dissipating the 15 The total resistance is 10 +20 +30, or 60 ohms.
power because it changes the power from For R1, 10 ohms is 10/60, or 1/6, so its volt-
electrical energy to heat. age drop is 1/6 of the source voltage. One-
12 10 watts. To rind the power dissipated by sixth of 30 is 5volts. R2 equals 20/60, or 1/3;
the resistor we use the formula: one-third of 30 equals 10 volts. R3 is one-half
the total resistance, and drops one-half the
E2 total voltage, or 15 volts.

15
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

16 The total resistance in the circuit is 2490 20 90 volts.

ohms (220 +470 + 1800). Current is E/R, or 21 1800 ohms.
150/2490, which equals 0.060 amperes.
60
Multiplying 0.060 by 220, 470, and 1800 I=
1200
produces voltage drop figures of 13.2 V,
28.3 V, and 108.4 V, respectively. This
=0.05 A
corresponds with the values that can be
determined from the percentage that each The value of the series-dropping resistor can
resistor represents of the total, by multiply- be found using the formula:
ing the percentage represented by the resistor
and the value of the source voltage. E
17 A series-dropping resistor drops the available R= -
voltage to the value required by the load.
18 A bleeder is used to regulate, or to help 90
maintain aconstant voltage across the load. 0.05
19 A low-resistance bleeder that draws asub-
stantial current is more effective than ahigh- = 1800 ohms
resistance bleeder that draws only asmall
current.

16
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts you should
remember about this letter are:

• Resistors are available in many values, wattage

ratings, and designs.

• You can identify the value and tolerance of a resistor

by reading the color-coded bands on its body.

• Resistors determine the currents in an electronic circuit,

and therefore determine most of the voltage drops.

• A bleeder resistor can help stabilize asource voltage,

but uses some circuit current unproductively.

17
HOW RESISTORS ARE USED

LESSON QUESTIONS
This is Lesson Number 2221.

Make sure you print your name, student number,

and lesson number in the space provided on the Les- Name JOIr7 Ste?

Print
son Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the circles be-
Student No. Lesson No.
neath your student number and lesson number.
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Reminder: A properly completed Lesson Answer 00000000 0000
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1. Three important types of resistors are: 4. Most of the carbon resistors found in avideo-
Carbon, metal-oxide, and wire-wound cassette recorder or in amicrocomputer are:
resistors. a. 1/4 or 1watt.
b. 1/2 W, 1W, and 2W resistors. b. 1/2 or 1watt.
c. 1%, 5%, and 10% resistors. c. 1or 2watts.
d. Ohm, kilohm, and megohm resistors. C1/4 or 1/2 watt.

2. A resistor that is color-coded green, blue, orange, 5. If the voltage across a5000-ohm resistor is
and gold has aresistance and tolerance of: 100 yhow much power is the resistor dissi-
(a. 56,000 ohms, 5percent. pating?
b. 6500 ohms, 5percent. a. 100 watts.
c. 6500 ohms, 10 percent. b. 50 watts. '
d. 56,000 ohms, 10 percent. c. 10 watts.
e, 2watts.
3. A resistor that is color-coded gray, red, red,
and gold has aresistance and tolerance of: 6. In aseries circuit containing four resistors of
8200 ohms, 5percent. 100, 200, 300, and 400 ohms, what is the
b. 8500 ohms, 10 percent. voltage across the 400-ohm resistor if the
c. 8500 ohms, 5percent. applied source voltage is 50 volts?
d. 850 ohms, 5percent. a. 5volts.
b. 10 volts.
c. 15 volts.
@ 20 volts.

18 61
o e "

r n) c)
vi
 LESSON QUESTIONS

7. What are the color-code bands of a 120-ohm, 9. A 750-ohm load must be operated with a
5% resistor? voltage of 75 volts. The available voltage is
a. Brown, red, black, and gold. 125 volts. What value of series-dropping
b. Black, red, black, and silver. resistor should be used to drop the voltage?
e Brown, red, brown, and gold. a. 250 ohms. 7 , 0
d. Black, red, brown, and gold. M é500 ohms. vi .0
.-,
c. 750 ohms. /-2
-
8. What are the color-code bands of a47,000-ohm, d. 1000 ohms.
10% resistor?
a. Yellow, purple, orange, and gold. 10. The resistance of athermistor:
ID Yellow, purple, orange, and silver. a. Increases as the voltage increases.
c. Yellow, purple, red, and gold. () Decreases as the temperature increases.
d. Yellow, purple, yellow, and gold. c. Increases as the temperature increases.
d. Decreases as the voltage decreases.

19
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 /
4
1

••••

*tie'
AWffschoois

HELP YOUR MEMORY

Experience is agreat teacher, providing you have agreat memory!
Even if you don't have agood memory, there are things that you can
do to make the most of the one you have. An unusual design or pro-
duction problem may take you hours to figure out the first time you
encounter it — but the next time, you should be able to solve the
problem in aflash. Unfortunately, that next time may not occur for
several months; by then you may have completely forgotten what you
did the first time.

You can aid your memory by keeping notes. Every time you encoun-
ter adifficult situation, write up acareful and complete description
of it and how you corrected the problem.

After collecting this information, you'll never use it if you don't or-
ganize it and keep it close to your work area. Use afile system or a
notebook to arrange your notes by project name or topic. In time, you
will have avaluable storehouse of troubleshooting information —
such as only you can collect!

A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

LT2221
 VIØ •

à01

.41 /Mk
How Coils Are Used 2222

NR! Schools
ADivision of The McGtroo•Hill C,onspanies

Washington, DC 20008
V
How Coils Are Used
 -118e
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•
 Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Characteristics of Coils 2
How Coils Produce Voltage 5
Lenz's Law for Coils 7
Methods of Changing Flux Linkages 8
Review 10
Self-Test Questions 10
Inductance 11
Self-Induced Voltages 11
Units of Inductance 11
Factors Affecting Inductance 12
Inductive Reactance 12
Mutual Inductance 13
Review 15
Self-Test Questions 15

Applying Ohm's Law to Coils 16

Phase 16
Impedance 19
Finding the Current in an AC Circuit 20
The Q of aCoil 21
Review 22
Self-Test Questions 22

Answers to Self-Test Questions 23

Lesson Questions 26

Copyright (:) 1995 by NRI, Washington, DC 20008

HOW COILS ARE USED

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you will...

• Discover how coils and magnets can produce voltage and

current.

• Learn Lenz's Law for coils.

• Be introduced to the properties of inductance.

• Examine how inductance affects inductive reactance.

• Learn how inductance and resistance combine to form

impedance.

• Learn about the effects of inductance on the current and

voltage phases in an electronic circuit.
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION creates alarger magnetic field that is the sum of

all the fields of the individual moving electrons.
The magnetic field and the current are firmly
You will look at inductance in this lesson, and interrelated. If either is changed, the other will
you will discover how it relates to electromotive also change.
force. Inductance is an interesting phenomenon
In this lesson you will learn how inductance
which continues to be studied and explored.
affects de circuits and how it opposes current in
Each electron in an electric current creates a
an ac circuit. You will also learn about the factors
small magnetic field when it moves. A current,
that affect inductance and how inductors affect
which consists simply of many moving electrons,
circuit behavior.

1
HOW COILS ARE USED

CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS
BACK
OF COIL
FRONT
Coils are important components in many OF COIL
electronic circuits. Almost every piece of
electronic equipment has one or more coils in it.
You will see coils of one or two turns, and even
LINES OF FORCE
hundreds — or thousands — of turns. Coils that
are self-supporting and contain only air and coils
wound on a nmagnatic_materi0 (such as Figure 2. Lines of force loop around both turns of the coll.
cardboard) are called air-core mils. Coils that are
wound on a_magnetic material (such as iron or
steel) are called iron-core coils.
You already know that when current flows
through awire there is amagnetic field created
around the wire. As Fig.1(A) shows, this field is
made up of circular magnetic lines of force (flux)
around the wire. The field is much stronger
closer to the wire than it is at adistance. When
ELECTRON
the wire is bent into the form of aloop, as shown
FLOW in Fig.1(B), all the magnetic lines of force go
THROUGH
WIRE through the loop in the same direction. This
tends to concentrate the magnetic lines of force
and produce amuch stronger magnetic field.

In the 2-turn coil shown in Fig.2, the magnetic

lines of force loop around both turns of the coil.
This field can be made stronger by winding even
more turns on the coil, as shown in Fig.3. Here you
can see that the magnetic lines of force go through
the coil and then separate, some flowing around
one side of the coil and some flowing around the
other side. Notice that the magnetic lines of force
are complete loops flowing through the entire cen-
ter of the coil, around one side, and then back
f
ELECTRO1
FLOW through the center of the coil.
MAGNETIC LINES THROUGH
OF FORCE AROUND
WIRE
WIRE Like the resistance to electric current found in
(A) (9 ) conductors, magnetic lines of force flowing
around a coil encounter opposition to the mag-
netic field. J'IJj«Lr_t§[Link]çajkd reluctance.
Figure 1. (A) When current flows through awire, magnetic
We can reduce the reluctance in a magnetic
lines of force are set up around the wire. (B) When the wire
is bent into aloop, the lines of force all go through the loop circuit by placing an iron core inside the coil, as
in the same direction. shown in Fig.4(A). Iron has much lower reluctance

2
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS

MAGNETIC UNES OF FORCE

IELECTRON FLOW THROUGH

MANY TURNS OF WIRE

Figure 3. Magnetic lines of force form complete loops, Figure 5. Iron cores have agreater flux than air cores.
passing through and around the coil.

than air, and tends to concentrate and strengthen However, this is not acomplete solution. Because
the magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force leav- the lines of force flow in loops in both directions,
ing the end of the core still flow through the air. some of the lines of force will continue to flow
through the air. By constructing acore as shown
By using acore such as the one shown in Fig.4(B),
in Fig.5, we can establish a complete magnetic
this reluctance can be further reduced by providing
path around both sides of the coil, and minimize
a complete magnetic path for the lines of force.
reluctance.

(A ) (8)

Figure 4. (A) Inserting an iron core in a coil reduces the reluctance and increases the number of magnetic lines of force.
(B) A complete iron core reduces the reluctance still further.

3
HOW COILS ARE USED

produces neti .This magnetomotive

orce is measured in ampere-turns. If acoil has
1turn and the current flowing through it is 1A,
the magnetomotive force is 1ampere-turn. If the
coil has 2turns and 1A, it has 2ampere-turns.
SLUG—TUNED COIL If it has 10 turns, it is 10 ampere-turns. If the
10-turn coil has 2 A flowing through it, the
magnetomotive force is 20 ampere-turns.
(Symbol)
The equivalent of current in magnetic circuits
is the magnetic lines of force, or magnetic flux;
the more magnetic lines of force there are, the
greater the magnetic flux. The number of mag-
netic lines of force produced depends upon the
Figure 6. A slug-tuned coil and its schematic symbol.
magnetomotive force. The higher the mag-
netomotive force, the greater the number of mag-
netic lin -s of force, and the greater the flux
Iron-core coils work best at low frequencies.
density. lux density also depends upon the
Coils used at high frequencies have either an air
re uc ance or resistance to the magnetic lines of
core or a ferrite core such as the one shown in
force. The lower the reluctance, the greater the
Fig.6. This coil is wound on a cardboard form
flux.
with an adjustable ferrite core inside. The core,
or "slug," can move in and out of the coil by means Again, note the similarity between the mag-
of a screw-type adjustment at the top. The netic circuit and the electric circuit. The mag-
schematic symbol for this type of coil is shown. netic circuit essentially follows Ohm's law for
electric circuits. If you increase the magnetomo-
Not all coils of this type have screw adjust-
tive force, which is the equivalent of voltage,
ments. In some, the ferrite slug is threaded and
you'll increase the magnetic flux, which is the
slotted. It can be screwed in or out of the coil with
equivalent of current. If you reduce the reluc-
anonmagnetic alignment tool. This coil uses the
tance, you'll increase the magnetic flux.
same schematic symbol as the screw type.
Remember that when we discussed the con-
Slugs are made of different materials, but
ductivity of materials, we said that copper is a
ferrite is the most common. Fenite _has_yery
good conductor of electricity, but silver is even
high magnetic permeability — .t_i_t_Litl:_e__Lt.)r_to_aç,-
1.
better. Copper is a better conductor than
[Link] is made of powdered iron
aluminum and iron. Because conductivity of
with other mifèfiIs such as manigarjie- ,cobalt,
materials varies, wires of the same size and
nickel, or zinc added to give the desired per-
length may have adifferent resistance, depend-
meability. These materials are mixed together,
ing on the materials from which they are made.
then fired at ahigh temperature. When they cool
they form a solid slug. The permeability of the Similarly, magnetic circuits may have a dif-
material depends upon the materials used. ferent reluctance depending on the permeability
of the materials in the magnetic path. Per-
Electric circuits have an electromotive force
meability in magnetic circuits is the equivalent
or voltage that causes current to flow. An electro-
of conductance in an electrical circuit. We base
magnetic circuit Ilas amagnetomotive force that
_

4
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS

N S N S

(A) (8)
N

(C)

Figure 7. How the number of flux linkages can be changed. (A) There is one flux linkage. (B) There are 10 flux linkages.
(C) There are six flux linkages.

the permeability of materials on air — Flux Linkages. Suppose you have a magnet
x_rl_tªblity-ef--aiti-isene. Magnetic materials have a that produces asingle magnetic line of force. If
higher permeability than non-magnetic the magnet is brought near a coil having one
materials. If the permeability of amaterial is 20, turn, such as that shown in Fig.7(A), there will
we can expect 20 times the magnetic flux through be one magnetic line linking with (or passing
this material than there would be through air for through) the one-turn coil, and there will be one
the same number of ampere-turns. flux linkage. If there were 10 turns on the coil
and one line of force passed through all 10 turns,
Magnetic circuits are important because they
then there would be 10 flux linkages, as shown
can help you understand how coils work. You
in Fig.7(B).
should remember what is meant by magnetomo-
tive force, magnetic flux, reluctance, and per- In turn, if the single magnetic line passed
meability. through and linked only 6 turns of the 10-turn
coil, as shown in Fig.7(C), there would be only 6
flux linkages. Flux linkage tells us how many
How Coils Produce Voltage magnetic lines of force pass through and "link"
the turns of a coil. If we have a magnet that
It is important that you understand how a produces 100 magnetic lines, and if the entire
voltage can be produced by acoil. To see this, you 100 lines are linked to acoil having 80 turns, the
must first learn something about flux and flux number of flux linkages is 80 x100, or 8000 flux
linkages, and then see how changing the flux linkages.
linkages of a coil will produce a voltage in the
coil.

5
HOW COILS ARE USED

(A) (3)

Figure 8. (A) There are 10 flux linkages with the magnet outside of the coil. (B) There are 50 flux linkages when the magnet
is moved inside the coil.

Figure 8(A) shows amagnet with 10 magnetic therefore the change in flux linkages is greater,
lines of force, but only two of them cut through alarger voltage is induced in the coil.
all 5 turns of the coil. Consequently, there is a
By moving the magnet either toward or away
total of 10 flux linkages. As you can see, part of
from the coil, there is avoltage induced in the
the flux is lost, because not all of the lines of fore
coil that is affected by the speed with which the
cut through the coil. This is called flux leakage.
magnet is moved. If the magnet is moved slowly
If we move the magnet
--------to tlièr
:Iosin'crn
— —slown so that the number of flux linkages changes
in Fig.8(B), so that the magnet is placed inside slowly, the voltage induced in the coil is small.
the coil and all 10 lines cut through the 5turns However, if the magnet is moved rapidly so that
of the coil, there is a total of 50 flux linkages. the change in flux linkage occurs very quickly,
When the number of flux linkages increases from the voltage induced is higher. In other words, the
10 to 50, avoltage is produced in the coil as the voltage induced in the coil depends not only on
í th
magnet moves This v ltage, as you know, is echange in flux linkages, but also upon the
called induced voltage. If the magnet is moved speed with which the change occurs. Basically,
away from the coil so that the number of flux this is another way of stating that the voltage
linkages decreases, avoltage is again induced in induced depends upon the number of lines of
the coil as the magnet moves. force that "cut" the windings of the coil in aunit
of time. The faster the change occurs, the higher
In each of these cases there is achange of 40
the induced voltage.
flux linkages. If we have a stronger magnet so
that the number of lines of force is greater, and

6
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS

Lenz's Law for Coils the current in the coil opposes the increase. If the
flux linkages are decreasing, the magnetic flux
The polarity of the voltage induced in a coil produced by the current in the coil opposes the
depends on the direction of the flux and whether decrease.
the flux linkages are increasing or decreasing.
This is an important concept, and may be
This relationship is known as Lenz's law, named
better understood by referring to the circuit
after the man who discovered it.
shown in Fig.9. In Fig.9(A), there is amagnetic
Voltage is induced when the number of flux circuit with two flux lines cutting through a
linkages cutting acoil changes. If the circuit is 4-turn coil, which creates 8flux linkages. As the
complete, this induced voltage sends a current magnet is moved away from the coil, reducing
through the coil. This current opposes the the number of flux linkages, shown in Fig.9(B),
change in the magnetic flux. If the flux linkages a voltage is induced in the coil and current
are increasing, the magnetic flux produced by flows. The current flowing in the coil creates

---... MOTION OF
MAGNET

(A) (B)

MOTION OF
MAGNET

(C)

Figure 9. Changing the number of flux linkages induces a voltage in the coil. The polarity of the voltage depends upon
whether the number of flux linkages is increasing or decreasing. (A) Eight flux linkages. (B) As the magnet is moved away,
the number of flux linkages changes. (C) As the magnet moves back into the coil avoltage is induced.

7
HOW COILS ARE USED

another magnetic field which aids the flux Motion. You know that when a conductor
linkages already existing. In other words, it tries moves through amagnetic field, it cuts the mag-
to maintain the original eight flux linkages. As netic lines of force so that avoltage is induced in
long as the number of flux lines are changing, the conductor. In agenerator, for instance, as the
the induced voltage causes an induced current coil rotates it moves through and cuts the mag-
that produces flux lines as shown. netic lines of force produced by a magnet. The
voltage induced creates acurrent if an external
If the magnet is moved back into the coil, as
circuit is present. Current flowing in that exter-
shown in Fig.9(C), the number of flux linkages
nal circuit creates a field around the coil that
increases. However, avoltage is induced in the coil
opposes the change in the original flux linkages,
that causes acurrent to flow in the opposite direc-
producing the voltage.
tion, and set up its own flux lines of force to oppose
the increasing flux lines from the magnet. Changing the Reluctance. Any change in the
reluctance of the material in the magnetic field
If the number of flux linkages is decreasing,
will change the amount of flux that passes
the induced voltage has apolarity that causes a
through the coil, thus changing the flux linkages
current flow to oppose this decrease in flux
through the coil and inducing avoltage. Remem-
linkages. In turn, if the flux linkages are increas-
ber: a voltage is induced whenever there is a
ing, the induced voltage will have apolarity that
change in flux linkages.
causes the current to flow to oppose this increase
in flux linkages. Changing the Coil Current. Transformers
used on ac power lines are an example of how a
If this sounds to you like the induced current
changing coil current is used to produce avolt-
creates a field that fights against the action of
age. You should remember that the voltage on an
the magnetic field that started the whole
ac power line is constantly varying from zero up
process, this is essentially what happens.
to peak with one polarity, back to zero, to apeak
Remember, electrical energy does not spring
with the opposite polarity, and then back to zero.
from nowhere. In this case, the motion of the
magnet is a physical energy input which is As shown in Fig.10(A), atransformer is made
being converted into electrical energy by the by winding two or more coils on a single core.
effect of the magnetic field upon the coiled con- When the first winding of the transformer, the
ductor. The currents and the fields act as aload primary winding, is plugged into the ac power
upon the physical movement of the magnet or line, the varying voltage across it will cause a
coil (whichever is being made to move), and that varying current to flow through this winding.
load is expressed as opposing fields. The varying current through the primary wind-
ing will produce magnetic flux that is constantly
changing.
Methods of Changing Flux Linkages
This changing flux induces a voltage in the
other winding on the transformer, called the
There are three methods of producing changes
secondary winding. The voltage induced in the
in flux linkages in acoil: moving the coil or the
econdary winding depends upon the ratio of the
magnet, changing the reluctance, or changing
primary turns to the secondary turns.
the current flowing in the coil.

8
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS

If both windings have the same number of The schematic symbol for atransformer having
turns, the voltage induced in the secondary two windings is shown in Fig.10(B). Figure 10(C)
winding is equal to the voltage applied to the is the schematic symbol of atransformer with two
primary winding. If the secondary winding has secondary windings. In this case, one winding
twice as many turns, the voltage induced is has more turns than the primary, so it is a
twice the voltage applied to the primary wind-'7 step-up secondary winding; the other secondary
ing. This type of transformer is called astep-up 1 winding has fewer turns than the primary, so it
transformer. If the secondary winding has only is astep-down secondary winding. You will learn
half as many turns as the primary winding, the more about transformers in alater lesson when
voltage induced in the secondary is equal to half you study power supplies.
the voltage applied to the primary. This type or
transformer is called astep-down transformer.

AC POWER
LII—j

PRIMARY SECONDARY
Li 1.2

(3)

PRIMARY 1
WINDING

1
i
STEP—UP
SECONDARY
WINDING

STEP—DOWN
SECONDARY
WINDING

(A) (C)

Figure 10. A power transformer. (A) The primary winding is connected directly to the power line. As the current through
the primary winding varies, the flux produced by L1 will vary, resulting in achange in flux linkages through the secondary
winding, inducing a voltage in the secondary winding L1. (B) The schematic symbol for one primary and one
secondary winding. (C) The schematic symbol for one primary and two secondary windings.

9
HOW COILS ARE USED

Review Self-Test Questions

There are several important facts that you Please check your answers on page 23.
should remember from this section of the lesson.
Remember that a voltage is induced in a coil 1 What type of acoil is wound on acardboard
when the number of flux linkages changes. form? 'f• • e°'

Either an increase or adecrease in the number 2 What purpose does an iron core serve in a
of flux linkages will induce avoltage in the coil. coil?
3 What is magnetomotive force?
Remember Lenz's law. It states that the in-
4 What is the unit used to measure magneto-
duced voltage always acts in such a direction
motive force?
that it tends to oppose the original change in
5 If the current flow through a25-turn coil is
flux linkages.
2A, how many ampere-turns are produced?
Changes in flux linkages can be produced by 6 What is reluctance?
cutting through magnetic lines of force, by 7 Does the magnetic circuit in an air-core coil
changing the reluctance in the magnetic circuit, have ahigher reluctance than an iron-core
or by changing the current flowing through the coil?
circuit. 8 What is permeability?
9 What is the relationship between flux, mag-
netomotive force, and reluctance?
10 What are flux linkages?
11 If three magnetic lines of flux cut through
four turns of acoil, how many flux linkages
are there?
12 If 100 flux linkages cut through acoil, and
this number of flux linkages does not change,
what will the voltage induced in the coil be?
13 According to Lenz's law, if there is achange
in the number of flux linkages cutting acoil,
induced voltage produces acurrent. Does the
magnetic flux produced by the current aid or
oppose the change in flux linkages?
14 When the number of flux linkages cutting a
coil is reduced, will the field produced by the
induced voltage aid or oppose the original
lines of force?
15 List three methods of changing flux link-
ages.

10
 INDUCTANCE

INDUCTANCE

The property of a coil that determines the

voltage induced in the coil is called inductance.
The inductance of acoil depends upon the num-
ber of turns of wire on the coil, and upon the
permeability of the material. Saying that acoil
has inductance is as obvious as saying aresistor
has resistance. Inductance is abasic property of
coils; it indicates how much voltage is induced in
acoil for agiven change in flux linkages.

Self-Induced Voltages
Figure 11. If avoltage source Is connected to acoil, current
If avoltage is connected to acoil, current will will flow through the coil and amagnetic field will be set up.
flow through the coil and set up amagnetic field.
As Fig.11 illustrates, the magnetic field will
produce lines of flux around the coil. Joseph Henry, ascientist who did agreat deal of
experimentation with coils. A coil will have an
If the current flowing through the coil is sud-
inductance of 1H if acurrent change of 1A per
denly changed, the magnetic field generated by
second will induce avoltage of 1V in the coil.
the current also changes. This changes the num-
ber of flux linkages produced, and therefore Some iron-core coils used in electronics have
passing through, the turns of the coil. The an inductance of 10, 20, or perhaps as high as 30
change in flux linkages within the coil itself henrys. Most air-core coils, however, have avery
(caused by either an increase or decrease in small inductance. For convenience, just as the
circuit current) induces avoltage in the coil. In ampere can be broken down into mA and µA, the
accordance with Lenz's law, this voltage opposes henry can be broken down into millihenrys (mH)
the change and causes acurrent to flow in such and microhenrys (tH). A millihenry is a
a direction as to produce a magnetic field that thousandth of a henry and a microhenry is a
opposes the change in the magnetic field. The millionth of ahenry.
voltage induced in this manner is known as a To convert henrys to millihenrys (like convert-
self-induced voltage.
ing amperes to milliamperes), just move the
decimal point three places to the right. To con-
vert from millihenrys to henrys, move the
Units of Inductance
decimal point three places to the left. To convert
henrys to microhenrys, move the decimal point
For agiven change in flux linkages, the volt- six places to the right, and to convert from
age that is induced in a coil depends upon the microhenrys to henrys, move the decimal point
inductance of the coil. The unit of inductance is six places to the left. To convert from millihen-
the henry, abbreviated H. It is named after rys to microhenrys, move the decimal point

11
HOW COILS ARE USED

three places to the right, and to convert from inductances. Remember these terms — you will
microhenrys to millihenrys, move the decimal see them often.
point three places to the left.

Inductive Reactance
Factors Affecting Inductance
If we connect an iron-core coil across abattery
The inductance of a coil is affected by the as shown in Fig.12(A), current will flow. When
number of turns on the coil. A coil having 200 the switch closes, the current that flows
turns will have ahigher inductance than acoil produces an increasing magnetic field. That
having 100 turns on the same type of core. field, in turn, induces avoltage in the coil that
opposes the current. However, the induced volt-
Inductance is also affected by the shape and
age is not great enough to prevent the current
size of the coil. A long coil that has considerable
from reaching its maximum value, which is
space between the turns will have alower induc-
limited only by the de resistance of the coil wire.
tance than ashort coil with the same number of
When the current reaches its maximum value
turns closer together. The reason for this is that
the magnetic field no longer changes, and sub-
in acoil with more space between turns, many
sequently, no more opposing voltage is induced
of the lines of flux will escape after cutting
in the coil.
through only afew turns of the coil. This results
in flux leakage.
The diameter of acoil also affects the induc-
tance in the coil. A coil with alarge diameter will
have a higher inductance than one with a
smaller diameter and the same number of turns. 1
T
The inductance of acoil is also affected by the
core material. A core material with ahigh per-
meability will produce more flux, and therefore
more flux linkages. The higher the permeability
(A)
of the core material, the greater the inductance.

Inductance is not limited to coils alone. Wire-

wound resistors have inductance. As amatter of
fact, even a straight piece of wire has some

1
inductance, because when a current flows
through awire, amagnetic field is set up around
the wire and the wire is cut by magnetic lines.
The inductance of ashort piece of straight wire
is very low (only afraction of amicrohenry), but
in some circuits operating at very high frequen-
(B)
cies even this small amount may be important.

Because the most important property of acoil Figure 12. (A) A coil connected to a battery, and (B) to an
is inductance, coils are often called inductors or ac generator.

12
 INDUCTANCE

In connecting the same coil across a60 Hz ac (The multiplication signs are frequently omitted
generator, as shown in Fig.12(B), there is an for convenience, but the formula actually means
entirely different effect. As the voltage from the 6.28 xfxL.)
generator increases, current increases in the
Now you can get a better idea of how the
coil. This generates a changing flux which in-
inductive reactance of a coil limits the current
duces avoltage in the coil that opposes the in-
through the coil. A 1 H coil might have a dc
crease in current. When the ac voltage reaches
resistance of 25-30 ohms. Let's assume it is 30
its maximum value and begins to decrease, the
ohms. If we connect that coil across a 120 V dc
current and the magnetic field (and hence the
power line, acurrent of 4A will flow through the
flux) also start to decrease. When this happens,
coil. However, using the formula for inductive
a voltage will be induced in the coil which op-
reactance, the same coil, when connected across
poses this change, aiding the existing field.
a60 Hz power line, will have an inductive reac-
This induced voltage is called a counter tance of:
electromotive force, which is abbreviated cemf. In
effect, this cemf subtracts from the applied volt- XL=6.28 x60 x1 =377 ohms
age so that there is considerable opposition to the
If we connect this coil across a 120 V, 60 Hz
flow of ac through the coil. This opposition is
power line, the inductive reactance alone would
called reactance, and since it is produced by an
limit the current to 0.32 ampere.
inductor, it is called inductive reactance.
We use the letter L to represent inductance,
the letter fto represent frequency, and the Mutual Inductance
letter X to represent reactance. When we want
to indicate that the reactance is inductive reac- When two coils are placed close together so
tance, we use asubscript L with an uppercase that the field from one coil cuts the turns on the
X. The formula for the inductive reactance of a other, achanging field in the one coil will induce
coil is: avoltage in the other. We call this mutual induc-
tance and it is represented by the letter M.
XL=2nfL Mutual inductance may be either aiding or op-
posing, depending upon whether the two fields
You can see from this formula that inductive
aid or oppose each other.
reactance varies directly with frequency. If you
double the frequency of the ac applied to the coil, If two coils are connected in series, but are far
the inductive reactance will also double. Similar- enough apart that their fields do not interact, the
ly, the inductive reactance varies in direct total inductance will be equal to the sum of their
proportion to the inductance of the coil. individual inductances. In other words:
You have probably seen the Greek letter n
LT= L1 +L2
(pronounced pie) before. It is used for finding the
area of acircle. The value of sr is approximately If two coils are placed so that their fields
3.14, so 2n has avalue of 6.28. You will often see interact and they are connected in series, the
the formula for inductive reactance written: mutual inductance between the coils enters into
the total inductance. If the coils are connected so
XL=6.28fL

13
HOW COILS ARE USED

that their fields aid, the total inductance be-

comes:

LT= Li +L2 +2M

If they are connected so that their fields oppose,

the total inductance becomes:
1
LT= Li +L2 -2M

When coils are connected in parallel, the effect Figure 13. Coils connected in parallel act like resistors
connected in parallel. The total inductance is less than the
is similar to resistors connected in parallel. This inductance of the smallest coil.
is easy to see if you look at Fig.13. Coils L1and
L2 are connected in parallel across a 120 V ac
generator. If we assume that each coil has an
tion must have only half the inductive reactance.
inductive reactance of 120 ohms, there is acur-
This means that the total inductance in the
rent of 1A flowing through each one, with atotal
circuit must be only half the inductance of either
current flow of 2amperes.
coil. If we connect athird coil in parallel, the total
In this example, since the total current is inductance is only one-third the inductance of
twice what it is through either coil, the combina- each individual coil.

14
 INDUCTANCE

Review Self-Test Questions

Inductance is the electrical property that 16 What is the property of acoil that will deter-
describes coils, and the unit of inductance is the mine the voltage induced in it?
henry. When a current flowing through a coil 17 If the voltage applied to acoil is suddenly
changes, there is a voltage induced in the coil increased, will the self-induced voltage
that opposes the change that produces it. This produced in the coil aid or oppose the applied
voltage is a self-induced voltage and is called voltage?
counter electromotive force, abbreviated cem f. 18 What is the unit used to measure inductance?
19 What are three factors that affect the induc-
Inductive reactance is the opposition that a
tance of acoil?
coil offers to the flow of ac through it. Inductive
20 What is the inductive reactance of acoil?
reactance is measured in ohms, and is similar to
21 What is the unit of measurement for the
resistance because it opposes the flow of ac
inductive reactance of acoil?
through the coil.
22 What is the inductive reactance of a10 H
When coils are connected in series, the total coil at afrequency of 60 hertz?
inductance is the sum of the individual induc- 23 If two coils, one having an inductance of 6H
tances. If they are connected in series and there and the other having an inductance of 8H,
is mutual coupling between the two, the mutual are placed some distance apart so that there
coupling may either add to the total inductance is no mutual inductance between them, what
or subtract from it, depending on whether the is the total inductance of the two coils if they
fields aid or oppose each other. When coils are are connected in series?
connected in parallel, they act like resistors in 24 Two coils, one having an inductance of 4H
parallel, so that the total inductance is less than and the other having an inductance of 3H,
the inductance of the smallest coil. have amutual inductance of 2henrys. If the
coils are connected in series and are aiding,
what will the total inductance be?
25 If an 8H coil and a7H coil that have a
mutual inductance of 3H are connected in
series in opposition, what will the total
inductance of the two coils be?
26 Convert 2.2 H to millihenrys.

15
HOW COILS ARE USED

APPLYING OHM'S LAW TO

COILS

Ohm's law tells us that current in ade circuit

depends upon the voltage applied and the resis-
tance in the circuit. This rule applies to ac cir-
1
cuits also, but you must calculate the total
opposition to current, which consists of the dc
resistance plus any reactance. This composite Figure 14. A coil and resistor connected in series across
total opposition to current flow is called im- an ac source.

pedance and is represented by the letter Z. In

this section of the lesson you are going to learn
about impedance and about phase — another the resistor and the coil as the current goes
important aspect of ac circuits. through its cycle.

Figure 15(A) shows asingle current cycle from

the ac generator in Fig.14. The start of the sine-
Phase
wave cycle is marked point A. At the instant the
cycle begins at point A, the current is increasing
Phase is a common term in the study of
at its maximum rate of change. This occurs at
electronic circuits. The expressions "in phase,"
both the upslope and downslope of the ac
"out of phase," and "phase shift" will become very
waveform. The rate of change is greatest during
familiar to you.
gains or drops in current, and lower (but still
In a circuit containing only resistance, if we changing) around the peaks. At the peaks, the
increase the voltage, the current increases im- rate of change briefly drops to zero as the direc-
mediately — the increase in current follows the tion of current flow reverses.
voltage changes instantly. In an ac circuit con-
Consider the voltage across the resistor R. As
taining only resistance, as the voltage goes
the current increases from point A to point C, the
through its cycle, the current varies instan-
voltage drop across the resistor increases at ex-
taneously as the voltage varies. We say that the
actly the same rate as the current, generating
current is in phase with the voltage. This simply
the waveform shown in Fig.15(B). At point C, as
means that a change in voltage will produce a
the current reaches its maximum value, so will
similar change in the current flow in the circuit
the voltage. As the current reverses direction
at the same instant.
and goes through the second half of its cycle, the
This is not true of circuits containing coils. voltage will follow exactly as shown in the
Look at the circuit shown in Fig.14. Here we waveform. Notice that at each instant in time
have aresistor and acoil connected in series, and throughout the entire cycle, the voltage across
the two are connected across an ac generator. the resistor is exactly proportional to the current
Let's examine the ac current flowing through the flowing through it. Here the current and voltage
circuit to see what happens to the voltage across are in phase.

16
 APPLYING OHM'S LAW TO COILS

C
The voltage and current across the coil will not
be in phase. This is because the voltage across
the coil depends upon the rate of flux change.
The maximum flux change occurs when the cur- (A) o
rent is changing at its highest rate. Therefore,
since the current is changing at amaximum rate
at point A in Fig.15(A), we will have amaximum
voltage across the coil. As the current increases
G
from point A to point C, the rate of change GENERATOR CURRENT
decreases until it reaches point C, where it does C
not change at all, at which point we will see the
minimum amount of voltage across the coil.
Remember, this self-induced voltage in the coil
opposes the applied voltage from the generator. It (B) 0

is a result of inductive reactance to alternating

current in the coil, and is not the same thing as
resistive voltage drop. There is a voltage drop
across the dc resistance of the coil that may be G
RESISTOR VOLTAGE
taken into account if necessary but for the mo-
ment we are measuring the reactively induced
voltage.
The voltage across the coil continues to follow
the curve shown in Fig.15(C). The induced volt- (C) 0
age decreases until, when the current reaches
point C, the voltage has dropped to zero. Now as
the current begins to decrease, avoltage is in-
duced in the coil that tries to oppose that change.
E
That is, the voltage builds up from C to amaxi- COIL VOLTAGE
mum value at Ewhen the current is going through
zero and changing at the maximum rate. As the
Figure 15. (A) A single current cycle, (B) the resulting
current begins to flow in the opposite direction voltage drop across the resistor, and (C) the voltage
from E to G, the rate of change once again is across the coil.
decreasing, so the voltage falls from E to G as
shown in Fig.15(C). Finally, as the current falls
from G to I, where it once again changes at its
half-cycle (180 0), and from A to C is a quarter-
maximum rate, the coil voltage builds up from G
cycle (90°). When the generator current begins
to I, reaching a maximum value once again.
its first quarter-cycle increase (from A to C),
Compare Fig.15(A) to Fig.15(C). In Fig.15(A), the induced coil voltage begins to decrease. As
from point A to point I is one cycle. It also generator current peaks, and enters its second
represents 360°, or a complete circle extended quarter-cycle from C to E, once again the coil
over time (shown graphically). From A to E is a voltage is a quarter-cycle ahead. This process

17
 HOW COILS ARE USED

continues indefinitely. We say that the voltage lead the current by some value between 0° and
across the coil leads the current by 90 degrees. 90°, since the circuit is not purely inductive. Let's
Conversely, we can say that the current lags assume that the resistance in the circuit of
the voltage by 90°; it means the same thing. In Fig.14 is equal to the inductive reactance of the
any case, this is an extremely important point coil. The voltage developed across the resistor is
for you to remember: in a purely inductive cir- equal to IR, and the voltage developed across the
cuit, the current will always lag the voltage by coil is equal to '
XL(the circuit current times the
90 degrees. reactance of the coil). Therefore, the voltage drop
across the resistor is equal to the reactive voltage
None of this changes the fact that current is across the coil.
the same in all parts of aseries circuit — that is,
the current is the same in the generator, the We can use avector diagram (shown below) to
connecting wires, the resistor, and the coil. The determine the phase relationship between the
time lag (the phase difference) is between cur- generator voltage and current. This is the
rent and voltage in the coil. relationship in the complete circuit, as "seen by"
the generator. We start by drawing the vector I
What about the phase relationship of the cir- as shown as Fig.16(A). The horizontal position of
cuit current and voltage? Because of the resistive the current vector Iis referred to as zero degrees.
component in the circuit, the voltage phase must
Since the voltage across the resistor is in phase

EL

111

ER I
ER I
(A) (B)

Figure 16. Vector diagrams showing the relationship between circuit current, generator voltage, coil voltage, and resistor
voltage of the current shown in Figure 15. (A) The vectors for circuit current (
ER) and coil voltage (
EL). (
B)The generator
voltage vector (EG)-

18
 APPLYING OHM'S LAW TO COILS

with the current through it, we can draw the same time. Remember, the ac voltage is con-
resistor voltage vector on top of the current vector. stantly changing. If we measured the circuit
The vector representing the voltage across the voltages at any given instant, using special
coil leads the current by 90 degrees. To diagram equipment, we would find the sum of the volt-
this fact, we rotate this vector 90° in a ages across the coil and resistor equal to the
counterclockwise direction. It is the same generator voltage. However, you can find the
length as the resistor voltage vector because the generator voltage mathematically without
using vectors, by using the formula:
two voltages are equal. To find the generator
voltage vector, we complete the diagram, as
shown in Fig.16(B), by drawing two dotted lines EG =VE R2 + EL2
to their junction and completing the generator Substituting 10 V for ERand 10 V for ELwe get:
vector. With the voltage across the coil equal to the
voltage across the resistor, the circuit voltage EG =N/100 + 100 =NT2iY0- = 14.1 V
phase will lead the circuit current phase by 45
degrees.

Another important point to notice in our vec- Impedance

tor diagram is the relative length of the vectors
EL, ER, and EG. The length of the vector EG is The practical way to study how acoil behaves
equal to the generator voltage. Since ELand ER in an ac circuit is to imagine that the coil is made
are equal, EG is 1.41 times as long as either of apure inductance with aresistor in series with
vector. At first you might think that this is a it. This is essentially the type of circuit used in
contradiction. After all, we said that in aseries Fig.14. You should see in the figure that the
circuit the sum of the voltage drops is equal to current in the circuit lags behind the generator
the source voltage. voltage. Where the resistance is equal to the
inductive reactance, the phase difference is 45
Let's suppose that the voltage across the resis- degrees.
tor is 10 V, and the voltage across the coil is 10
volts. You might think that the voltage across the In actual practice, the resistance will general-
generator should be 20 volts. However, since the ly be much smaller than the inductive reactance,
resistor voltage and the coil voltage are not in so the phase difference will approach 90 degrees.
phase, you cannot add them together using Consider the case of a 1H coil having aresis-
simple arithmetic to get the generator voltage. tance of 50 ohms at 60 cycles. The inductive
If we have 10 V across the resistor and 10 V reactance of the coil at 60 cycles is 377 ohms. To
across the coil, the generator voltage is 14.1 find the impedance, we use the formula:
volts. If you took an ac voltmeter and measured
these voltages and got a reading of 10 V across Z -N/R2 +XL2
the resistor and areading of 10 V across the coil,
when you measured the generator voltage you Substituting 377 for XLand 50 for the resistance
would get areading of 14.1 volts. you get:

The reason for this out-of-phase condition is Z =V50 2 +377 2

that the voltages across the coil and across the
resistor do not reach their peak values at the
=V2500 + 142,129

19
HOW COILS ARE USED

Z =J144,629 =380 ohms

R = 30 OHMS

Notice that the impedance, or total opposition,

is only 380 ohms, even though the inductive
reactance of the coil is 377 ohms and the resis- = 40 OHMS
tance is 50 ohms. In most cases, you will find that
the impedance of a coil is only slightly higher
than its inductive reactance.

Figure 17. To find the current in this circuit you must first
find the impedance.
Finding the Current in an AC Circuit

To find the current in an ac circuit, use Ohm's

law in the form: 100
I= =2A
50
E
I= To find the impedance by adding vectors,
remember that the voltage across the resistor is
That is, divide the applied voltage by the circuit in phase with the current.
impedance.
We therefore draw a current vector with the
You can find the impedance by formula, or by resistance vector on top of it. If we assume ascale
using vectors. The mathematical method is of 10 ohms to an inch, we draw the resistance
simpler. Suppose the resistance is 30 ohms and vector 3" long, as shown in Fig.18. Since the
the inductive reactance is 40 ohms, as in Fig.17. voltage across the coil will lead the current by
We'll assume that the resistance of the coil is 90°, we draw the vector representing the induc-
so low that we can ignore it, as we do in most tive reactance 4" long for 40 ohms and rotate it
practical cases. To find the impedance, use the 90° from the resistance vector. To complete the
formula: vector diagram, draw adotted line from the end
of the reactance vector parallel to the resistance
Z =N/11 2 +XL2 vector, and another dotted line from the end of
the resistance vector parallel to the reactance
Substituting 30 for R and 40 for XLwe get:
vector. We could then draw aline from the zero
point up to the junction of these two dotted lines,
Z =V30 2 +40 2
which will give us the impedance vector. If you
draw your vector to scale carefully and measure
=J900 +1600
the impedance vector, you will find it is 5" long.
Therefore the impedance must be 5x 10, or 50
=JIMU
ohms.

=50 ohms In the circuit shown in Fig.17, the current

flow is 2A, the voltage across the resistor is
The impedance of the circuit is 50 ohms. Since
2 x30, or 60 V, and the voltage across the coil is
the voltage is 100 V, the current will be as follows:
2 x40, or 80 volts. Again, remember that you

20
 APPLYING OHM'S LAW TO COILS

I
At first glance, the voltages across the
resistor and inductor in the circuit shown in
Fig.17 add up to more than 100 V if you use
simple arithmetic. This appears to contradict
XL
40 OHMS
Kirchhoff's law. However, when you add the
voltages vectorially, or by means of the formula
we've given, you see that the sum of the two
voltages is indeed equal to the source voltage. We
can't add them directly using simple arithmetic
4
" . because they are not in phase.

In the next lesson, when you study capacitors,

you will find that acapacitive circuit has essen-
tially the opposite effect of an inductive circuit.
In acapacitive circuit the current leads the volt-
age by 90 degrees.

The Q of a Coil

3" Since coils are wound with wire they have

30 OHMS
_ resistance as well as inductive reactance. The
R I
higher the ratio of inductive reactance to resis-
tance, the better the coil. We call this relation-
Figure 18. Vector solution for the impedance of the circuit. ship the Q of the coil; we will study this in
depth in future lessons. It is calculated with
the formula:
can't add these two voltages directly to get the
generator voltage since the voltages are not in
phase. Using the formula:

EG -VER 2 +EL2

Substituting 60 V for ERand 80 V for EL, you

get:

EG •• V60 2 +80 2

=V3600 +6400

-V10,000 = 100 V

21
HOW COILS ARE USED

Review Self-Test Questions

You should now understand the term phase 27 What do we mean when we say that the
and what it means when the current lags the voltage and current in acircuit are in phase?
voltage. 28 What is the phase relationship between the
voltage and current across aresistor?
You should also understand that impedance is
29 What is the phase relationship between the
equal to the vector sum of the resistance and
voltage and current across acoil?
reactance. The impedance of acoil will always be
30 What is meant by impedance?
greater than the resistance or reactance alone.
31 A resistor and acoil are connected in series
Sometimes impedance is only slightly higher
across agenerator. If the voltage across the
than the inductive reactance, however.
resistor is 12 V and the voltage across the
The voltage across acomponent in an ac cir- coil is 16 V, what is the generator voltage?
cuit can be found by using Ohm's law. The sum
of the individual voltage drops in an ac circuit is
equal to the source voltage, provided we add
these voltages vectorially. We cannot add them
by means of simple arithmetic and expect their
sum to be equal to the source voltage.

22
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST 12 The voltage will be zero. If the number of

flux linkages cutting acoil does not change,
QUESTIONS there is no voltage induced in the coil.
13 The induced voltage will produce acurrent
which will, in itself, produce amagnetic field
1 An air-core coil is wound on acardboard
that opposes any change in flux linkages.
form. The form merely supports the turns of
14 It will aid the original lines of force. If the
the coil; it has no appreciable effect on the
field is reduced, the induced voltage produced
operation of the coil.
in the coil will cause acurrent to flow in such
2 An iron core provides abetter path for the
adirection that the magnetic field produced
magnetic lines of force. We say it has alower
will tend to prevent the number of flux
reluctance.
linkages from decreasing. In order to do this,
3 Magnetomotive force is the force that sends
it must aid the original field.
magnetic flux around amagnetic circuit.
15 Cutting lines of force, changing the reluctance,
4 The ampere-turn is used to measure mag-
and changing the coil current are methods of
netomotive force.
changing flux linkages.
5 A 2A current flow through a25-turn coil
16 Inductance determines the voltage that will
produces 50 ampere-turns.
be induced in acoil.
6 Reluctance is the opposition to flux in amag-
17 It will oppose the applied voltage. The self-
netic circuit. It is equivalent to resistance in
induced voltage will try to keep the current
an electrical circuit.
constant so that the flux will remain constant.
7 Yes; the reluctance in the magnetic circuit of
To do this, it must oppose the applied voltage.
an iron-core coil is much lower than the re-
18 The henry is the unit of inductance.
luctance in the magnetic circuit of an air-core
19 The number of turns on the coil, the
coil.
diameter of the coil, and the permeability of
8 The permeability of amaterial indicates the
the core material affect the inductance.
ability of the material to pass the magnetic
20 The inductive reactance of acoil is the op-
lines of force. The higher the permeability of
position the coil offers to the flow of ac current
the material, the less reluctance it will offer
through it.
to magnetic lines of force.
21 The inductive reactance of acoil is measured
9 In amagnetic circuit the flux is equal to the
in ohms.
magnetomotive force divided by the reluctance.
22 3768 ohms. To find the inductive reactance
10 A flux linkage is amagnetic line of flux cut-
of acoil you use the formula:
ting through asingle turn of acoil. If the
magnetic line of flux cuts through two turns XL= 6.28 xfxL
there will be two flux linkages, and if it cuts
through five turns there will be five flux Substituting 60 for fand 10 for L we have:
linkages.
XL=6.28 x60 x10
11 There will be 12 flux linkages. A magnetic
line of flux cutting through asingle coil
=3768
produces one flux linkage. Therefore, three
lines cutting through four turns produces 12
flux linkages.

23
HOW COILS ARE USED

23 14 henrys. When two coils that are not 27 When we say that the voltage and current
mutually coupled together are connected in are in phase, we mean that any change in
series, the total inductance is simply the sum voltage produces acorresponding change in
of the two inductances. current. In other words, an increase in voltage
24 11 henrys. To find the total inductance of causes an instant increase in current, or a
the two coils, use the formula: decrease in voltage causes an instant decrease
in current.
LT=Li +L2 +2M
28 The voltage and current across aresistor
are in phase.
Substituting 4H for Li, 3H for L2, and 2H
29 The voltage across acoil will lead the current
for M we get:
by 90 degrees. Another way of expressing the
LT=4+3+(2 x2) same thing is to say that the current lags the
voltage by 90 degrees.
=11 H 30 Impedance is the total opposition to current
flow. It is made up of the reactive opposition
25 9henrys. To find the inductance of the two and the resistive opposition to current flow.
coils, we use the formula:
31 EG =VER 2 + ELi
LT=Li +L2 -2M
=V12 z +16 z
Substituting 8H for Li, 7H for L2, and 3H
for M we get: =%/144 +256
LT=8+7-(2 x3)
-Nrfor)
=9H
=20 V
26 2200 millihenrys. To convert henrys to mil-
lihenrys you must multiply by 1000 (which is
the same as moving the decimal point three
places to the right).

2.2 x1000 =2200

24
 Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts you should
remember from this lesson are:

• Voltage and current are induced in acoil and any attached

conductors by the relative motion between the coil and
the magnet.

• The amount of voltage produced by induction is directly

proportional to the number of magnetic lines of force that
are cut per unit of time.

• Since inductance acts to oppose achange in the direction

of current flow, inductive reactance occurs when alternating
current is applied to an inductive circuit.

• Circuit impedance can be calculated by taking the square

root of the sum of the squares of the circuit resistance and
the inductive reactance.

• Inductive circuits cause aphase shift in circuit voltage, such

that voltage phase will lead the current by as much as 90 °,
depending on how much resistance is also in the circuit.

25
HOW COILS ARE USED

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2222.

Make sure you print your name, student number, Name Join Snith

and lesson number in the space provided on the Les- Pint

Student Na Lesson No.
son Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the circles be-
neath your student number and lesson number. XYo 237 9
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for evaluation promptly.

1. If the reluctance of amagnetic circuit is in- 4. Two 15 H coils have amutual inductance of
creased, the flux will: 5henrys. What is the total inductance when
a. Increase. they are connected in series if the flux of one
CID Decrease. cell aids the flux of the other?
c. Remain the same. a. 20 henrys. Gv-t
H "I
d. Disappear. b. 30 henrys. - t,
r f
I/4
c. 35 henrys.
2. In amagnetic circuit, the equivalent of volt- d 40 henrys.
age is:
a. Reluctance. 5. If the two coils in the preceding question are
Magnetomotive force. connected so that the flux of one opposes the
c. Magnetic flux. flux of the other, the total inductance is:
d. Permeability. (a. 20 henrys.
b. 30 henrys.
3. At afrequency of 100 Hz, the inductive reac-
tance of 1H is:
c. 35 henrys.
d. 40 henrys.
- 5
a. 6.28 ohms.
b. 62.8 ohms.
628 ohms.
d. 6280 ohms.

26
 LESSON QUESTIONS

6. The impedance of the circuit shown below is: 8. In the circuit shown below, the voltage
a. 30 ohms. across the coil is:
b. 40 ohms. a. 2volts.
C) 50 ohms. b. 4volts.
d. 70 ohms. 8volts.
d. 16 volts.

éte' s

/e
7. If the impedance of the circuit shown below
is 20 ohms, the current flow is: 9. If, in the circuit shown above, the frequency
0.5 ampere. of the ac current is doubled, the voltage:
(ID 1ampere. (âJ\I Across the resistor will increase.
c. 2amperes. b. Across the coil will remain the same.
d. 4amperes. c. Across the coil will decrease.
d. Across the coil will increase.

10. If the current flow in the circuit shown

below is 1A, the generator voltage must be:
a. 300 volts.
b. 400 volts.
500 volts.
d. 600 volts.

Wv 30°
300 OHIAS

400 OHMS M LO °

27
NOTES
II
I
ri, Schools

LEARNING NEVER ENDS

More and more it becomes evident that learning is acontinuous

process — that it is impossible to break the habit of studying with-
out slipping backward. Look around you at all the marvelous
developments of the last 20 years. You have the advantage of
having "grown up" with them, yet there are probably many things
you wish you knew more about. Imagine what can happen in the
years ahead if you do not keep abreast of the stream of new things
that are bound to come.

Your NRI course is preparing you for the problems of today and
tomorrow, but you cannot stop here. In 10 years, will you still be
up to date? Yes, if you plan your future. Resolve now that you will
keep up. You have the fundamentals; keep them fresh in your mind
by constantly reviewing. Read and study technical literature and
textbooks, join in discussion groups and listen to lectures, take
advantage of every possible educational opportunity Then, and only
then, can you face the future unafraid, no matter what technical
developments the future may hold.

ge
d
LT2222(711) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
 r •

How Capacitors Are Used 2223

10
, 1

t‘
i NRLis:,1
.:00,1
2sofTlx rawHeco .se2
Washington, DC 20008
How Capacitors Are Used
• , • le- .• • •

àbc.„e:f
ige.,";41 •»:
4, •••• i•
dadeatbidis6edeii,;te
 Table of Contents
Introduction 1

How Capacitors Store Electricity 2

Charging aCapacitor 3
Capacitance 3
Factors Affecting Capacitance 4
Review 6
Self-Test Questions 7

Typical Capacitors 8
Variable Capacitors 8
Paper Capacitors 10
Ceramic Capacitors 11
Mica Capacitors 12
Electrolytic Capacitors 13
Review 15
Self-Test Questions 15

Capacitors in AC Circuits 16
How AC Flows in AC Circuits with Capacitors 16
Capacitive Reactance 17
Capacitors in Series and Parallel 18
Time Constant 19
Voltage-Current Phase 20
Voltage Distribution 20
Impedance 21
Review 22
Self-Test Questions 23

Answers to Self-Test Questions 24

Lesson Questions 26

Copyright © 1995, by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you

• Learn the principles of capacitance.

• Study how capacitors store electricity.

• Learn about the several different types of capacitors.

• See how capacitors affect electrical circuits, and how

circuits affect capacitance.

• Study the difference in capacitive effects for alternat-

ing and direct current circuits.
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Some electronics engineers and manufac-

turers have devoted a lifetime to the develop-
ment, improvement, and manufacture of
Electrical circuits contain opposing forces. You capacitors. Great progress has been made in the
have studied inductance; now we turn your atten- quality, efficiency, reliability, and the size reduc-
tion to acircuit element that has effects opposite tion of capacitors. Now, with microelectronics,
to those of inductance. This element is capacitance becomes an integral, invisible part
capacitance. We can show that inductance and of these microscopically sized circuits.
capacitance are opposites by matching each unit
Capacitance, like inductance, is a part of
of inductance in acircuit with an equivalent unit
electronics. The study of capacitance is neces-
of capacitance. The result is acircuit in which, at
sary for successfully solving the circuit problems
some frequency the capacitive effect balances the
which we constantly face in electronics.
inductive effect, leaving apurely resistive circuit.

1
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

HOW CAPACITORS STORE

ELECTRICITY

A capacitor is nothing more than two pieces of

metal separated by a nonconducting material.
The material may be air, agas, aliquid, or asolid.
It is called the dielectric, and the metal elements
are called plates. If there is nothing between the
plates but air, we say the capacitor has an air
dielectric.
A simple capacitor made of two metal plates Figure 2. The relationship between the capacitor's voltage
with an air dielectric is shown in Fig.1. When the and current.

plates of the capacitor are connected to abattery,

electrons will flow from the negative terminal of
the battery into plate A. At the same time, decreases, the capacitor voltage increases. Even-
electrons will flow from plate B to the positive tually, the potential between the plates is equal
terminal of the battery. This is because they are to the battery voltage. At this time, the current
repelled by the surplus of electrons on plate A is zero, the voltage between the plates is equal
and attracted by the positive terminal of the to the battery voltage, and we say that the
battery. capacitor is charged.

At first, the voltage between the two plates If we disconnect the capacitor from the bat-
will be zero. A very high current will flow, as tery, the condition of imbalance that has been set
shown in Fig.2, to charge the capacitor. As the up on the capacitor plates will remain. We have
capacitor charges, the voltage between the asurplus of electrons on one plate and ashortage
plates builds up, and while the current of electrons on the other. Thus, we have
electricity stored in the capacitor.
If we connect a wire from one plate of the
charged capacitor to the other, electrons will flow
SURPLUS OF from the side having asurplus of electrons over
ELECTRONS SHORTAGE OF
ELECTRONS to the side having a shortage of electrons. The
flow of electrons will continue until the number
of electrons on the two plates is balanced, and
there is no longer acharge on them. When the
charge has disappeared, we say the capacitor is
discharged.
This is a very brief explanation of how a
capacitor can store electricity. Large capacitors,
particularly those used in high-voltage circuits,
can store large amounts of electricity. Before
Figure 1. A capacitor Is connected to abattery.
touching the leads of a large capacitor, you

2
 HOW CAPACITORS STORE ELECTRICITY

should short the leads together with a The charge on acapacitor depends upon the
screwdriver or similar object to be sure that the battery voltage used to charge it. A higher volt-
capacitor is discharged. If you touch the ter- age exerts more force on the atoms of the plates
minals of acharged capacitor you can receive an and moves more electrons than alower voltage.
unpleasant and possibly dangerous shock. There are other things, however, that affect the
charge we can store in acapacitor. The electrical
You might wonder how we can use acapacitor
size of the capacitor i ailed the capacitance of
in electronic equipment, because there is no com-
t ecapad i r, and it is jupt_asimpore
plete path for current to flow through it. Indeed,
''Lra_rg_!rty_
c/
a -_vt_g_t_a,K__see-what_we-Fnean by
as shown by the current curve in Fig.2, once the
capacitor is charged so that the potential be- eltance.
tween the two plates is equal to the battery
potential, there will be no further current flow.
Capacitance
Once acapacitor is charged, it effectively blocks
the flow of de in the circuit.
The term capacitance is used to describe the
electrical size of the capacitor in the same way
that inductance is used to describe the charac-
Charging a Capacitor
teristics of a coil, or the way that resistance is
used to indicate the size of aresistor.
A capacitor does not charge instantly. The
length of time it takes to charge a capacitor The unit of capacitance is the farad
depends upon two things: the size of the (pronounced FAIR-AD). The capacitance of a
capacitor and the amount of resistance in the capacitor is a measure of its ability to store
circuit. electricity. A capacitor with a high capacitance
can store more electrons than acapacitor with a
You might think that there is no resistance in
lower capacitance.
the circuit shown in Fig.1, but this is not true.
There is resistance in the leads used to connect A farad actually represents an extremely
the capacitor to the battery; in addition, there is large capacitance. It is so large that it is never
the internal resistance of the battery itself, used in electronics. The units used are the
which is a function of how much current the which is one millionth of afarad, and
battery can produce. These two resistances limit the picofara, which is one millionth of a
the rate at which the capacitor can charge. Be- microfarad. The modern abbreviation for
cause it takes time to charge acapacitor, there is microfarad is µF, but you will also see mf and mfd
acurrent flow in the circuit, as shown in Fig.2, used in older texts and diagrams. The abbrevia-
when the capacitor is first connected to the bat- tion for picofarad is pF. In older literature, you
tery. This current flows as long as the battery is might run into the term micro-microfarad, ab-
charging the capacitor. When we disconnect the breviated mmf, which is also a millionth of a
capacitor from the battery and discharge it, microfarad.
there will be acurrent flow once again, but this
Sometimes you will want to change from tF to
time in the opposite direction. Again, the length
pF or from pF to gE To change from the larger
of time it takes the capacitor to discharge will
unit, microfarads, to the smaller unit,
depend upon the capacitance of the capacitor
picofarads, move the decimal point six places to
and the resistance in the circuit.

3
 HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

the right. In other words, acapacitor that has a

capacitance of 0.0005 µF has acapacitance of 500
pE You simply add the zeros to the right of the five
and move the decimal point six places to the rig

To convert from picofarads to microfarads,

divide by 1,000,000. This is done by moving the
decimal six places to the left. A 500 pF capacitor
has a capacitance of 0.0005 µE We simply add
zeros to the left of the five and then move the
decimal six places to the left.

The words microfarad and capacitor are both

rather long, so technicians have shortened them. (A)
They generally refer to a 2 tF capacitor as a
two-mike cap. A 0.005 µF capacitor is called a
double-oh five-mike cap, or apoint double-oh five SURPLUS OF
ELECTRONS SHORTAGE OF
capacitor. ELECTRONS

Factors Affecting Capacitance

ç
y The
three factors that affect the capacitance
----"---
of a capacitor are the area of the plates, the
' spacing between the plates, and the dielectric PLATE A PLATE 8

used between the plates.

In Fig.3, two capacitors are shown. In
Fig.3(B), the capacitor has larger plates than the
(B)
one in Fig.3(A), so we can force more electrons
Figure 3. (A) The smaller capacitor. (B) The larger
onto plate A and pull more electrons off plate B. capacitor can store a greater charge.
Thus the capacitor in Fig.3(B) has a greater
capacitance than the capacitor in Fig.3(A). plate force additional electrons out of the posi-
We can also increase the capacitance by ad- tive plate, thus increasing the positive charge on
ding more plates. In Fig.4(A), two plates — Al and it. This in turn draws additional electrons into
A2 — are connected. This effectively increases the negative plate, increasing the capacitance of
the plate area and hence the capacitance. Adding the capacitor.
additional plates, as shown in Fig.4(B), in-
The third factor that affects the capacitance is
creases the capacitance still more. the dielectric. The dielectric is the material be-
Reducing the spacing between the plates in- tween the plates of the capacitor. If, instead of
creases the capacitance. Figure 5(A), on page 6, air between the plates, we insert apiece of mica,
shows acapacitor charged to the battery poten- paper, ceramic, or mylar, the capacitance in-
tial. If we move the plates closer together, as creases, depending upon the dielectric constant
shown in Fig.5(B), the electrons on the negative of the material.

4
 HOW CAPACITORS STORE ELECTRICITY

(A) (3)

Figure 4. Adding plates to acapacitor increases the capacitance.

Dielectric Constant. The degree of effect of the the path of the electrons around the nucleus
dielectric material on the capacitance compared when the capacitor is charged. The electrons are
to the capacitance using air as the dielectric, is repelled by the negative plate and attracted by
called the dielectric constant. The dielectric con- the positive plate so that they travel in an oval
stant of mica is between six and eight because path. This brings the electrons much closer to
this is how much it increases the capacitance of the positive plate so that they force additional
acapacitor when inserted between the plates in electrons out of the positive plate. This increased
place of air. shortage of electrons on the positive plate in turn
Different materials have different dielectric attracts additional electrons onto the negative
plate.
constants. Paper has about the lowest of any
material you find used in capacitors, between 1.5 Air is a mixture of gases, and in a gas the
and 3. Ceramic has one of the highest dielectric atoms are relatively far apart. In solid materials,
constants of any material. The dielectric con- the atoms are closer together, so inserting asolid
stant depends on the type of ceramic, but can be material dielectric increases the effect of this
as high as 1500. Many ceramic capacitors have distortion. The amount by which the effect is
a relatively small physical size but a high increased depends upon the density of the
capacitance. material and the characteristics of the material
itself. The effect is similar to pushing the plates
Figure 6(A), on the next page, shows the plates
of the capacitor closer together so that they al-
of acapacitor before they are charged. Between
most touch. This enables us to get avery high
the plates is an atom with electrons going around
capacitance.
the nucleus in acircular path. Figure 6(B) shows

5
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

(A) (B)
Figure 5. Because the plates are farther apart, the capacitor in (A) has a smaller
capacitance than the one shown at (B).

Voltage Rating. When manufacturers design designed for use in acircuit where the de operat-
acapacitor, they design it for use in acircuit with ing voltage is 12 V or less.
acertain maximum operating voltage. The volt-
Ifyou have to replace adefective capacitor, you
age is usually marked on the capacitor and is
should use areplacement with aworking voltage
called the working voltage. For example, a
at least as high as the working voltage of the
capacitor with a working voltage of 12 V is
original. You can use acapacitor with ahigher
working voltage if there is room. Usually,
capacitors that have a higher working voltage
....0-- DIELECTRIC
are also larger.
/
CAPACITOR
ATOM
PLATES

BOUND Review
ELECTRON

(A) The basic action of acapacitor depends upon

its ability to store an electric charge. There is no
complete circuit through acapacitor, but current
flows in acircuit in which the capacitor is con-
nected while the capacitor is being charged and
while it is being discharged. A capacitor is not
charged instantly; the time it takes to charge a
capacitor fully depends on the capacitance and
the resistance in the circuit.
(B) The electrical size of acapacitor is measured
Figure 6. Shifting paths of the electrons in the dielectric. in farads, but the farad is such alarge unit that

6
 HOW CAPACITORS STORE ELECTRICITY

the practical units are the microfarad (which is Self-Test Questions

amillionth of farad) and the picofarad (which is
amillionth of amicrofarad). Please check your answers on page 24.
The capacitance of a capacitor depends upon
the area of the plates, the spacing between the 1 What do we mean when we_s .[Link] aca-
.

plates, and the dielectric between the plates. The pacitor is charged?
dielectric constant of amaterial is anumber that 2 What two factors affect t e erigth of time it
tells you the number of times the capacitance of takes to charge acapacitor?,/, 5:,,. r4
,41* ; (Sret: .C-
ke e- ) 11

a capacitor increases when this material is 3 What factor determines the amount of e
placed between the plates of the capacitor as charge acapacitor can hold for aeiven
compared to air. amount of voltage? ••`•//e'd-- /
./.''''''

4 What two practical units are used in elec-

The voltage rating of the capacitor tells you tronics to indicate the capacitance of aca-
the maximum safe voltage that you can apply to
5 CI)aocnivtoerr?t 0% 0; -
11
- -;
a capacitor. Capacitors with a higher voltage
'<tO i coe°‘fa :34; j°•
rating can always be used to replace adefective
6 Convert 680 pF to microfarads. •1066P-(- f
capacitor in a piece of electronic equipment if 7 Name the two factors that aqe th9, îepaci-
there is space. tance of acapacitor.)„ei
r'L3egi e I-- re:
,e :0 .6) #xe• e ., it.,
d 4 s
'8 What is the dieldefnc cons'tant of amaterián
e

9 Why does amaterial with adielectric con- noe " .-

1 ,... te'
stant greater than air have the effect of in- 13,12e s
creasing the capacitance of acapacitor?
10 If acapacitor is marked 0.02 µF, 16 V, what
tit4#
does the marking 16 V mean? WQ
•-"

one,—
etoè. Ce.•`-k-e--teeeda.-
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

TYPICAL CAPACITORS

Capacitors are also divided into fixed and vari-

able types. A fixed capacitor has a fixed
capacitance that cannot be changed, whereas a
(A)
variable capacitor, as the name implies, is
designed so that its capacitance can be varied by
some convenient method. Most variable
capacitors use an air dielectric, and are called air
capacitors. Some variable capacitors have amica
dielectric and are referred to as variable mica
capacitors. Most fixed capacitors use some
dielectric other than air.
(B)

Variable Capacitors

Three views of atypical variable capacitor are

shown in Fig.?. The capacitor is made up of two
sets of plates as shown in Fig.7(A). The bottom
set of plates is connected to two shafts held in
place by two insulators. Connected to these
shafts are two terminals for external connec- (C)
tions. One shaft and one of the terminals are Figure 7. (A) The capacitor is adjusted for minimum
visible in the photograph. capacitance, (B) half capacitance, and (C) maximum
capacitance. The capacitor's schematic symbol is also
The bottom plates, alled the stato ,are sta- shown.
tionary. The top plates con a rotatable
shaft, causing the top set of plates to move in
is opposite the stator is extremely small. The
between the stator plates.C1 that can
only area affected is the edges of the two plates.
rotate are called the rotor plates or siiiipTy the
There is asmall capacitance between the edge of
nFig.7(B), the rotor is turned 90° so that
the stator and the edge of the rotor. As the
the ro or plates are half-meshed with the stator
capacitor turns to the position shown in Fig.8(B),
plates. In Fig.7(C), the rotor has been rotated an
about one quarter of the rotor plate is opposite
additional 90° so that the plates are completely
the stator plate. The capacitance is much greater
meshed with the stator plates. The schematic
than at Fig.8(A). In Fig.8(C) about half the rotor
symbol is also shown.
is opposite the stator, in Fig.8(D) about three-
Figure 8shows what happens as we turn the fourths, and at Fig.8(E) the entire rotor is
rotor inside the stator. Remember, we said that meshed inside the stator so that there is maxi-
one factor hat affects the _cap ifance ora mum capacitance.
__cepacitor is the area of the_plates. In the i us ra-
tion shown in Fig.8(A), the area of the rotor that

8
 TYPICAL CAPACITORS

SHADED AREAS INDICATE ACTIVE SURFACES

(A) (8) (C) (D) (E)

Figure 8. How avariable capacitor with straightline capacitance plates works.

In the capacitor shown in Fig.8, there is just Another type of variable capacitor is the trim-
one rotor plate and one stator plate. In the mer capacitor. A typical trimmer capacitor is
capacitor shown in Fig.7, notice that there are a shown in Fig.10. These capacitors are used to
number of plates on both the rotor and on he trim, or adjust, tfie— cii;Eiiit to compensate for
stator. By using a number of stator and rotor variations in other components in the circuit.
plates, we can get a much higher capacitance
A trimmer capacitor is made by securing a
capacitor because the area of the plates is in-
fixed plate to an insulated material. On top of
creased.
the fixed plate is apiece of mica, and the movable
The capacitance of a variable capacitor also plate is secured by a rivet so that it does not
depends on the spacing between the plates. Look touch the fixed plate. The spacing between the
he two capacitors shown in Fig.9. The plates is changed by tightening or loosening the
capacitor in Fig.9(A) is much larger than the one adjusting screw. If additional capacitance is —
at Fig.9(B), but they have the same maximum needed, it can be obtained simply by adding
capacitance because the spacing between the another layer of mica over the adjustable plate
plates in the capacitor shown in Fig.9(A) is and then adding a second fixed plate. Another
double the spacing between the plates in the layer of mica is then added along with asecond
capacitor shown at Fig.9(B). The capacitor adjustable plate. Additional layers of plates and
shown at Fig.9(A) is built for use in circuits in mica can be added so that the trimmer may have
which voltages are higher than those in circuits anumber of stationary and adjustable plates.
that use the capacitor shown in Fig.9(B).

ADJUSTING SCREW

(A) (B)

Figure 9. (A) This capacitor has the same maximum

capacitance as the one shown at (B). Figure 10. A typical trimmer capacitor.

9
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

Paper Capacitors

A paper capacitor is made from two sheets of

tinfoil, with asheet of paper between them, as
shown in Fig.11(A). The tinfoil and paper are
rolled, as shown in Fig.11(B), until they are
shaped like Fig.11(C). Wire leads are then at-
25V j
tached to the foil sheets that protrude from each
end of the capacitor. After the leads have been
attached to the tinfoil, the capacitor is encased
in a molded container that keeps out moisture
and dirt.
The paper capacitor is so named because a
Figure 12. A typical paper capacitor and its schematic
paper dielectric is used between the two plates. symbol.
Today, however, paper alone is seldom used as the
dielectric. Mylar and mylar-coated paper are more
widely used. Polyester materials are also used; a Years ago, capacitors caused alot of problems
capacitor with a polyester dielectric has a very in electronic equipment. However, with today's
high resistance to humidity. Polystyrene is also manufacturing techniques you seldom find a
used as adielectric; polystyrene capacitors have a defective capacitor. If anything happens to the
very high insulation resistance. case so that it is not aperfect seal, moisture can
seep into the capacitor and cause leakage. Some-
Two typical capacitors of this type are shown
times in aradial capacitor, the case is damaged
in Fig.12 along with the schematic symbol. The
at the end where one of the leads is attached. The
lower capacitor has axial leads, meaning that the
connection to the lead may break off, in which
leads come out of the ends parallel to the body of
case the capacitor is open, or the insulating foil
the capacitor. The upper capacitor has radial
may be damaged, and the capacitor shorted. If
leads that come out of the capacitor at an angle
you suspect a capacitor is defective, try a new
of 90° to the capacitor body.
one in the circuit.

PLATE 1 PLATE 1
PLATE 1

WAXED PAPER

PLATE 2 PLATE 2
PLATE 2
(A) (B) (C)

Figure 11. How apaper capacitor Is made.

10
 TYPICAL CAPACITORS

Ceramic Capacitors

You find more ceramic capacitors in modern

electronic equipment than any other type. They --E)).,) )
are widely used because they are reliable,
(A)
economical to manufacture, and because they
have a relatively large capacitance for their
small size.

There are three types of ceramic capacitors:

the disc, the tubular, and the feed-through. All
(C) (D)
three types are shown in Fig.13 along with the
schematic symbol for a feed-through capacitor. Figure 13. (A) Tubular, (B) disc, and (C) feed-through
The symbol used for tubular and disc ceramics ceramic capacitors. (D) The schematic symbol for afeed-
through capacitor.
is the same symbol that is used for a paper
capacitor.

the three types of ceramic capacitors, the Ceramic capacitors also have temperature
\c_lisc is by far the most widely used. You seldom coefficients. This means that the capacitance
see tubular ceramic capacitors because they are may change as the temperature changes. For
much more expensive to manufacture than discs. example, acommon type of ceramic capacitor is
Feed-through capacitors are used as bypass called a Z5U. This capacitor is designed for
capacitors in high-frequency circuits. operation between 10°C and 85°C. The label Z5
gives you this information. The letter U tells you
Disc capacitors are made with capacitances that the capacitance may change as much as
from less thanlpF up to several µE Disc capacitors +22% or —56% over that temperature range.
are like resistors in that they have different However, in many applications, this change in
tolerances. Common tolerances are 5, 10, or 20 capacitance is not important. The Z5U capacitor
percent. Often the tolerance is indicated on the is frequently used because it is generally the
capacitor by a letter rather than the actu most inexpensive capacitor available.
tolerance figure. The letter Jis used to represent
a5% tolerance, K a10% tolerance, and M a20% Ceramic capacitors are also made with alower
tolerance. You'll also find disc capacitors with a temperature coefficient. For example, a
tolerance rating of +100% or —O. The letter P is capacitor labeled Z5F has atemperature coeffi-
used to represent this tolerance. Another cient of only 7.5 percent. Z5P indicates atempera-
tolerance rating is +80% to —20%, where the ture change of 10% within the operating range.
letter Zis used to represent this tolerance. Still These capacitors are only used in circuits where a
another tolerance is GMV, or guaranteed mini- change of capacitance can cause a problem be-
mum value. That is, acapacitor marked 100 pF cause they are more expensive than the Z5U type.
GMV has a capacitance at least that high. It You will also see ceramic capacitors marked
could have acapacitance of 200 pF or 500 pF, or either with the letter N or P followed by anum-
even higher. The manufacturer has simply ber. The N indicates negative temperature coef-
guaranteed the minimum capacitance to be at ficient and P indicates positive temperature
least the value stamped on it. coefficient. The capacitance of acapacitor with a

11
 HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

negative temperature coefficient always decreases pens, the shorted capacitor is not hard to find
as the temperature increases. The capacitance of because it has alow resistance reading. Unless
acapacitor with apositive temperature coefficient there is something connected directly across the
increases as the temperature increases. The larger capacitor, alow resistance reading indicates that
the number following the letter N or Ethe greater the capacitor is shorted. -----
the capacitance change for a given temperature
change.
Mica Capacitors
Some ceramic capacitors are marked NPO,
which stands for negative, positive, zero. These
Figure 14 shows the construction of one type
have neither anegative nor apositive tempera-
of mica capacitor. It is made by placing thin
ture coefficient. Its value does not change as the
metal foil sheets between thin sheets of mica.
temperature changes. These capacitors are
The entire unit is sealed in aBakelite or ceramic
found only in critical circuits where any change
container. Mica is brittle and can't be rolled into
in capacitance would upset the performance of
around form like paper or mylar, so the shape of
the circuit.
amica capacitor is flat.
The closer the tolerance of acapacitor and the
Another type of mica is the silver mica
smaller the temperature coefficient, the more
capacitor. In this capacitor, thin layers of silver
expensive the capacitor is. If you have to replace
are sprayed onto the mica sheets, as shown in
adefective ceramic capacitor, you can always use
Fig.15. Since the silver layers are very thin,
one with the same tolerance and the same
opposite plates of the capacitor can be brought
temperature coefficient as the original. In man
very close together to obtain a relatively high
cases, you can use aZ5P capacitor to replace a
capacitance in asmall package.
Z5U, or you can use aZ5F capacitor to replace a
Z5P capacitor. However, if you have to replace a Although mica capacitors are excellent
capacitor with anegative temperature coefficien , capacitors, they are no longer frequently used
one with apositive temperature coefficient, or an because they are much more expensive than
NPO capacitor, you should use areplacement with other types.
the same temperature coefficient.
Ceramic capacitors are manufactured with
many different voltage ratings. Usually, the
higher the voltage rating, the larger the physical
.-.size of the capacitor. The operating voltage in
7' modern electronic equipment using transistors
and integrated circuits is generally quite low, so
most ceramic capacitors have avoltage rating as
low as 50 volts. When a capacitor of a higher
voltage rating is required, the manufacturer
specifies ahigher voltage rating.

Ceramic capacitors are very reliable, but oc-

casionally a lead wire breaks and a short
develops across the capacitor. When this hap- Figure 14. How a mica capacitor is made.

12
 TYPICAL CAPACITORS

the plates. Of the two, the aluminum capacitor

is more widely used because aluminum is much
less expensive than tantalum.

An electrolytic capacitor is made up of two

long strips of metal with an electrolyte in paste
form placed between the two plates, as shown in
Figure 15. A silver mica capacitor.
Fig.16(A). The anode plate is treated before the
capacitor is assembled to produce a coating of
oxide on the surface of the plate. The oxide,
which is very thin, acts as the dielectric. A gauze-
Electrolytic Capacitors
type material soaked with the electrolyte is then
laid in contact with the oxide. The other plate is
Electrolytic capacitors are widely used in
then placed on top of the gauze. The gauze,
electronic equipment because you can get a /
saturated with the electrolyte, and the top plate
higher capacitance for agiven physical size than
form the cathode or negative plate of the
in any other type of capacitor. There are two
capacitor. The whole assembly is then rolled up
types of electrolytic capacitors: aluminum' with the negative plate on the outside, then
capacitors, which use aluminum for the plates,
encased in ametal container.
and tantalum capacitors, which use tantalum for

FOIL PLATE
PURE ALUMINUM BLACK COLORED LEAD

CHEESE CLOTH,
PAPER, OR GAUZE
FILLED WITH
ELECTROLYTE
IN PASTE FORM
(8)

ALUMINUM FORMED
OR COVERED WITH
A DIELECTRIC FILM
RED COLORED LEAD
(C)

(A)

Figure 16. (A) Electrolytic capacitors are made of two plates with an electrolytic paste form placed between the two plates.
The assembly is then rolled and placed in atubular metal can. (El) The leads are then brought out of the two ends of the
capacitor, or as shown at (C), the leads are brought out of one end of the capacitor.

13
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

In the double-ended electrolytic capacitor found the —sign indicating the cathode or the +
shown in Fig.16(B), the lead from the negative sign indicating the anode, you can identify the
plate comes out one end of the capacitor and is unmarked lead.
in contact with the metal container. The lead Voltage Rating. The thinner the dielectric
from the positive plate, or anode, comes out the
oxide coating in an electrolytic capacitor, the
other end and this end is sealed with an insulat-
higher the capacitance; but the thinner the
ing material. In the single-ended electrolytic
dielectric, the lower the voltage that can be ap-
capacitor shown in Fig.16(C), the two leads come plied to the capacitor. Manufacturers specify the
out of the same end of the capacitor. maximum voltage that can be applied to an
Electrolytic capacitors can be made with very electrolytic capacitor. If you use an electrolytic
high capacitances because the dielectric, which capacitor in acircuit where the operating voltage
is an oxide coating on one of the plates, is very is higher than the voltage rating of the capacitor,
thin. Since the other plate consists of the the capacitor will most likely break down.
aluminum and the gauze saturated with
Defects. Electrolytic capacitors are among t
electrolyte, the two plates are very close
most troublesome components in electronic
together. You find some very small electrolytic
equipment because they deteriorate, particular-
capacitors with very high capacitances.
ly if they are not used. You should not buy alarge
As we mentioned earlier, aluminum is more stock of electrolytic capacitors. Avoid keepin
widely used in electrolytic capacitor because it is unusecardiars longer than six s. you
less expensive than tantalum. However, tantalum do have a capacitor longer than six months -
capacitors are better capacitors and are used in before using it, you should place asmall operat-
applications where the superior performance of ing voltage across the capacitor and gradually
the capacitor justifies the additional expense. increase it until the voltage applied to th
capacitor slightly exceeds the rated voltage f
Polarity. Electrolytic capacitors can only be
the capacitor. Electrolytic capacitors also
used in de or pulsating dc circuits. The plate
deteriorate as they are used. The moisture in the
called the anode must always be connected to the
electrolyte slowly escapes so that the
positive side of the voltage source, and the plate
capacitance of the capacitor decreases.
called the cathode must always be connected to
the negative side of the voltage source. If you The dielectric in an electrolytic capacitor is not
connect an electrolytic capacitor into the circuit a perfect insulator. Some electrons can cross
backwards, or use it in an ac circuit, avery high from the negative plate to the positive plate. In
current flows through the capacitor, destroying it. agood capacitor this leakage current is very low,
but in time the leakage current may become
In some electrolytic capacitors, the anode is
excessive. When this happens, the capacitor be-
marked with a+sign and the cathode with a—
comes warm. Anytime you find awarm or hot
sign. In most electrolytic capacitors, however,
electrolytic capacitor, you should replace it.
only one of the two leads is marked. Once you've

14
 TYPICAL CAPACITORS

Review Self-Test Questions

In this section we have discussed anumber of 11 What do we mean when we say that the
different types of capacitors. In general, you can dielectric of avariable capacitor is air? e',..'L e>1
ir
classify them into two types: those in which the 12 Why are capacitors such as paper or myriir
capacitance is variable and those in which the capacitors molded in aceramic type of,
capacitance is fixed. material?
13 Why aren't mica capacitors more widely
It is not important that you remember how the
used in electronic equipment?
various types of capacitors are made. It is impor-
tant to remember that capacitors can open, 14 What does Z5F stamped on acerami disc
capacitor indicate? Z`4
short, and develop intermittent defects. A low
resistance reading across a capacitor indicates 15 Name two metals used ii electrolytic . I

capacitors. /-* t /•)ref...t f derelife•

that the capacitor is shorted or has developed
-

4 '
I 6 ,: Ztb
6.
1
4 e

excessive leakage. 16 What do we mean when we say an

4 44 e r
electrolytic capacitor has polarity? 1.4. 4

17 Can an electrolytic capacitor with adc volt-

age rating of 10 V be used in acircuit A/Ù
where the operating voltage is 15 volts?
18 If you notice that an electrolytic capacitor is
getting hot, what should you do?

15
 HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

forced into side B of the capacitor by terminal 2

CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS
of the generator, which is negative.
Electrons flow back and forth in the circuit as
Capacitors are rarely used in purely direct the generator goes through first one half-cycle
current circuits. Once acapacitor is placed in a
and then the other. They flow first into one side
dc circuit and charged, there is no further cur- of the capacitor, forcing electrons out of the other
rent flow in the circuit. Capacitors are most side, then the opposite. Notice that electrons do
important when used in ac circuits and in cir-
not flow through the capacitor. The plates of the
cuits that have both ac and dc. capacitor are separated by a dielectric and the
dielectric is anonconducting material. However,
because the capacitor stores the charge in each
How AC Flows in AC Circuits with
direction of current flow, and discharges in the
Capacitors
opposite direction when the polarity changes, we
have the effect of the current flowing in the
Figure 17 shows a simple circuit with a circuit.
capacitor connected across an ac generator.
C_here
, is a current flow in this circuit, and the Refer to Fig.18. At the start of the ac cycle
exact amount of current depends upon the volt- when the voltage is zero, there are electrons in
age of the generator, its frequency, and the both plates of the capacitor. The electrons in each
apacitance of the capacitor. atom of the dielectric revolve around the
nucleus, as shown in Fig.18(A). However, when
When terminal 1of the generator is negative electrons begin to move into one plate, as shown
and terminal 2 is positive, electrons flow from in Fig.18(B), and out of the other plate, the
terminal 1into the side of the capacitor marked electrons in the dielectric are forced out of their
A. Electrons are forced out of the side marked B normal path as shown. Thus, although an
to terminal 2 of the generator, which attracts electron flowing into plate 1does not reach plate
these electrons because it is positive. During the 2, it does force another electron in the dielectric
next half-cycle, the polarity of the generator over near plate 2, and this in turn forces an
reverses so that terminal 1is positive and ter- electron out of plate 2.
minal 2is negative. Now electrons on the side of
the capacitor marked A are pulled out by ter- If the ac voltage decreases and finally drops to
minal 1 which is positive, and electrons are zero, the electrons in the dielectric return to the
normal position, as shown in Fig.18(C). During
the next half-cycle, when the polarity of the
generator reverses, an electron is forced into
plate 2. This in turn forces an electron in the
dielectric out of its normal position and toward
plate 1. This action pushes an electron out of
plate 1. Thus, we have the effect of current
flowing through the capacitor in the opposite
direction, although the electrons flowing into one
plate never actually go through the dielectric
Figure 17. A capacitor connected across agenerator. into the other plate of the capacitor.

16
 CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS

(A) (13) (C) (D)

Figure 18. When ac is applied to acapacitor, the bound electrons in the dielectric move first one way, then the other. As
aresult, the effect is that of alternating current flowing through the capacitor.

You can see that there is a back and forth Capacitors offer opposition to the flow of ac cur-
motion of electrons through the conductors con- rent through them. This opposition is called
nected to the capacitor. Because the electrons in capacitive reactance. This opposition is
the dielectric move back and forth, we can say measured in ohms, just as the inductive reac-
that ac current flows through acapacitor, even tance of a coil is measured in ohms. However,
though the electrons never get through the there is agreat deal of difference between induc-/
dielectric into the other plate. Because of this tive reactance and capacitive reactance.
current continuity, capacitors can be used in ac
Capacitive reactance is represented by the
circuits. They are also very useful in circuits
where there is both ac and dc. The capacitor can symbol Xc. It can be expressed by the formula:
be used to block the dc, while at the same time
1
allowing the ac to flow through the capacitor.
Xc =6.28 xfxC
In allowing electrons to flow back and forth,
the capacitor's action serves as a good The 6.28 is the value of 2pi. Remember, this
demonstration of what ac is. The actual move- appeared in the formula for inductive reactance.
ment of each electron is very small, but there Notice that the formula is similar to the formula
may be alarge number of electrons moving back for inductive reactance except that it is inverted.
and forth over a very short distance. The dis- In other words, the expression is divided into 1.
tance of the electron's travel is unimportant; the In this formula, fis the frequency expressed
important thing is the number of electrons in in hertz and C is the capacitance in farads. We
motion. If we have a large number of electrons know that the farad is too large aunit for prac-
in motion, we have alarge current. tical use in electronics, so we can write the for-
mula in another way by expressing C in
microfarads. To do this we divide 6.28 into 1and
Capacitive Reactance multiply the result by 1,000,000. We get:

The capacitor does not allow electrons to move In 159 000

back and forth without offering opposition. f

17
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

In this expression fis the frequency in hertz, frequency used by some UHF TV stations, the
and C is the capacitance in microfarads. reactance is only 159 ohms.

There are several important things that you

can learn from this formula. For example, let's
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
find the reactance of a 1µF capacitor at afre-
quency of 10 Hz.
When you connect two capacitors in series,
you are connecting two capacitive reactances in
xc 11::10$0 159,000 15,900ohms
series. It is like connecting two resistances in
10 x1 — 10 —
series. The total capacitive reactance is the sum
If we increase the frequency to 100 cycles, we of the two reactances. Since the reactance in-
get: creases, the capacitance must decrease. As a
matter of fact, if you connect two 10 µF capaci-
tors in series, the total capacitance of the series
Xc = 159
100 000
xl — 1590 ohms
combination is exactly half of 10 µF, or 5µF.

when we increase the frequency from 10 Hz to When two capacitors are connected in series,
100 Hz (in other words increase the frequency 10 you can find the total capacitance by using the
times), we reduce the capacitive reactance by a formula:
factor of 10. We say that the reactance varies -
inversely as the frequency. This simply means Cl xC2
that as the frequency increases, the reactance CT —Ci+C2
decreases. This is opposite to the effect that an
If there are more than two capacitors, you can
increase in frequency has on inductive reaç-. 9
find the total capacitance of two at a time by
tance.
using the same formula that we use to find the
The same thing happens if we increase the total resistance when more than two resistors
capacitance. At the frequency of 100 Hz, if we are in parallel.
increase the capacitance from 1µF to 10 µF, we
When capacitors are connected in series, the
get:
total capacitance is always less than the capaci-
tance of the smallest capacitor. Remember that
159,000
Xc — 100 x10 — 159 ohms
this is the same as resistors in parallel where the
total resistance is always less than the resis-
Thus, an increase in capacitance has the same tance of the smallest resistor.
effect on the capacitive reactance as an increase
When you connect two capacitors in parallel,
in frequency. And increasing either the fre-
you are connecting two reactances in parallel. If
quency or the capacitance reduces the capacitive
you connect two 10 µF capacitors in parallel, you
reactance. Even avery small capacitor can have
have half the capacitive reactance of either ca-
alow reactance if the frequency is high enough.
pacitor alone. Since the capacitive reacta
For example, a1pF capacitor has areactance of
goes down, the capacitance must increase. To
1590 ohms at a frequency of 100 MHz. This is
find the total capacitance of capacitors connected
within the FM broadcast band. At afrequency of
in parallel, you simply add the capacitances.
1000 MHz, which is only slightly higher than the

18
 CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS

Time Constant circuit. However, by definition, one time con-

stan is Thelength of time it takes the capacitor
When you connect acapacitor across abattery, to charge to approximately 63% oLJ4e source
it takes a certain amount of time for the voltage, not to the full source voltage his value
capacitor to charge. The length of time depends is shown in Fig.20. The time constTit in seconds
on the capacitance of the capacitor and the resis- of any R-C circuit can be found by multiplying
tance in the circuit. Even if you connect a the resistance of the resistor in megohms times
capacitor directly across the battery, the battery the capacitance of the capacitor in microfarads,,
has internal resistance, so some time is involved A capacitor is considered, again by definition, to /
in charging the capacitor. be fully charged (100%) after five time consta,„j
have elapsed.
If we connect a capacitor in series with a
resistor across abattery, as shown in Fig.19, the By this formula, a2 IF capacitor in series with
voltage across the capacitor builds up following a1-megohm resistor has atime constant 2x1= 2
acurve as shown in Fig.20. Notice that at first seconds. This means that it takes two seconds for
the capacitor charges quite rapidly and then, as the capacitor to charge up to 63% of the source
it is charged, the rate at which the voltage builds voltage. Ten volts applied to this combination
up decreases. This is because when you first will charge the capacitor to 6.3 V in two seconds.
connect the capacitor across the battery, the If we apply 100 V, the capacitor voltage risea
to
capacitor voltage is zero and the full battery 63 V in two seconds. Decreasing the size of either
voltage is forcing electrons into the one plate and the resistor or the capacitor decreases the time
out of the other. As the capacitor begins to constant. Increasing the size of either the resis-
charge, the voltage forcing the current flow tor or the capacitor increases the time constant.
decreases because the voltage causing the cur-
rent to flow is the battery voltage minus the
capacitor voltage. Since the effective charging
voltage decreases, the rate at which the charge
builds up decreases.

The length of time it takes the capacitor to

charge is known as the time constant of the R-C
1----1

I
T I C

Figure 19. A resistor and acapacitor connected in series

TIME

across abattery. Figure 20. How acapacitor charges.

19
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

Voltage-Current Phase

VOLTAGE
In the preceding example, notice that when
the capacitor and resistor combination is first
connected across the battery, avery high current
flows in the circuit. However, at this first instant
when the combination is connected across the CURRENT

battery, there is no voltage across the capacitor.

The current is at a maximum and the voltage
across the capacitor is at a minimum, or zero,
voltage.
As the voltage across the capacitor builds up,
the current flow in the circuit decreases until CURRENT
finally, when the capacitor is fully charged to a
value equal to the battery voltage, the current VOLTAGE
drops to zero. At this point, the source voltage is
unable to force any additional electrons onto the
one plate of the capacitor or to pull electrons off
the other plate. Figure 21. The phase relationship between current and
voltage in a capacitive circuit.
Essentially, the same thing happens on acon-
tinuing basis when acapacitor is used in an ac
circuit. When the ac voltage across the capacitor leading the voltage by 90 degrees. In other
builds up, the current decreases until, by the words, it is always one-quarter cycle ahead of the
time the capacitor is fully charged, the current voltage. Remember that this is the opposite of
has dropped to zero. When the voltage across the what happens in an inductive circuit where the
capacitor peaks and begins to reverse in polarity current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.
with the phase change in the applied ac voltage,
the current must reverse to flow in the opposite
direction. Voltage Distribution

During the second quarter of the ac cycle, the

When aresistor and acapacitor are connected
capacitor voltage drops from maximum to zero
in series across an ac generator, as shown in
while the discharge current flowing in the circuit
Fig.22, we cannot measure the resistor voltage,
increases from zero to maximum. As the voltage
then the capacitor voltage, and add them directly
across the capacitor builds up in the opposite
together to get the generator voltage. This is
direction, the current begins to decrease until, at
because the voltage across the resistor is in
the instant when the capacitor is fully charged
phase with the current, but the voltage across
with the opposite polarity, the current flow in the
the capacitor lags the current by 90 degrees. To
circuit has dropped to zero again.
add them, we must use aformula very similar to
The relationship between the current and the one we used for inductive circuit voltages:
voltage in a capacitive ac circuit is shown in
Fig.21. Notice that in this circuit the current is EG .. VEtt+E

20
 CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS

Z . vit 2+e

If, in the circuit shown in Fig.22, the resis-

tance is 300 ohms and the capacitive reactance
is 400 ohms, we can substitute these values in
the formula to find the impedance.

Z =V300 2 +400 2
Figure 22. The voltage across the resistor.
- V90,000+160,000 = 1/250,000
=500 ohms

Substituting the values shown in Fig.22 we

get:
1
EG = V30 z + 40 2

= V900+1600 1 ER
= V2500 = 50 V ER
i
We can also find the generator voltage by
means of avector addition of the two voltages,
as shown in Fig.23. First, draw the current vec-
tor I. Since the resistor voltage is in phase with
the current, draw the resistor voltage ERover top
of the current vector. Using ascale of 1". 10 V,
draw the resistor vector 3" long to indicate 30
volts. Now draw the capacitor voltage vector Ec
lagging by 90° and 4" long to represent 40 V, as
shown. Next, draw adotted line parallel to the
capacitor voltage vector from the end of the resis-
tor vector and another dotted line from the end
of the capacitor voltage vector parallel to the
resistor voltage vector. Where the two intersect,
draw aline representing the generator voltage
at EG. If you measure this line, you'll find that it
is 5" long, which indicates that the generator
voltage is 50 volts.

Impedance
L
We can use the same type of formula to find Ec EG

the impedance in an R-C circuit that we used to Figure 23. Vector addition of resistor and capacitor volt-
find the impedance in an RL circuit. age in Fig.22.

21
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

We can also use avector diagram to find the Review

impedance, as shown in Fig.24. Using ascale of
100 ohms = 1", we draw a current vector first. It is important for you to remember that in-
Then we draw the resistor vector R 3" long as creasing either the frequency or the capacitance
shown. Next, we draw the capacitive reactance of a circuit reduces the capacitive reactance.
vector Xc 4" long and then complete our vector Though you seldom have to calculate the actual
diagram. The impedance vector Zbe equal to 5", reactance of a capacitor, you should remember
which represents 500 ohms. the formula in order to remember that increas-
ing frequency or capacitance reduces reactance.
You should remember what we mean by the time
constant of an R-C circuit. It is the time it takes
acapacitor to charge to 63% of the applied volt-
i R age. Increasing the resistance or the capacitance
R of the circuit increases the time constant,
i whereas reducing the resistance or the
capacitance reduces the time constant.
Remember that in acapacitive circuit the cur-
rent leads the voltage by 90 degrees. We can also
say that the voltage lags the current by 90'; both
mean the same thing. Remember that in an R-C
circuit, you cannot arithmetically add the volt-
age across a resistor and the voltage across a
capacitor to get the source voltage. You must add
them vectorially or by means of the formula. The
same is true of impedance in an R-C circuit.

L
x
c

Figure 24. Vector addition of impedance.

22
 CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS

Self-Test Questions 24 What is the time constant of a0.02 pF

capacitor charging through 2.2M resistor?
19 When acapacitor is connected across an ac 25 If the time constant of an R-C circuit is two
generator, does current flow from the gen- seconds when it is charged across a 10 V
erator? battery, what is the time constant when it
20 When acapacitor is connected across agen- is connected across a 100 V battery?
erator, does current flow through the 26 If agenerator is connected across aresistor
capacitor? and acapacitor in series, what is the gen-
21 What is the name given to the opposition erator voltage if the voltage across the
that acapacitor offers to the flow of ac? resistor is 9V and the voltage across the
22 If either the frequency of the applied ac or capacitor is 12 volts?
the capacitance of acapacitor is increased, 27 If a6-ohm resistor is connected in series
what happens to the capacitive reactance? with acapacitor having acapacitive reac-
23 What do we mean by the time constant of an tance of 8ohms, what will the impedance of
R-C circuit? the combination be?

23
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

13 They are expensive.

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
14 Z5 indicates that the capacitor is designed
QUESTIONS for operation between 10°C and 85°C. The
F indicates that the capacitance should
not change more than ±7.5 within the
1 When we say acapacitor is charged, we
capacitor's normal temperature range.
mean there is asurplus of electrons on one
15 Aluminum and tantalum.
plate and ashortage of electrons on the
16 One plate must always be connected to a
other.
positive voltage and the other to anega-
2 The length of time it takes to charge a
tive voltage.
capacitor is affected by the resistance in
17 No.
the circuit and the capacitance of the
18 Replace it.
capacitor.
19 Yes. Current flows from the generator to
3 The capacitance of the capacitor.
charge the capacitor with one polarity
4 The microfarad, which is amillionth of a
during one half-cycle and then flows to the
farad, and apicofarad, which is amil-
opposite direction to charge the capacitor
lionth of amicrofarad.
with the opposite polarity during the next
5 3300 pE To convert microfarads to
half-cycle.
picofarads, you multiply by 1,000,000 or
20 No. While electrons do flow in the circuit,
move the decimal point six places to the
they do not flow through the capacitor.
right.
21 Capacitive reactance.
6 0.00068 pF. To convert picofarads to
22 It is reduced.
microfarads, you move the decimal point
23 It is the length of time it takes the capacitor
six places to the left.
to charge up to approximately 63% of the
7 The area of the plates, the spacing between
applied voltage.
the plates, and the dielectric of the
24 0.044 second. The time constant equals 2.2 x
medium between the plates.
0.02 =0.044 second.
8 The dielectric constant of amaterial tells
25 Two seconds. The time constant is exactly
you how many times the capacitance of
the same because the charging voltage has
the capacitor increased by substituting the
no effect on the time constant.
material between the plates of acapacitor
26 15 V. Use the formula:
in place of air.
9 It has the effect of reducing the spacing be- EG = VEtt + EÉ V9 1 + 12 1
tween the plates of the capacitor.
= V81 + 144 =
10 This is the maximum dc voltage that can be
applied across acapacitor. = 15 V
11 We mean the plates are separated by air;
there is no solid dielectric between the 27 10 ohms. Use the formula:
plates. Z VR2 +
12 To seal the capacitor so moisture can't seep
into the capacitor. = V6 e + 8e
= V36 + 64 = V-
11710
= 10 ohms

24
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are:

• A capacitor is basically no more than two flat pieces

of conductor, separated by an insulator.

• A capacitor charges at a rate determined by its

capacitance and by the total resistance in the circuit.

• Capacitors are usually measured in microfarads, and

have peak voltage ratings.

• Capacitors can be fixed or variable, and polarized or

nonpolarized in nature.

• Current leads voltage in acapacitive circuit by as

much as 90 degrees.

25
HOW CAPACITORS ARE USED

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2223.

•
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1. The capacitance of acapacitor can be in- 4. 470 pF is equal to:

creased by increasing: a. 0.000047 µE
a. The charging voltage. b. 0.00047 p.E
b. The area of the plates. c. 0.0047 F.
c. The spacing between the plates. d. 0.047 µE
d. The resistance in the circuit.
5. The capacitive reactance of a25 µF capacitor
2. 0.0001 µF is equal to: at afrequency of 100 cycles is:
a. 1pE a. Approximately 6000 ohms.
b. 10 pE b. Approximately 600 ohms.
100 pE c. Approximately 100 ohms.
1000 pE d. Less than 100 ohms.

3. In place of a10 µF, 35 V capacitor, you can 6. What is the total capacitance of a6µF ca-
use: pacitor, an 811F capacitor, and a4µF capaci-
a. 10 µF, 10 V capacitor. tor all connected in parallel?
b. 10 µF, 20 V capacitor. a. 10 µE
c. 10 µF, 30 V capacitor. b. 14 µE
g.) 10 µF, 40 V capacitor. c. 18 µE
d. 20 µE

26
 LESSON QUESTIONS

7. The total capacitance of two 8e capacitors 9. A resistor is connected in series with a

connected in series is: capacitor and these are connected across
a. 2e an ac generator. The voltage measured
b. 4e. across the resistor is 40 V and across the
c. 8 tF'. capacitor 30 volts. What is the generator
d. 16 e voltage?
a. 70 volts.
8. The time constant of an R-C circuit made up b. 60 volts.
of a50 µF capacitor and a100K resistor is: c. 50 volts.
a. 5000 seconds. d. 45 volts.
b. 500 seconds.
c. 50 seconds. 10. A 2.5 !IF capacitor is connected in series
d. 5seconds. with a300 ohm resistor. The two are con-
nected across the generator operating at
159 hertz. What is the impedance of the
circuit?
a. 300 ohms.
b. 400 ohms.
c. 500 ohms.
d. 600 ohms.

27
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
•
MBWSchools

HOW TO BUILD CONFIDENCE

Self-confidence — an active faith in your power to accomplish what-

ever you try to do — is apersonal asset that can do big things for you.

Nothing builds confidence like success. Each lesson you successfully

complete builds your confidence. The more you accomplish, the more
confident you become, and the more you are able to achieve.

Success is habit-forming. Once you get started, you'll find yourself

doing something successful every day. Before you know it, your little
successes will have built up to that big success you've dreamed of.
Get into the success habit as fast as you can, by resolving to study
every day, even if only for afew minutes.

Another confidence builder is adeep, firm faith in yourself — in your

ability to get ahead. If you believe in yourself and are willing to back
up this faith with hard work, you can safely let the rest take care of
itself. With self-confidence grounded in hard work, you can look forward
to success in any field you choose.

Act as if you cannot possibly fail, and you will surely succeed.

•••

LT2223(711) A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

 Fi •

0
0
0
111
How Coils and Capacitors Work Together

2224

NRI Schools
e'
ADivision of The McGraw Kill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
How Coils and Capacitors
Work Together
 MrerMIFenee
[Link].f,'•,:
—
' •" •

,p

••••••• •

•
e •••,' A..•••
 Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Series Resonant Circuits 2

Series Circuits 2
Resonant Circuits 3
Varying C, L, f, and R 4
Review 8
Self-Test Questions 8

Parallel Resonant Circuits 9

Current Flow 9
Varying C, L, f, and R in aParallel Resonant Circuit 11
Review 13
Self-Test Questions 13

Comparison of Resonant Circuits 14

Resonance Curves 14
Identifying Resonant Circuits 14
Review 17
Self-Test Questions 17

How Resonant Circuits Are Used 19

Selecting aDesired Signal 19
How Filters Are Used 20
Review 22
Self-Test Questions 22

Answers to Self-Test Questions 23

Lesson Questions 26

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you

• Learn how coils and capacitors are combined into series res-
onant circuits.

• Discover the characteristics of series resonant circuits and

the factors affecting them.

• Continue on to learn about how coils and capacitors can be

combined into another form, parallel resonant circuits.

• Learn how series and parallel resonant circuits have

practical applications as frequency filters.
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION In circuits where coils and capacitors are used

together, the two work against each other. Some-
times the circuit may act more like acoil, in that
In your study of resistors, coils, and capaci- the voltage will lead the current by some angle
tors, you were primarily concerned with the in- less than 90 degrees. In other circuits capacitive
dividual part. In electronic equipment, however, effects might dominate, so that circuit voltage
these parts are seldom used alone; in most cases, lags the current by some value less than 90
two or more parts are used together. Circuits degrees. It is also possible for the inductive effect
that use resistors and coils together are called to cancel the capacitive effect so that the voltage
R-L circuits. Circuits that combine resistors and and current will be in phase. Circuits of this type
capacitors are called R-C circuits. Circuits using are called resonant circuits.
coils and capacitors are L-C circuits. When all
There are two types of resonant circuits: series
three are used together, we call it an R-L-C circuit.
resonant and parallel resonant. Whether acir-
Coils and capacitors have basically opposite cuit is one or the other depends upon how the
effects. For example, in a circuit having only voltage is applied to the coil and capacitor in the
inductance, the voltage leads the current by 90 circuit. Both types of resonant circuit are impor-
degrees. On the other hand, in acircuit having tant. We will study them both so that you will
only capacitance, the voltage lags the current by learn to distinguish one type from the other.
90 degrees. Series resonance is somewhat easier to under-
stand than parallel resonance, so we will start
with the series resonant circuit.

1
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

Inductive reactance has the opposite effect of

SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS
capacitive reactance. In any circuit where both
exist, they tend to cancel each other out. The total
In aresonant circuit, the inductive reactance reactance in this circuit is 100 -60 = 40 ohms,
is equal to the capacitive reactance. When the which appears as inductive reactance because the
voltage is applied to the coil and the capacitor in coil reactance is greater. Therefore, the impedance
series, we call the circuit aseries resonant cir- of the circuit can be found using this formula:
cuit. To help you get a clear understanding of
what happens in aseries resonant circuit, let's Z=V112 +(
XL -Xe )
1

start with two simple series circuits that are not

Substituting 30 for R, 100 for XL,and 60 for
resonant. Xc ,we get:

Z =V30 1 +(100 -60) z

Series Circuits

=V900 +1,600
In the circuit of Fig.1, the capacitive reactance
is 60 ohms at the frequency applied to the circuit. -V2,500
The inductive reactance of the coil is 100 ohms.
Since the wire used in the circuit has resistance, .50 ohms impedance
we know that there must be some small resis-
tance in the circuit. Let's represent this resis- Since the voltage applied to the cicuit is 50
tance with a 30-ohm resistor. First, find the volts (V), we know that the current, I, must be:
impedance of the circuit, then find the current
flow in the circuit and the voltage across each I- - 0 -1ampere (A)
part in the circuit. Z 50
This means that the voltage across the resis-
tor ER will be:

GO OHMS ER =IR = 1x30 =30 V

The voltage across the coil EL will be:

EL =IX L = 1x100 = 100 V

And the voltage across the capacitor Ec will be:

50 V 100 OHMS

Ec =IXc =1x60 =60 V

The important thing for you to notice in this
example is that only 50 V are applied by the
generator, but there are 60 V across the capacitor
and 100 V across the coil. If we take an ac voltme-
Figure 1. A series circuit where the inductive reactance is ter and measure the voltage across these compo-
greater than the capacitive reactance. nents, these are the voltage readings we get.

2
 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS

However, since the phase of the voltage across tance. The net reactance is again 40 ohms, the
the coil leads the current phase, and since the impedance 50 ohms, and the current 1ampere.
voltage phase across the capacitor lags the cur-
There are 100 V across the capacitance and
rent phase, we would measure 40 V total across
60 V across the inductance. The net voltage
the coil and capacitor together, because they
across the two is 40 V, but since the capacitive
cancel each other. Since the coil voltage is greater
voltage is larger, the voltage phase lags the cur-
than the capacitor voltage, the voltage phase
rent. Remember from these two examples that
leads the current. This is the effect we get when
the voltage across the larger reactance deter-
the net reactance is inductive.
mines whether the current phase leads or lags
To add the reactive voltage across the coil and the voltage phase.
capacitor to the voltage across the resistor, we
must use this formula:
Resonant Circuits
ET =N/Et
1 +(
EL -Ec il
In the series circuit shown in Fig.3, we again
=\
730 2 + 40 1 have a voltage of 50 V and a resistance of 30
ohms, but capacitive and inductive reactances
= V900 + 1,600 are equal at 100 ohms. In this circuit, the induc-
tive reactance of the coil exactly cancels the
=J2,500 capacitive reactance of the capacitor. The only
opposition to current flow is the 30-ohm resistor;
=50 V thus, the impedance of the circuit is 30 ohms.
The current flow through the circuit is:
Figure 2is the same as Fig.1, except that the
capacitive reactance is 100 ohms and the induc-
tive reactance is 60 ohms. We use the same I=---
E =—50 = 1.67 A
formula to find the impedance, but we subtract Z 30
the inductive reactance from the capacitive reac-

100 OHMS 100 OHMS

50 V 60 OHMS 50 V 100 OHMS

Figure 2. A series circuit where the capacitive reactance Figure 3. A series resonant circuit where the capacitive
is greater than the inductive reactance. reactance is equal to the inductive reactance.

3
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

The voltage across the resistor is: If we take the square root of both sides of the
equation, we get the formula for calculating the
ER = IR = 1.67 x30 =50 V resonant frequency of an L-C circuit:
The voltage across the coil is:
1
f-
EL =IXL = 1.67 x100 = 167 V 27r/EC-

The voltage across the capacitor is: (Where fis the frequency in hertz (Hz) at which
the circuit is resonant, L is the inductance in
Ec =IXc = 1.67 x100 = 167 V henrys (H), C is the capacity in farads (F), and
2n =approximately 6.28, aconstant.)
Notice that in this resonant circuit we have a
voltage of 167 V (more than three times the The relative position of the three parts in Fig.3
generator voltage) across the coil, and across the has no effect on the resonant circuit. As long as
capacitor. This step-up in voltage, called aresonant- the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
voltage step-up, occurs in all series resonant cir- reactance, we have aseries resonant circuit. In
cuits. The lower the resistance in the circuit, the Fig.4(A), the positions of the coil and the resistor
higher the resonant-voltage step-up. are interchanged, but the circuit is still aseries
resonant circuit. With agenerator voltage of 50 V,
Reducing the resistance value in the circuit
a 30-ohm resistor, and the reactance of the coil
from 30 ohms to 15 ohms will cause the circuit
and the capacitor each at 100 ohms, we have the
current to double and will also double the voltages same situation as in Fig.3.
across the coil and the capacitor. Remember, how-
ever, that these two voltages are 180° out of phase. Figure 4(B) shows the current waveform. The
The voltage across the coil leads the circuit current voltage across the resistor will be in phase with
by 90°, and the voltage across the capacitor lags the current. Figure 4(C) shows the waveform of
the circuit current by 90 degrees. In combination, the voltage across the coil. Notice that it is lead-
they cancel. A measurement of the total voltage ing the current by 90 degrees. In Fig.4(D), the
across the coil and the capacitor will show 0volts. waveform of the voltage across the capacitor is
shown. Notice it is lagging the current by 90 °and
In the circuit shown in Fig.3, XL =Xc ,because
is 180° out of phase with the voltage across the
we know that:
coil. This is why the two voltages cancel.

1
XL =2nfL and Xc -
2nfC Varying C, L, f, and R
We also know that:
In the examples shown in Figs.1, 2, and 3, the
1 lowest circuit impedance and the highest circuit
2nfL =
2nfC current occurred at resonance. At resonance the
circuit also acted like apurely resistive circuit,
We can rearrange this formula to get this: because the inductive and capacitive character-
istics canceled out.
f2 . 1
4n -, LC Both above and below resonance, circuit im-
pedance is greater than at resonance. In Fig.1,

4
 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS

(A)
where the inductive reactance is higher than
100 OHMS the capacitive reactance, the circuit acts like a
series circuit made up only of resistance and
inductive reactance. In Fig.2, where the capac-
itive reactance is higher than the inductive
reactance, the circuit acts like aseries circuit
50 V 30 OHMS made up of resistance and capacitive reac-
tance. In either case, where the two reactances
do not cancel completely, they add to the total
impedance, making it higher than at reso-
nance.
Varying C. Look at the circuit shown in
Fig.5. At afrequency of approximately 500 Hz,
the coil will have an inductive reactance of 314
ohms. If we start with zero capacitance in the
circuit and begin increasing it in steps, the
current varies as shown in Fig.6 on the next
2 a page.
When capacitance is zero, there is an open
circuit, so the current will be zero. As we add
capacitance, the capacitive reactance decreases,
until it reaches 314 ohms with a value of 1
microfarad (e). At this point, capacitive reac-
tance equals inductive reactance, causing both
5 9

100 mH
(C) 2 4

3 7
120 V
120 OHMS
500 Hz
3 7

1 9
5 Figure 5. At 500 Hz, the 100 mH coil will have an inductive
Figure 4. (A) Circuit. (B) Waveform of current and voltage reactance of 314 ohms and the 1pF capacitor will have a
across the resistor. (C) Waveform of voltage across the capacitive reactance of 314 ohms, so it is a series
coil. (D) Waveform of voltage across the capacitor. resonant circuit.

5
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

RESONANCE RESONANCE
1.0 1.0

I 0.8 0.8

i
0.6

I
0.6
a

0.4 L = 100 mH 0.4 C • 1pF

f • 500 f • 500

0.2 0.2

0 o
0.5 µF 11,ar 2 is, 3 µF 50 mH 100mH 200 mH 300 mH

CAPACITANCE OF C INDUCTANCE OF L

Figure 6. How current varies In a series resonant circuit Figure 7. How current varies in a series resonant circuit
when Lis 100 mH, fIs 500 Hz, and C is varied from 0to 3 when C is 1µF, fis 500 Hz, and L is varied from 0to 300
mIcrofarads. millihenrys.

to cancel. The current is limited only by the will vary as shown in Fig.7. When the inductance
120-ohm resistor in the circuit, making acurrent is zero, the capacitor has areactance of 314 ohms
of 1ampere. in series with the 120-ohm resistor. There is a
current flow of approximately 0.3 ampere.
As we increase capacitance beyond 1p.F, ca-
pacitive reactance continues to decrease. It be- As inductance increases in the circuit, the
comes too small to cancel inductive reactance, inductive reactance subtracts from the capaci-
leaving only resistance and inductive reactance tive reactance until it reaches 100 mH, the point
in the circuit. The impedance increases above at which inductive reactance completely cancels
120 ohms, and the current decreases as shown. capacitive reactance. The only limit on current
In either case, when capacitance is too little or under these conditions is the 120-ohm resistor,
too great for resonance, circuit impedance is so current is maximum for the circuit. If induc-
tance increases above 100 mH, inductive reac-
greater than it is at resonance. The larger value
tance exceeds capacitive reactance, impedance
of impedance reduces current flow in the circuit.
Notice also that below resonance, capacitive re- increases, and current decreases as shown.
actance is greater than inductive reactance, so For inductance values below 100 mH, the in-
the current phase in the circuit leads the voltage. ductive reactance is not high enough to cancel
Above resonance, inductive reactance is greater the capacitive reactance, so the circuit acts ca-
than capacitive reactance, so the current phase pacitive, and the current phase leads the voltage
lags the voltage. phase. For inductance values above 100 mH,
inductive reactance is greater than capacitive
Varying L. If we return to Fig.5 and insert a1
le capacitor in the circuit, then vary the induc- reactance, the circuit is inductive, and current
tance from 0to 300 millihenrys (mH), the current phase lags the voltage.

6
 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS

Varying Both Land C. If we double the induc- reactance decreases at the same rate that induc-
tance to 200 mH, the inductive reactance tive reactance increases, greater proportions of
doubles, increasing to approximately 630 ohms. each type of reactance cancel out, thereby reduc-
If we reduce the capacitance to 0.5 tIF, capacitive ing the total reactance in the circuit. At resonant
reactance also doubles to 630 ohms. The induc- frequency (500 Hz), the inductive reactance
tive reactance is again equal to the capacitive equals the capacitive reactance, and the two
reactance, making the circuit resonant at 500 hertz. cancel completely, leaving minimum impedance
and maximum current flow.
Many different values of coils and capacitors
can be combined to obtain acircuit that is reso- Above the resonant frequency, capacitive reac-
nant (sometimes we say that it "resonates") at tance continues to decrease, while inductive re-
500 hertz. Any value of coil that we might select actance continues to increase. The percentage of
will have acertain inductive reactance at afre- reactance cancellation decreases, because the
quency of 500 hertz. We would need acapacitor amount of cancellation can only be as high as the
with an equal capacitive reactance at 500 Hz to smaller value of reactance. Therefore, the total
give us acircuit resonant at 500 hertz. reactance in the circuit increases. This means
that the impedance in the circuit increases and,
Varying f. If we vary the frequency applied to
as aresult, current flow in the circuit decreases.
the combination of 100 mH coil and 1[IF capac-
itor, circuit current varies like the curve shown Varying R. Under certain circumstances, the
in Fig.8. At zero frequency there is no current total resistance in the circuit can vary. As the resis-
flow because dc will not flow through the capac- tance in the circuit changes, the Q of the circuit
itor. As frequency increases, current increases. changes, as does current flow. The Q of areso-
This happens because, even though capacitive nant circuit is equal to the inductive or capaci-
tive reactance divided by the resistance in the
circuit. In most resonant circuits, the only resis-
tance in the circuit is the resistance in the wire
used to wind the coil, so, in most cases, the Q of
1.0
a resonant circuit will be equal to the Q of the
C u 1µF coil. Remember that the Q of acoil is equal to its
L u 100 mH
0.8
R 4‘ 120 OFiltS inductive reactance divided by its resistance.
Figure 9on the next page shows three current
curves where resistance is varied. Curves A and
B have the same capacitor and inductor values
0.4 with different resistances. Notice that Curve B,
RESONANT where dc resistance is lower, has a higher cur-
FREQUENCY
0.2 rent and asharper peak at resonance. Since the
resistance in the circuit is lower, the circuit Q is
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 higher. These are two characteristics of ahigh Q
circuit: high current and a sharp resonance
peak.
Figure 8. How current varies in a series resonant circuit
A series resonant circuit can be used to select
when C is 1ttF, L is 100 mH, R is 120 ohms, and fis varied
from 0to 1,000 hertz. one frequency and reject all others. This is aform

7
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

CURVE A: CURVE II : CURVE C:

C • 1ig C
L r. le
rrnoi is called the LC ratio. In aseries resonant circuit,
L : le rmH L • 100 ei
a high LC ratio provides a sharper resonance
C
R • 120 OHMS R • 100 ONUS R • 120 ONUS
curve than alow LC ratio.

Review

The most important thing to remember about a

series resonant circuit is that at resonance the
inductive and capacitive reactances will cancel.
The circuit acts like alow resistance and draws a
high current, and the current will be in phase with
the generator voltage. The voltage across the coil
and the voltage across the capacitor can be several
0.2
times the generator voltage. This increased volt-
age is called aresonant-voltage step-up.
100 200 300 400 500 800 700 800 000 1000
Below resonance, the voltage across the capac-
FREQUENCY IN HERTZ
itor is greater than the voltage across the coil, so
Figure 9. How the current varies in aseries resonant circuit
the current phase leads the voltage phase. Above
when fis varied. In each case the product of L and C is the resonance, the voltage across the coil is greater
same, and resonance occurs at 500 hertz. than the voltage across the capacitor, so the
phase of current lags that of the voltage.

of tuning to afrequency. A high-Q circuit does a

Self-Test Questions
much better job than alow-Q circuit. Sometimes,
however, a series resonant circuit is used to
1 What is aresonant circuit?
select aband (range) of frequencies rather than
2 Why is the current maximum at resonance
one particular frequency. In this case, a low-Q
in aseries circuit consisting of acoil, aca-
series resonant circuit will do abetter job than a
pacitor, and aresistor?
high-Q circuit, since the low-Q output current
3 In aseries resonant circuit, how will the
over arange of frequencies is higher, rather than
phase of the voltage across the various com-
asharp peak of current over anarrow range.
ponents compare with the phase of the cur-
The curve marked "C" in Fig.9 is the one we rent flow in the circuit?
would obtain for a50 mH coil, [Link] capacitor, 4 When acoil and acapacitor are connected
and a series resistance of 120 ohms. Compare in series and the frequency of the voltage
Curve C with Curve A. Notice that Curve A is applied to them is varied, at what point will
considerably sharper than Curve C. This is be- the current flow through the circuit reach
cause the inductance in Curve A is greater than its maximum value?
the inductance in Curve C, even though the 5 What effect will reducing the resistance in
resonant frequency is the same. The ratio of the circuit have on the current flow in ase-
inductance to capacitance in a resonant circuit ries resonant circuit?

8
 PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

PARALLEL RESONANT
CIRCUITS
E G

In a parallel resonant circuit, the coil and

capacitor are in parallel. Like the series reso-
nant circuit, the inductive reactance and the
capacitive reactance are equal, and one cancels
the other. However, the similarity ends at this
point, because in most respects, the behavior of
aparallel resonant circuit is opposite to that of IG iN_I-riti
a series resonant circuit. The energy stored in
the capacitor and the coil circulates back and
forth in the resonant circuit, alternately charg-
ing and discharging the capacitor, and building
and collapsing the magnetic field of the coil.

Current Flow

Figure 10 shows the waveforms for atypical

parallel resonant circuit, such as the one shown
in Fig.11 on the next page. When the coil and
capacitor are in parallel, resonance occurs when
the branch currents through the parallel capac-
itor and coil are equal and opposite. Minimum
current flows in the main line, as compared to
maximum current for series-resonance, as the
reactances cancel each other. Because the values
of inductive and capacitive reactance are essen- Figure 10. Voltage and current waveforms for parallel
resonant circuit in Fig.11.
tially equal at resonance, the currents in the
branches of the parallel network are also equal.
Since line current is minimum, total circuit im-
pedance is at maximum, by definition. 1
Let's perform some useful calculations, using =6.28 x0.0001
the values listed for the coil, capacitor, and voltage
given in Fig.11. The resonant frequency for a0.1 = 1,592 Hz
itF capacitor and a100 mH coil is equal to: The resonant frequency is rounded off to the
nearest hertz. At resonance, the capacitive and
1 inductive reactance values should be equal.
f-
27.%/LC

9
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

phase in the capacitive branch leads the source

voltage phase by 90°, while the current phase in
the inductive branch lags the source voltage by
L1 90 degrees. A series circuit would show acumu-
100 mH
lative phase difference, but in the parallel circuit
10 V
the source voltage is applied equally across the
R1
10 OHMS network of the two reactive elements, producing
atotal phase difference of 180°, or directly oppos-
ing. Thus, the reactance currents cancel each
other in the main line, although they circulate in
the parallel network at a flow of 10 mA, as
calculated above.
Figure 11. A parallel resonant circuit.
Below resonant frequency, there is more cur-
Again, we will round off the decimal places in the rent in the main line and more current in the
calculation and obtain these measurements: inductive branch because of the lower reactance
of the coil at lower frequencies. Above the reso-
Capacitive reactance:
nant frequency, reactance in the capacitive
branch decreases, and current in the main line
1
X,- 27Tfc and in the capacitive branch increases.
What is the current in the main line at the
1 resonant frequency of the parallel network? In
6.28 x1,592 x0.0000001 theory, a perfect capacitor and a perfect coil
would retain 100% of the circuit energy, charging
= 1,000 ohms and discharging each other back and forth, in-
definitely. Theoretically, the main line current
Inductive reactance:
would be zero because such aperfectly resonant
circuit would create an infinite impedance.
XL =2:rfL
There is no such thing as a perfect coil,
=6.28 x1,592 x0.1 however. There are losses due to the resistance
of the wire used to wind the coil and for other
= 1,000 ohms reasons. These small losses are represented by
We can use these reactance values to calculate the 10-ohm resistor shown in series with the
the branch currents. That is, current in the in- inductive branch. As you know, this resistance
ductive branch is equal to the source voltage determines the Q of the coil. There are also
divided by the reactance, or 10/1,000 = 10 milli- some very small losses in the capacitor, but
amperes (mA). (We will ignore the 10 ohm resis- normally the circuit Q is considered to be equal
tance since it is so low it will not have a to the Q of the coil.
significant effect.) We get the same current in the The shortcut way to calculate the line imped-
capacitive branch. ance presented by the parallel resonant network
We have equal currents, but are they opposite? is to multiply the Q of the circuit times the
Well, since this is aparallel ac circuit, the current inductive reactance. For the circuit shown in

lo
 PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

Fig.11, the Q is equal to the inductive reactance by varying the frequency of the applied voltage
divided by the resistance, or: and watching for asharp dip in the main circuit
current, indicating that the impedance of the
parallel resonant circuit is maximum. Carefully
adjust the variable resistor so that the voltage
drop across it is equal to the voltage drop across
the parallel resonant network. Disconnect the
variable resistor from the circuit and measure
its resistance. The resistance is equal to the
impedance of the resonant network, since equal
voltage drops in a series circuit mean equal
The parallel resonant total impedance is then:
resistance values.

Zr =XL xQ
Varying C, L, f, and R in a Parallel
= 1,000 x100
Resonant Circuit

= 100,000 ohms
When we speak of resistance in a parallel
If you are reasonably confident that you know resonant circuit, we are usually referring to
the Q of the circuit, the shortcut method provides losses in the circuit that act like a resistor con-
a usable ballpark figure for total impedance. nected across the circuit (sometimes called shunt
However, the resonant impedance may be di- resistance), or a small resistance in series with
rectly and accurately measured by making a the coil, as discussed previously. This resistance
rough calculation according to the Q of the cir- is sometimes called ac resistance and is aresult
cuit, then placing avariable resistor of compara- of eddy currents, flux leakage, skin effects, hys-
ble range in series with the resonant circuit, as teresis losses, and other factors that we will
shown in Fig.12. Tune the circuit to resonance discuss in alater lesson.

Varying C. At resonance, the inductive reac-

tance is equal to the capacitive reactance in the
R2 (VARIABLE)
100K OHMS parallel resonant circuit, just as in aseries res-
onant circuit. What if the generator shown in
Fig.11 had afrequency of 500 Hz and the coil had
an inductance of 100 millihenrys? Figure 13 on
L1 the next page shows the effect on line current of
100 mH
different capacitor values. When capacitance is
zero, the only limit to the flow of current is the
R1 coil impedance and coil ac resistance.
10 OHMS
With zero ac resistance, the inductive reac-
tance is 314 ohms. With a generator voltage of
120 V, the current is 0.38 ampere. As capacitance
increases toward 1 !I F,current decreases to a
Figure 12. Using variable resistor to calculate impedance
of L1-C1 resonant network.

11
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

Varying f and R. What if the resistance R in

1.0
Fig.11 were zero? Curve A in Fig.14 shows how
the current will vary as the frequency applied to
0.8 L n 100 niN the resonant circuit is changed. When the fre-
f = 500
R= 0 quency is zero, we have dc. No current will flow
0.6 through the capacitor. At the same time, the
z
RESONANCE inductive reactance of the coil is zero, so the only
limit to current flow will be the resistance of the
0.4
coil. As the frequency is increased beyond the
resonant frequency, the current rises slowly. The
0.2
increased line current is due to the drop-off in
o the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. Cur-
0.5 $if 1id" 2µF 3;&F rent flow through the coil will continue to de-
crease as the frequency is increased because the
CAPACITANCE OF C
inductive reactance of the coil will increase with
the frequency.
Figure 13. How the line current varies when the
capacitance of the capacitor In a parallel resonant circuit At afrequency below the resonant frequency
is varied. of the circuit, most of the current flows through
the coil, and the parallel resonant circuit is
minimum because the circuit resonates at that inductive. At resonance the circuit acts like a
point, and main circuit impedance is maximum.
As capacitance increases beyond 1µF, circuit 7
impedance goes down and line current goes up. In CURVE 3
the example shown, when the capacitance is less e C . 10 Ad
L ai 10 mil
than 1µF, most of the current flows through the R. 0
coil. With zero capacitance, the current should lag the

I
generator voltage by an angle close to 90 degrees. As
we approach resonance, the current begins to fall into
4
phase with the voltage, until at resonance the main

i
line current is in phase with the voltage.
3
If we change only the inductance in
Varying L.
the circuit, we will find that we get an effect
2 CURVE A
similar to that of changing the capacitance. The
?. s
. le rmll
line current increases when the inductance is R. 0
either too large or too small for resonance. If the 1

inductance is below the value needed for

resonance, the circuit acts exactly as it does 0 100 200 300 400 500 800 700 800 900 woo
when too low a capacitance is used. Similarly,
mammy IN HERTZ
when the inductance is too high for resonance,
the circuit acts as it does when the capacitance Figure 14. How the line current varies when the frequency
is varied in a parallel resonant circuit.
is too high.

12
 PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

high resistance. Above the resonant frequency, where we obtain a sharp curve with a low L/C
the current flow through the capacitor is greater ratio.
than the current flow through the coil, so the
circuit is capacitive.
Review
Curve A in Fig.14 is for acircuit composed of
a 100 mH coil and a 11.1F capacitor. This circuit
The parallel resonant circuit acts like a high
resonates at 500 hertz. If we reduce the induc-
tance to 10 mH and increase the capacitance to resistance. The line current is low and in phase
with the generator voltage. The current flowing
10 µF, the resonant frequency remains 500 Hz,
back and forth between the capacitor and the coil
because the product of the inductance and ca-
in the resonant network is much higher than the
pacitance is the same. A 20 mH coil and a5µF
capacitor also resonate at afrequency of 500 Hz, generator current. Below resonance, the inductive
for the same reason, as are a 10 mH coil and a reactance is less than the capacitive reactance, so
[Link] capacitor. more generator current flows through the coil, and
the current phase lags the generator voltage.
Curve Bof Fig.14 shows the line-current curve Above resonance, the capacitive reactance is less
for a parallel resonant circuit made up of a 10 than the inductive reactance, so more generator
mH coil and a 10 1.1F capacitor. Notice that the current flows through the capacitor than the coil,
current rises much faster on both sides of and the current phase leads the voltage.
resonance and drops to zero much more sharply
than the curve for the 100 mH coil and the 1IAF
capacitor. Curve B is sharper than curve A be- Self-Test Questions
cause the circuit of curve B has alower ratio of
inductance to capacitance. The L/C ratio for 6 How do you distinguish between aseries
curve A is 10 times higher than the L/C ratio for resonant and aparallel resonant circuit?
curve B. A low L/C ratio gives asharp curve. 7 What does aparallel resonant circuit act
Parallel resonant circuits with alow L/C ratio like at resonance?
8 Does the generator supply acurrent of
are used to separate signals on frequencies that
are close together. Parallel resonant circuits with high value or of low value to aparallel
a high L/C ratio are used to pass a band of resonant circuit?
9 In circuits such as the one shown in
frequencies. As you can see from Fig.14, if we
want to pass a band of signals from 300 Hz to Fig.11, why will the voltage across the
800 Hz, the higher L/C-ratio resonant circuit is 10-ohm resistor be small?
more suitable. On the other hand, if we want to 10 Does acurrent of high value or low value
flow in the coil and capacitor in aparallel
separate a500 Hz signal from a300 Hz signal,
resonant circuit?
the low L/C-ratio circuit would be better.
11 Will increasing the resistance of the coil in
The Q of acoil is another factor that affects the aparallel resonant circuit cause the gener-
sharpness of the resonant curves. A high-Q coil ator current to increase or decrease?
will yield amuch sharper curve than alow-Q coil. 12 If aparallel resonant circuit is used in a
In aseries resonant circuit, we obtain asharp radio receiver to select one signal and
response curve with ahigh L/C ratio. We have the reject others, do you want ahigh L/C ratio
opposite situation in aparallel resonant circuit, or alow L/C ratio?

13
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

to design aseries resonant circuit or aparallel

COMPARISON OF RESONANT
resonant circuit, but the more you understand
CIRCUITS about the circuits, the better you will be able to
maintain equipment for which you might be
responsible.
Series resonant and parallel resonant circuits
are found in most electronic equipment that re-
quires tuning or filtering. Table Icompares and
Identifying Resonant Circuits
summarizes the important characteristics of se-
ries resonant and parallel resonant circuits. Notice
Sometimes, it is not easy to distinguish be-
that in many cases the series resonant circuit acts
tween aseries resonant and aparallel resonant
opposite to aparallel resonant circuit.
circuit. Figure 15(A) on page 16 shows aseries
The resistance, or impedance, at resonance resonant circuit. Remember that a series reso-
and the current at resonance are very important nant circuit is a resonant circuit in which the
factors. A series resonant circuit acts as a low source voltage is applied across the coil and the
resistance at resonance, and the current flowing capacitor in series. There is no doubt that this is
through it is relatively high. On the other hand, aseries resonant circuit.
a parallel resonant circuit acts as a very high
In Fig.15(B) is aparallel resonant circuit. A
resistance at resonance, and the current flowing
parallel resonant circuit is aresonant circuit in
through it is very low.
which the source voltage is applied to the coil and
The combination of the coil and the capacitor capacitor in parallel. It is easy to see that this is
in aresonant circuit is often called atank circuit. aparallel resonant circuit.
A tank circuit stores electricity just as awater
In Fig.15(C) there are two resonant circuits
tank stores water. The current flowing between
that look like parallel resonant circuits. The
the coil and capacitor is called the tank current.
voltage from the generator is applied to the first
In aseries resonant circuit, the tank current is
circuit, which we call the primary. The second
the line current, and it is high. In a parallel
resonant circuit is arranged so that the coil is
resonant circuit, even though the line current is
inductively coupled to the coil of the first or
low, the tank current will be high.
primary circuit. This circuit is called the second-
ary circuit.
Resonance Curves Now, looking at the primary, we see that
the generator is connected across both the
In Fig.14, we used a small coil and a large coil and the capacitor. There is no doubt that
capacitor to obtain asharp resonance curve with the voltage is applied to the two in parallel
a parallel resonant circuit. This gave us a low and that therefore the circuit must be aparal-
L/C ratio. For asharp resonant curve in aseries lel resonant circuit. But what about the second-
resonant circuit, you use the opposite: a large ary? Since the coil and capacitor are connected
inductance and a small capacitance. This is in parallel, you might jump to the conclusion
simply another example of the difference be- that the secondary also is aparallel resonant
tween series resonant and parallel resonant cir- circuit.
cuits. As atechnician, you will not be called upon

14
 TABLE I
COMPARISON OF RESONANT CIRCUITS

SERIES RESONANT CIRCUITS PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

R RES. OF
COIL

r\D AC
SOURCE

1 The coil, the capacitor, and the ac voltage source are 1. The coil, the capacitor, and the ac voltage source
all in series. are all in parallel.
2 Resonance occurs when the reactance of Lis equal 2 Resonance occurs when the reactance of Lis equal
to the reactance of C. to the reactance of C.
3 At resonance, source current is at amaximum (very 3 At resonance, source current is at aminimum (very
high). low).
4 At resonance, a series resonant circuit acts like are- 4. At resonance, a parallel resonant circuit acts like a
sistor of low ohmic value. resistor of high ohmic value.
5 At resonance, the voltages across Land C are equal 5. At resonance, the voltages across L, C, and the
in magnitude but 180 ° out of phase with each other. source are all the same in magnitude and phase.
6 At resonance, the same current flows through the en- 6. At resonance, the currents through Land C are essen-
tire circuit. tially equal in magnitude but are 180 °out of phase.
7 At resonance, the voltage across either Lor C may be 7 At resonance, the current through either Lor C is
greater than that of the source, giving resonant volt- greater than the source current, giving resonant-
age step-up. current step-up.
8 At resonance, increasing the value of coil resistance 8. At resonance, increasing the value of coil resistance
R lowers the circuit current, thereby lowering the R increases the current, thereby lowering the
resonant-voltage step-up. resonant-current step-up.
9. Off resonance, the circuit acts like that part which has 9. Off resonance, the circuit acts like that part which
the higher reactance. has the lower reactance.
a. Increasing C above its at-resonance value makes a. Increasing C above its at-resonance value makes
the circuit act like a coil. the circuit act like a capacitor.
b. Reducing C below its at-resonance value makes the b Reducing C below its at-resonance value makes
circuit act like acapacitor. the circuit act like a coil.
c. Increasing Labove its at-resonance value makes c. Increasing Labove its at-resonance value makes
the circuit act like a coil. the circuit act like a capacitor.
d Reducing Lbelow its at-resonance value makes the d. Reducing Lbelow its at-resonance value makes
circuit act like acapacitor. the circuit act like a coil.
e Applying ahigher frequency than the resonant one e. Applying ahigher frequency than the resonant one
makes the circuit act like a coil. makes the circuit act like a capacitor.
f. Applying alower frequency than the resonant one f. Applying alower frequency than the resonant one
makes the circuit act like a capacitor. makes the circuit act like acoil.
10 The product LC is constant for any given resonant fre- 10. The product LC is constant for any given resonant
quency. frequency.
11 Increasing Lor increasing C lowers the resonant fre- 11. Increasing Lor increasing C lowers the resonant fre-
quency. quency.
12 Decreasing Lor decreasing C raises the resonant fre- 12. Decreasing Lor decreasing C raises the resonant
quency. frequency.
13 The Q factor of the circuit is essentially equal to the 13. The Q factor of the circuit is essentially equal to the coil
coil reactance divided by the ac resistance of the coil. reactance divided by the ac resistance of the coil.

15
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

(A) (B)

I I
PRIMARY SECONDARY

)
1 (C)

(D)

(E)

Figure 15. (A) A series resonant circuit. (6) A parallel resonant circuit. (C) The primary of the transformer and the capacitor
across it form aparallel resonant circuit, and the secondary of the transformer and its capacitor form aseries resonant
circuit. (D) Generators and coils connected in series. (E) The equivalent of the secondary circuit.

Actually, how the coil and capacitor are con- series. This is what distinguishes aseries reso-
nected has no bearing on whether the circuit is nant circuit from aparallel resonant circuit.
series resonant or parallel resonant. Remember,
In the secondary circuit shown in Fig.15(C),
we said that in a parallel resonant circuit the
the voltage is induced in the secondary. Actually,
voltage is applied across the coil and the capaci-
some voltage is induced in each turn of the coil,
tor in parallel, and in the series resonant circuit
and the coils act as if they are connected in series,
the voltage is applied to the coil and capacitor in
so that the total voltage induced in the secondary

16
 COMPARISON OF RESONANT CIRCUITS

is the sum of the voltages induced in each turn. step-ups and resonant-voltage step-ups help am-
We can compare this to anumber of small gen- plify these weak signals to strong, useful levels.
erators connected in series with the various
turns of the coil, and the coil might look like
Fig.15(D). Review
The voltage induced in the coil is actually
Both series resonant and parallel resonant
applied in series with the turns of the coil, rather
than in parallel with the coil and capacitor. The circuits act like pure resistances. However, the
circuit could be represented by Fig.15(E), which series resonant circuit acts like alow resistance.
The current flowing through the generator, coil,
is the same as Fig.15(A). Therefore, the second-
and capacitor is the same, but the voltage across
ary of the transformer shown in Fig.15(C) is a
series resonant circuit and not a parallel reso- the coil and the voltage across the capacitor will
nant circuit. be much higher than the generator voltage.

The parallel resonant circuit acts like avery

You will find this type of double-tuned circuit
in many pieces of electronic equipment. In these high resistance, and the voltage across the gen-
circuits, the voltage is always applied across the erator, coil, and capacitor is the same. However,
the current flowing in the coil and capacitor is
primary winding in parallel with the coil and
capacitor, so the primary circuit is always a much higher than the generator current.
parallel resonant circuit. The voltage in the sec- Below resonance, aseries resonant circuit acts
ondary is always induced in the turns of the like a capacitor, and the current leads the ap-
secondary winding, and this circuit is always a plied voltage. A parallel resonant circuit, on the
series resonant circuit. other hand, acts like an inductance below reso-
nance, and the current lags the generator volt-
When we discussed parallel resonant circuits,
we pointed out that the tank circuit current will age. Above resonance, a series resonant circuit
acts like an inductance, and the current lags the
be much higher than the generator current. This
generator voltage. In the same condition, apar-
is called a resonant-current step-up. In series
allel resonant circuit acts like acapacitor and the
resonant circuits, there is a resonant-voltage
step-up. Therefore, in double-tuned transform- current leads the generator voltage.
ers like the one shown in Fig.15(C), there is
resonant-current step-up in the primary and a
Self-Test Questions
resonant-voltage step-up in the secondary.

Resonant-current step-up causes the primary 13 Explain the difference between the cur-
winding to produce more flux, and more lines of rent flowing in acoil and capacitor in a
flux cut the secondary winding on the transformer, series resonant circuit, and the current
inducing ahigher voltage in it. At the same time, flowing in the coil and capacitor in aparal-
the resonant-voltage step-up occurring in the lel resonant circuit.
secondary circuit creates a voltage across the 14 Explain the difference between the voltage
output of the transformer that is much higher across the coil and capacitor in aseries res-
than the generator voltage. In the input stages onant circuit and the voltage across the
of electronic equipment, we often deal with sig- coil and capacitor in aparallel resonant
nals of only afew microvolts. Resonant-current circuit.

17
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

15 What is the difference between the genera- 17 Will the voltage across the coil or the ca-
tor current in aseries resonant circuit and pacitor in ahigh-Q series resonant circuit
in aparallel resonant circuit? be greater than the voltage across the coil
16 How can the voltage across the coil or ca- or capacitor in alow-Q series resonant cir-
pacitor in aseries resonant circuit be cuit?
greater than the source voltage?

18
 HOW RESONANT CIRCUITS ARE USED

HOW RESONANT CIRCUITS signals over aband of frequencies, all we have to

do is use either a variable coil or a variable
ARE USED capacitor.

Figure 16 shows atypical circuit found in the

Resonant circuits are used in most radio and input section of aradio receiver designed for use
TV receivers, where these circuits select the in the standard AM broadcast band. Notice that
broadcast signal from a station operating on a two coils are placed close together so that they
specific frequency but reject signals from other are inductively coupled. They actually form a
stations operating on different frequencies. Res- transformer. The triangular symbol connected to
onant circuits are also used as frequency filters the primary winding is the symbol used for an
in many applications. antenna.
There are three basic types of filters. A low- The antenna picks up signals from many sta-
pass filter can pass frequencies up to a certain tions operating in the standard broadcast band
level, but block higher frequencies. A high-pass and signals from stations operating outside the
filter allows signals above acertain frequency to band. The radio waves striking the antenna
pass through it readily. The third type of filter, a cause a very small current to flow through the
band-pass filter, passes a group of frequencies primary winding Li of the transformer, setting
that lie between adefined low and high extreme, up avarying flux that cuts the turns of L2 and
but rejects frequencies above or below the limits. induces avoltage in series with it. At some fre-
quency, the combination of L2 and the capacitor
will form aseries resonant circuit. There will be
Selecting a Desired Signal ahigh circulating current at this frequency and
a resulting resonant-voltage step-up across L2
Every coil and capacitor combination is reso- and across C.
nant at some frequency. For example, we found
that a 100 mH coil will form aresonant circuit
with a 1;IF capacitor at afrequency of 500 Hz,
because at that frequency the inductive reac-
tance of the coil is equal to the capacitive reac-
tance of the capacitor.

Suppose, however, that instead of using a1µF

capacitor, we use a0.5 ¡IF capacitor. The 0.5 µF
capacitor will have twice the reactance of the 1
TO A TRANSISTOR
p.F capacitor, so the capacitor coil combination OR INTEGRATED
will not be resonant at 500 hertz. If we increase CIRCUIT INPUT
the frequency of the signal applied to the circuit,
the reactance of the capacitor will start coming
down and the reactance of the coil will start
going up. At afrequency of about 712 Hz, the two
will be equal, and the circuit will be resonant at -
that frequency. Therefore, to be able to select Figure 16. Input circuit of aradio receiver.

19
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

The signal you tune in will be much stronger attenuate frequencies above the cutoff frequen-
than other signals because of this resonant- cy. At the input of the filter is a series circuit
voltage step-up. Radio frequency signals of a made up of Li and Cl. This circuit is resonant
higher frequency will be bypassed by the low above, but very close to, the cutoff frequency
reactance of the capacitor. Radio frequency sig-
Cl and Li are in parallel to the incoming
nals below the resonant frequency will be
signal voltage. Any signal voltage that is
bypassed by the low reactance of L2. The one
developed across Li and CIis passed on; it is not
signal operating at the resonant frequency will
filtered out. Sometimes we say that voltage
be much stronger than all others.
dropped across aparallel resistance or reactance
In the crowded commercial broadcast bands, is developed, as compared to aseries component,
one resonant circuit is not sufficient to select a where the voltage drop tends to attenuate the
single signal frequency and reject all others. voltage, or use it up.
Additional resonant circuits are used to provide
Below the cutoff frequency, the reactance of Cl
additional selectivity. Selectivity is defined as
is higher and signal voltage is dropped, or
the ability of a circuit to select a signal while
developed, across the capacitor. This voltage ap-
rejecting all others.
pears at the filter output; that is, the voltage is
not filtered out. If the voltage is not developed
across the capacitor or the coil, it disappears into
How Filters Are Used
the internal resistance of the circuit or antenna
from which it came.
Two important terms related to filters are
attenuation and cutoff frequency Attenuation L2 is in series. Signal voltage dropped across
tells you how much a filter reduces the signal L2 is reduced to some degree; it is attenuated,
strength. The cutoff frequency tells you the fre- filtered. At frequencies below resonance, the
quency at which the filter becomes effective. reactance of L2 is low and the reactance of C2 is
high, so that very little signal is lost across L2.
Low-Pass Filters. An example of a low-pass
Since C2 is in parallel, signal voltage that is
filter is shown in Fig.17. This filter is designed to
dropped across C2 does appear at the output and
pass frequencies below the cutoff frequency and to
is not filtered out by C2.
L3 and C3 are also resonant at some frequency
above the cutoff frequency Below the cutoff fre-
quency, the reactance of L3 is low and the reac-
tance of C3 is high, so there is very little
attenuation of signals below the cutoff frequency.
Above the cutoff frequency, the reactance of L3
becomes high and the reactance of C3 goes down,
so that the signal is greatly attenuated because
it is not dropped, or developed by C3 in parallel,
while at the same time it is dropped and reduced
by L3 in series.
L4 provides additional attenuation for signals
Figure 17. A low-pass filter.
above the cutoff frequency. The combination of

20
 HOW RESONANT CIRCUITS ARE USED

L4, L5, and C4 forms aseries resonant circuit at C4, L4, and C5 form aseries resonant circuit
afrequency somewhat above the cutoff frequen- that is resonant below the cutoff frequency L4
cy. L5 and C4 form another series resonant cir- and C5 also form aseries resonant circuit that is
cuit at a frequency still higher, to further resonant below the cutoff frequency. These two
attenuate signals above the cutoff frequency. series circuits attenuate signals below the cutoff
frequency. Above the cutoff frequency, the reac-
High-Pass Filters. Figure 18 is adiagram of a
tance of L4 is high, so signals are not attenuated.
high-pass filter. This filter is designed to pass
signals above the cutoff frequency and to at- Band-Pass Filters. Figure 19 is adiagram of
tenuate signals below the cutoff frequency. aband-pass filter. This type of filter is designed
to pass aband of frequencies. Suppose, for exam-
Here we have LI and Cl resonant at some
ple, we want to pass a band of frequencies be-
frequency below the cutoff frequency to at-
tween 9 and 11 megahertz (MHz). This filter
tenuate signals close to, but below, the cutoff
would be designed to pass frequencies within
frequency. Since they are in parallel to the signal
this band with little or no attenuation and to
path, they attenuate frequencies by having low
attenuate signals below 9 MHz and above 11
reactance, so that the signal frequency does not
megahertz.
appear, or develop across the coil or capacitor.
Above the cutoff frequency, the reactance of L1
becomes high, so that high-frequency signals are
not attenutated.

Above the cutoff frequency, the reactance of C2

and the reactance of C3 is low and the reactance Li Cl C2 u
of L2 and L3 is high, so they pass signals with o_rv-v-v-N___1( If— ' --o

little attenuation. Below the cutoff frequency,

the reactance of C2 and C3 is high and the
reactance of L2 and L3 is low, so they greatly
attenuate signals.

INPUT C3 OUTPUT
C2 C3 C4

L4 C4

ct C5

Figure 18. A high-pass filter. Figure 19. A band-pass filter.

21
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

In this filter, Li and Cl, L2 and C2, L3 and C3 Review

all form series resonant circuits resonant at 10
megahertz. L4 and C4 form aparallel resonant Resonant circuits are used to select one signal
circuit also resonant at 10 megahertz. The series frequency and reject all others. Resonant cir-
resonant circuits are designed with afairly low cuits are also used in filters. Remember that a
LC ratio to pass signals above 9MHz and below low-pass filter is afilter that will pass all signal
11 megahertz. The parallel resonant circuit is frequencies below the cutoff frequency and block
designed with ahigh LC ratio to produce abroad all signals above it. A high-pass filter is afilter
curve, which offers ahigh impedance to signals that will block all signal frequencies below the
within the pass-band. cutoff frequency and pass all signal frequencies
Below 9 MHz, the reactance of Cl and the above the cutoff frequency. A band-pass filter is
reactance of C2 begin to increase and offer con- a filter that will pass a band of frequencies. It
siderable opposition to signals below these fre- will reject all signals below or above the pass-
band.
quencies. Since L3 and C3 are a low L/C ratio,
they don't offer much opposition to signals im-
mediately below 9megahertz. However, the im-
Self-Test Questions
pedance of the parallel resonant circuit
decreases below 9MHz and much of the signal
would pass through C4 and L4. 18 Is the resonant circuit made up of L2 and
C in Fig.16 aseries resonant circuit or a
Above 11 MHz, L1and L2 begin to offer con- parallel resonant circuit?
siderable opposition to the signal. Again, with 19 What is alow-pass filter?
the low LC ratio and the combination of L3 and 20 What is ahigh-pass filter?
C3, the signal passes through this combination 21 What is aband-pass filter?
and then through C4, whose reactance has de-
creased. Thus, signals above and below the de-
sired pass-band are attenuated, while signals
within the pass-band would pass easily.

22
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST capacitor in parallel, the circuit is parallel

resonant.
QUESTIONS
7 A high resistance.
1 A resonant circuit is one in which the induc-
tive reactance equals the capacitive reac- 8 The generator connected across aparallel
tance. resonant circuit will supply acurrent of
low value because the high resistance of
2 The current is maximum because the induc- this type of circuit limits the current that
tive reactance cancels the capacitive reac- can flow.
tance and the impedance of the circuit is at
aminimum. 9 The voltage across the resistor will be
small because the resistor is in series with
3 Across the resistor the voltage will be in the parallel resonant circuit. A parallel
phase with the current; across the coil it resonant circuit has avery high resistance
will lead the current by 90°; across the ca- at resonance and most of the voltage will
pacitor it will lag the current by 90 degrees. be dropped across it. Consequently, there
will be little voltage across the resistor.
4 The current will reach its maximum value
when the inductive reactance of the coil can- 10 A high-value current flows in the coil and
cels the capacitive reactance of the capaci- in the capacitor.
tor. When this happens we have aseries
resonant circuit. 11 Increasing the resistance of the coil in a
parallel resonant circuit causes the genera-
5 Reducing the resistance in aseries tor current to increase. More losses occur
resonant circuit will cause the current flow as aresult of the increased resistance, and
in the circuit to increase. A higher resonant the generator supplies more current to
voltage will appear in turn across the coil make up for these losses.
and the capacitor. The voltage that appears
across the resistor will remain the same, be- 12 A low L/C ratio gives asharper curve,
cause the increase in current will be such as curve B in Fig.14.
counteracted by the reduction in the resis-
tance. 13 In aseries resonant circuit, the same cur-
rent flows in the coil and in the capacitor.
6 The distinction between aseries resonant Since the generator, resistance, coil, and
and aparallel resonant circuit lies in the capacitor are all in series in aseries reso-
way in which the voltage is applied to the nant circuit, the same current must flow
coil and capacitor. If it is applied to the coil through all these components. On the
and capacitor in series, this circuit is series other hand, in aparallel resonant circuit,
resonant; if it is applied to the coil and the currents through the coil and capaci-
tor are essentially equal in magnitude but
are 180° out of phase.

23
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

14 In aseries resonant circuit, the voltage 17 Yes, the voltage across the coil and capaci-
across the coil will be equal to, but 180° tor in ahigh-Q series resonant circuit will
out of phase with, the voltage across the be greater because there will be ahigher
capacitor. In aparallel resonant circuit, current flow.
the coil and capacitor are connected in par-
allel and the voltage across the two will 18 The resonant circuit is aseries resonant
therefore be the same. circuit because the voltage is induced in se-
ries with the turns of L2. Therefore, the
15 The generator current in aseries resonant voltage is applied in series with the coil
circuit will be very high because this cir- and the capacitor.
cuit acts like alow resistance. The genera-
tor current in aparallel resonant circuit 19 A low-pass filter is afilter designed to
will be very low because this circuit acts pass signals below acertain frequency and
like ahigh resistance. reject signals above that frequency.

16 The inductive reactance of the coil in ase- 20 A high-pass filter is afilter designed to
ries resonant circuit cancels the capacitive pass all signals above acertain frequency
reactance of the capacitor. Therefore, the and to reject signals below that frequency.
only factor that limits current flow in the
circuit is the resistance in the circuit. This 21 A band-pass filter is afilter designed to pass
results in avery high current flow. The acertain band of frequencies with little or
current flowing through the coil and no attenuation. It will reject or offer consid-
through the capacitor produces avoltage erable opposition to frequencies above and
drop across these components that will be below the band it is designed to pass.
equal to the product of the current times
the reactance of the part. This voltage
may be greater than the source voltage.

24
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are ...

• Current in aseries resonant circuit is maximum at the reso-

nant frequency.

• Impedance in aseries resonant circuit increases as fre-

quency increases or decreases above and below the reso-
nant point.

• Current in a parallel resonant circuit is minimum at the reso-

nant frequency, except in the tank network, where current is
maximum.

• Impedance presented by a parallel resonant circuit de-

creases as frequency increases or decreases above and
below the resonant point.

• Both series and parallel resonant circuits can be

carefully combined into filters that shunt (remove) or
pass selected frequencies from asignal path.

25
HOW COILS AND CAPACITORS WORK TOGETHER

This is Lesson Number 2224.

Make sure you print your name, student •

number, and lesson number in the spaces Join Snith

Name
provided on the Lesson Answer Form. Be Rut

sure to fill in the circles beneath your stu- Student No. Lesson No.
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1. In aseries resonant circuit, at resonance: 4. In aparallel resonant LC circuit, XL=500

a. The impedance is at amaximum. ohms and Xc =500 ohms. The LC circuit is
b. The impedance is at aminimum. connected across a 150 V generator. The
c. The coil current is at aminimum. generator current is 0.1 ampere. What is
d. The capacitor current is at aminimum. the impedance of the parallel resonant LC
circuit?
2. At resonance, agenerator connected across a a. 500 ohms.
parallel resonant circuit will supply: b. 1,000 ohms.
a. A high current. c. 1,500 ohms.
b. The coil current. d. 2,500 ohms.
c. The capacitor current.
d. A current to make up for the losses in the 5. A series resonant circuit is made up of a
resonant circuit. resistor, acoil, and acapacitor, connected
across agenerator. The voltage across the
3. What is the impedance of aseries resonant resistor is 50 V, the voltage across the
circuit having the following component capacitor is 250 V, and the voltage across
values: R =25 ohms, XL=200 ohms, the coil is 250 volts. What is the generator
Xc =200 ohms? voltage?
a. 25 ohms. a. 50 volts.
b. 200 ohms. b. 250 volts.
c. 400 ohms. c. 500 volts.
d. 425 ohms. d. 550 volts.

26
 LESSON QUESTIONS

6. Below the resonant frequency, aseries reso- 9. When comparing series resonant and paral-
nant circuit acts like: lel resonant tank circuits, the current in
a. A resistor. the tank will be:
b. A coil. a. High only in the series circuit.
c. A capacitor. b. High only in the parallel circuit.
d. A low impedance. c. High in the series circuit, but low in the
parallel circuit.
7. Below the resonant frequency, aparallel reso- d. High in both types of resonant circuits.
nant circuit acts like:
a. A resistor. 10. A high-pass filter:
b. A coil. a. Passes frequencies below the cutoff fre-
c. A capacitor. quency.
d. A low impedance. b. Attenuates frequencies above the cutoff
frequency.
8. At resonance, both aseries resonant and a c. Attenuates frequencies below the cutoff
parallel resonant circuit: frequency.
a. Act like ahigh resistance. d. Attenuates frequencies above and below
b. Act like alow resistance. the band of frequencies it passes.
c. Act like aresistance.
d. Draw alow generator current.

27
NOTES
 7

.;

• • •
•
-
" • .e•
•:4 e .
••
AIM, Schools

GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

A national magazine recently published the results of asurvey in

which it asked several hundred successful men and women: "What
single ability have you found to be most essential to your success?"
Almost unanimously, the answer was: "The ability to get along with
people."

I'm sure you are already aware of the importance of this often under-
valued ability But did you think of getting along with others as a
skill? It is askill; one that you can learn like any other.

To be successful in any field — technical, artistic, or commercial —

you must be able to get along with other people. You must have the
ability to work with others to achieve your common goals. You can
only profit from your special talents and skills if other people are
willing to come to you for your services, and people won't seek you
out if they don't like you.

Keep this in mind in your daily life. Practice getting along with
people. Notice the things people respond to and the things that
"turn them oft" There is always room for improvement in this area.
As you go along, you will learn what many happy and successful
people already know — that getting along with others is the single
most important factor in gaining or keeping success.

e
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
LT2224(805)
Semiconductors 2225

NRI Schools
A Division of The McGraw -Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
À
* Semiconductors
le

.
4
Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Semiconductor Types 2
N-Type Material 3
P-Type Material 4
Charges in Semiconductor Materials 5
Review 6
Self-Test Questions 6

Current Flow in Semiconductors 7

Diffusion 7
Drift 7
Review 9
Self-Test Questions 10

Semiconductor Diodes 11
Depletion Layer 11
Biased Junctions 13
Review 15
Self-Test Questions 16

How Diodes Are Used 17

Silicon Rectifiers 17
Zener Diodes 18
Tunnel Diodes 19
Pin Diodes 20
Varactor Diodes 20
Point-Contact Diodes 20
Light-Emitting Diodes 21
Review 22
Self-Test Questions 22

Answers to Self-Test Questions 23

Lesson Questions 26

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

SEMICONDUCTORS

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you

• Learn the principles of semiconductors.

• Explore how current flows in two types of semiconductor rnaterial.

• See how semiconductors can be made to form diodes.

• Learn about how different kinds of diodes work.

 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION detector for radio receivers. Such "point-contact"

diode devices are still available today, but junc-
tion diodes are more common and perform better.
Semiconductors are the basic components of We will introduce semiconductors and diodes in
transistors. They have been around for a long this lesson — their construction, operation, and
time, in various forms. Semiconductors were characteristics. A solid understanding of semi-
first used in 1905, when a fine-pointed wire conductors and semiconductor junction diodes
pressed against alead sulphide crystal made a will help you understand transistor operation.

1
SEMICONDUCTORS

called valence electrons, giving the atom atotal

SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES
of 14 electrons to balance the charge of +14 on
the nucleus.
Aconductor is amaterial through which electric-
The outer shells of silicon and germanium are
ity can flow readily, and an insulator is amaterial
not completely filled with electrons. As aresult,
through which electricity cannot flow. Between con-
the chemical nature of these atoms is to acquire
ductors and insulators lies another group of mate-
additional electrons. However, one atom cannot
rials called semiconductors. Semiconductors are
pull electrons away from another atom. Instead,
neither good conductors nor good insulators.
nearby atoms will share electrons. Two silicon
Germanium and silicon are semiconductor atoms will share two electrons by bonding, one
materials. At one time, germanium was widely from each atom, as shown in Fig.2(A) on the next
used to manufacture diodes and transistors, but page. By sharing electrons in this way, each atom
today silicon has replaced germanium almost partly fills its outer shell. This pair of shared
entirely. However, diodes and transistors made electrons is called acovalent bond.
of germanium work in the same way as diodes
This bonding process goes further. To fill its outer
and transistors made of silicon. While we are
ring with electrons, asingle silicon atom will estab-
going to concentrate on silicon, anything we say
lish covalent bonds with four other atoms so that
about the way a silicon diode works applies
each atom's outer ring has 8 electrons. This ar-
equally to agermanium diode. rangement of atoms in apiece of silicon is shown in
The nucleus of the silicon atom has acharge of Fig.2(B). Billions of silicon atoms bond into crystal
+14, and around the nucleus will be 14 electrons, form and arrange themselves into alattice struc-
as shown in Fig.l. Notice there are two electrons ture. Each atom shares its four valence electrons
in the first ring and eight in the second. This is the with one valence electron from each of its four
maximum number of electrons that can be in each neighboring atoms to form these covalent bonds.
of these rings. In the third ring are four electrons
Even at low temperatures, there is some level
of heat energy in all materials. This energy is
sufficient to cause afew of the electrons to move
RINGS
out of their proper places in the lattice structure
VALENCE of the silicon crystal and become free electrons.
ELECTRON
When an electron moves out of its position in the
lattice structure, it leaves an empty space, or
hole, in the crystal lattice. An electron from a
nearby atom can move into this hole, creating a
new hole at the place it left. Another electron
may move out of still another atom to fill this
new hole, leaving behind it another new hole.

The electrons in a piece of silicon are in a

NUCLEUS
constant state of motion within their atoms. In
its movement, if an electron comes closer to a
Figure 1. Silicon atom with a charge of +14 balanced by hole than to its own atomic nucleus, it will be
14 electrons. The four electrons in the outer ring are called
valence elctrons.
strongly attracted to the hole and will leave its

2
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES

caused by the continuous formation of hole-

electron pairs is called intrinsic conduction.
From an electronics standpoint, this type of con-
duction is undesirable, and it is much more
prevalent in germanium than in silicon. This is
one of the reasons silicon has generally replaced
(A) germanium in new diodes and transistors.
In its pure form, neither silicon nor germanium
is useful in semiconductor devices. Neither
material is agood conductor; both are fairly good
insulators. But it is possible to alter the charac-
teristics of both germanium and silicon and
produce two different types of semiconductor
material, both of which are useful in semiconduc-
tor devices.

To use silicon and germanium in semiconduc-

tors, controlled amounts of other selected ele-
ments called impurities are added to the crystals
to alter their characteristics. By adding these
materials, we can produce two types of silicon
and germanium: n-type and p-type.

COVALENT
BONDS N-Type Material
(e)

Figure 2. (A) Sharing of two electrons by two silicon atoms An n-type semiconductor material can be made
and (B) covalent bonds produced in a silicon crystal. by adding, as an impurity, an element that has five
electrons in its outer ring. An example of this type
of material is arsenic. Arsenic has a positive
atom. When there is no voltage applied across charge of 33 on the nucleus and has 33 electrons
the crystal, this movement of holes and electrons in the outer shells surrounding the nucleus. Of
is infrequent and in random directions. these electrons, 28 are in the first three rings and
When the movement of an electron out of an 5are in the fourth ring.
atom forms ahole in the atom, the free electron When asmall amount of arsenic is added to a
and the hole it forms are called ahole-electron silicon crystal, the arsenic atoms form covalent
pair. The formation of hole-electron pairs is a bonds with the silicon atoms, as shown in Fig.3
continuous process, as is the filling of holes by on the next page. However, only four of the five
electrons. As an electron leaves its atom and valence electrons in the outer shell of the arsenic
forms a hole, another electron moves in to fill atom can form covalent bonds with the neighbor-
that hole, leaving a new hole behind it. This ing silicon atoms. Thus, there will be one electron
action goes on continuously. The random conduc- left over after the four covalent bonds are
tion of electricity in pure silicon or germanium

3
SEMICONDUCTORS

formed. This electron is free to move about or valence, shells, and both have been used in
within the crystal in exactly the same way a place of arsenic as adonor impurity.
single electron is free to move about the outer
shell of an atom in agood conductor. The addition
of arsenic, which produces these free electrons, P-Type Material
greatly reduces the resistance of the material.
If we add amaterial with only three, instead of
If the silicon has had an impurity added to it, we
five, electrons in its valence shell, we have asitu-
say it has been doped. When asemiconductor ma-
ation where the impurity added to the semicon-
terial has been doped with a material such as
ductor has one less electron than it needs to
arsenic, creating an excess of electrons, we call it an
establish covalent bonds with four neighboring
n-type material. The "n" refers to the negative car-
riers, or free electrons. Arsenic is called adonor atoms. Thus, in one of the covalent bonds there will
impurity because it donates an easily freed electron. be only one electron instead of two. This will leave
ahole in the bond. One material that is frequently
In addition to arsenic, other materials can be used to create these bonds is indium. Indium has
used as donors. Phosphorous has a total of 15 49 electrons arranged around the nucleus in rings
electrons, and antimony has 51 electrons. Both of 2, 8, 18, 18, and 3. When indium is added to
of these elements have 5electrons in their outer, silicon, it forms covalent bonds with neighbor-
ing atoms, as shown in Fig.4.

COVALENT
COVALENT BONDS
EXCESS
BONDS ELECTRON
Figure 4. Silicon with indium added. A hole is formed in
the covalent bond between indium and four neighboring
Figure 3. Silicon with arsenic added. Excess electrons are silicon atoms because the indium atom has only three
formed. electrons in its outer ring.

4
 SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES

The free electrons present in the silicon (as a In addition to indium, boron and aluminum
result of intrinsic activity) are strongly attracted can be used as acceptor impurities. Boron has
to the holes in the covalent bond that are pro- five electrons: two in the first shell and three in
duced wherever an indium atom has displaced a the second. Aluminum has 13 electrons: 2in the
silicon atom. An electron will move into ahole in first shell, 8in the second, and 3in the third.
the covalent bond, producing a new hole in an-
other atom and giving the effect that the hole is
moving, as shown in Fig.5. Charges in Semiconductor Materials

Since a hole in the crystal is caused by an

When adonor material is added to silicon, the
absent electron, a hole has a positive charge.
fifth electron in the valence ring does not become
Therefore, when a semiconductor material has
part of acovalent bond. This extra electron is free
been doped with indium, or with any material
to move away from the donor atom. When this
that produces holes in the lattice structure, we
happens, the donor material, such as arsenic,
call the result ap-type material. The "p" stands
loses an electron, giving the arsenic atom apos-
for positive. Since holes represent the absence of
itive charge. At the same time, when the free
an electron, we say they act as positive carriers.
electron moves to a nearby silicon atom, the
Indium is called an acceptor impurity because its
silicon atom gets an extra electron and aresult-
atoms leave holes in the crystal structure that
ing negative charge. The arsenic may then at-
are free to accept electrons.
tract an electron from a nearby silicon atom to
neutralize the positive charge, making ahole in
that covalent bond and giving the silicon atom
that loses the electron apositive charge. This is
acontinuous process.

The situation is comparable in ap-type mate-

rial to which indium has been added. Indium has
only three electrons in the outer valence ring.
When an electron from a nearby silicon atom
moves into the hole in the covalent bond created
between the indium atom and its neighboring
atoms, there will be one more electron in the
indium atom than is needed to neutralize the
charge on the nucleus. Thus, there will be a
MOVEMENT
PATH OF OF HOLE region of negative charge around the indium
ELECTRON
atom, and there will be a region of positive
FILLING
HOLE charge around the silicon atom that has given up
an electron.

It is important to realize that although there

may be areas of negative or positive charge
throughout the crystal, the net charge on the
Figure 5. When an electron fills a hole, another hole will
crystal is zero. Even though electrons and holes
seem to move to where the electron was. move within the crystal, the crystal itself has not

5
SEMICONDUCTORS

gained or lost any electrons, because the negative Self-Test Questions

charges and the positive charges balance. The
carrier that is present in greater quantity is called Please check your answers on page 23.
the majority carrier, while the other is called the
minority carrier. In an n-type material, the elec-
1 Which material, silicon or germanium, is
trons are the majority carriers and the holes are
the minority carriers. In ap-type material, holes more widely used in modern semiconductor
are the majority carriers and electrons are the devices?
minority carriers. 2 How many electrons are there in the outer
ring of the silicon atom?
3 How many electrons are there in the outer
Review ring of the germanium atom?
4 Are pure silicon and germanium good elec-
In semiconductor materials there is move- trical conductors?
ment of both holes and electrons. They are in- 5 What do we mean when we say that asili-
volved in conduction at all times. Holes are con crystal has been doped?
called positive carriers and electrons are called 6 What material is widely used as adonor?
negative carriers. In an n-type material, the
electrons are the majority carriers, and in a
p-type material, the holes are the majority car-
riers.

Both n-type and p-type semiconductor mate-

rials are used in diodes and transistors. In the
next section of the lesson, we will see how cur-
rent flows through these materials.

6
 CURRENT FLOW IN SEMICONDUCTORS

CURRENT FLOW IN This random motion of carriers is called diffu-

sion. Diffusion goes on at all times in a crystal,
SEMICONDUCTORS whether or not there is a voltage applied to the
crystal. Every effort is made in the design of tran-
sistors to keep this diffusion as low as possible,
When ap-type material is placed next to an
because random carrier motion contributes noth-
n-type material, they have ajunction. The action
ing to useful current flow through the device.
that occurs at the point of contact between the
two different types of material is extremely im-
portant.
Drift
In this section of the lesson, you will study how
current flows through semiconductor materials. Another type of carrier movement in semicon-
You need to understand current flow through both ductors is known as drift. This type of movement
n-type and p-type semiconductors to be able to is obtained when avoltage is applied across the
understand how ajunction works. Once you un- crystal. Since the manner in which current flows
derstand how ajunction works, you will study a through n-type and p-type materials is different,
number of different types of single-junction semi- let's consider them separately.
conductors, or diodes. In the following lesson, you
N-Type Materials. Figure 6 shows an n-type
will study transistors, which have two junctions.
crystal with avoltage applied to it. The voltage
difference supplied by the battery provides a
Diffusion force that makes it easier for the electrons to
move in one direction than in the other. The
electrons are attracted by the positive terminal
Adding impurities to pure silicon creates
of the battery Because the electrons greatly out-
either free electrons or holes. As you learned
number the holes, they will carry the current in
earlier, there is acertain amount of heat energy
the n-type material.
present in acrystal, even at relatively low tem-
peratures. This energy produces some motion of
free holes or electrons. The motion is random; it
ELECTRONS POSITIVE IONS
has no fixed direction.

When electrons and holes are in motion, they

move in opposite directions. Remember that
when there is ahole in one atom and an electron
moves from another atom to fill that hole, anew
hole appears in the second atom. The result is
that the effective current flow of any one hole is N-TYPE MATERIAL
canceled by the movement of an electron, and the
net current flow is zero. That is, if there is ahole
in atom 1and an electron from atom 2 moves
over to fill that hole, the hole moves from atom
1to atom 2. The current flow of the electron is
canceled by the movement of the hole.
Figure 6. N-type crystal with voltage applied to it.

7
SEMICONDUCTORS

When an electron moves away from its cova-

lent bond toward the positive battery terminal, NEGATIVE
IONS HOLES
it leaves behind an atom with apositive charge,
called apositive ion. The electrons moving to-
ward the positive battery terminal create are-
gion with a local negative charge, as shown in o o o
Fig.6. This negative charge establishes apoten-
tial difference between that end of the crystal
and the positive terminal of the battery. In other P-TYPE MATERIAL
words, the attraction of the positive battery ter-
minal causes electrons to bunch up near the end
of the crystal connected to the positive terminal
and flow into the wire toward the voltage source. -
Meanwhile, the atoms left behind are positive
ions. A region of positive charge is created at the Figure 7. P-type crystal with voltage applied to it.

end of the crystal connected to the negative ter-

minal of the battery. This potential difference
pulls electrons from the wire into the crystal. the end of the material connected to the positive
These electrons replace the free electrons that terminal of the battery, it moves because it is
were attracted to the positive terminal of the filled by an electron attracted from a nearby
battery. atom.
The number of electrons leaving the crystal When the hole in an acceptor-type (p-type)
through the end connected to the positive bat- atom is filled with an electron, the atom has one
tery terminal will be exactly equal to the number electron more than it needs to neutralize the
of electrons entering the crystal at the end con- charge on the nucleus. Thus the atom has a
nected to the negative terminal. Since the crystal negative charge; it becomes anegative ion. Neg-
was electrically neutral before the battery was ative ions that are formed near the semiconduc-
connected, and since the number of electrons in tor end that is connected to the positive terminal
the crystal remains constant, the crystal itself build up aregion of negative charge at this end
remains electrically neutral. of the material. The extra electrons are drawn
P-Type Materials. Conduction through p-type from these ions by the positive terminal of the
material is quite different from conduction battery, and new holes are formed. These holes
then drift toward the end of the semiconductor
through n-type material. In the p-type semicon-
connected to the negative battery terminal and
ductor, nearly all the current is carried by holes.
build up a positive charge at this end of the
When abattery is connected to ap-type semicon-
ductor, as shown in Fig.?, the voltage causes the semiconductor. This positive charge attracts free
holes to drift toward the negative terminal. They electrons from the external circuit. As ahole is
are repelled by the positive battery terminal filled with an electron, it disappears.
connected to the one end of the material and So, in ap-type material, we have an electron
attracted by the negative potential applied to the flow in the external circuit from the negative
other end. When ahole starts moving away from terminal of the battery to the semiconductor and

8
 CURRENT FLOW IN SEMICONDUCTORS

from the semiconductor to the positive terminal. An important practical difference between the
à But in the semiconductor itself, current flows by n-type and the p-type material is that a free
means of holes, which drift from the end of the electron moves about twice as fast as ahole. This
t semiconductor connected to the positive termi- affects the conductivity of the two types of semi-
nal of the battery to the end connected to the conductor material. If we have two crystals, an
negative terminal. Keep this point in mind: Even n-type and ap-type, and the n-type material has
in p-type materials (where conduction occurs by the same number of free electrons as the p-type
holes, or positive carriers), the current flows in material has holes, the n-type material will have
the external circuit by electrons (negative carri- alower resistance because the free electrons can
ers) and moves in the conventional direction move approximately twice as fast as the holes in
from the negative terminal toward the positive the p-type material.
battery terminal.
It is important to understand that in n-type
Review
crystals, the excess electrons (produced when a
donor atom forms covalent bonds with four semi-
The important thing to remember from this
conductor atoms) are free electrons that can
section of the lesson is that current flow through
move about the crystal. But in the p-type mate-
an n-type semiconductor is amovement of free
rial, there are no extra electrons to act as free
electrons. They drift from the end of the semi-
carriers; the electrons that move can only move
conductor connected to the negative terminal of
to holes. Since a hole can capture an electron
the battery to the end of the semiconductor con-
from any of its surrounding atoms, it is the hole
nected to the positive terminal of the battery. In
that is free to move in any direction. For this
the p-type semiconductor, current flows through
reason, and because there are more holes than
the crystal by means of holes. They drift from the
electrons in the lattice, holes are considered to
end of the crystal connected to the positive ter-
be the majority carriers in p-type material.
minal of the battery to the end of the crystal
The concept of hole-flow is simply a way of connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
representing the action that takes place in the In both cases, current flow in the external circuit
crystal lattice. N-type material has alot of extra is by means of electrons flowing from the nega-
electrons, making electrons the majority carrier tive terminal of the battery to the crystal and
i by which current flows in the crystal. P-type from the crystal to the positive terminal of the
material has alot of extra holes, so holes are the battery.
t majority carrier. Actual circuit current through
Also, remember that the speed at which elec-
the p-type material still consists of electrons
trons move through n-type material is about
going in one end of the crystal and coming out at
twice the speed at which holes flow through
the other end. However, inside the p-type crystal
p-type material. Thus, n-type material has bet-
itself, the mechanism of transfer depends upon
ter conductivity and lower resistance than
hole-flow, since the electrons do move by them-
p-type material.
selves as free electrons but must move from one
hole to the next.

9
SEMICONDUCTORS

Self-Test Questions 10 When current is flowing through acrystal,

will the crystal be charged?
7 In which direction do electrons move 11 If you had two identical pieces of silicon
through an n-type crystal that has avolt- and one was doped so that it was n-type
age applied to it? material, while the other was doped so
8 In which direction do holes move through that it was p-type material, which would
p-type material that has avoltage applied to have the lower resistance?
it? 12 Is diffusion in asemiconductor material
9 Do electrons move through an n-type mate- desirable?
rial at the same speed as holes through a
p-type material?

10
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES holes move about acrystal in arandom motion

called diffusion. In the pn junction diode, holes
move about in the psection and electrons move
A semiconductor diode is made by taking a about in the nsection. Some of the holes diffuse
single crystal and adding opposite donor impu- across the junction from the psection into the n
rities to each half, making asingle crystal with section and are filled by free electrons. Similarly,
a p section and an n section. Where the two some of the electrons in the n-type material
sections meet, they have ajunction. Contacts are diffuse across the junction and fill holes in the p
fastened to the two ends of the crystal so that it section.
can be connected to an external circuit. Figure 8
When an atom in the nsection loses an elec-
shows a simple pn junction. For simplicity we
tron, the atom becomes charged, or ionized. It
have represented the crystal as abox-like struc-
has a positive charge because it has one less
ture with one half p-type material and the other
electron than it needs to neutralize the charge
half n-type material.
on the nucleus. Electrons diffusing across the pn
This type of diode is called ajunction diode. At junction from the nside leave behind atoms with
the junction of the p-type crystal and the n-type apositive charge. At the same time, the atom on
crystal, the actions of holes and electrons form the pside gets one more electron than it needs
what is called the depletion layer. Let us see what and develops anegative charge.
adepletion layer is and how it is formed.
Similarly, ahole diffusing across the junction
from the p side moves into an atom that is,
consequently, now missing an electron, giving
Depletion Layer
the atom apositive charge. Over on the pside of
the junction, because the hole moved, the atom
Remember that in an n-type crystal there are
that gained an extra electron gets a negative
free electrons and in ap-type crystal there are
charge.
free holes. Also remember that the electrons and
As a result of this diffusion of holes and
electrons across the junction, a charged area
develops on each side of the junction. On the p
side is anegatively charged area, because the
JUNCTION
atoms have extra electrons. This negative
LARGE AREA
CONTACT / charge, once established, repels free electrons
in the n-type material away from the junction.
>r 1 / I I At the same time, positively charged atoms on
L.F.A, )- ---)- - the nside repel free holes away from the junc-

V
,
y
P—TYPE
CRYSTAL
N—TYPE
CRYSTAL
LARGE AREA
CONTACT
tion. As aresult of these charges, on the pside
of the junction there is an area where there are
no holes, and on the nside of the junction there
is an area where there are no free electrons.
This area around the junction where the major-
ity carriers are missing is called the depletion
Figure 8. A simple pn junction. layer.

11
SEMICONDUCTORS

Figure 9(A) is adrawing showing the concen- some distance from the junction there are holes
tration of positive and negative ions, as well as on the p side with apositive charge. But as we
free electrons and holes, around apn junction. approach the junction, the concentration of these
The actual depletion layer of a diode is much holes decreases because they are repelled from
narrower than is shown in the picture, where the the junction by the positive ions on the nside of
layer has been enlarged for clarification. the junction. At some distance from the nside of
the junction we have free electrons available, but
The charge on the ions is shown in Fig.9(B).
as we approach the junction, the charge drops to
Notice that on the p side of the junction the
zero, because these electrons are repelled from
atoms that have lost holes by gaining electrons
the junction by the negative ions on the pside.
have a negative charge. At the junction, the
potential drops to zero and then reverses on the As before, the crystal tends to remain neutral,
n side where the ionized atoms have apositive having no net positive or negative charge. How-
charge because they have lost electrons. ever, there is aregion on the pside of the junction
where the atoms have anegative charge and a
Figure 9(C) shows the carrier charges that are
region on the n side of the junction where the
available to neutralize the ionized atoms. At

DEPLETION
LAYER

P-TYPE /

o® o® 0 POSITIVE IONS
o0 o J NEGATIVE IONS
(A) o o • FREE ELECTRONS

00 0G° 0 HOLES

JUNCTION

IONIZED DONORS

(o) O

IONIZED ACCEPTORS

HOLES
(C) O

ELECTRONS

Figure 9. (A) Locations of ions and carriers at apn junction; (B) charges at junction due to ionized impurity atoms; and
(C) carrier charges.

12
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

atoms have a positive charge. These charges tioned, this type of intrinsic conduction is not
exist only in the area of the junction. The crystal desirable, and efforts are made to minimize
has neither gained nor lost electrons; the overall these effects in semiconductor components.
effect is for the crystal to remain neutral.
Thermal Effects. There is one other important
Biased Junctions
point to consider. Remember that the thermal
energy of the crystal keeps the holes and elec-
When we connect abattery across ajunction
trons in a continuous state of motion. Even at
diode, we say that the junction is biased. This
room temperature, the crystal holds a small
voltage bias of the diode junction is described as
amount of heat energy, sufficient to cause motion
either aforward bias or areverse bias, depend-
of both holes and electrons. In the n-type mate-
ing upon the polarity of the applied voltage. Let's
rial, an electron leaving an atom creates ahole.
see what we mean by each type of bias and what
This hole fills with an electron from another
happens in each case.
atom. There is a continuous formation of hole-
electron pairs. Away from the junction, this for- Forward Bias. If the positive battery terminal
mation of hole-electron pairs does not have any connects to the p-type material, and the negative
effect on the carrier concentration of the crystal. terminal connects to the n-type material, as shown
in Fig.10, we say that the diode is forward-biased.
Holes produced in the nregion near the junc-
When the battery is connected with this polarity,
tion are attracted to the negative ions on the p
acurrent can flow through the junction.
side of the depletion layer, and some will cross
the junction. These holes tend to neutralize the The positive voltage on the p-type material
ions on the pside of the junction. Similarly, some repels holes toward the junction and attracts
free electrons produced on the p side of the electrons from the negative ions in the depletion
junction will cross the junction and neutralize layer. In the n-type material, the negative termi-
positive ions on the nside of the junction. This nal of the battery repels electrons toward the
is anatural form of intrinsic conduction by mi-
nority carriers, due to thermal formation of hole-
electron pairs. JUNCTION HOLE MOVEMENT

The effect of minority carriers crossing the

junction is to reduce the potential of the barrier
created by the depletion layer. When this hap-
pens, majority carriers are also able to cross the
A
..--•
•:.

I
•:.

../ -0- 0 e -me— •

junction at the location of the neutral atoms. The „... .• I /. 9
eLJ...--•
net result is that holes and electrons cross the
junction in both directions. These movements P—TYPE N—TYPE
tend to cancel each other, but the flow across the
junction produces a certain amount of heat, ELECTRON MOVEMENT

which uses up apercentage of the total capacity

of the junction to pass current. This lowered +1111
capacity reduces the amount of useful current
that the junction can allow to pass. As we men- Figure 10. A forward-biased junction.

13
SEMICONDUCTORS

junction and pulls holes away from the positively dropped across the resistor and 0.6 V dropped
charged ions in the depletion layer. Holes moving across the diode.
toward the junction, and electrons being taken
Remember that the voltage drop in aforward-
from negatively charged ions, act to neutralize
biased silicon diode is 0.6 volt. The actual drop
the barrier charge of the depletion layer.
varies slightly (0.6-0.7) according to the temper-
Reducing the potential barrier at the junc- ature, applied voltage, and amount of current
tion allows more majority carriers to cross the through the junction. You will occasionally see
junction. More electrons flow from the n-type references to 0.7 V as the junction potential. A
material across the junction to the p-type ma- germanium diode, however, drops only 0.3 volt.
terial and to the positive terminal of the bat- The depletion layer is smaller in agermanium
tery. At the same time, holes travel from the diode because there is more intrinsic conduction
p-type material across the junction toward the in germanium.
n-type material and the negative terminal of
Notice the schematic symbol for the diode.
the battery.
(In practice it is often drawn without the circle
Normally, we do not connect abattery directly around it.) The arrowhead is the p-type mate-
across adiode, because the diode would conduct rial and is called the anode. The flat bar is the
heavily, overheat, and burn out. Typically, acir- n-type material and is called the cathode. Since
cuit like the one shown in Fig.11 might be used. circuit current flows from negative to positive,
If the diode is a silicon diode, the voltage drop diode current actually flows against the arrow
across it will be 0.6 volt. This is the voltage in the diode symbol. When pioneer studies in
needed to neutralize the depletion layer "barrier the field of electronics were being made, it was
charge" at the junction. The remaining 2.4 V is not known that electrons had negative charges.
dropped across the resistor. If R had aresistance Scientists believed that electrical current
of 1,000 ohms, the current flow in the circuit flowed from positive to negative. Therefore, the
would be 2.4 milliamperes. A 500-ohm resistor diode symbol was established with the arrow
would allow current of 4.8 mA, with 2.4 V pointing in the direction in which early scien-
tists thought current flowed.
When the two-element vacuum tube, which is
called adiode, was invented, scientists soon re-
alized that current was flowing through the tube
from the cathode to the anode. This meant that
current actually flows from negative to positive.
In order to avoid a lot of confusion, however
(since the diode symbol was already established
in alot of published material), the symbol was
not changed.

Reverse Bias. Figure 12 shows a reverse

bias applied to ajunction diode. The negative
battery terminal connects to the p-type section
Figure 11. In the series circuit shown, the voltage drop
and attracts holes away from the junction, in-
across asilicon diode will be 0.6 volt.
creasing the shortage of holes on the p side of

14
 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

the depletion layer. At the same time, the posi- This is called a reverse current, in contrast to
tive voltage connected to the n-type section of the current in a forward-biased diode, which is
crystal attracts electrons away from the junc- called forward current. Normally, we want the
tion, increasing the shortage of electrons on the minimum possible reverse-current flow, but as
n side of the depletion layer. This movement of you will see later, there are some applications
holes and electrons increases the thickness of the that make use of it.
depletion layer and increases the barrier poten-
tial across the junction. The increase in the bar-
rier voltage prevents any current flow of Review
majority carriers across the junction.
You should remember that with no voltage
The current flow across the junction is not
applied to adiode, adepletion layer forms at the
zero. A very small minority-carrier current is
junction. This depletion layer prevents the fur-
present through the junction, composed of holes
ther diffusion of majority carriers across the
from the n side and electrons from the p side.
junction. The depletion layer is also sometimes
Thus, even with areverse bias, there is atrickle
called the depletion barrier, or energy barrier.
of current flow from the negative terminal of the
battery to the p-type material, through the ma- When adiode is forward-biased, the negative
terial, across the junction, across the n-type ma- terminal of the battery is connected to the
terial, and back to the positive side of the battery. n-type section and the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the p-type section. With
forward bias, current can flow from the nega-
JUNCTION
tive terminal of the battery to the n-type ma-
terial, across the material and the junction,
across the p-type material, and back to the

/;
,7
positive terminal of the battery. We call the
current flow in this direction through the diode
t--
e
aforward current flow.
- el,1-- — ..,=7,¡-=•..— —
...-- .„ i --....
..." — :., ,fil —1.-
...— c: ,...-• --0-
When adiode is reverse-biased, the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the
P—TYPE N—TYPE n-type material and the negative terminal is
connected to the p-type material. No majority-
carrier current flows. However, minority carri-
ers still create avery small current through the
crystal. This current is called reverse current,
and in most cases we want to keep it as low as
Figure 12. A reverse-biased junction. possible.

15
SEMICONDUCTORS

Self-Test Questions 16 What is the name given to the current

flowing through adiode when it is forward-
13 Which type of ion, positive or negative, biased?
will appear in the depletion layer on the 17 How do you connect abattery to adiode to
p-type side of the junction? reverse bias it?
14 Which type of ion, positive or negative, 18 What is the name given to current flow
will there be in the depletion layer on the through adiode when it is reverse biased?
n-type side of the junction? 19 What voltage drop would you expect to
15 How do you connect abattery to adiode to find across aforward-biased silicon diode?
forward bias it?

16
 HOW DIODES ARE USED

During the half-cycle when terminal 2is neg-

HOW DIODES ARE USED
ative and terminal 1is positive, current flows
from terminal 2of the transformer through the
All semiconductor diodes are composed of load and the diode to terminal 1of the trans-
some type of pn junction created on acut or cast former. During the next half-cycle, when termi-
segment of crystal. You might think that all nal 2 is positive and terminal 1 is negative,
diodes work the same, but in fact, there are current cannot flow through the diode because
variations in design that can accomplish avari- the diode is reverse-biased. Therefore, current
ety of purposes. By varying the amount of doping flows in the circuit for one half-cycle only, in one
done to the n-type and p-type materials, and by direction only. This produces apulsating de out-
varying the physical construction of the diode, put, since the negative-going half-cycle does not
we can produce diodes with radically different appear across the load.
characteristics.
A silicon diode is an excellent rectifier because
A semiconductor diode is seldom referred to it has very low forward-resistance; there is very
simply as adiode. It usually has aspecific name little voltage drop across the diode when the
indicating its design type. This section reviews current is flowing through it. At the same time,
several different types of diodes that you will the reverse current through asilicon rectifier is
encounter in your electronics work. very low, so low in most cases that it is not
measurable.

This diode has several important characteris-

Silicon Rectifiers
tics. One is its current-handling capability. Di-
odes are designed to pass amaximum current in
A silicon rectifier is adiode made for use as a
the forward direction. If a diode is used in a
rectifier in a power supply. It is used in the
circuit where its maximum current rating is
process of changing ac voltage into de voltage. A
exceeded, the junction will overheat and the
typical circuit with adiode used as arectifier is
diode will fail.
shown in Fig.13.
Another important characteristic is the peak
reverse voltage rating. Looking at Fig.13 again,
DIODE the diode conducts when terminal 1is positive
and terminal 2 is negative. The voltage drop
11
.....,
across it will be about 0.6 volt. But, when termi-
nal 1is negative and terminal 2is positive, the
entire negative-going voltage of the transformer
120 V 111 < is applied to the reverse-biased diode. If this
<> LOAD
60 Hz voltage exceeds the peak reverse voltage rating,
<>
the diode will break down. For instance, if the
ratio mean square (rms) voltage from the trans-
former is 120 V, the peak voltage is 169 volts. You
2 need adiode with apeak reverse voltage rating
of at least 200 V to allow asmall safety margin.
Figure 13. A diode used as a rectifier to convert ac to
pulsating dc.

17
SEMICONDUCTORS

Silicon rectifiers are made in many different damaging the diode depends upon the junction
peak reverse voltage (pry) ratings. Low-voltage area and the methods used to keep the diode cool.
diodes with a pry of 50 V are typical, as are
An example of how the zener diode works as a
relatively high-voltage diodes with apry rating
voltage regulator is given in Fig.14. The diode is
of 1,000 volts. Sometimes you'll see this rating
in parallel with the output and is connected to
written as piv. This means peak inverse voltage,
the unregulated voltage input through aresistor.
the same thing as peak reverse voltage.
To obtain aregulated output voltage of 15 V, we
In the circuit shown in Fig.13, the current that could select a zener diode with a breakdown
flows through the load is apulsating current that voltage of 15 volts. The unregulated power sup-
is present during one half of the ac cycle only. In ply source would have avoltage of about 20 volts.
a later lesson, when you study power supplies, The zener diode conducts enough current to
you will learn how this current can be made to maintain the voltage drop across the resistor at
flow during both halves of the ac cycle and how 5V, keeping the voltage drop across itself at 15 V,
it can be changed from apulsating current to a which is the output voltage. If the unregulated
pure de current. voltage rises to 21 V, the diode conducts more
current, increasing the voltage drop across the
resistor to 6V, leaving the regulated output at 15
Zener Diodes volts. On the other hand, if the unregulated
voltage drops to 19 V, current through the diode
In junction diodes designed for use as rectifi- decreases so that the voltage drop across the
ers, we must be careful not to exceed the pry of resistor is 4 V, again maintaining the output
the diode. Too high areverse voltage across the voltage at 15 volts.
junction causes the junction to break down, con-
Zener diodes have two important ratings: the
duct in the wrong direction, overheat, and fail.
breakdown voltage and the wattage rating. The
However, zener diodes make use of reverse cur-
rent. In zener diodes, both the p and the n sec-
tions are specially doped and have larger
junction areas for increased current-handling
capacity. This type of diode is used as avoltage
reference and as a voltage regulator. It is also
called avoltage-reference diode.

In azener diode, current remains small at low UNREGULATED REGULATED

INPUT OUTPUT
reverse voltages. At acertain voltage called the
breakdown voltage, avalanche voltage, or zener
voltage, reverse current increases rapidly with
any further increase in reverse voltage.

The breakdown voltage can be varied by mod-

ifying the diode construction. Zener diodes can -
ill

be made with breakdown voltages from 1V up

to several hundred volts. The amount of current Figure 14. A circuit using a zener diode as a voltage
that can pass through any zener diode without regulator.

18
 HOW DIODES ARE USED

wattage rating tells you how much power azener NEGATIVE RESISTIVE
diode can handle. Most zener diodes are low- CURRENT 7 CURVE
wattage diodes, with ratings from 1/4 watt up to
1watt. You can replace adefective 1/4-watt zener
diode with a 1-watt zener diode, but if you re-
place a1-watt diode with a1/4-watt zener diode,
the low-power device will probably break down.
POSITIVE RESISTIVE
CURVE

Tunnel Diodes (A)

A tunnel diode is ajunction diode made of

germanium or gallium arsenide. Both the n re-
gion and the p region of the diode are highly
doped. As aresult of the high doping, the deple-
tion region around the junction is extremely
narrow. Because of the narrow depletion region, (B)
holes and electrons can cross the junction by
Figure 15. (A) The voltage-current relationship in atunnel
"tunneling" from one atom to another. diode and (B) the schematic symbol for atunnel diode.

Current across the junction increases rapidly

with either aforward or areverse bias. When the
bias is zero or very close to zero, current stops. of operation where the opposite happens. If the
The current across the junction increases rapidly voltage increases, the current decreases. If the
as the forward bias increases, until a peak is voltage decreases, the current increases. Some-
reached. If the forward bias increases beyond thing in the circuit is giving the opposite effect
this point, the current begins to decrease. of resistance. We call this negative resistance.
If the forward bias increases still further, the Resistance in the circuit introduces losses. It
current across the junction continues to de- is the resistance in aresonant circuit that keeps
crease, producing a voltage-current curve like it from continuing to oscillate when power is
the one shown in Fig.15. This decrease in current removed. But if we put something with anega-
with increasing voltage results in what is called tive resistance in the circuit — atunnel diode,
anegative-resistance characteristic. for example — the circuit should continue to
oscillate, because negative resistance has the
Negative resistance is difficult to visualize,
opposite effect of resistance. Tunnel diodes can
but remember from Ohm's law that resistance
be used for this purpose; they are also used in
is equal to voltage divided by current. In a
switching circuits because they can switch very
circuit where resistance is constant and ap-
rapidly. In Fig.15, we've also shown the sche-
plied voltage increases, current also increases.
matic symbol for the tunnel diode. Compare it to
Similarly, if applied voltage decreases, current
the schematic symbol used for the silicon recti-
decreases. In a tunnel diode there is a region
fier and zener diode.

19
SEMICONDUCTORS

Pin Diodes Point-Contact Diodes

Pin diodes are widely used for high-speed Another semiconductor used in radio and TV
switching in electronic equipment. Pin is an ab- receivers is a point-contact diode, shown in
breviation of positive-intrinsic-negative. This Fig.17 with its schematic symbol. The point-
special diode is doped so that it has avery low contact diode is usually made with a small
resistance with a forward bias across the junc- piece of n-type silicon. The large contact is
tion but a very high resistance with a reverse fastened to one side of the crystal, and athin
bias across the junction. wire, called acat's whisker, is attached to the
other side. When acat's whisker is attached to
the crystal, asmall region of p-type material is
Varactor Diodes formed around the contact, as shown in Fig.18.
Thus, we have apn junction. The point-contact
Varactor diodes are variable capacitors. In a diode makes a better detector than ajunction
varactor diode, when the diode is reverse-biased, diode because the junction between p-type ma-
holes on the pside and electrons on the nside of terial and n-type material is very small. The
the junction move away from the junction. The diode, therefore, has alower capacitance and is
higher the bias, the farther they will move from more sensitive.
the junction. This has the same effect as sepa-
rating the plates of acapacitor, decreasing the
capacitance of the junction. Varactor diodes are
used as small-value capacitors in specialized cir-
cuits, such as electronic tuners, particularly for
high-frequency radio.
The symbol used to represent a pin diode is
shown in Fig.16(A) and the symbol used to rep-
resent avaractor diode is shown in Fig.16(B).

4D +
CAT'S
WHISKER
SIUCON OR
GERWANIU14
PELLET

(A)

(B)

(A) (B)

Figure 16. (A) The schematic symbol for a pin diode; (B) Figure 17. (A) Cutaway view of apoint-contact diode and
the schematic symbol for avaractor diode. (B) its schematic symbol.

20
 HOW DIODES ARE USED

CAT'S WHISKER
LEDs that emit radiation in the infrared por-
tion of the spectrum are also used in electronic
equipment. Many remote-control devices used
SMALL P REGION
with TV receivers and VCRs use an LED that
emits infrared radiation.
N—TYPE MATERIAL
To obtain radiation from an LED, all you need
do is place a forward bias across the junction.
This will cause current to flow, producing radia-
tion either in the visible or the infrared part of
the spectrum.

Seven LEDs can be arranged as shown in

Fig.20 to produce what is called aseven-segment
display. Each of these segments is identified by
Figure 18. A point-contact diode showing where the
p-type material is formed around the cat's whisker.
a letter in Fig.20. The LEDs are in a glass or
plastic tube so that the light appears as a bar
rather than apoint of light.
Light-Emitting Diodes
In aseven-segment display, the cathodes of all
seven LEDs may be connected, as shown in
Most pn junctions emit some form of radiation Fig.21(A) on the next page. When the cathodes
when they are forward-biased. In most cases, are connected, the display is referred to as a
however, the radiation is very low and not easily common-cathode seven-segment display. The
detected. The light-emitting diode (LED) is a seven-segment display can also be manufactured
diode that has been specifically designed to emit
radiation in aparticular portion of the spectrum.
A photo of an LED is shown in Fig.19, along
A
with the LED's schematic symbol. In electronic
equipment, you will encounter LEDs that emit
radiation in the visible spectrum in the form of
red, yellow, or green light.

Figure 19. An LED and its schematic symbol. Figure 20. Seven LEDs in a seven-segment array.

21
SEMICONDUCTORS

Review

We introduced several different diode types in

this section. It is important to remember that
each of these diodes has an anode and acathode.
The anode is p-type material, and the cathode is
n-type material. Anodes and cathodes are doped
in different ways in order to get the desired
characteristic from each diode.

(A) You will find all these diodes in electronic

equipment; therefore, it is important that you
remember both the schematic symbol for each
diode and the way in which each diode is used.
In the next lesson, you will study transistors. A
transistor is a semiconductor device with two
junctions. Many of the electronic devices that we
take for granted today were made possible by the
invention of the transistor.

(B) Self-Test Questions

Figure 21. (A) Schematic of a common-cathode seven- 20 When we refer to asilicon rectifier, what
segment display, and (B) schematic of acommon-anode
seven-segment display. does peak reverse voltage mean?
21 When azener diode is used as avoltage
regulator, in what direction does the cur-
rent flow through the diode?
with all the anodes connected, as shown in
22 What type of diode exhibits anegative re-
Fig.21(B). This type of display is called acommon-
sistance characteristic?
anode seven-segment display.
23 What type of diode is widely used as a
A seven-segment display can be used to dis- switch?
play the numbers from 0to 9. If all the segments 24 What special characteristic of apoint-
except gare lit, the display will show aO. If all contact diode makes it suitable for use as
seven segments are lit, it will display an 8. If adetector in radio and TV receivers?
segments a, b, g, c, and dare lit, it will display a
3. You can see that by lighting the segments in
different combinations, any number from 0to 9
can be displayed.

22
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

electrons moving out of the crystal will be

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
replaced by electrons moving into it.
QUESTIONS
11 The n-type material will have alower re-
sistance because electrons in an n-type ma-
1 Germanium was once widely used, but has
terial have ahigher mobility than holes in
been replaced by silicon.
ap-type material.

2 Four.
12 No.

3 Four.
13 Negative ions will appear in the depletion
layer on the p-type side of ajunction be-
4 No. In its pure form, neither silicon nor
cause holes drifting across the junction to
germanium is agood electrical conductor.
the n side leave behind atoms with anega-
tive charge.
5 When we say that asilicon crystal has
been doped, we mean that donor or accep-
14 Positive ions will appear on the n-type
tor atoms have been added to the crystal.
side of the junction because electrons that
have left their atoms and diffused across
6 A donor material is amaterial that has
the junction leave atoms with apositive
five electrons in the outer ring. Arsenic is
charge.
widely used as adonor.

15 To forward bias adiode, connect the nega-

7 When avoltage is applied to an n-type
tive terminal of the battery to the n-type
crystal, electrons move from the end of the
material and the positive terminal to the
crystal that has the negative terminal of
p-type material.
the battery connected to it toward the end
that has the positive terminal of the bat-
16 Current flowing through adiode when the
tery connected to it.
junction is forward-biased is referred to as
the forward current flow.
8 Holes move through ap-type material
with voltage applied to it from the end con-
17 To reverse bias adiode, you connect the
nected to the positive terminal of the bat-
positive terminal of the battery to the
tery to the end connected to the negative
n-type material and the negative terminal
terminal of the battery.
to the p-type material.

9 No. Electrons move through an n-type ma-

18 Current flow through adiode when it is
terial faster than holes move through a
reverse biased is called areverse current
p-type material.
flow.

10 When current is flowing through acrystal,

19 The voltage drop across aforward-biased
the crystal will not be charged, because
silicon diode is about 0.6 volt.

23
SEMICONDUCTORS

20 The peak reverse voltage across the silicon 22 The tunnel diode exhibits anegative resis-
rectifier is the maximum voltage the diode tance characteristic.
can withstand when the anode is negative
and the cathode is positive. 23 The pin diode is widely used as aswitch.

21 Current flows from the anode to the cath- 24 The point-contact diode has avery small
ode when azener diode is used as avolt- junction and thus has very low capaci-
age regulator. tance. This makes it suitable for use as a
detector.

24
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts you should
remember about this lesson are...

• Silicon can be "doped" with different elements to create a

semiconductor material.

• The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are elec-

trons, and the majority carriers in ap-type semiconductor
are holes.

• At the junction of an n-type material and ap-type material, a

depletion layer, or barrier charge, is formed.

• A forward bias across adiode overcomes the barrier

charge and allows current to flow from the n-type material
to the p-type material.

• A reverse bias across adiode blocks current flow in the

direction from the p-type material to the n-type material.

• There are many special types of diodes that have valu-

able characteristics for specific applications.

25
SEMICONDUCTORS

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2225.

Make sure you print your name, student number,

_. u \
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1. How many electrons are there in the 3. How many electrons are there in the outer
silicon atom? ring of adonor-type material, and what
a. 8. type of material will it produce when it is
b. 4. added to silicon?
c. 14. a. 3, p-type.
d. 32. b. 3, n-type.
c. 5, p-type.
2. How many electrons are there in the outer d. 5, n-type.
ring of an acceptor-type material, and
what type of material will it produce when 4. The two layers of ionized atoms at the junc-
added to silicon? tion of apn diode will:
a. 3, p-type. a. Result in an overall charge on the crystal.
b. 3, n-type. b. Prevent minority carriers from crossing
c. 5, p-type. the junction.
d. 5, n-type. c. Prevent majority carriers from crossing
the junction.
d. Aid majority carriers in crossing the
junction.

26
 LESSON QUESTIONS

5. The minority carriers crossing apn junc- 8. Which of the following diodes has anega-
tion will: tive-resistance characteristic?
a. Have no effect on the depletion layer. a. Varactor diode.
b. Strengthen the depletion layer. b. Tunnel diode.
c. Weaken the depletion layer. c. Pin diode.
d. None of the above. d. Zener diode.

6. Which of the following diode types is used 9. If a1/2-watt zener diode burns out, which
as avoltage regulator? of the following diodes cannot be used as
a. Zener diode. areplacement?
b. Tunnel diode. a. A 1/4-watt diode.
c. Pin diode. b. A 1/2-watt diode.
d. Varactor diode. c. A 1-watt diode.
d. A 2-watt diode.
7. Which of the following diodes is used as a
switch? 10. The pry rating tells us the maximum:
a Varactor diode. a. Allowable voltage across the diode when
b. Point-contact diode. it is conducting.
c. Pin diode. b. Allowable voltage across the diode when
d. Zener diode. it is not conducting.
c. Peak current through the diode.
d. None of the above.

27
NOTES
MAW Schools

CASHING IN ON DISCONTENTMENT

Discontentment is agood thing — if it makes you want to do some-

thing worthwhile. If you had not been discontented with your current
situation, you never would have enrolled in your NRI course.

Practically everyone is discontented from time to time. If we allow

ourselves to be floored by discontentment, we can easily become
complainers who find fault with anything and everything and end
up bitter and resentful failures.

If we're smart, we learn to use our discontentment to motivate us. We

use it to keep us focused on the goals we have set for ourselves. We
know that we are creating abetter life for ourselves, so sacrifices are
worth making. We are happy in our work. We face defeat squarely and
come out winners.

At this moment, you may be discontented with many things — your

progress in this course, your current earning ability, or your life in
general.

Make that discontentment work for you. Don't let it get you down.
If you do, you may not be able to pick yourself back up again. Keep
striving to beat the causes of your discontentment. Remember that it's
always darkest before the dawn. And remember, the people who are
real successes in life work their hardest when they are face to face
with the greatest discouragements and disappointments.

a
e
A Division of The McGnnv-Hill Companies
LT2225(801)
How Transistors Work 2226

NRI Schools

d
A Division of The McGrtzwilill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
How Transistors Work
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 Table of Contents
Introduction 1

Junction Transistors 2
NPN Transistors 3
PNP Transistors 5
Alloy-Junction Transistors 9
Review 11
Self-Test Questions 12

Field-Effect Transistors 13
Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistors 13
Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistors 14
Review 17
Self-Test Questions 17

Answers to Self-Test Questions 18

Lesson Questions 20

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

Lesson Objective
In this lesson you will...

• Learn how transistors are manufactured, and how they work.

• Discover the different types of junction transistors.

• Investigate some special types of junction transistors.

• Learn the operation of field-effect transistors.

• Study the two basic types of field-effect transistors.

 INTRODUCTION

Transistors are also smaller and more rugged

INTRODUCTION
than vacuum tubes. A sharp blow to avacuum
tube could break the glass envelope or cause the
Invented in 1948, transistors have replaced tube to short, making it useless. A transistor is
vacuum tubes in all but afew, special cases. They a solid device, so a sharp blow is not likely to
were developed in the Bell Telephone Laborator- cause aproblem.
ies for use as amplifiers of voice signals. The first You will find transistors in radio receivers,
transistors had very limited capabilities and telephone receivers, video cassette recorders,
could be used only at audio frequencies. Transis- transmitters, and all types of computers. Many
tors have improved over the years, and today of the devices we accept as commonplace today
they outperform vacuum tubes in every applica- would not exist if it were not for transistors.
tion except video displays.
The transistor is very important in electronic
Transistors have many advantages over
equipment. It is essential that you understand
vacuum tubes. Tubes have cathodes which must
how it works. This lesson is probably the most
be heated to give off electrons. The energy that important one so far. If there is something you
heats the cathode does not contribute to the do not understand after the first reading, read
signal amplification, and therefore, is considered that section over until the subject is clear. If you
wasteful. In operation, vacuum tubes get very still need assistance, take advantage of the NRI
hot and this heat spreads to other parts in the consultation service and write to us. We'll be glad
equipment, contributing to part failure. Transis- to help you.
tors consume much less energy and produce less
heat.

1
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

JUNCTION TRANSISTORS of p-type material. This type of transistor is

called apnp transistor.

Figure 1(B) shows another transistor where

In the preceding lesson you studied diodes. A
the base is made of p-type material and the
diode is atwo-element device. A transistor is a
emitter and collector are made of n-type
three-element device. The junction-transistor is
material. This type of transistor is called an npn
the most widely used type, so you will study it
transistor.
first.
Figure 1 also shows the schematic symbols
Early transistors were made of germanium,
used to represent both types of transistors.
but most modern transistors are silicon. In our
Notice that in the pnp type, the arrow on the
discussion we'll be talking about silicon transis-
emitter points toward the base, while in the npn
tors, but germanium transistors work in basically
transistor, the arrow on the emitter points away
the same way.
from the base. It is important that you remember
The two-junction transistor is made from a the names of the three parts of the transistor, as
single crystal having three regions. The center well as the schematic symbols used for pnp and
region is made of either n-type or p-type npn transistors.
material. The two end regions are made of the
In some electronic equipment, all the transis-
opposite type material. Figure 1(A) shows one
tors are either npn or pnp transistors. In other
type of transistor where the center region is
equipment, both types are used. The npn tran-
made of n-type material. The center region is
sistor is the more widely used of the two; and it
called the base. At one end is the emitter, and at
is also easier to understand how it operates. We'll
the other end is the collector. Both ends are made
discuss this type first.

EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR EMITTER BASE , COLLECTOR

P—TyPE \ N-
/ TYPE -TYPE N-TYPE \ P- TYPVN-TYPE

EMITTER LW COLLECTOR EMITTER LIP COLLECTOR

BASE BASE

(A) (B)

Figure 1. (A) A pnp junction transistor and its schematic symbol. (B) An npn junction transistor and its schematic symbol.

2
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

NPN Transistors
EMITTER COLLECTOR
BASE N—TYPE
N—TYPE
The junctions of ajunction transistor act just P—TYPE

like the junctions in ajunction diode. Between

the emitter and base of the transistor, shown in
Fig.2(A), there is ajunction. Electrons diffuse
from the emitter across the junction into the base
of the transistor. When an electron leaves an
atom in the emitter, it leaves a hole behind, POSITIVE IONS -----------.... POSITIVE IONS

creating a positive ion. At the same time, an NEGATIVE IONS

electron moving into ahole in an atom in the base
(A)
region creates anegative ion. A positive charge
builds up on the emitter side of the junction and
a negative charge builds up on the base. These
EMITTER COLLECTOR
charges prevent further diffusion of holes and N—TYPE BASE
N—TYPE
P—TYPE
electrons across the junction. ELECTRON
CURRENT

Meanwhile, the same thing happens at the junc-

tion between the base and the collector. Electrons
diffuse across the junction into the base region, I
and holes diffuse across the junction into the col- I
eb
RECOMBINATION
lector, building up anegative charge on the base CURRENT

side and a positive charge on the collector. Once HOLE

established, these charges prevent any further CURRENT
diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction. (3)

Look at what happens when aforward bias is

placed across the emitter-base junction, as EMITTER COLLECTOR
N—TYPE BASE N—TYPE
shown in Fig.2(B). Notice that the negative ter- P—TYPE
minal of the battery connects to the emitter and
the positive terminal of the battery connects to
the base, which places aforward bias across the
emitter-base junction.
The negative potential applied to the emitter MOVEMENT OF
MINORITY
forces electrons toward the junction, and at- CARRIERS
tracts holes away from the junction. Both actions
tend to neutralize the positively charged ions on (C)
the emitter side of the junction. The positive
terminal of the battery attracts electrons away
from the base side of the junction, while it repels Figure 2. (A) The formation of ions at the junctions of an
holes toward it at the same time. These two npn transistor. (B) The current flow in the emitter-base
actions tend to neutralize the charge on the base circuit, and (C) in the collector-base circuit.

side of the junction.

3
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

With the weakening of the barrier potential at base side of the junction. These electrons are
the junction, electrons flow from the negative attracted by the positive potential applied to the
side of the battery through the emitter, across collector. They cross the junction and flow
the junction, into the base, and from the base to through the collector to the terminal connected
the positive terminal of the battery At the same to the positive side of the battery, as shown in
time, the positive terminal pulls electrons from Fig.2(C).
the base, forming holes. These holes are repelled
Simultaneously, holes formed in the depletion
across the junction, through the emitter toward
layer on the collector side of the junction move
the end connected to the negative terminal of the
toward the negative terminal of the battery,
battery In the emitter, holes pick up electrons
cross the junction, and flow over into the base
and disappear. Thus, we have a current flow
and toward the negative terminal of the battery.
through the emitter-base circuit as shown in
Here they pick up electrons and disappear. Thus,
Fig.2(B).
we have acurrent flow in the base-collector cir-
Not all the electrons crossing the emitter-base cuit due to the minority carriers.
junction reach the positive terminal of the bat-
Now look at what happens when bias voltages
tery Some of them fill holes in the p-type base
are applied across both junctions of the npn
material. Similarly, not all the holes crossing
transistor, as shown in Fig.3. Considering first
from the base into the emitter reach the negative
the emitter-base circuit, we have electrons flow-
terminal of the battery. Some are filled by
ing from the negative terminal of the battery,
electrons in the emitter. This current, made up
through the n-type emitter, across the junction
of electrons that fill holes in the base and holes
and into the base. Some electrons reaching the
that are filled by electrons in the emitter, is
base recombine with holes. However, most
called arecombination current and the transis-
tor is designed to keep this current as low as
possible because it serves no useful purpose. To
maximize transistor efficiency, we want the ELECTRON CURRENT USEFUL ELECTRON
CURRENT
holes and electrons crossing the junction to reach
EMITTER BASE / COLLECTOR
the ends of the crystal. N—TYPE P—TYPE N—TYPE
•-... s--,.....,„_...„,_...,
Now let's see what happens when a reverse
•-•••••-••••

bias is placed across the base-collector junction •-....-4. ,i,_.., .--...•-.......

by connecting the negative terminal of abattery I.

\
07-0 \ f
to the base, and the positive terminal to the

s s
\
collector, as shown in Fig.2(C). This increases the MINORITY CARRIER
HOLE CURRENT REVERSE CURRENT
negative charge on the base of the junction and
/ lb = 'gib — Igb
the positive charge on the collector side of the
junction, so the potential barrier across the junc-
tion increases. This prevents current flow across the
base-collector junction due to majority carriers.
i SW Eg
—{f---0--1 I
11 = leb + Ico Ic = l ct, 4. I co
At the same time, electrons, which are
minority carriers in the base, break loose from
Figure 3. Current flow and carrier movement in an npn
their atoms and from the depletion layer on the junction transistor.

4
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

electrons reaching the base are attracted to the PNP Transistors

positive potential applied to the collector and
flow through the base, across the positive ter- Now let's see how the pnp transistor functions.
minal of the battery. In this transistor the emitter and the collector
At the same time, the positive potential ap- are both made of p-type material and the base is
plied to the p-type base pulls electrons out of the made of n-type material. First, let's consider
crystal, producing holes. These holes cross the what happens at the two junctions before any
junction into the emitter, drawn by the applied voltages are applied to the transistor.
negative voltage. These holes flow through the At the junctions, holes from the p-type emitter
emitter to the end connected to the battery, section and the p-type collector section diffuse
where they pick up electrons and disappear. across the junctions into the base. The holes
In the base-collector circuit, areverse current diffusing into the base place apositive charge on
flows due to the minority carriers. Holes appear- the atoms near the junctions. At the same time,
ing in the collector side of the depletion layer electrons from the n-type base diffuse across the
cross the junction into the base and flow toward junctions into both the emitter and collector.
the negative terminal of the battery, biasing the These electrons diffusing from the base into the
base-collector junction. Electrons in the deple- emitter, on one side of the base, and the collector,
tion layer on the base side of the junction are on the other side of the base, place a negative
attracted toward the positive potential applied charge on the atoms on the emitter and collector
to the collector. They cross the junction and flow sides of the junctions. These charged atoms, or
toward the positive terminal of the battery con- ions, will repel the electrons and holes from the
nected between the base and the collector. region of the junction to prevent any further
diffusion across the junctions. Thus we will have
With all these currents flowing, the most im- two depletion layers formed, as shown in
portant, useful current flow is that of electrons Fig.4(A) on the next page.
from the emitter, through the base, and to the
collector. Since this is the useful current, we are Before going any further, you should compare
interested in making it as large as possible in Fig.2(A), which shows the depletion areas in an
comparison to the other currents. Recombina- npn transistor, with Fig.4(A), which shows the
tion current is kept as low as possible by adding depletion areas in apnp transistor. Notice that
more donor atoms to the emitter than acceptor the depletion areas have opposite polarities. In
atoms to the base. In this way, there will be more the npn transistor, at the emitter-base junction,
free electrons in the emitter than there will be there are positive ions on the emitter side of the
holes in the base, so the recombination current junction and negative ions on the base side of the
will be quite small. In agood transistor, over 95% junction. With the pnp transistor, there are ex-
of the electrons that cross the emitter-base junc- actly the opposite: the negative ions are on the
tion will flow to the collector. emitter side of the junction and the positive ions
are on the base side of the junction.

5
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

Notice that the polarity of the depletion layers

EMITTER
BASE
COLLECTOR in the base-collector junctions is also reversed.
P-TYPE P-TYPE
N-TYPE In the npn transistor there are negative ions on
the base side of the junction and positive ions on
the collector side. In the pnp transistor, on the
other hand, there are positive ions on the base
side of the junction and negative ions on the
collector side of the junction.
NEGATIVE IONS NEGATIVE IONS
Getting back to the pnp transistor, when a
POSITIVE IONS forward bias is placed between the emitter and
(A) the base, an arrangement is formed like that
shown in Fig.4(B). Here the positive voltage ap-
plied to the end of the p-type emitter repels holes
EMITTER COLLECTOR toward the junction. These holes tend to neutral-
P-TYPE BASE
P-TYPE
N-TYPE ize the negatively charged ions on the emitter
HOLE -----____...
CURRENT side of the junction. The holes are formed at the
end of the p-type section by electrons attracted
out by the positive potential applied to this sec-

1
I
(lb
tion. At the same time, the positive potential
applied to the emitter attracts the electrons that
RECOMBINATION
CURRENT have given the ions on the p-side of the junction
-
their negative charge. This also weakens the
ELECTRON
CURRENT negative charge on the emitter side of the junc-
(B) tion.

At the base, the holes are attracted toward the

EMITTER COLLECTOR
negative terminal of the battery, while the
BASE
P-TYPE
N-TYPE
P-TYPE electrons are pushed toward the depletion layer.
The pulling of holes away from the depletion
area and the pushing of electrons into it tend to
neutralize the charge on the base side of the
junction. The net effect of biasing in the forward
direction is to neutralize the charges on each side
REVERSE CURRENT of the junction and to allow current flow across
DUE TO MINORITY
CARRIERS the junction. Current flow is by majority car-
riers: electrons on the n-type base region and
(C) holes from the p-type emitter region.

Thus in the emitter-base circuit, we have

electrons flowing from the negative terminal of
Figure 4. (A) The formation of ions at the juction of a pnp the battery to the base, through the base, across
transistor. (6) The current flow in the emitter-base circuit, the junction, and through the emitter to the
and (C) in the collector-base.
positive terminal of the battery At the same

6
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

USEFUL HOLE
time, we have holes being produced because CURRENT
electrons are being pulled out of the p-type emit- EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
P-TYPE N-TYPE
ter by the positive potential applied to it. The P-TYPE

holes move through the emitter, across the junc- 0-••••0-••••

tion, into the base, and to the point where the

base is connected to the negative terminal of the REVERSE
CURRENT I„
battery. At this point, the holes pick up electrons
and disappear. RECOMBINATION
ELECTRON
CURRENT
CURRENT
Not all the electrons going from the base to the Ib = Ieb - cb

emitter reach the positive terminals of the bat-

tery Some of these electrons recombine with SW E
Ec

holes in the emitter. Similarly, some of the holes -

traveling from the emitter into the base pick up le = + Ice Ic = Ice + ce,
an electron in the base. Once again, this is a
recombination current and must be kept as low
as possible. Figure 5. Current flow and carrier movement in a pnp
junction transistor.
Now consider the base-collector junction. This
junction is reverse-biased as shown in Fig.4(C).
Here we have adepletion layer at the junction. Some of these holes cross the junction into the
We also have minority carriers being formed in n-type base where they pick up an electron and
the depletion layer. Holes that are formed in the disappear. This is the recombination current.
base region cross the junction, and, instead of
neutralizing anegatively charged atom near the Most of the holes produced in the emitter cross
junction on the collector, are attracted by the the emitter-base junction into the base where
negative potential applied to the collector. they are attracted by the negative potential ap-
Similarly, electrons formed in the depletion layer plied to the collector. These holes cross the base,
of the p-type collector cross the junction and are the base-collector junction, and flow to the col-
attracted by the positive potential applied to the lector terminal connected to the negative ter-
base. Thus, we have a current flow due to minal of the battery Here the holes pick up
minority carriers. electrons and disappear.

Now let's see what happens when both junc- There is another current crossing the base-
tions are biased as shown in Fig.5. Electrons flow collector junction due to minority carriers found
from the negative terminal of the battery into in the depletion layer. Electrons formed on the
the base, across the emitter-base junction, and collector side of the junction cross over and are
through the emitter to the positive terminal of attracted by the positive terminal of the battery,
the battery Some holes are formed in the p-type which connects to the base-collector junction.
emitter section due to the electrons being pulled Similarly, holes formed on the base side of the
out of the section by the positive terminal of the depletion layer are attracted by the negative
battery. terminal of the battery connected to the collector.

7
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

All in all, there are four currents flowing in the they fill holes arriving at the collector terminal.
pnp transistor, just as in the npn transistor. The The positive terminal of the emitter-base battery
largest of these currents is due to the movement attracts electrons from the emitter, and these
of holes from the emitter through the base, into electrons flow through the battery over to the
the collector, to the negative terminal of the positive terminal of the base-collector battery.
battery connected to the collector. In addition to Meanwhile, the holes produced by the emitter
this current, there are three small currents flow- terminal of the battery move across the emitter,
ing. One is the current created by the electron the emitter-base junction, the base, the base-
movement from the negative terminal of the collector junction, and the collector to the ter-
emitter-base battery into the base, across the minal connected to the negative terminal of the
base, across the junction, and through the emit- battery. There they are filled by electrons.
ter to the positive terminal of the battery.
Notice that in both types of transistors, cur-
Another is the recombination current due to the rent flows by majority carriers; and that in both
holes combining with electrons in the base. And
cases the majority carriers move from the ter-
the last one is the reverse current due to the
minal of the battery connected to the emitter,
hole-electron pairs being formed in the depletion
across the emitter, across the emitter-base junc-
layer of the base-collector junction. Directions of
tion, across the base, across the base-collector
movement of holes and electrons are shown in
junction, and through the collector to the ter-
Fig.5.
minal of the battery connected to the collector. In
In the pnp transistor, the recombination cur- the external circuit of the npn transistor (the
rent is kept as low as possible because it serves circuit made up of the batteries), the electrons
no useful purpose, just like the npn transistor. In are flowing in the same direction as the majority
the pnp transistor, the recombination current is carriers in the transistor. In the pnp transistor,
kept to a minimum by adding more acceptor since the majority carriers in the transistor are
atoms to the emitter than donor atoms to the holes, the electrons in the external circuits are
base. This makes more free holes in the emitter flowing in a direction opposite that of the
than there are free electrons in the base, so the majority carriers.
recombination current will be quite small. In a
We have covered agreat deal in this section on
good pnp transistor, over 95% of the holes that cross
transistors, and it would be agood idea to review
the emitter-base junction flow to the collector.
this section again. The important thing to
Note the similarities and differences between remember is that the useful current through a
the pnp and npn transistors. In both transistors, transistor is by majority carriers. In the npn
useful current comes from majority carriers in transistor the majority carriers are electrons
the emitter of the transistor. In the npn transis- and in the pnp transistor the majority carriers
tor, electrons flow from the negative terminal are holes.
of the battery, through the emitter, across the
You should also notice the polarity of the bat-
emitter-base junction and the base, across the
teries used to forward bias the emitter-base junc-
base-collector junction, and through the collector
tion and reverse bias the base-collector junction.
to the positive terminal of the battery.
To forward bias the emitter-base junction to an
In the pnp transistor, electrons flow from the npn transistor, you connect the negative terminal
negative battery terminal to the collector, where of the battery to the emitter and the positive

8
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

terminal to the base. To forward bias a pnp Modern transistors are silicon alloy-junction
transistor, connect the positive terminal of the transistors. There are a number of different
battery to the emitter and the negative terminal types of alloy-junction transistors. In this section
of the battery to the base. To reverse bias the of the lesson we are going to discuss these tran-
base-collector junction of an npn transistor, you sistors briefly. You do not have to remember the
connect the negative terminal of the battery to name of each type; they are all junction transis-
the base and the positive terminal to the collec- tors and work in basically the same way.
tor. To reverse bias the base-collector junction of
A pnp alloy-junction transistor is made by
a pnp transistor, you connect the positive ter-
taking asmall rectangular piece of n-type semi-
minal of the battery to the base and the negative
conductor material and fusing small dots of in-
terminal of the battery to the collector.
dium into it on opposite sides, as shown in Fig.7.
This results in p-type material being formed at
the points where the dots are fused into the
Alloy-Junction Transistors
wafer, making apnp transistor.

The first transistors were germanium grown- An npn transistor can be made by taking a
junction transistors. This transistor is made piece of p-type semiconductor material and
from a small rectangular bar cut from a ger- fusing a lead antimony alloy into the two op-
manium crystal that has been grown. Suitable posite sides. It is possible to get more uniform
impurities are added so that the npn regions penetration of the lead antimony alloy into the
shown in Fig.6 are formed. The base of the tran- semiconductor material in this type of transistor,
sistor, which is kept as thin as possible, is located and thus better junction spacing. This cuts down
midway between the two ends. Suitable contacts on the width of the material between the emitter
are welded to the emitter, base, and collector and the collector and gives improved high-
regions. frequency performance.

The disadvantage of this type of transistor is

that it is not particularly well-suited for opera-
tion at high frequencies. In addition, it is
temperature-sensitive and can become quite un-
stable at high temperatures.

NPN

Figure 6. A grown-junction transistor. Figure 7. An alloy-junction transistor.

9
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

This type of transistor operates better at

higher frequencies than the grown-type junction
transistor. It has ahigher potential for amplifica-
tion, and remains stable as the temperature -
00000
increases. --- 00000
C
E 00000 ------- 00000
00000
The surface-barrier transistor is an alloy- - - -

junction transistor in which pits are etched into

Figure 9. Diagram showing how alarge number of donor
the silicon, as shown in Fig.8, before adding the
impurities increases the electron concentration in the
impurities that form the emitter and collector. base.
Surface-barrier transistors perform well at high
frequencies.
the planar transistor, all of which are classified
Notice that in both Fig.7 and Fig.8 the collec-
as diffusion transistors.
tor is larger than the emitter. In Fig.8(B) we have
shown the way in which the majority carriers In the drift type of pnp transistor shown in
spread out as they cross the base, traveling from Fig.9, the emitter-base and the collector-base
the emitter to the collector. junctions are formed by the alloy technique, but
the base region is made by the diffusion process
Diffusion Transistors. Diffusion is the pas-
in which the impurities in the base region are
sage of one material through another. Although
varied. In a typical transistor of this type, the
a material might look and feel solid, there is a
concentration of the donor impurities added to
lot of space between its atoms. If you filled a
the base is controlled so that concentration is
sealed glass jar with hydrogen and allowed it to
highest at the region of the emitter-base junc-
sit for several days, you would find that the
tion, then drops off quickly, and finally reaches
hydrogen had escaped and that the glass was
aconstant value which it maintains over to the
filled with air. Hydrogen atoms are very small
base-collector junction.
and very active, and simply diffuse through the
glass. This technique is used in the manufacture The pnp mesa transistor starts with apiece of
of the drift transistor, the mesa transistor, and p-type material, to which donor impurities are
added to form the base region, as shown in
Fig.10. After the base is formed, acceptor im-
purities are added to form the emitter and emitter-
base junction.

The advantages of the mesa transistor are

good high-frequency response and very consis-
tent performance. It is possible to control the
manufacturing techniques quite closely so that
the characteristics of mesa transistors of the
same type are quite similar. This is not neces-
sarily true of other transistors; their charac-
(A)
teristics often vary over awide range.

Figure 8. (A) Sketch of a surface-barrier transistor. (B) An npn planar transistor is formed from n-
Hole movement across the base. type silicon. Acceptor impurities are diffused

10
 JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

B
Epitaxial Transistors. One disadvantage of
the diffusion-type transistor is the relatively
high resistance of the collector. This limits its
usefulness at high frequencies. If we reduce the
resistance of the collector, we introduce the pos-
sibility of acollector-base or acollector-emitter
short, which destroys the transistor. Both these
problems can be overcome with an epitaxial
transistor, shown in Fig.12. In this type of tran-
sistor, the collector region immediately adjacent
to the base-collector junction is doped to have a
high resistance. The remainder of the collector
is doped to have alow resistance. This technique
improves the high-frequency performance of the
transistor and at the same time reduces the
possibility of acollector short.

Figure 10. A mesa transistor.

Review

into aregion to form the base, as shown in Fig.11. Remember that in an npn transistor the
The donor impurities are then diffused into a majority carriers are electrons. They cross the
small region in the center of the base to form the emitter to the emitter-base junction. A few
emitter. Notice that because all junctions are electrons leave the transistor at the base, but
brought back to the same plane, this type of most cross the base-collector junction and flow
transistor is called planar. Planar transistors through the collector to the positive voltage
usually have avery low reverse current. source. In agood npn transistor, over 95% of the

HIGH R

COLLECTOR
LAYER
r LOW R

I
C
Figure 11. A diffused planar-type transistor. Figure 12. A double-diffused epitaxial transistor.

11
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

electrons crossing the emitter-base junction Self-Test Questions

eventually reach the collector.
In apnp transistor the majority carriers are Please check your answers on page 18.
holes. They are produced in the emitter because
1 What two materials have been used in the
electrons are pulled out of the emitter by the
manufacture of transistors?
positive terminal of the voltage source connected
2 What two types of junction transistors are
to the emitter. The holes cross the emitter and
widely used?
the emitter-base junction and enter the base. A
3 What type of bias is used across the emitter-
few of the holes travel over to the base terminal
base junction of atransistor?
where they are filled by electrons, but most of
4 What type of bias is used across the collector-
the holes cross the base, the base-collector junc-
base junction of atransistor?
tion, and the collector. Here they are filled by
5 Draw adiagram of apnp transistor and show
electrons from the external voltage source. In a
how the batteries are connected to place the
good pnp transistor, over 95% of the holes
correct bias across the two junctions.
produced in the emitter cross the base to the
6 Draw adiagram of an npn transistor and
collector.
show how the batteries are connected to
place the correct bias across the two junc-
tions.
7 What are the useful current carriers in apnp
transistor?
8 What are the useful current carriers in an
npn transistor?

12
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

formed, and place a negative voltage on the

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
p-type material, as shown in Fig.13, there can be
no current flow across the junction, because the
So far, you have studied npn and pnp transis- junction is reverse-biased.
tors. These transistors are called bipolar devices However, the negative voltage applied to the
because their operation depends on the interac- p-type material creates afield that extends into
tion of holes and electrons. The field-effect tran- the n-type material. This field blocks the flow of
sistor is a unipolar device, whose operation
electrons through the n-type material, forcing
depends on either holes or electrons, but not them to one side, as shown in Fig.13. We call the
both. n-type material achannel. The p-type material
Field-effect transistors can be divided into two is called the gate. The effect of the gate is to
types: the junction-gate field-effect transistor narrow the channel and increase its effective
and the insulated-gate field-effect transistor. resistance. A very high negative voltage applied
Let's look at the junction-gate field-effect tran- to the gate can completely block the flow of
sistor first. electrons through the n-type channel. This type
of transistor is called an n-channeljunction field-
effect transistor, or n-channel JFET.
Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistors
Figure 14 shows the schematic diagram of the
circuit in Fig.13. The end at which the electrons
One type of junction-gate field-effect transis- enter the channel is called the source, S. The
tor is made from apiece of n-type material, as other end, where electrons exit the channel, is
shown in Fig.13. If the negative terminal of a
called the drain, D. Notice the direction in which
battery is connected to one end of the material
the arrow is drawn; this indicates ap-type gate,
and the positive terminal to the other end,
which means that the transistor is an n-channel
electrons flow through the material from one end JFET.
to the other. If we attach a piece of p-type
material to one side so that a pn junction is A p-channel JFET is created by using p-type
material as the channel and n-type material as
the gate. Figure 15, on the next page, is the
schematic of acircuit similar to Fig.14 using a
p-channel JFET. Notice that the direction in

I
P-TYPE

1
-= BIAS

T
Figure 13. Drawing showing the basic operation of a Figure 14. Schematic representation of the n-channel FET
field-effect transistor. circuit shown in Fig.13.

13
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistors

In addition to the junction-gate field-effect

transistor, there is an insulated-gate field-effect
transistor; or IGFET. In the IGFET, the gate is
completely insulated from the channel by athin
insulating material. For example, a very thin
Figure 15. Schematic of acircuit using a p-channel JFET. piece of glass or mica might be placed between
the conducting channel and the gate. Thus, there
is no actual junction formed between the semi-
which the arrow is pointing is reversed to indi- conductor materials in the channel and gate.
cate an n-type gate and ap-channel JFET. To make an n-channel IGFET, we start with a
In the p-channel JFET, the battery connec- lightly doped p-type material called the sub-
tions to source and drain are reversed. Electrons strate. Donor atoms are diffused into the top of
in the p-channel material move toward the posi- the substrate to form an n-channel as shown in
tive terminal of the battery, leaving holes behind Fig.16. A glass insulator placed on the side of the
them. At the circuit connection to the drain, the channel insulates the gate. When a battery is
holes are filled by electrons from the negative connected across the n-channel as shown in
terminal of the battery Thus, there are holes Fig.17, electrons leave the battery and flow to
moving through the channel from the source to the source, through the channel, to the drain,
the drain, but electrons are flowing in the exter- and back to the positive terminal of the battery.
nal circuit in the opposite direction. When anegative voltage is placed between the
gate and the source as shown in Fig.17, the
Notice that the battery connected between the
channel is effectively narrowed so that the
gate and the source is also reversed. This battery
is called the bias battery. The holes traveling
through the channel are repelled by the positive
N—CHANNEL GLASS
voltage on the gate. Increasing this positive volt- INSULATOR
age can reduce, or cut off the flow of holes GATE
I
through the channel completely. e .,. 1
As you can see, in the n-channel JFET the
number of electrons flowing through the channel .[Link]...1M..1M1J1.y.y

depends upon the amplitude of the bias voltage.

P—TYPE
Similarly, in the p-channel JFET, the number of SUBSTRATE
holes traveling through the channel depends
upon the bias voltage. When this voltage varies,
the carriers traveling through the channel vary.
This characteristic of aJFET allows arelatively
small signal voltage on the gate to control amuch
larger, or amplified, voltage in the output circuit.
Figure 16. Current flow through an n-channel IGFET with
We will discuss amplification in alater lesson. no bias applied.

14
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

. SS UBSTRATE
7/

(A)
D
SUBSTRATE
11
(D)
Figure 18. Insulated-gate, field-effect transistors. (A)
Figure 17. Current flow through an n-channel IGFET with Schematic symbol for an n-channel unit, and (B) the
bias applied. symbol for a p-channel unit.

resistance of the channel increases according to be avery small leakage current across the junc-
the magnitude of the gate voltage. tion. In the MOSFET, however, there is no cur-
rent flow between the gate and the channel.
Instead of using an n-type material for the
channel and ap-type material for the gate in an Both the JFET and the IGFET (MOSFET)
IGFET, a thin piece of metal that has been discussed so far use areverse bias between the
oxidized on one side is used for both the gate and junction and the channel. This reverse bias
the insulator. Metal oxides can be used as in- reduces the number of carriers passing through
sulators because they do not conduct electricity. the channel. If the bias is made high enough, it
The advantage of this arrangement is that the prevents the flow of carriers through the chan-
oxide of the metal can be made very thin, putting nel, or is said to deplete the carriers in the
the metal gate much closer to the channel. This channel. Thus, these FETs are known as deple-
type of device is called ametal oxide, semicon- tion types. There is another type of FET called
ductor field-effect transistor. Sometimes you'll an enhancement type. Let's see how it works.
see this abbreviated as MOS field-effect transis-
All enhancement-type FETs are insulated-
tor, but more often you see it abbreviated MOS-
gate FETs. In the enhancement type, there is no
FET (pronounced Mossfet).
channel. The channel is formed between the
Both n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs are source and drain when we place aforward bias
manufactured. The schematic symbols used to between the gate and the substrate. You cannot
represent the two types are shown in Fig.18. have an enhancement type JFET because the
Figure 18(A) shows the symbol for an n-channel forward bias would cause ahigh current to flow
type, and Fig.18(B) shows the symbol for a p- through the gate.
channel type. They work essentially the same
A sketch of an n-channel enhancement type of
way as JFETs, except that there is no current
IGFET is shown in Fig.19, on the next page. We
flow at all from the channel to the gate or from
start with a p-type substrate and diffuse two
the gate to the channel. In the JFET, there may
n-type regions into it, one for the source and one

15
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

SOURCE G TE DRAIN
Figure 20 shows the schematic symbols for the
enhancement-type IGFETs. The one shown in
Fig.20(A) is for an n-channel and the one shown
in Fig.20(B) for ap-channel. Compare these sym-
bols with those shown in Fig.18. Notice that in
P Fig.18 there is adirect line between the source
and drain in each case. This indicates that the
channel exists, or in other words, that these are
Figure 19. Sketch of an enhancement-type IGFET. depletion-type IGFETs. In Fig.20, a direct line
between the source and drain is not shown be-
cause the channel does not exist unless the cor-
rect voltage is applied to the gate. Thus, these
for the drain. Notice that there is a space be-
are enhancement-type IGFETs.
tween them and no direct channel from the
source to the drain. The gate is placed so that it In this discussion, we have referred to both the
is opposite part of both the source and the drain. depletion-type and enhancement-type insulated-
When the negative terminal of a battery is gate transistors as IGFETs since they are both
connected to the source and the positive terminal insulated-gate field-effect transistors. However,
to the drain, there is no current flow because you'll see them referred to as MOSFETs in al-
there is no channel. If we add asecond battery most every case because the gate of most IGFETs
with its negative terminal connected to the is apiece of metal and the insulation is an oxide
source and its positive terminal connected to the formed on the metal. Don't let this confuse you;
gate, the positive voltage applied to the gate a MOSFET is a kind of IGFET. However, the
forces holes out of the p-type region between the term IGFET covers all insulated-gate field-effect
source and the drain. At the same time, the transistors regardless of the materials used to
negative voltage applied to the source forces insulate the gate.
electrons out of the source into the region be-
tween the source and the drain where they are
attracted by the positive voltage applied to the
SUBSTRATE
drain. This creates achannel.
(.j. :
1 ----
The higher the positive voltage applied be-
tween the source and the gate, the more holes (A)
are forced out of the p-type region between the
source and the gate, and the more electrons are
forced from the source into the channel and
G SUBSTRATE
across the channel to the drain. Thus, increasing
the voltage between the source and gate has the S
effect of reducing the resistance between the
source and drain by creating alarger channel. (8)

Figure 20. The schematic symbol for (A) an n-channel

enhancement-type IGFET and (B) ap-channel unit.

16
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

Review An IGFET can be either depletion-type or

enhancement-type. In the enhancement-type
Field-effect transistors are widely used in IGFET, the channel between the source and
electronic equipment. There are two basic types, drain does not exist until avoltage is applied to
the junction-gate field-effect transistor (JFET) the gate.
and the insulated-gate field-effect transistor
(IGFET). Remember that in most IGFETs the
gate is apiece of metal oxidized on one side. The Self-Test Questions
oxide is the insulator between the gate and the
channel. This type of field-effect transistor is 9 What is the difference between ajunction-
usually called aMOSFET. gate field-effect transistor and an insulated-
gate field-effect transistor?
Also, remember that field-effect transistors
10 What is adepletion-type field-effect tran-
can be made in both n-channel types and p-channel
sistor?
types. In a depletion-type IGFET, a channel is
11 What is an enhancement-type field-effect
present and the voltage applied to the gate
transistor?
reduces the width, and hence, increases the
12 Is aMOSFET ajunction-gate field-effect
resistance, of the channel. In the depletion-type
transistor or an insulated-gate field-effect
field-effect transistor, the gate is always reverse- transistor?
biased so there is no current flow between the
gate and the channel except a small leakage
current that might exist.

17
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

6 See Fig.3.
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST
7 The useful current carriers in apnp transis-
QUESTIONS tor are holes.
8 The useful current carriers in an npn tran-
sistor are electrons.
1 Germanium and silicon.
9 In ajunction-gate field-effect transistor, the
2 NPN and pnp.
gate is in contact with the channel. In the
3 Forward bias is used across the emitter-base
insulated-gate field-effect transistor the
junction. To forward bias the emitter-base
gate is insulated from the channel.
junction in an npn transistor, the base is
10 A depletion-type FET is aunit in which the
made positive with respect to the emitter.
channel is present between the source and
To forward bias the emitter-base junction
the drain.
in apnp transistor, the base is made nega-
11 An enhancement-type FET is aunit in
tive with respect to the emitter.
which there is no channel between the
4 Reverse bias is used across the collector-base
source and drain until the operating bias
junction. To reverse bias the collector-base
is applied to the gate.
junction in an npn transistor, the collector
12 A MOSFET is an insulated-gate field-effect
is made positive with respect to base. To
transistor where the gate is made of a
reverse bias the collector-base junction in a
metal and the insulator is an oxide of the
pnp transistor, the collector is made nega-
metal.
tive with respect to base.
5 See Fig.5.

18
 LESSON QUESTIONS

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts you should
remember from this lesson are:

• Junction transistors are three-element semiconduc-

tor devices.

• The two basic types of junction transistors are npn

and pnp.

• Forward bias allows conduction of electrons through

atransistor, from emitter to collector.

• Reverse bias prevents current flow from emitter to

collector of atransistor.

• Field effect transistors utilize field energy and

polarity to establish or block a"channel - through a
semiconductor material.

19
HOW TRANSISTORS WORK

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2226.

Make sure you print your name, student number,

.- •
and lesson number in the space provided on the Name -bin Snith

Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the circles Prig

10 Student No. Lesson No.
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1. In acorrectly biased npn transistor, the base is: 3. Which of the following transistors is a
a. Negative with respect to the emitter and unipolar device?
negative with respect to the collector. a. Alloy-junction transistor.
b. Negative with respect to the emitter and b. Diffusion transistor.
positive with respect to the collector. c. Epitaxial transistor.
c. Positive with respect to the emitter and d. Junction-gate field-effect transistor.
negative with respect to the collector.
d. Positive with respect to the emitter and 4. Which of the following transistors is a
positive with respect to the collector. bipolar device?
a. A JFET.
2. In acorrectly biased pnp transistor the base is: b. An IGFET.
a. Negative with respect to the emitter and c. An epitaxial transistor.
negative with respect to the collector.
b. Negative with respect to the emitter and 5. What is aMOSFET?
positive with respect to the collector. a. A JFET.
c. Positive with respect to the emitter and b. An IGFET.
negative with respect to the collector. c. An npn transistor.
d. Positive with respect to the emitter and d. A pnp transistor.
positive with respect to the collector.

20
 LESSON QUESTIONS

6. In an npn transistor, what happens to an 9. Which of the following is the schematic

electron that crosses the emitter and the symbol for an n-channel enhancement-
base and moves into the collector? type MOSFET?
a. It remains in the collector.
b. It fills ahole in an acceptor atom.

--&- __C-
c. It returns to the base where it fills ahole.
d. It is attracted to the positive terminal of
the battery

7. In apnp transistor, what happens to ahole (A) (B)

that crosses the emitter and the base and
moves into the collector?
a. It remains in the collector.
b. It is filled by an electron from adonor ' E-- --Q ---
atom.
c. It returns to the base to be filled by afree
(c) (D)
electron.
d. It is filled by an electron from the battery
10. Which of the schematic symbols in the
8. In apnp transistor, electrons crossing from preceding question is the schematic symbol
the base to the emitter: for ap-channel depletion-type MOSFET?
a. Serve no useful purpose.
b. Increase the movement of holes through
the transistor.
c. Make it easier for holes to cross the base.
d. Prevent electrons from crossing the base-
collector junction.

21
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
A riWff Schools

DIG A LITTLE DEEPER

A poor farmer struggled for years to gain aliving out of the rocky soil,
then finally gave up in despair and sought fortune elsewhere. Years
later, more wealth was being dug out of this rocky old farm every day
than the farmer had ever dreamed existed. The farm had become a
gold mine.

Many of us struggle along just like that poor farmer, never dreaming
that success could be ours if we dug alittle deeper right where we
were. Millions of people are just barely getting along today, when they
have the ability to do much better things, simply because they lack
confidence in themselves. They are victims of mental defeat; they
don't believe they can do anything better.

If you lack self-confidence and persistence — if you lack asense of

mastery, aconsciousness of power, and avictorious mental attitude,
begin now to cultivate self-confidence. How? Make your decisions with
confidence and stick to them. Dig into your work alittle harder, keep
going alittle longer, and soon you'll have the confidence that carries
you speedily to success.

e
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies
LT2226(801)
How Transistors Are Used 2227

• NR! Schools
ADivision of The McG,uwHilZ Companies

Washington, DC 20008
L

Aim
How Transistors Are Used
I

r
 Table of Contents
Introduction 1

The Common-Emitter Circuit 2

The Common-Emitter NPN Amplfier 2
The Common-Emitter PNP Amplfier 7
Characteristics of Common-Emitter Circuits 9
Review 11
Self-Test Questions 11

The Common-Base Circuit 12

The Common-Base NPN Amplifier 12
The Common-Base PNP Amplifier 15
Characteristics of Common-Base Circuits 17
Review 18
Self-Test Questions 18

The Common-Collector Circuit 19

The Common-Collector NPN Amplifier 19
The Common-Collector PNP Amplifier 21
Characteristics of Common-Collector Circuits 23
Review 24
Self-Test Questions 24

Field-Effect Transistors 25
Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistors 25
Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistors 29
Dual-Gate MOSFETs 29
Review 30
Self-Test Questions 31

Transistor Characteristics 32
Transistor Symbols 32
Current Gain 33
Review 34
Self-Test Questions 34

Answers To Self-Test Questions 35

Lesson Questions 37

Copyright © 1995 by NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson you will...

• Become familiar with the three basic types of transistor amplifiers.

• Learn the differences in npn and pnp amplifier circuits.

• Discover how amplifier characteristics are matched for

input and output circuit impedance.

• Learn how field-effect transistors are used as amplifiers.

• Learn some new symbols and abbreviations for important

transistor circuit characteristics.
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION Despite the rapid developments in circuit in-

tegration, there are many places where discrete
(individual and separate) transistors are used.
Many years ago, all electronic equipment used Learning how transistors operate in these basic
vacuum tubes. There were no transistors. Even "building-block" circuits will help you under-
giant computers were made of thousands of stand other circuits that use them.
vacuum tubes. The invention of the transistor
There are many ways to use atransistor, and
led to the development of the integrated circuit
one of the most important is to amplify asignal.
(IC). An integrated circuit is simply a device
A weak signal fed to a transistor amplifier
containing many transistors, usually designed
produces astrong signal at the output. Junction
to do acertain job.
transistors and field-effect transistors can both
As manufacturers learned how to stuff more amplify signals. In this lesson we are going to see
and more transistors into relatively small in- how transistors are used as amplifiers, begin-
tegrated circuits, more sophisticated devices ning with junction transistors.
were developed. The grouping of many transis-
Junction transistors can be placed into three
tors into a small package is called large-scale
basic amplifier circuit configurations. These cir-
integration (LSI). LSI led to the development of
cuits are the common-emitter circuit, the common-
the microprocessor, which is used in industry to
base circuit, and the common-collector circuit. Of
control machines, in video cassette recorders to
the three, the common-emitter circuit is the most
control the operation of the recorder, and in
widely used.
microcomputers. Today's desktop microcom-
puter can outperform computers that used
thousands of vacuum tubes.

1
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

THE COMMON-EMITTER connects through an ac generator and through

RI to the base. The negative end connects to the
CIRCUIT emitter, so the emitter-base junction is still for-
ward biased. The negative terminal ofB2 connects

The common-emitter circuit uses either an

npn or a pnp transistor. Common-emitter
amplifier circuits using npn transistors are a +1
little easier to understand, so we will start the
,

discussion with them.

- B1
The Common-Emitter NPN Amplifier

You have learned that a transistor conducts T

when there is aforward bias across the emitter- (A)
base junction and a reverse bias across the
collector-base junction. In the case of an npn
transistor, this means that the base must be
positive with respect to the emitter, and negative
with respect to the collector. Another way to
state this is that the base must be more positive
than the emitter, and the collector must be more
positive than the base.
Figure 1(A) shows the battery connections to
correctly bias an npn transistor. Instead of draw-
ing the transistor horizontally, as we did in the
(B)
previous lesson, we've drawn it vertically. Notice
that B1 forward biases the emitter-basejunction
and B2 reverse biases the collector-base junction.
Figure 1(B) is the same circuit in schematic
form. To forward bias the emitter-base junction,
we connect the positive terminal of B1 to the R2
base, and the negative terminal to the emitter.
To reverse bias the collector-base junction, the
positive terminal of B2 connects to the collector, GEN

and the negative terminal to the base. Figure

1(B) is an exact schematic representation of
Fig. 1(A).
In Fig.1(C) the circuit is rearranged, but the (C)

bias voltages applied to the transistor are un-

Figure 1. (A) and (B) Correct biasing for an npn transistor.
changed. Notice that the positive end of B1 now
(C) The common-emitter circuit.

2
 THE COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

through the generator and R1 to the base of the flow through R1 and the generator back to the
transistor. The positive terminal connects positive terminal of B1.
through R2 to the collector of the transistor. The
Transistor current supplied by B2 also flows
collector-base junction is still reverse biased.
through R2. The current flowing through R2
Notice that we've shown a ground symbol. results in avoltage drop of the polarity shown in
This does not change the transistor biasing in Fig.1(C). Normally the value of R2 is selected so
any way. We've added this symbol because in the that the voltage drop across it will be approxi-
common-emitter circuit, the emitter is normally mately half the voltage of B2. In other words, if
operated at what is called signal ground poten- battery B2 has avoltage of 9volts (V), R2 should
tial. In other words, as far as any signal is con- drop about 4.5 volts. The voltage drop across R2
cerned, the emitter is connected directly to subtracts from the B2 supply voltage, so that the
ground. In the circuit shown in Fig.1(C), the voltage between the collector of the transistor
battery B1 will have such alow resistance to ac and ground is the balance of the supply voltage,
that, for all practical purposes, the emitter is at about 4.5 volts. Of course, the exact voltage drop
signal ground potential. If the battery has ahigh across R2 depends on its value and the current
resistance we can bring the emitter to signal flowing through it. The current through the com-
ground potential by connecting alarge capacitor bination of resistor and transistor is also affected
across the battery. Remember that a large by R1 and the voltage applied to the base of the
capacitor will have avery low reactance to an ac transistor. However, the rule of thumb for common-
signal. emitter amplifiers is that half the supply voltage
is dropped across the collector resistor, R2 in this
The same situation exists in the collector cir-
case.
cuit. B2 has avery low resistance, so the lower
end of R2 is effectively at signal ground poten- Thus, with no signal applied (with the ac gen-
tial. Again, if for any reason B2 had a high erator voltage equal to zero), current flows from
resistance, we could bypass it with a large the negative terminal of B1 across the emitter-
capacitor so that once again the lower end of R2 base junction, through R1 and the generator, and
will be at signal ground potential. back to the positive terminal of B1. This is a
small current, referred to as the input current.
As we said previously, most of the electrons
There is also current flow from the negative
crossing the emitter and the emitter-base junc-
terminal of B2, through B1 to the emitter, across
tion will cross the base and the base-collector
the emitter-base junction, and out of the transis-
junction and flow through the collector to the
tor at the collector terminal, through R2, to the
positive terminal of B2. B2 will supply the cur-
positive terminal of B2. This current is much
rent to the emitter that is eventually going to
larger than the input current, and is called the
reach the collector.
output current.
Remember also that we said that not all of the
Figure 2(A), on the next page, is a graph
electrons crossing the emitter-base junction will
representing the collector voltage with zero sig-
cross the base and reach the collector. Some will
nal input. That is, in the circuit of Fig.1(C), the
leave the transistor at the base. B1 will supply
generator voltage is 0 volts. The only voltages
these electrons. The current from B1 will flow to
applied to the transistor are B1 and B2. Under
the emitter, cross the emitter-base junction, and
these circumstances, the voltage between the
leave the transistor at the base lead. It will then

3
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

ZERO SIGNAL plied by Bi. Let's suppose that starting at point

COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE 1in Fig.2(B), the generator voltage adds to the
voltage of Bi. Starting at point 1, the signal
begins swinging in a positive direction until it
o
reaches amaximum at point 2, then drops to 0
(A)
at point 3. At point 3 the polarity of the signal
from the generator reverses, and begins sub-
2
tracting from the voltage of Bi. The forward bias
EMITTER BASE
r ii\ u/5
FORWARD BIAS then begins decreasing from point 3 to point 4
1 WITH SIGNAL
4
where it reaches its lowest value. Then, as the
generator voltage begins increasing again, so
o does the forward bias from point 4to point 5.
(B)
When the positive generator voltage adds to
the voltage of Bi, between points 1and 3, the
emitter current increases because of the in-
.« COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE
creased forward bias. Not only does the current
WITH SIGNAL leaving the base and flowing through R1 in-
crease, but the current reaching the collector and
flowing through R2 increases. This means that
o the voltage drop across R2 increases, causing the
(C) voltage between the collector and ground to
decrease as shown in Fig.2(C). Notice that the
relatively larger current flowing through the
Figure 2. Waveforms for Fig.1(C). collector causes the change in voltage between
the collector and ground to be much greater than
the change in voltage between the base and
collector of the transistor and ground is constant. ground.
This is represented by the straight, horizontal
When the generator voltage reverses polarity,
line. If B2 has avoltage of 9V, as we mentioned
it subtracts from the voltage applied between the
previously, the voltage between the collector and
base and emitter by Bi. Thus the net input
ground will be constant at about 4.5 volts.
voltage goes down. This causes the emitter cur-
Looking again at Fig.1(C), you can see that Bi, rent to decrease so that not only does the current
the generator, and R1 are all connected in series flowing through R1 decrease, but the total cur-
between the emitter and the base. This means rent flowing through the transistor and through
that any voltage created by the generator will be R2 decreases. When this happens, the voltage
in series with the B1 voltage, causing the forward drop across R2 decreases so that the voltage
bias across the emitter-base junction to vary. between the collector and ground increases, as
Figure 2(B) shows what happens to the for- shown between points 3and 4in Fig.2(C). Again,
ward bias across the emitter-base junction when notice that the change in voltage between the
the generator begins to create a signal. The collector and ground is much greater than the
straight line represents the forward bias sup- change in voltage between the base and ground.

4
 THE COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

There are two very important things to Thus, the base is negative with respect to the
remember: First, the small signal voltage ap- collector and there is a reverse bias across the
plied to the input (base) of the transistor is collector-base junction.
reproduced in the form of an amplified or larger
We've also added capacitors C1and C2 to the
signal in the output (collector) circuit. Second,
circuit. These capacitors are used to isolate the
notice that when the input swings positive, the
input and output circuits from the transistor's
output swings negative. Similarly, when the
dc circuits. If the input happened to be alow-
input signal swings negative, the output signal
impedance microphone, without Cl in the cir-
swings positive. In other words, the input signal
cuit, the low-impedance microphone would be in
has been inverted. The output signal is 180° out
parallel with R1 and upset the forward bias
of phase with the input signal.
across the emitter-base junction. By putting the
One other important thing to notice about this capacitor in the circuit, the forward bias will be
circuit is that the base current is small and that equal to the voltage drop across Rl. The audio
the generator voltage, when added to the fixed signals produced by the microphone are actually
emitter-base forward bias, causes only a small ac voltages, which the capacitor will pass.
change in base current. That is, the current
Bias Stabilization. There is still one problem
change in the input circuit is relatively small.
with the circuit shown in Fig.3. The forward bias
There is alarge change in current in the output
across the emitter-base junction of the transistor
circuit, however. Since the changing output cur-
can change due to minority carriers crossing the
rent is much greater than the changing input
collector-base junction. These carriers cause a
current, we say that we have a current gain.
current flow through R1 in the external circuit
Notice also that the current change in the output
that will increase the voltage drop across it. This
is in phase with the current in the input.
increases the number of majority carriers cross-
To summarize the important points about the ing the emitter-base junction, which in turn
common-emitter circuit, we have avoltage gain
in the circuit and the amplified voltage is 180°
out of phase with the input voltage. We also have
a current gain in the circuit and the amplified
current appearing in the output circuit is in
phase with the input signal current.
C2

A disadvantage of the circuit shown in

Fig.1(C) is that it requires two batteries. How-
Cl
(-D
OUTPUT
ever, by adding resistor R3, as shown in Fig.3,
INPUT
we can eliminate Bi. Current from the negative
terminal of B2 flows through R1 and R3 to the
positive terminal of B2. The current flowing
through R1 develops avoltage across it having
the polarity shown. This places a forward bias
across the emitter-base junction of the transis-
tor. At the same time, the voltage drop across R3
will be greater than the voltage drop across R2. Figure 3. A common-emitter circuit with asingle battery.

5
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

heats the junction. As the junction heats, more across R4 will increase. Thus, we have apositive-
minority carriers will cross the junction causing going signal at the base and a positive-going
the forward bias on the transistor to increase signal at the emitter. The positive-going signal
still further. This action can continue until the at the emitter tends to cancel or reduce the net
transistor gets so hot it literally destroys itself. change in voltage between the base and emitter.
This problem can be avoided by adding R4, as Similarly, if the input signal swings in anegative
shown in Fig.4. Notice that current flowing direction, the current through the transistor will
through R4 develops avoltage so that the emitter decrease and this will decrease the voltage drop
is slightly positive with respect to ground. If the across R4. Again, this will tend to reduce the net
minority carriers crossing the emitter-base junc- change in voltage between the base and emitter.
tion cause the voltage drop across RI to increase,
This type of signal reduction is called
any increase in majority carrier flow through the
degeneration. In some circuits, degeneration is
transistor increases the voltage drop across R4.
used to reduce distortion. However, degenera-
Thus, both the base and the emitter of the tran-
tion also reduces the amplification of the stage
sistor become more positive. The increase in
because it reduces the net change in input volt-
positive voltage between the emitter and ground
age applied between the base and the emitter.
effectively cancels the increase in voltage be-
With capacitor C3 added to the circuit, the emit-
tween the base and ground, and stabilizes the
ter voltage will remain constant when the emit-
bias. This prevents further increases in non-signal
ter current changes due to the input signal
current through the transistor.
voltage. C3 is usually an electrolytic capacitor
Capacitor C3 prevents variations in emitter that has ahigh capacitance, so its reactance is a
voltage when a signal is applied to the input. very small percentage of the resistance of R4.
Without the capacitor, if the input signal causes
Another variation of the basic circuit is shown
the emitter current to increase, the voltage drop
in Fig.5. Notice that we've eliminated the battery

C2

Figure 4. A common-emitter circuit with bias stabilization. Figure 5. A common-emitter with degeneration.

6
 THE COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

and simply indicated the two terminals as +and distortion so that the amplified output signal is
—. This is common practice in drawing schematic afaithful reproduction of the input signal.
diagrams. The equipment could be battery
It is important to notice that even though the
powered and actually use a battery, or if the
voltage at the collector of the transistor is about
equipment is operated from the ac power line,
half the voltage at the positive input terminal,
the voltage source would be a dc power supply
we can still maintain aforward bias across the
rather than a battery. As far as the circuit is
emitter-base junction simply by changing the
concerned, it doesn't matter whether the stage
values of R1 and R3. For that matter, just reduc-
is operated from abattery or apower supply; it
ing the value of R3 will reduce the voltage drop
is going to work in exactly the same way.
across it so that we could maintain the base
Another change we have made is that we've voltage in the circuit of Fig.5 at exactly the same
moved R3 so that, instead of connecting it direct- value as the base voltage in the circuit of Fig.4.
ly to the positive voltage input, we've connected
one end of it to the collector. This will introduce
some minor degeneration into the circuit, which The Common-Emitter PNP Amplifier
will reduce distortion.
The common-emitter pnp amplifier works in
Remember that when the signal voltage ap-
essentially the same way as the npn amplifier
plied to the base swings positive, the current
except that the electron current in the external
through the transistor increases so the voltage
circuit flows in the opposite direction, and the
drop across R2 increases. This means that the
conduction through the transistor is by means of
voltage between the collector and ground swings
holes.
in anegative direction. This reduces the voltage
across the series combination of R1 and R3 so Figure 6 shows the schematic diagram of a
that the voltage at the junction of R1 and R3 will common-emitter amplifier using apnp transistor.
decrease. It will still be positive, but it will go
down slightly. Similarly, when the input signal
swings in anegative direction, current through
the transistor decreases. The voltage drop across
R2 will decrease so that the collector voltage will
swing in a positive direction. This means that
the dc bias voltage at the junction of R1 and R3
will swing in apositive direction.

We can see that, as the amplified signal volt-

age between the collector and ground swings
positive or negative, the voltage at the junction
of R1 and R3 will swing in the same way. This
voltage change will oppose the input signal volt-
age and will slightly reduce the stage gain. But
it is often worthwhile to accept this slight reduc-
tion in the gain of the stage because it reduces Figure 6. A common-emitter circuit using apnp transistor.

7
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Notice that the polarity of the voltage source is When the input signal swings in a negative
reversed so the positive terminal is grounded direction as it goes from point 3 to point 4 in
and negative voltage goes to the collector Fig.7(B), the negative voltage between the base
through R2. This reverses the polarity of the of the transistor and ground increases. This in-
voltage across R1, so the base is negative with creases the forward bias across the emitter-base
respect to the emitter, a necessary condition to junction so the number of holes crossing the
forward bias the emitter-base junction of apnp junction increases. The number of holes reaching
transistor. The polarity of the voltage across R4
indicates that electrons are leaving the emitter
and flowing through the resistor to ground.
Capacitor C3 is also connected with opposite o
polarity. R4 serves the same purpose as in the (A)
circuit of Fig.5. It stabilizes the forward bias ZERO SIGNAL
across the emitter-base junction. R3 connects to - COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE
the collector to introduce degeneration and
reduce distortion.
Figure 7shows waveforms for Fig.6. With zero
signal input, the voltage between the collector o
(B)
and ground is negative and constant, and the
2
base voltage is also constant. Figure 7(B) shows EMITTER-BASE
/a"\)
an input signal on the base of the transistor. _ 1
FORWARD BIAS
WITH SIGNAL
When the input signal swings in apositive direc- 4

tion as it goes from point 1to point 2, the nega-

tive polarity between the base and ground is
reduced. This reduces the number of holes flow- o
ing across the emitter, across the emitter-base
(C)
junction, across the base and base-collector junc-
tion to the collector. The number of holes reach- COLLECTOR
ing the collector decreases so the electron VOLTAGE
- WITH SIGNAL
current flowing through R2 decreases. The volt-
age drop across R2 decreases, and the voltage
between the collector and ground swings in a
negative direction, as shown in Fig.7(C).
4
As the input signal drops from point 2to point (D)
3, the number of holes flowing through the tran-
1
sistor increases. Thus the current through R2 o OUTPUT SIGNAL
5 VOLTAGE
increases as the number of electrons flowing to
fill the holes at the collector terminal increases.
2
The net result is that the negative voltage be-
tween the collector and ground decreases as
shown between points 2and 3of Fig.7(C). Figure 7. Waveform for Fig.6.

8
 THE COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

the collector increases, so the number of Characteristics of Common-Emitter

electrons flowing through R2 to the collector to Circuits
fill these holes increases. When this happens,
the voltage drop across R2 increases and the net The common-emitter circuit is the most im-
voltage between the collector and ground be- portant of all junction transistor circuits because
comes less negative. This is shown between it is by far the most widely used. It is easy to get
points 3and 4of Fig.7(C). relatively high gain using the common-emitter
Finally, as the input signal voltage swings circuit. Voltage gains from 80 to 100 are quite
from point 4to point 5, the forward bias across easily obtained. This means that the amplified
the emitter-base junction decreases. This means output signal is from 80 to 100 times the
that current flow in the transistor and through amplitude of the input signal.
R2 decreases; the voltage drop across it We mentioned earlier that the collector resis-
decreases, and the collector voltage swings in a tance is selected so that the collector voltage is
negative direction, as shown between points 4 about half the supply voltage. This allows max-
and 5in Fig.7(C). imum output signal from the stage. For example,
If we measure the output voltage at the output suppose that the supply voltage is 9V and the
end of C2, we see the waveform shown in collector resistor is selected so that the collector
Fig.7(D). The capacitor, C2, keeps the dc voltage voltage is 4.5 volts. This means that as the cur-
present on the collector from appearing at the rent through the transistor varies with the input
output. As the input signal goes through its signal, the collector voltage can swing from 4.5
cycle, it appears in amplified form on the collec- V to 9V in one direction and from 4.5 V to 0V in
tor, where it is superimposed on the dc collector the other direction, as shown in Fig.8(A) on the
voltage. However, the capacitor blocks dc voltage next page. Actually, you couldn't go quite that far
at the output, so we have only the amplified ac because the peaks would flatten out and you
signal voltage. would introduce distortion, but this is the maxi-
mum theoretical swing that you can get in the
Although conduction through the npn transis- output voltage.
tor in Fig.5 is by electrons, and conduction
through the pnp transistor in Fig.6 is by holes, On the other hand, if the collector voltage were
there are many similarities in the two circuits. 7V, then it can only swing to 9V maximum, for
First, in both cases we have a voltage gain, asignal peak of 2V in the positive direction. A
because the amplified output voltage is greater corresponding swing in the negative direction
than the input voltage. Secondly, we have acur- would put the collector voltage at 5V, leaving 5
rent gain, since the amplified output current V of unused potential. If the transistor is driven
flowing in the collector circuit is much larger harder, there is no additional increase or
than the input current flowing in the emitter- decrease in collector voltage, so one half of the
base circuit. Further, notice that in both cases, signal flattens, as shown in Fig.8(B).
the amplified output signal voltage is 180° out of Similarly, if the collector resistor is chosen so
phase with the input signal voltage. that the voltage on the collector is only 3V, you

9
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

\ p -v 9.0 V
which is written (3. We can represent this by the
formula:
4.5 V

1
3
Aib
(A)
Since the base current is relatively small, the
change in base current produced by the applied
signal is small. On the other hand, collector
7.0 V
current is much greater than base current, and
therefore, the change in collector current is much
greater than the change in base current. This
(B)
means that beta is always greater than 1, and
the common-emitter circuit always has acurrent
- 7.5 V gain. In other words, the changing current in the
output is greater than the changing current in
3.0 V the input.

Two other important characteristics of atran-

(C) sistor amplifier are the input impedance and the
output impedance. The input impedance is simply
the ratio of the input signal voltage to the input
Figure 8. (A) Waveform showing how the output signal signal current. The signal voltage is the signal
can swing from 0to 9V with asupply voltage of 9V and applied to the base and the signal current is the
a zero signal collector voltage of 4.5 volts. (B) and (C) part of the base current caused by the signal
Waveforms showing how the same input signal will result
in distortion if the zero signal collector voltage is too high voltage. If we represent the signal voltage by el,
or too low. the signal current by i l,and the impedance by
Z1,then the input impedance is:

ei
would have the situation shown in Fig.8(C). Z1 _
i
i
Driving the transistor too hard would result in
the other half of the output signal wave being The base current in a transistor is small,
flattened. This flattening of the output signal is therefore the change in base current (the input
one form of distortion. signal current) is also small. This means that in
the common-emitter circuit, the input im-
The changing input signal to the common- pedance is relatively high.
emitter circuit causes achange in the base cur-
rent. This, in turn, causes the collector current Output impedance is the ratio of the output
to change. The changing current is represented signal voltage to the output signal current. If we
by the Greek letter delta, which is written as A. represent the output signal voltage by e2,the
Thus, the changing base current is Aib and the output current by i 2,and the impedance by Z2,

changing collector current is [Link] ratio of the then the output impedance is:
change in collector current to the change in base e2
current is represented by the Greek letter beta, Z2_
i2

10
 THE COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

The output signal current consists of the in- 80-100, and a comparable current gain. Also
creases and decreases in collector current pro- remember that there is a180° phase reversal in
duced as the input signal varies the flow of the signal voltage. This means that the output
current through the transistor. Even though it is signal is 180° out of phase with the input signal.
much greater than the change in base current, You will see later that there are other junction
it also is comparatively small. On the other hand, transistor circuits where this phase reversal
the change in output current produces arelative- does not occur.
ly large change in the voltage across the collector
load resistor. Therefore, the ratio of the output
signal voltage to the output signal current is Self-Test Questions
comparatively high. The common-emitter circuit
has a fairly high output impedance — usually Please check your answers on page 35.
about 20,000 ohms.
1 Is it possible to get acurrent gain using the
common-emitter circuit?
Review 2 What is the relationship between the input
signal voltage and the amplified output sig-
The common-emitter circuit is the most fre- nal voltage in the common-emitter circuit?
quently used junction transistor circuit, and 3 Draw schematic diagrams of common-emitter
therefore is also the most important. It would be circuits using npn and pnp transistors. You
agood idea to read over this section of the lesson should try to do this from memory since it
again. You should remember that a common- is important to remember these circuit con-
emitter circuit provides avoltage gain of about figurations.

11
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

THE COMMON-BASE CIRCUIT through [Link] positive battery terminal and

the transistor base are both grounded and there-
fore connected. In this configuration, the emitter
In acommon-emitter circuit, the input signal is negative with respect to ground. Since the base
is applied between the base and ground. The is grounded, it is positive with respect to the
output signal is taken from between the collector emitter, which is the condition we need in order
and ground. The emitter is operated at signal to forward bias an npn transistor.
ground potential and is common to both the
B2 supplies the reverse bias across the collector-
input and output circuits. In the common-base
base junction. Notice that the negative terminal
circuit, the input signal is applied between the
of B2 is grounded and the positive terminal
emitter and ground and the output signal is
connects to the collector through R2. This makes
taken from between the collector and ground.
the collector positive with respect to the base,
The base is operated at signal ground potential,
reverse biasing the collector-base junction.
and therefore, is common to both the input and
output circuits. With no signal applied, there is a small cur-
rent through the base, coming from Bi. Elec-
NPN and pnp transistors can be used in the
trons leaving the battery flow through R1, the
common-base circuit. The circuit using the npn
emitter, and the emitter-base junction. They
transistor is alittle easier to understand, so we
leave the transistor by the base lead and flow
will study it first.
back to the positive terminal of Bi.
B2 supplies the collector current. Electrons
The Common-Base NPN Amplifier leaving the negative terminal of B2 flow through
B1 and R1 to the emitter of the transistor. They
Figure 9 is a schematic diagram of a basic cross the emitter, the emitter-base junction, the
common-base npn amplifier. B1 supplies the for- base, the base-collector junction, and the collector.
ward bias for the emitter-base junction. The They exit through the collector terminal, then flow
negative terminal of B1 connects to the emitter through R2 back to the positive terminal of B2.
The circuit shown in Fig.9 is functional, but
ELECTRONS
has several disadvantages. Neither the input nor
MIMIIIMII> the output is isolated from the transistor.
Another drawback is that the circuit requires
two batteries. The modified circuit in Fig.10
eliminates these disadvantages.

INPUT I < Rl I R2 I OUTPUT Although it looks very different, Fig.10 shows

a common-base amplifier, and works like the
circuit in Fig.9. There is one voltage source,
which could be a battery or other de source.
Forward bias for the emitter-base junction is
created by a voltage divider composed of the
resistors R3 and R4. The resistor values are
selected to make the base more positive than the
Figure 9. An npn transistor in a common-base circuit. emitter. Capacitor C2 keeps the base at signal

12
 THE COMMON-BASE CIRCUIT

CI C3
With zero signal input, the collector voltage is
constant as shown in the waveform of Fig.11(A).
The emitter and base voltages are also constant.
The emitter voltage is positive; the base voltage
is positive and greater than the emitter voltage
in order to forward bias the emitter-base junc-
tion. The waveform of Fig.11(B) shows what
happens to the emitter voltage with a single
cycle of an input signal. With the first half-cycle,
when the input signal is positive, the voltage
- increases from the zero signal value at point 1
up to point 2 where it reaches peak positive
value. Notice that the signal voltage adds to the
Figure 10. An npn common-base amplifier using asingle
emitter voltage.
voltage source.
During the next quarter-cycle, the signal volt-
age decreases, causing the emitter voltage to fall
from point 2to point 3. In the second half-cycle,
ground potential by having a reactance that is the input signal reverses polarity and subtracts
practically zero at the operating frequency. from the emitter voltage. Emitter voltage
Capacitor C1isolates the input signal from the decreases until the signal voltage reaches its
emitter circuit and C3 isolates the collector from peak, negative value at point 4. In the last
the output signal. quarter-cycle the signal voltage moves back
In operation, current flows from the voltage toward zero, causing the emitter voltage to in-
source through R1 to the emitter, creating a crease to point 5, where once again it is at the
voltage drop across R1 that makes the emitter zero signal level.
positive with respect to ground. Resistors R3 and As the emitter voltage changes with the
R4 form a voltage divider that maintains for- changing signal voltage, the base voltage
ward bias by keeping the base more positive than remains constant. C2 is too large acapacitor to
the emitter. Thus, if the voltage drop across R1 either charge or discharge as the signal goes
is 1V, making the emitter voltage equal to +1 V, through its cycle. This means that as the emitter
values of R3 and R4 are selected to set the base voltage increases above the zero signal value
voltage to +2 volts. during the positive half-cycle of the input signal,
A few electrons (less than 5%) crossing the the emitter-base forward bias decreases during
emitter and the emitter-base junction exit at the this part of the cycle. For example, suppose the
base and flow through R4 back to the voltage emitter voltage is +1 V and the base voltage is
source. Most electrons cross the base, the base- +2 volts. The difference in voltage between the
collector junction, the collector, exit the transistor two is 1V, with the base being +1 V positive with
at the collector terminal, and then flow through R2 respect to the emitter. If the input signal during
back to the voltage source. As in the case of the the positive half-cycle increases the emitter volt-
common-emitter circuit, the value of R2 is selected age from 1 V to 1.5 V, then the difference of
so that the collector voltage with zero signal is potential between the base and emitter will drop
approximately one half the supply voltage. from 1 V to 0.5 V, reducing the forward bias

13
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

across the emitter-base junction. This is shown input current versus output current that is
in the first half-cycle of the waveform of present in common-emitter amplifiers, where
Fig.11( C). In contrast, during the next half-cycle, tiny variations in base voltage and current cause
as the emitter voltage decreases, forward bias large variations in the emitter and the collector
of the emitter-base junction increases. If the
emitter voltage emitter goes from 1V to 0.5 V
during the negative half-cycle, forward bias of
ZERO SIGNAL
the emitter-base junction increases from 1V to COLLECTOR
1.5 volts. This is shown in the second half-cycle VOLTAGE

of the waveform in Fig.11(C). (A)

o
When the forward bias decreases, as it does
during the first half-cycle of the input signal,
current through the transistor decreases. Collec-
EMITTER
tor current decreases, and so does the voltage VOLTAGE
drop across R2. When the voltage drop across R2 .1 WITH SIGNAL

decreases, the voltage measured between the

collector and ground increases as shown in the o (B)

first half-cycle of the waveform in Fig.11(D).

During the next half-cycle, when forward bias
increases, current through the transistor in- 1 EMITTER-BASE
creases. This raises the voltage drop across R2. BIAS
WITH SIGNAL
The voltage measured between the collector of 2
the transistor and ground goes down as shown
(C)
between points 3, 4, and 5 of the waveform in o
Fig.11(D).

With an input signal there exists an output

signal like the one shown in Fig.11(E). Compare
COLLECTOR
the output signal with the input signal. Notice VOLTAGE
that the output signal is larger, so there is volt- WITH SIGNAL

age amplification. Also notice that it swings posi-

tive when the input signal swings positive. There
(D)
is no phase reversal between the input and out-
put signals as is the case for acommon-emitter
circuit. In common-base circuits, the amplified
2
output signal is in phase with the input signal.

Notice that the input current is the emitter

o OUTPUT SIGNAL
current, not the base current. All current in a VOLTAGE

transistor flows through the emitter. Some emit-

(E)
ter current will split off at the base, making the 4

collector current slightly less than the emitter

current. You don't see the great differential in Figure 11. Waveforms for circuit shown in Fig.1.

14
 THE COMMON-BASE CIRCUIT

current. There is no current gain in acommon- B1 supplies the base current. Electrons leave
base amplifier. The collector (output) current the negative terminal of B1 and enter the base
will always be less than the emitter current. where they fill holes. An electron leaving the
emitter of the transistor will create ahole. The
electron will flow through R1 and back to the
The Common-Base PNP Amplifier positive terminal of B1.

B2 supplies the collector current. Electrons

Figure 12 shows a common-base amplifier
leaving the negative terminal of B2 flow through
using a pnp transistor. Compared to Fig.9, the
R2 to the collector where they fill holes arriving
battery polarities are reversed, and current flow
at the collector. Electrons are pulled out of the
in the external circuit is in the opposite direction.
emitter by the positive potential of B2, creating
Conduction through the transistor is from the
holes. The holes flow across the emitter, the
emitter, through the base, and to the collector by
emitter-base junction, the base, and the base-
means of holes.
collector junction. They finally flow to the collec-
BIprovides forward bias for the emitter-base tor terminal where they are filled by the
junction. As connected, the base is negative with electrons coming from the negative terminal of
respect to the emitter. This condition is required B2. The electrons leaving the emitter will flow
to forward bias the emitter-base junction of a through R1 and B1 to the positive terminal of B2.
pnp transistor. On the other hand, the collector
In Fig.13, we modified the basic circuit to
is connected to be negative with respect to the
eliminate the two batteries, and to add capaci-
base, which places the necessary reverse bias on
tors for isolating the input and output. Notice
the collector-base junction of apnp transistor.
that the positive terminal of the voltage source
is grounded. The negative terminal connects to
the collector through R2. The negative terminal
also connects through R4 and R3 to ground. As

HOLES

Imi>
Cl C3

-
0--

INPUT 1 R1 R2 1
OUTPUT

BI B2

...•1111... ..111›.

Figure 13. A pnp common-base amplifier using a single

Figure 12. A pnp transistor in acommon-base circuit. voltage source.

15
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

aresult, there is acurrent flow from the negative o

terminal through R4 and R3 to ground. Current (A)

flowing through R3 produces a voltage drop so ZERO SIGNAL

that the base is negative. Electrons leaving the COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE
emitter of the transistor flow through R1 to
reach the positive voltage source. This sets up a
voltage drop across R1 so that the emitter is
negative with respect to ground. o
However, by selecting the correct values for R3 (B)
2
and R4, we can make the voltage on the base EMITTER
VOLTAGE
greater than the voltage on the emitter, which WITH SIGNAL
makes the base negative with respect to the
emitter.

The waveforms in Fig.14 show what happens

when a signal is applied to the input. With no
signal, the collector voltage is negative and con- o
stant, as shown in Fig.14(A), as are the emitter (C)

and base voltages. The base is more negative EMITTER-BASE

BIAS
than the emitter; that is, if the emitter voltage WITH SIGNAL
is —1 V, the base voltage might be —2 volts.
Figure 14(B) shows what happens to the emit-
ter voltage when asignal is applied. The emitter
voltage is at its zero signal level at point 1.
During the first half-cycle, as the input signal o
swings positive from point 1to point 2and back
to point 3, the input signal drives the emitter (D)

voltage in apositive direction. The emitter volt-

COLLECTOR
age might drop from —1 volt to —0.5 volt. Now the VOLTAGE
SIGNAL
forward bias across the emitter-base junction is
—1.5 V instead of being 1V as it was with zero
4
signal input. The forward bias across emitter-
base junction increases as shown in Fig.14(C).
The increase in forward bias causes the number
of holes flowing through the transistor to in-
(E)
crease. When this happens, additional electrons
flow from the negative terminal of the voltage o
5 OUTPUT SIGNAL
VOLTAGE
source, through R2, to the collector. The voltage
drop across R2 increases so that the voltage
between the collector of the transistor and 4

ground decreases as shown between points 1, 2,

and 3of Fig.14(D).
Figure 14. Waveforms for circuit shown in Fig.13.

16
 THE COMMON-BASE CIRCUIT

When the input signal swings in a negative sented by the Greek letter alpha which is written
direction, as it does between points 3, 4, and 5of as u. We write this in the formula:
Fig.15(B), the forward bias across the emitter-
Ai
base junction decreases as shown in Fig.14(C). Ct=

This causes the number of holes flowing through Ai e

the transistor to decrease, so the number of Since the change in collector current is always
electrons flowing through R2 to fill these holes less than the emitter current, alpha always has
also decreases. The voltage drop across R2 avalue of less than 1. This means that for agiven
decreases so the potential between the collector signal, the change in collector current is less
and ground increases as shown in Fig.14(D). The than the change in emitter current. We say the
output signal with the dc collector voltage circuit has acurrent gain of less than 1, which
removed is shown in Fig.14(E). means that the changing output current is less
than the changing input current. In agood tran-
Notice that once again we have avoltage gain.
sistor, alpha is 0.99 or greater.
Also, the output voltage is in phase with the
input voltage. Furthermore, as in the npn ver- We mentioned that the common-emitter
sion of the common-base circuit, current in the amplifier had arelatively high input impedance.
input circuit flowing through R1 is greater than If we examine the common-base circuit shown in
the current in the output circuit flowing through Fig.10 and Fig.12, we see that the input voltage
R2. Thus, there is no current gain in the pnp is applied across Rl. This causes some signal
amplifier either. current to flow through the resistor R1. In addi-
tion, the entire emitter current drawn by the
transistor must flow through Rl. Therefore,
Characteristics of Common-Base Circuits even with the small signal voltage, the signal
current must be quite high. Since the input im-
Even though the action of the pnp transistor pedance is determined by the ratio of the signal
is quite different from the action of the npn voltage to the signal current, a high current
transistor, the net result using the common-base causes the ratio of the voltage divided by the
circuit is the same with both types of transistors. current to be low. In other words, the common-
In both cases, we have voltage amplification and base circuit has a relatively low input im-
the output voltage is in phase with the input pedance.
voltage.
On the other hand, since the stage is capable
Because some of the emitter current flows to of giving voltage gain, the output voltage which
the base in the common-base circuit, the collec- is developed across R2 is much higher than the
tor current must be less than the emitter cur- input voltage. And since the collector current is
rent. Similarly, any change in the emitter less than the emitter current, the signal current
current produced by the applied signal results in flowing in the output is lower than the signal
some of the changing current flowing to the base current flowing in the input. Thus, the output
and the remainder to the collector. Therefore, the impedance is higher than the input impedance.
change in current in the collector circuit is less In fact, the output impedance is quite high.
than the change in current in the emitter circuit. Therefore, in the common-base circuit, we have
The ratio of the change in the collector current a very low input impedance and a reasonably
to the change in the emitter current is repre- high output impedance.

17
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Review Self-Test Questions

The common-base circuit has acurrent gain of 4 In acommon-base circuit, is it possible to

less than 1. The stage is capable of providing get acurrent gain?
voltage amplification, and the amplified output 5 What is the phase relationship between the
signal is in phase with the input signal. The amplified signal voltage and the input sig-
common-base circuit has alow input impedance nal voltage in acommon-base circuit?
and areasonably high output impedance, so it is 6 Why is it possible to get avoltage gain in a
often used in applications where we want to common-base amplifier even though there
match alow impedance to ahigh impedance. It is no current gain?
is also used in some very high-frequency applica- 7 What are the relative input and output im-

tions. pedances of the common-base amplifier cir-

cuit?

18
 THE COMMON-COLLECTOR CIRCUIT

so the signal is effectively applied between the

THE COMMON-COLLECTOR
base of the transistor and ground. Capacitor C,
CIRCUIT connected to the emitter, has alow impedance at
the signal frequency, so the output signal is
taken with respect to the emitter and ground.
The third possible circuit configuration using
ajunction transistor is the common-collector cir- B1 supplies forward bias across the emitter-
cuit, frequently called an "emitter follower." In base junction. Current flowing through R2
this type of circuit, the collector is operated at develops avoltage which subtracts from the bias
signal ground potential. Although this circuit is between the base and emitter, but the voltage
not found as often as the common-emitter cir- drop across R2 is never greater than the voltage
cuit, it does have some characteristics that are of Bi. If it were, the transistor would have no
useful in certain applications. forward bias of the emitter-base junction and no
current flow through the transistor. If current
As with the previous circuit configurations,
stops flowing in the transistor, current also stops
either an npn or apnp transistor can be used in
through R2 and there would then be no voltage
the common-collector circuit. In this circuit, the
drop across it.
input signal is applied between the base and
ground and the output signal is taken from be- Battery B2 supplies the reverse bias across
tween the emitter and ground. Since the collec- the collector-base junction. The negative ter-
tor is operated at signal ground potential, it is minal of this battery is connected through B1
common to both the input and output circuits. and R1 to the base of the transistor and the
positive terminal is connected directly to the
collector. The voltage of B2 is much higher than
The Common-Collector NPN Amplifier the voltage at B1 so that as far as the collector-
base junction is concerned, it is reversed biased.
Figure 15 shows the basic common-collector The arrows on the diagram indicate the main
circuit using an npn transistor. Battery B1 has direction of current flow. Electrons leaving the
alow impedance as far as the signal is concerned, negative terminal of B2 flow through R2 to the
emitter. They cross the emitter, the emitter-base
junction, the base, the base-collector junction,
the collector, and flow back to the positive ter-
t
1 minal of B2. A few electrons leave the negative
ELECTRONS

C
terminal of B1 and flow through R2 in the direc-
B2 — tion shown. They cross the emitter-base junc-
INPUT
RI
(----° tion, leave the transistor by the base lead and
OUTPUT
R2 flow through R1 back to the positive terminal of
Bi.

The disadvantages of the circuit shown in

=' Fig.15 are that it requires two batteries and the
input is not isolated from the base of the transis-
tor. We've added the capacitor Cl in Fig.16, on
Figure 15. Basic common-collector circuit using an npn
the next page, to isolate the input from the base
transistor.

19
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

R3
With zero input signal, the base and emitter
voltages are constant. This is represented in
Fig.17 by the straight, horizontal line up to point
1in Figs.17(A) and (B). When asignal is applied
between the base and ground during the positive
half-cycle, the base voltage starting at point 1
increases to point 2, then returns to zero signal
level at point 3. The increase in forward bias
across the emitter-base junction causes the emit-
ter current to increase so that the emitter volt-
age swings from point 1to point 2and then back
to point 3as shown in Fig.17(B).

Figure 16. Common-collector amplifier using an npn tran- BASE VOLTAGE

sistor and a single voltage source. WITH SIGNAL

circuit and also have added R3 to eliminate the (A)

o
need for a second voltage source. We've also
simply indicated the +and —terminals where the
voltage source is connected. This could be abat-
tery or ade power supply operated from the ac
power line.

In this circuit, electrons from the negative EMITTER

terminal of the voltage source flow through R1, VOLTAGE
WITH SIGNAL
developing a voltage drop across it with the
polarity shown. The electrons flow on through
(B)
R3 and back to the positive terminal of the volt- o
age source. Electrons also leave the negative
terminal of the voltage source and flow through
R2 to the emitter of the transistor, through the
transistor, and back to the positive terminal of
the voltage source. Once again, even though the 2
OUTPUT
emitter of the transistor is positive with respect 3 5
SIGNAL
to ground (due to the current flowing through 1 VOLTAGE
4
R2), the values of R1 and R3 are selected so the
(C)
base is more positive than the emitter and the
transistor emitter-base junction is forward
biased. Figure 17. Waveforms for circuit shown in Fig.16.

20
 THE COMMON-COLLECTOR CIRCUIT

During the negative half-cycle, as the base cuit has avoltage gain of less than 1. We also see
voltage swings in anegative direction from point that the output voltage is in phase with the input
3to point 4 and then back to point 5, as shown voltage. The input signal current is the change
in Fig.17(A), the emitter voltage also swings in in the base current, which is relatively small,
anegative direction. This is because the current and the output signal current is the change in
through the transistor decreases due to the the emitter current, which is relatively large;
decreased forward bias across the emitter-base therefore, the common-collector circuit has a
junction. As a result, the current through R2 current gain.
decreases so that the voltage between the emit-
ter of the transistor and ground goes from point
3to point 4and then back to point 5as shown in The Common-Collector PNP Amplifier
Fig.17(B).

Notice that when the base voltage swings in In the common-collector pnp amplifier shown
in Fig.18, we have essentially the same circuit
the positive direction, the emitter voltage also
as in the case of the npn amplifier, except that
swings in apositive direction. This swing in the
the battery connections are reversed and con-
positive direction reduces the net change in for-
duction through the transistor is by means of
ward bias across the emitter-base junction.
holes instead of electrons.
Similarly, during the negative half-cycle,
Since the current through the external circuit
when the base is swinging in a negative direc-
flows the opposite of the npn circuit, the voltage
tion, the emitter also swings in anegative direc-
tion, which once again reduces the net change in drop across R2 has the opposite polarity. In other
words, the end connected to the emitter is nega-
emitter-base junction bias. This is degeneration.
Because the emitter signal is subtracting from tive and the grounded end is positive.
the base signal, it can never exceed the The negative terminal of B1 connects through
amplitude of the base signal. If it were to exceed R1 to the base of the transistor, and the positive
the amplitude it would completely cancel the
change in the base voltage. If this happened,
there wouldn't be any change in emitter voltage.

The output signal voltage taken between the t HOLES

output terminals is shown in Fig.17(C). Notice
that this voltage is zero with zero signal input
and then follows the emitter voltage as the signal B2=..- I
goes through its cycle. This happens because the INPUT
E—°

reactance of C2 is so low at the signal frequency R1 OUTPUT

R2
that, as far as the signal is concerned, it is simply
not there. However, C2 does block the de voltage B1

at the emitter of the transistor and prevents the I

....11...

output from shorting out R2.

From the waveforms in Fig.17 we see that the

output voltage is originally less than the input
Figure 18. Basic common-collector circuit using a pnp
voltage. We say that the common-collector cir- transistor.

21
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

terminal connects through R2 to the emitter. R3

This battery makes the base negative with

respect to the emitter, creating the condition
needed to forward bias the emitter-base junction
of apnp transistor. The positive terminal of B2
connects through B1 and R1 to the base of the
transistor, and the negative terminal connects to
the collector. This makes the collector negative
with respect to the base, reverse biasing the
collector-base junction.

During operation, electrons leave the emitter

through R2 to get to the positive terminal of B2.
This produces holes that cross the emitter, the
-
emitter-base junction, the base, the base-collector
junction, and the collector, where they are filled
by electrons from the negative terminal of B2. At
the same time, the positive terminal of B1 pulls Figure 19. Common-collector amplifier using a pnp tran-
a few electrons from the emitter. The holes sistor and asingle voltage source.

produced cross the emitter and the emitter-base

junction where they are filled by electrons com-
ing from the negative terminal of Bi, through npn transistor, both the base and emitter vol-
R1, and to the base. tages are constant with zero signal. But during
the positive half-cycle of an input signal, the
Figure 19 shows the circuit modified to
base voltage decreases as shown, from point 1
eliminate the second battery. In this circuit,
to point 2and then back to zero signal-voltage
electrons leave the negative terminal of the volt-
level at point 3 in Fig.20(A). The decrease in
age source and flow through R3 and then
the base voltage reduces the forward bias across
through R1 back to the positive terminal of the
the emitter-base junction, causing the number of
voltage source. The electrons flowing through R1
holes flowing through the transistor to decrease.
create avoltage drop across this resistor having
This means there are fewer electrons coming out
the polarity shown. This drop makes the base
of the emitter terminal and flowing through R2.
negative with respect to ground. Electrons leave
The voltage drop across R2 decreases from point
the emitter of the transistor to produce holes and
1 to point 2 and back to point 3, as shown in
flow through R2 to the positive terminal of the
Fig.20(B).
voltage source and set up avoltage drop across
R2 having the polarity shown. This means that During the next half-cycle, when the input
the emitter is negative with respect to ground. signal swings in anegative direction, as shown
However, the voltage drop across R1 is greater from point 3 to point 4 and back to point 5 in
than the voltage drop across R2, so the base is Fig.20(A), the base is made more negative. This
negative with respect to the emitter. increases the forward bias across the emitter-
base junction so the number of holes flowing
Waveforms for the circuit in Fig.19 are shown
through the transistor increases. Thus, additional
in Fig.20. As with the previous circuit using the
electrons are pulled from the emitter to create

22
 THE COMMON-COLLECTOR CIRCUIT

o Characteristics of Common-Collector
Circuits
(A)

BASE The common-collector circuit has the highest

- VOLTAGE
input impedance of the three circuits. Refer to
WITH SIGNAL
Fig.15. Input impedance is the ratio of the input
4 voltage over the input current. The voltage ap-
plied at the input causes aflow of signal current
from the emitter, through the transistor, and to
o the collector. Some electrons traveling from the
(B) emitter to the collector exit through the base and
2 Rl. But, since the output signal voltage is sub-
EMITTER
/ 1\ 0) VOLTAGE tracted from the input signal voltage, as far as
- 1 WITH SIGNAL
the signal voltage applied between the base and
4
emitter is concerned, the actual signal current in
the transistor is quite small. Therefore, the total
input signal current is small, and this means the
(C) input impedance is high.
2
5 OUTPUT On the other hand, the output impedance of
0 3 SIGNAL
1 VOLTAGE the transistor is low, due to the fact that the
4 emitter signal current flows through resistor R2
and very little voltage is developed across the
resistor. As a matter of fact, the voltage, as we
pointed out before, cannot be equal to the input
Figure 20. Waveforms for circuit shown In Fig.19.
signal voltage because it would cancel the input
signal voltage entirely. Since the output voltage
is small, the ratio of the voltage divided by the
current is small and the output impedance is low.
these holes, and the voltage drop across R2 in-
creases, as shown between points 3, 4, and 5of In the common-collector circuit, the voltage
Fig. 20(B). gain is always less than 1. This means that the
The output signal is shown in Fig.20(C). Once output voltage is always less than the input
voltage. All of the output voltage is fed back to
again, notice that the signal is the same as the
signal at the emitter. The output voltage is less the input circuit. We call this feedback. When all
than the input voltage, but is in phase. Since of the output voltage is fed back into the input,
change in the base current due to the input we call this 100% voltage feedback. Since the
output voltage that is fed back into the input
signal is relatively small, and changes in the
circuit reduces the effective input voltage ap-
emitter current are large, there is acurrent gain.
plied to the transistor, it is called degenerative
Therefore, the common-collector circuit using a
feedback. It degenerates or reduces the effective
pnp transistor has essentially the same charac-
signal voltage applied between the emitter and
teristics as those for the npn transistor.
base of the transistor.

23
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Because the common-collector circuit has a output voltage is in phase with the input voltage.
high input impedance and a low output im- Although the current gain is less than 1, you can
pedance, it is often used as an interface to match get avoltage gain with this circuit.
arelatively high impedance to alow impedance.
The common-collector circuit is an amplifier
An excellent example of this is found in equip-
in which the collector circuit is common to both
ment with delay lines. Delay lines are used in
the input and output circuits. This circuit has
equipment where several signals must be
the highest input impedance, but the output
processed and arrive at a certain point simul-
impedance can be as low as 100 ohms. This is the
taneously. A signal might travel faster in some
only one of the three circuits with alower output
circuits than in others, so adelay line is inserted
impedance than input impedance. The voltage
in this circuit to delay the signal, causing it to
gain is always less than 1because there is 100%
arrive at the same time as the other signals. A
voltage feedback. There is no phase reversal
delay line is a comparatively low impedance
when this circuit is used; the output voltage is in
device and a common-collector circuit provides
phase with the input voltage. Although you can-
an excellent method of matching from the higher
not get avoltage gain with a common-collector
impedance amplifier stages to the low im-
circuit, you can get a current gain. The input
pedance of the delay line.
current is relatively low due to the fact that the
output voltage reduces the effective value of the
input voltage. Thus the input current is low,
Review
whereas the output current is high.

The most widely used of the three basic tran-

sistor circuits is the common-emitter circuit. In
Self-Test Questions
this circuit, the emitter is common to both the
input and output circuits. It is operated at signal
8 What is the phase relationship between
ground potential. In the common-emitter circuit,
the output voltage and the input voltage
high voltage gains can be easily obtained. There
in acommon-collector circuit?
is considerable current gain in this circuit. Other 9 What will the voltage gain of the common-
important characteristics are medium input im- collector amplifier be?
pedance (between 1000 and 2000 ohms) and an 10 What are the relative input and output
output impedance in the neighborhood of 20,000 impedances of the common-collector cir-
ohms. You should also remember that this is the cuit?
voltage amplifier circuit that produces a 180° 11 Which transistor circuit gives you an out-
phase shift. The output signal voltage is 180° out put signal that is 180° out of phase with
of phase with the input signal voltage. the input signal voltage?
12 Which transistor circuits give you avolt-
The common-base circuit has abase common
to both the input and output signals. It has avery age gain?
13 Which transistor circuits give you acur-
low input impedance, but it also has the highest
rent gain?
output impedance of the three basic circuits. The
14 Which transistor circuits have arelatively
current gain is always less than 1, but this circuit
high input impedance?
is quite stable. There is no phase reversal in a
15 Which transistor circuit has alow output
voltage amplifier using this type of circuit. The
impedance?

24
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS drain of the JFET would also be 4volts. In other

words, there would be avoltage gradient along
the channel going from +1 V at the source to +5
There are two basic types of field-effect tran- V at the drain.
sistors — the junction-gate (JFET) and the
The gate of the JFET connects to ground
insulated-gate (IGFET). The JFET requires a
through Rl. Since the entire channel is positive
reverse bias between the junction and the chan-
with respect to ground, it is positive with respect
nel, otherwise the junction draws current. Fur-
to the gate. Therefore, the gate is negative with
thermore, the peak signal fed to aJFET must
respect to the channel. This condition is neces-
not exceed the reverse bias across the junction
sary to prevent current flow from the channel to
for the same reason.
the gate. We could get the same effect by
Field-effect transistors offer some advantages eliminating R2 and connecting a battery be-
over bipolar transistors. Let's go ahead and see tween the source and the gate with the negative
how field-effect transistors are used as terminal of the battery connected to the gate.
amplifiers so we can better understand what However, it is more convenient to use aresistor
some of these advantages may be. to develop this voltage.

Capacitor C2 is usually large, with acapaci-

tance high enough so that its reactance is prac-
Junction-Gate Field-Effect Transistors
tically zero at the signal frequency. This keeps
the source at ground, as far as the signal is
There are two types of JFETs, the n-channel
concerned, and prevents the voltage across R2
and p-channel. In the n-channel transistor; the
from varying as the current through the JFET
channel between the source and the drain is
varies. Cl and C3 also have almost zero reac-
made of n-type material and the gate is made of
tance at the signal frequency. However, they
p-type material. In the p-channel transistor, the
prevent anything connected across the input or
channel between the source and drain is ap-type
the output from affecting the de voltages applied
material and the gate is an n-type material.
to the JFET.
N-Channel JFETs. Figure 21 shows a sche-
matic diagram of an n-channel JFET amplifier.
With no signal applied to the input, electrons C3

flow from the battery, through R2 to the source

of the JFET, through the channel to the drain,
through R3, and back to the battery. R2 has a
voltage drop of the polarity shown. Notice that
the end of the resistor connected to the source is
positive with respect to ground. This means that
the source is positive with respect to ground. In
a typical amplifier, the value of R2 would be
selected so that the voltage drop across it is about
1volt. If the battery is a9V battery, and we select
avalue of R3 so that the voltage drop across it Figure 21. Schematic diagram of an amplifier using an
would be 4V, the polarity between the source and n-channel JFET.

25
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

The waveforms in Fig.22 show how the circuit zero. When the positive half-cycle arrives, it
works. With zero input signal the drain voltage swings the gate voltage positive as shown be-
is constant, as shown in Fig.22(A). Figure 22(B) tween points 1, 2, and 3. The peak voltage at
shows what happens when asignal is applied to point 2must not exceed the positive voltage on
the gate. With zero signal, the gate voltage is the source or current flows to the gate, introduc-
ing distortion and possible damage to the tran-
sistor. During the next half-cycle the input signal
swings the gate in anegative direction, as shown
from point 3to point 4and back to point 5.

1- Figure 22(C) shows what happens to the volt-

ZERO SIGNAL
DRAIN VOLTAGE age between the drain and ground. When the
gate voltage swings in a positive direction it
(A) reduces the negative bias between the gate and
channel, permitting the channel to widen. This
o widening reduces the resistance of the channel.
Current through the JFET increases so the volt-
age drop across R3 increases. When this hap-
pens, the net voltage between the drain of the
2
JFET and ground decreases as shown from point
o 1 3 5 GATE VOLTAGE
WITH SIGNAL 1to point 2and then back to point 3.
4
(B) During the next half-cycle, when the input
signal swings negative, it increases the net nega-
tive bias between the gate and the channel. This
causes the channel width to decrease, effectively
increasing the resistance of the channel. As a
result, the current through the JFET decreases,
DRAIN causing the voltage drop across R3 to decrease.
+
VOLTAGE
WITH SIGNAL
When this happens, the voltage between the
drain and ground swings positive, as shown be-
(C)
tween points 3, 4, and 5in Fig.22(C).

o Any amplified signal appearing at the output

on the drain of the JFET takes the form of an
amplified ac signal superimposed on the de drain
4 voltage. At the output, on the other side of the
blocking capacitor C3, we have the waveform
OUTPUT
o SIGNAL
shown in Fig.22(D). Here the dc is blocked so that
VOLTAGE the signal appears as an amplified signal.
(D) Notice that the output signal is larger than the
input signal. A relatively small signal applied to
the input causes avariation in the current flow-
Figure 22. Waveform for the circuit In Fig.21. ing through R3, which is arather large resistor.

26
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

This develops an amplified signal voltage in the gate connects to ground through R1, the source
output. Also, notice that when the input signal is negative with respect to the gate. This is the
swings in apositive direction, the output signal same as saying that the gate is positive with
swings in a negative direction, and vice versa. respect to the source. If the gate is positive with
That is, the output signal is 180° out of phase respect to the entire channel, no holes flow from
with the input signal. Remember that this is the the channel to the gate and, therefore, no
same situation that we encountered with the electrons flow through R1.
junction transistor in the common-emitter circuit.
The waveforms in Fig.24, on the next page,
P-Channel JFETs. In Fig.23 we've shown a show what happens when the signal is applied
schematic diagram similar to the one shown in to the input. With zero signal, the voltage be-
Fig.21, but this time we've used a p-channel tween the drain and ground is constant and
JFET. Remember that in ap-channel transistor, negative, as shown in Fig.24(A). Figure 24(B)
conduction through the transistor occurs by shows that the gate voltage is constant and zero
means of holes. until asignal is applied to the input. When the
input signal swings in apositive direction from
In this circuit, the positive terminal of the
battery is connected through R2 to the source, so point 1to point 2and then back to zero voltage
that electrons come out of the transistor from the at point 3, it increases the positive voltage on the
source connection. This creates holes that travel gate. The increased voltage adds to the voltage
through the channel to the drain, where they are across R1, making the gate more positive. This
filled by electrons traveling from the negative repels the holes into anarrower channel so the
terminal of the battery through R3 to the drain. resistance of the channel in the JFET increases.
This reduces the number of holes traveling from
The electrons leaving the source and flowing the source to the drain so the number of electrons
through R2 develop a voltage drop across R2 leaving the negative terminal of the battery and
with the polarity indicated. This makes the flowing through R3 to fill the holes arriving at
source negative with respect to ground. Since the the drain decreases. When this happens, the
voltage drop across R3 decreases so the voltage
between the drain and ground increases. In
other words, the drain becomes more negative.
C3 This is shown in Fig.24(C) as the drain voltage
Cl
swings from zero signal voltage at point 1to a
more negative level at point 2, and then back to
zero at point 3.

INPUT
During the negative half of the input signal,
the gate voltage swings negative from zero at
point 3to amaximum negative value at point 4,
then back to zero at point 5. This subtracts from
the voltage across R1, making the net voltage
between the gate and the source lower. The gate
is less positive. The lower positive voltage has
Figure 23. Schematic diagram of an amplifier using a less repelling effect; thus the width of the chan-
p-channel JFET. nel increases, permitting more holes to flow

27
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

o through the channel from the source to the drain.

The increase in the number of holes arriving at
(A) the drain results in an increase in the number of
electrons leaving the negative terminal of the
ZERO SIGNAL
battery and flowing through R3 to fill the holes
- DRAIN VOLTAGE
that reach the drain. The increased current
through R3 results in a greater voltage drop
across R3. The drain voltage becomes less negative
as the drain voltage swings from point 3 to a
minimum at point 4and then back again to zero
(B)
2 signal level at point 5, as shown in Fig.24(C).
GATE VOLTAGE
o Figure 24(D) shows the output signal once the
WITH SIGNAL
1
/1 3 \3
_ 4 dc voltage at the drain has been removed by the
blocking capacitor C3. Compare this with
Fig. 22(D) and you see that the two are identical.
In the p-channel JFET we have avoltage gain
because the output signal is greater than the
input signal. We also see that the output signal
o voltage is 180° out of phase with the input signal
voltage.
(C)
Characteristics. There are several important
DRAIN
characteristics of the JFET circuit that you
VOLTAGE
- WITH SIGNAL should remember. Remember that the output
signal is greater than the input signal because
the small signal voltage causes avarying current
to flow through a high value of load resistor
developing alarge output voltage. Also, remem-
ber that the output voltage is 180° out of phase
with the input.
(D)

OUTPUT
Consider the input circuit. Since the gate is
o SIGNAL reverse biased, there is little or no current flow-
VOLTAGE
ing from the channel to the gate. This means that
the applied signal voltage has little or no signal
current flowing in the gate circuit. Therefore, the
input impedance of the JFET is very high —
usually several megohms. The output im-
pedance is determined by the value of the load
Figure 24. Waveforms for circuit shown in Fig 23. resistor, which is usually in the vicinity of 20k or

28
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

more. Because of its very high input impedance, amplifier using an p-channel, insulated-gate,
the JFET is particularly useful in applications field-effect transistor. Notice that in both circuits
where we must avoid loading the source voltage. the source is connected directly to ground in-
stead of to ground through aresistor. This means
that in both circuits there is no reverse bias
Insulated-Gate Field-Effect Transistors applied to the gate. The gate is insulated from
the channel and therefore there is no way
Figure 25(A) shows adiagram of an amplifier electrons can flow from the channel to the gate,
using an n-channel, insulated-gate, field-effect or from the gate to the channel. Thus reverse
transistor (IGFET), and Fig.25(B) shows an bias is not needed.

The operation of these circuits is the same as

the operation of the JFET circuits. In both cases,
C2
the output signal is 180° out of phase with the
input signal. The IGFET has an even higher
input impedance than the JFET. This is due to
the fact that there is some leakage across the
gate-channel junction in aJFET because of the
minority carriers crossing the junction. There is
no leakage across the junction in an IGFET
because there is an insulator between the gate
and the channel. As a matter of fact, the input
impedance of these devices is so high that
manufacturers usually ship them to the user
(A) with the leads wrapped in tin foil or some other
conducting device. This is to keep the gate
C2
shorted to the source or the drain so the gate
cannot build up ahigh static charge. Since there
is no way for this charge to dissipate, the charge
can build up to such a high value that it punc-
tures the insulation between the gate and the
channel. Once this happens, the transistor is
destroyed.

Dual-Gate MOSFETs

Earlier we mentioned that the MOSFET is a

metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transis-
tor. The metal oxide refers to the insulation used
Figure 25. IGFET amplifiers using (A) an n-channel IGFET between the gate and the channel. The MOSFET
and (B) ap-channel IGFET. can be made with a single gate or a dual gate.

29
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Figure 26 is a diagram of an amplifier using a decrease and the amplitude of the output signal
dual-gate, n-channel MOSFET. The input signal in turn continues to decrease. In fact, if we make
is applied to gate 1 as shown, and the output anegative voltage applied to gate 2high enough,
signal is taken off between the output terminals. we can cut off the flow of current through the
With gate 2grounded, the input signal applied channel so that the output signal drops to zero.
to gate 1causes the current flowing through the The operation of the transistor is exactly the
channel to vary. This varies the voltage drop
same as that of the JFET described earlier, ex-
across R2 so that the voltage between the drain cept here we have ameans of controlling the gain
and ground varies and an output signal is by varying the voltage applied to the gate. In the
produced. case of an n-channel transistor, we would apply
If, instead of grounding gate 2, we apply a a negative voltage to gate 2 in order to reduce
negative voltage to it, we can vary the gain of the the gain of the stage. In the case of ap-channel
transistor by varying the negative voltage. With transistor, we would apply apositive voltage to
zero voltage, asignal applied to gate 1causes a the gate. Dual-gate MOSFETs are widely used
certain varying current to flow through the chan- as the rf amplifier in TV tuners. It is possible to
nel. But if we apply anegative voltage to gate 2, vary the gain of the stage over awide range with
it restricts the channel width so that the current this type of FET so that on strong local stations,
decreases. This reduces the amplitude of the the rf stage amplifies the signal very little. This
varying current flowing through the channel and prevents overloading the receiver with astrong
hence the varying voltage developed across R2. signal received from the local station. On the
As a result, the output signal decreases. If we other hand, if you tune the TV receiver to aweak
increase the negative voltage applied to gate 2 distant station, then the reverse bias applied to
still further, the varying current continues to the gate automatically decreases and the stage
operates with a maximum gain in order to
amplify the weak signal as much as possible to
C2 provide a satisfactory picture. There are other
applications where dual-gate MOSFETs are
used to control the gain of the stage.

Review

There are two basic types of field-effect transis-

tor — the junction-gate (JFET) and the insulated-
gate (IGFET). These field-effect transistors offer
certain advantages over the bipolar transistors
we discussed earlier in this lesson. Both have a
very high input impedance, and in any circuit
Figure 26. Amplifier circuit using adual-gate MOSFET.
using an FET there is a 180° phase reversal.

30
 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS

One important type of IGFET that we have Self-Test Questions

discussed is the MOSFET. Its operation is exactly
the same as that of the JFET, except that, with 16 Is the amplified output signal from afield-
aMOSFET, we can control the gain by varying effect transistor in phase or out of phase
the voltage applied to the gate. MOSFETs are with the input signal?
widely used as rf amplifiers in TV tuners and 17 What potential must be applied to the
computers. gate of ap-channel JFET?
18 What important characteristic does the
input impedance of aFET amplifier have?
19 Which has the higher input impedance, a
JFET or an IGFET?
20 What purpose does gate 2in adual-gate
MOSFET serve?

31
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

engineers, but not to the technician. However,

TRANSISTOR
there are a few that are widely used that you
CHARACTERISTICS should become familiar with. You may encounter
them in your work.

The table in Fig.27 is a summary of both

bipolar and field-effect transistor charac-
Transistor Symbols
teristics. There are anumber of important char-
acteristics that you should remember. The
As you might expect, the letter Iis used to
common-collector type has a voltage gain less
represent current in transistor circuits. When
than 1; all other circuits provide ahigh voltage
the capital letter Iis used, it indicates dc current
gain. The common-base circuit has a current
or rms current. When the small letter iis used,
gain less than 1, whereas all others provide a
it indicates the instantaneous current.
higher current gain. In the common-base and
common-collector circuits, the output signal is in You frequently see references to the ac current
phase with the input signal. In all the other in atransistor. When an ac signal is applied to
circuits, the output signal is 180° out of phase the input of a transistor circuit, it causes the
with the input. current in the output circuit to vary. We can
consider the current in the output circuit as ade
There are a number of symbols used in
current with an ac current superimposed on it.
describing transistor performance. Most of these
Remember that when we used acapacitor in the
symbols are of interest to circuit designers and
output circuit to block the dc voltage, we got a

TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE CURRENT INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT

TYPE GAIN GAIN SIGNAL PHASE IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
RELATION

COMMON- HIGH LESS THAN 1 IN PHASE LOW REASONABLY

BASE HIGH

COMMON- HIGH HIGH 180 ° REASONABLY REASONABLY

EMITTER OUT OF PHASE HIGH HIGH

COMMON- LESS THAN 1 REASONABLY IN PHASE REASONABLY LOW

COLLECTOR HIGH HIGH

JFET HIGH HIGH 180 ° HIGH REASONABLY

OUT OF PHASE HIGH

IGFET HIGH HIGH 180 ° VERY HIGH REASONABLY

OUT OF PHASE HIGH

Figure 27. Bipolar and field-effect transistor characteristics.

32
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

signal voltage that was strictly an ac voltage. If battery, placing the reverse bias across the base-
we connect a resistor across the output ter- collector junction. However, there would be
minals, we have an ac current flow. It is impor- times when some minority carriers would cross
tant for you to remember that when we refer to the various junctions in a reverse direction.
ac current in atransistor, we are referring to the Thus, there is a current flow across the base-
ac current that is, in effect, superimposed on the collector junction due to holes traveling from the
de current that flows through the transistor collector across the junction into the base. This
under zero signal conditions. reverse current is kept as small as possible be-
Currents flowing to or from the various tran- cause it is useless current. Transistor manuals
sistor terminals are identified by means of a often list the reverse current across the collector-
letter representing the terminal. For example, base junction. The current that is listed is the
current that flows across the junction when the
the emitter current is represented by the letter
E or e. Base current is represented by B or band junction is reverse biased and the emitter is open
circuited. This dc current is represented by the
collector current is represented by the letter C or
c. Using these symbols, the de emitter current is symbol Ic lio The letters CB indicate that the
current is across the collector-base junction in
designated by the symbol I E The rms emitter
the reverse direction. The letter 0 indicates that
current is represented by the symbol l e, and the
the other electrode, the emitter, is open. This
instantaneous emitter current is represented by
the symbol i [Link], de base current is repre- symbol is so widely used that it is often ab-
breviated Ico
sented by I B,rms base current is represented by
Ib, and instantaneous base current is repre- Groups of letters are used in this manner to
sented by ib. Collector dc current is represented indicate other transistor currents. For example,
by Ic, rms collector current is represented by lc, the symbol 'CEO is used to represent the dc col-
and instantaneous collector current is repre- lector current with the collector reverse-biased
sented by i. and the base open-circuited.
Two characteristics that are often referred to There are other symbols used in conjunction
in transistors are the forward current and with the transistors, but you can usually figure
reverse current. The symbol used to represent out what the symbols mean. Transistor manuals
the dc forward current is I F,and i F is used to and data sheets are also available from
represent the instantaneous forward current. electronic parts distributors. Most of these
The dc reverse current is represented by IR,and manuals list all the symbols and tell you what
the instantaneous reverse current is repre- they mean.
sented by iR.
Remember that in normal operation atransis-
Current Gain
tor is operated with forward bias across the
emitter-base junction and reverse bias across
the base-collector junction. Thus, in an npn tran- You already know that the current gain of a
sistor, current can flow from the emitter, across transistor used in acommon-base circuit is rep-
the emitter-base junction, through the base, resented by the Greek letter a, and the current
across the base-collector junction, through the gain in acommon-emitter circuit is represented
collector, and to the positive terminal of the by the Greek letter p.

33
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Frequently in transistor characteristics, you It is not necessary that you memorize these
see the alpha cutoff frequency listed. Transistors formulas, but try to remember where they are so
are designed to operate up to acertain maximum you can look them up if you need them.
frequency. The alpha cutoff frequency is the fre-
quency at which the current gain of atransistor
in acommon-base circuit drops to approximately Review
70% of the gain that is listed in the transistor
characteristics. The higher the alpha cutoff fre- Because transistors are used so frequently in
quency, the higher the frequency at which the electronic circuitry, it is very important that you
transistor can be used. get to know all the different types and their
symbols. They come up often in your electronics
Manufacturers usually give either the alpha
studies and experiences. It is also important that
or the beta of a transistor, but seldom both.
you understand the information given on the
Sometimes when the alpha is given, you want to
table in Fig.27, as well as the formulas for deter-
know the value of beta and vice versa. If you
mining current gain in transistors.
know the alpha of atransistor, you can find beta
from the formula:
a Self-Test Questions
1
3=
1- a
21 What symbol is used to represent the dc
If you know the beta of atransistor, you can
base current?
find the alpha from the formula: 22 What symbol is used to represent the rms
(
3
collector current?
a= 23 What symbol is used to represent the
1 +13
instantaneous-emitter current?

34
 ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST made many times the input impedance of

the transistor results in the output volt-
QUESTIONS age being greater than the input signal
voltage.
7 A very low input impedance and ahigh
1 Yes. In the common-emitter circuit, the sig-
output impedance.
nal voltage is applied across the input resis-
8 The output signal voltage is in phase with
tor. None of the emitter current that is
the input signal voltage.
flowing through the collector flows through 9 The voltage gain of acommon-collector
this resistor. The actual signal current flow-
circuit is always less than 1.
ing in the input is comparatively small. At 10 The common-collector circuit has ahigh
the same time, the collector current is input impedance and alow output im-
equal to the emitter current minus any cur- pedance. Its input impedance is higher
rent loss at the base and is therefore much than that of the other two circuits, and it
larger than the signal input current. As a is the only circuit in which the output im-
result, acurrent gain is possible in the pedance is lower than the input imped-
common-emitter circuit. ance.
2 The amplified signal voltage is many times
11 The common-emitter circuit.
the input voltage and is 180° out of phase 12 The common-base circuit and the common-
with it in the common-emitter circuit. emitter circuit.
3 Figures 4and 5are schematics of a
13 The common-emitter circuit and the
common-emitter circuit using an npn tran- common-collector circuit.
sistor. Figure 6is aschematic using apnp 14 The common-emitter circuit and the
transistor. common-collector circuit.
4 No. In the common-base circuit, the collec- 15 The common-collector circuit.
tor current is always less than the emitter 16 180° out of phase.
current because part of the emitter current 17 A positive potential.
leaves the transistor through the base. 18 It has ahigh input impedance.
5 They are in phase.
19 The IGFET has ahigher input impedance
6 We can obtain avoltage gain in acommon-
than the JFET.
base circuit because the output load resis- 20 It can be used to control the gain of the
tor can be made quite large. Thus, even MOSFET.
though the signal current flowing through 21 'B.
the load is smaller than the input signal, 22 Ic.
the fact that the output load resistor can be 23 i
e.

35
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

Lesson Summary
Some of the important facts that you should
remember about this lesson are:

• The three basic amplifier configurations are common base, common

emitter, and common collector.

• Either apnp or an npn transistor can be used in any amplifier con-

figuration.

• The current gain of acommon-base amplifier circuit is an important

characteristic that is represented by the Greek letter alpha.

• Current gain of acommon-emitter amplifier circuit is represented by

the Greek letter beta.

• Dual-gate MOSFETs provide ameans of automaticaly controlling the

gain of an FET amplifier circuit.

36
 LESSON QUESTIONS

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2227.

Make sure you print your name, student number, a \
and lesson number in the space provided on the Name
Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to fill in the circles Print

beneath your student number. Code the lesson Student No. Lesson No.

number as shown at the right. XY 0 I2 3 7IS 9Li REINEI

Reminder: A properly completed Lesson Answer ib0000000 woo
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1. The transistor with the highest input 4. Which basic transistor circuit provides a
impedance is a(n): 180° phase shift?
a. PNP a. The common-base circuit.
b. NPN. b. The common-emitter circuit.
c. IGFET. c. The common-collector circuit.
d. JFET.
5. The common-base circuit has:
2. The basic transistor circuit that does not a. The highest input impedance.
provide acurrent gain is the: b. A current gain.
a. Common-emitter circuit. c. A low output impedance.
b. Common-base circuit. d. A voltage gain.
c. Common-collector circuit.
6. The common-emitter circuit provides:
3. The basic transistor circuit that does not a. A current gain.
provide avoltage gain is the: b. A low input impedance.
a. Common-emitter circuit. c. A low output impedance.
b. Common-base circuit. d. An amplified in-phase voltage.
c. Common-collector circuit.

37
HOW TRANSISTORS ARE USED

7. The common-collector circuit provides: 9. A MOSFET is a(n):

a. A low input impedance. a. NPN transistor.
b. A high output impedance. b. PNP transistor.
c. A voltage gain. c. JFET.
d. A current gain. d. IGFET.

8. An amplifier using afield-effect transistor 10. The purpose of asecond gate in adual-gate
has a(n): MOSFET is:
a. High input impedance. a. To increase the gain.
b. Low input impedance. b. To increase the input impedance.
c. Voltage gain less than 1. c. To control the gain.
d. Amplified signal in phase with the input d. To increase the output impedance.
signal.

38
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
MAWSchools

GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE

A national magazine recently published the results of asurvey in

which it asked several hundred successful men and women: "What
single ability have you found to be most essential to your success?"
Almost unanimously, the answer was: "The ability to get along with
people."

I'm sure you are already aware of the importance of this often under-
valued ability. But did you think of getting along with others as a
skill? It is askill; one that you can learn like any other.

To be successful in any field — technical, artistic, or commercial —

you must be able to get along with other people. You must have the
ability to work with others to achieve your common goals. You can
only profit from your special talents and skills if other people are
willing to come to you for your services, and people won't seek you
out if they don't like you.

Keep this in mind in your daily life. Practice getting along with peo-
ple. Notice the things people respond to and the things that "turn
them off" There is always room for improvement in this area. As you
go along, you will learn what many happy and successful people al-
ready know — that getting along with others is the single most im-
portant factor in gaining or keeping success.

A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

LT2227(805)
 2228

NRI Schools
ADivision of The McGraw Hill Companies

Washington, DC 20008
4
411
Integrated Circuits
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

How Monolithic Circuits Are Made 1

Summary 4

Basic Circuits 5
Voltage Regulation 5
The Differential Amplifier 6
Compound-Connected Transistors 10
A Dual-Differential Amplifier 11
Summary 16
Self-Test Questions 17

Digital Circuits 18
The Inverter 19
The AND Gate 19
The OR Gate 21
The NAND Gate 23
The NOR Gate 23
Negative Logic 24
Flip-Flops 27
Common ICs 29
Summary 29
Self-Test Questions 30

Answers to Self-Test Questions 31

Lesson Questions 33

Copyright e 1995 By NRI Schools, Washington, DC 20008

ISBN LT2228

02
 1

i•

HOW MONOLITHIC CIRCUITS chip will actually be only afew thousandths

ARE MADE of an inch thick.) The layer of n-type silicon
on top of the substrate and the layer of silicon
The manufacturing of an IC begins with a dioxide are extremely thin.
bar of silicon to which an impurity, such as From here on, the procedure used depends
boron, is added to produce a p-type silicon on what elements are going to be formed on
material. This bar of silicon is then sliced into the substrate. If we are going to make an IC
discs a few thousandths of an inch thick. containing two npn transistors, the next step
Called the substrate, the p-type silicon is the is to coat the entire surface of the silicon
foundation on which ICs are made. Each disc dioxide with a photoresist material. This is
may be several inches in diameter so that a the material that becomes chemically insol-
large number of ICs can be built on each disc. vent if it is exposed to ultraviolet light. After
After the circuits are built, the discs are cut the silicon disc is coated with photoresist, a
up to form individual ICs. mask with opaque and transparent regions is
After the bar of silicon has been cut into made on film, as shown in Fig.2. The photo-
discs, the discs are polished to avery smooth resist on the chip is then exposed to ultra-
surface. On the top of the disc, a layer of violet light through the mask. At the spots
n-type silicon is deposited. This layer is where the mask is opaque, the ultraviolet
called the epitaxial layer, and it will eventu-
ally become the collector for the npn tran-
sistors that will form part of the IC.
Next, we grow a layer of silicon dioxide

II I
4 over the top of the n-type crystal by heating MASK
TOP VIEW
the chip in an oxygen atmosphere. At this
stage, aside view of the enlarged chip looks
like Fig.l. (The drawing is out of scale; the
MASK

PHOTORESIST

Figure 1. P-type silicon substrate with n-type epitaxial Figure 2. Drawing showing mask and how it is placed
layer and protective layer of silicon dioxide. over silicon dioxide.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

light cannot go through and strike the photo-

resist. Where the mask is transparent, the
light can get through and strike the photo-
resist. The chip is then rinsed in adeveloper.
Where light has not struck the photoresist,
the developer removes the photoresist and
exposes the surface of the silicon dioxide.
Next, the wafer is put into a chemical bath
that etches or eats away holes, or windows,
in the surface of the chip where it has not
Figure 4. Drawing showing chip after p-type silicon is
been exposed to the ultraviolet light. This diffused through the windows.
action continues until the windows reach the
n-type silicon, as shown in Fig.3. The silicon
is then placed in an oven at high tempera-
ture, and the p-type silicon is diffused ultraviolet light. Where the light strikes the
through the window in the n-type layer. The chip, the silicon dioxide is protected by the
p-type material is diffused into the n-type photoresist, but where it is prevented from
material until it joins the substrate. There striking the chip by the opaque portion of the
are now two areas of n-type material in- mask, the oxide and photoresist can be easily
sulated from each other by the substrate and removed, forming new windows. P-type ma-
by the p-type material that has been diffused terial is once again diffused into the windows
through the n-type material into the sub- forming the pn junctions that are shown in
strate. The chip now looks like Fig.4. Fig.6.
At this point, the entire surface of the chip
is once again oxidized with silicon dioxide
and then coated with photoresist. As shown
in Fig.5, anew mask is then placed over the
chip and once again the chip is exposed to

Figure 3. Windows are etched chemically down through Figure 5. Drawing of the mask and chip ready for sec-
the silicon dioxide to the n region. ond exposure and etching.
 3

Figure 6. Drawing of chip after second p-type silicon Figure 8. Drawing of chip after second n-type diffusion
diffusion. has formed two npn transistors.

Once again the surface is oxidized with sil- minum is deposited to provide metal contacts
icon dioxide and then coated with photo- for bonding leads to the transistor elements.
resist. As shown in Fig.7, another mask is We have omitted a number of steps and
placed over the chip. The chip is again ex- many details in this description of how ICs
posed to ultraviolet light and the opaque are made, but the important thing to re-
area of the mask is etched away. N-type ma- member is that the transistors are formed in
terial is then diffused through the windows, a series of steps, and since they are all
as shown in Fig.8, so that we now have two formed at the same time, it is likely that they
npn transistors. will have very similar characteristics. Al-
In the final step, windows are etched though the transistors formed by the pro-
through a new mask through which alu- cedures are npn transistors, pnp transitors
can also be formed using similar techniques.
You might wonder why the two transistors
formed on the single p-type substrate do not
short together through the substrate. This is
easy to understand if you consider the oper-
ating voltages that will be applied to the
transistor when it is in use. The larger n-
region that is first formed will be the col-
lector of the transistors. The collector will
have apositive voltage applied to it. The sub-
strate will be at ground or zero potential.
Therefore, we have areverse bias across the
junction formed by the n-type collector and
the p-type substrate, and no current can
cross the junction. In other words, the n-type
collector material and the p-type substrate
Figure 7. Drawing of mask and chip ready for third ex- act as a reverse-biased diode so that there
posure. will be no current flow across the junction.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The two transistors are thus isolated from The ICs that use insulated-gate field-effect
each other by the substrate. transistors have avery high impedance. It is
The two npn transistors formed on the IC possible for static charges of such high values
just described are bipolar transistors, so the to build up on the gates that the charge will
IC is called a bipolar IC. There are other break through the insulation and short the
types of ICs that use insulated-gate field- gate to the channel. This will destroy the IC.
effect transistors. To prevent this from happening, when the IC
You will recall that a MOSFET is an is not in use, it should be plugged into a
insulated-gate field-effect transistor in foam-type conductor so that the various leads
which the gate is a metal and is insulated on the IC will be shorted together.
from the channel by an oxide of the metal.
ICs using n-channel enhancement-type FETs
are referred to as NMOS. ICs that use
enhancement-type FETs where the channel
is ap-type material are called PMOS. Summary
In some ICs, both enhancement-type n-
channel and p-channel FETs are used. In You don't have to remember the IC
these ICs, the two FETs are connected in manufacturing process, but remember
series and their gates are tied together. that in amonolithic IC all the parts are
When the voltage applied to the gate is posi- formed by the same manufacturing pro-
tive, the n-channel FET can conduct; when cess. An IC using npn or pnp transistors
the voltage applied to the gate is negative, is called abipolar IC. An NMOS IC uses
the p-channel FET can conduct. These ICs n-channel enhancement-type FETs. A
are called CMOS, which means comple- PMOS IC uses p-channel enhancement-
mentary metal oxides semiconductors. type FETs. A CMOS IC uses both n-
There is another type of insulated-gate channel and p-channel enhancement-
field-effect transistor IC that uses depletion- type FETs. An HMOS IC uses n-channel
type n-channel FETs. This type of IC is called depletion-type FETs.
HMOS.
 5

BASIC CIRCUITS +12V

There are two types of integrated circuits

that are widely used today, digital ICs and
linear ICs. In digital circuits, the various 9V
transistors are used in either the "on" or "off"
state. In other words, the transistor is ar-
ranged so that it is either conducting at such
ahigh level that it is saturated, or not con-
ducting so that it is completely cut off.
In linear ICs, the transistors are biased at
the midpoint of their characteristic curve.
Thus, in a linear IC, the linear transistors
are capable of amplifying signals and pro-
ducing an amplified vprsion of the original Figure 9. Zener diode voltage regulator circuit.
signal in the input.

the diode will increase to keep the voltage

Voltage Regulation constant.
The diode will also compensate for vari-
Frequently, the successful operation of a ations in the input of 12 volts. If the input
circuit in an IC requires maintaining fairly voltage increases, the current through the
close operating voltages on one or more diode will increase, so the voltage drop across
stages within the IC. Often the voltage re- R1 will increase to maintain the output volt-
gulation is obtained by constructing one or age at 9volts. Similarly, if the input voltage
more zener diodes within the IC. They are drops below 12 volts, the current through the
made at the same time, using the same pro- diode will decrease, so the voltage drop
cesses used to form the transistors. across R1 will decrease to maintain the out-
Zener Regulation. The circuit in Fig.9 put voltage at 9volts.
shows how azener diode can be used for volt- Notice that the input voltage must be
age regulation. Here the input voltage ap- greater than the required regulated voltage.
plied to the circuit is 12 volts and the diode is If the input voltage is 9 volts or less, the
maintaining the output voltage at 9volts. diode will not conduct and as aresult we will
In acircuit of this type, the value of R1 is not have any regulation.
selected so that the normal current flow Diode Regulation. Forward-based diodes
through it will produce avoltage drop of less can also be used as voltage regulators. A sil-
than 3volts. The current flowing through the icon diode, when it is conducting, has avolt-
diode supplies the additional current needed age drop of approximately 0.6 volt across it,
to maintain the output voltage at 9volts. If which remains constant over a fairly wide
the load current increases so that the voltage current range. By arranging forward-biased
drop across R1 increases, the current diodes as shown in Fig.10, the voltage reg-
through the diode decreases to maintain the ulated by the series-connected diodes will be
output voltage at 9 volts. Similarly, if the considerably higher than the voltage that
load current decreases, the current through could be regulated by asingle diode.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

no capacitors, it can be used from dc up to vhf

+5 V
(very high frequency).
Notice that the amplifier has two inputs,
input 1and input 2, and two outputs labeled
El and E2. The output is taken between ter-
3.6 V
minals El and E2. The greater the difference
in voltage between the two input signals, the
greater the output voltage. For example, let's
see what happens if the input to Ql swings in
a positive direction and the input to Q2
swings in anegative direction.
The positive input to Ql causes the current
through the transistor to increase. This
causes the voltage drop across R2 to increase
so that the potential at El will swing in a
negative direction. At the same time, the
negative signal applied to the input of Q2
will cause the current through the transistor
Figure 10. Forward-biased diodes used in a voltage
to decrease. As a result, the voltage drop
regulator circuit.
across R3 will decrease, causing the potential
at E2 to swing in apositive direction. Thus,
we have El swinging in anegative direction
Forward-biased diodes are widely used as
voltage regulators in ICs. They are formed
using the same processes that are used to
form atransistor. Since the cathodes and an-
odes of the diodes are all formed at the same
time, all of the diodes will have essentially
the same characteristics. Therefore, the
voltge drop across each diode is essentially
the same.
In the circuit shown in Fig.10, six diodes,
each with avoltage drop of 0.6 volt across it,
are used to obtain aregulated voltage of 3.6 INPUT I j k INPUT 2

volts. You may encounter several strings of

diodes, such as shown in Fig.10, in an IC
where several regulated voltages are needed.

The Differential Amplifier

One of the most widely used amplifier cir-

cuits in linear ICs is the differential ampli-
fier shown in Fig.11. Since the amplifier uses Figure 11. The basic differential amplifier circuit.
 7

and E2 swinging in a positive direction, so simply means that the amplifier will not
that considerable output voltage is developed produce an output signal if there are any
between these two terminals. If the positive changes in the operating voltage or stray
signal fed to the input of Ql is equal to the signals picked up at the two inputs. Thus,
negative signal fed to the input of Q2, and hum or any other noise signal picked up by
the transistors, as well as R2 and R3, are the two inputs will not result in an output
matched, the increased current through Ql signal. Common-mode rejection is an impor-
will be exactly offset by the decrease in cur- tant characteristic of the differential ampli-
rent through Q2. As a result, the current fier; you should remember what it is.
through R5 will remain constant and the The differential amplifier will also produce
voltage drop across it will not change. an output if there is only one input signal.
Note what happens when the two input For example, if the input of Ql swings in a
signals of the amplifier are equal in ampli- positive direction, the current through this
tude and phase. If the inputs to Q1 and Q2 transistor will increase, causing the voltage
both swing in a positive direction, the cur- drop across R2 to increase so that the poten-
rent through both transistors will increase, tial at El will swing in anegative direction.
increasing the voltage drop across both R2 If there is no signal at the input of Q2, the
and R3. As a result, El and E2 will both increased current through Ql will cause the
swing in anegative direction so that the net voltage drop across R5 to increase. This will
voltage difference between E2 and El will be reduce the forward bias across the emitter-
zero. At the same time, the current through base junction of Q2, causing the current
R5 will increase, increasing the voltage drop through this transistor to decrease. As are-
across it. Thus, the emitters of both tran- sult, the voltage drop across R3 will decrease,
sistors will swing in apositive direction. This causing the voltage at E2 to swing in aposi-
will subtract from the positive signals fed to tive direction. Therefore, we have an output
the two inputs. The current increase through signal that is once again equivalent to the
the two transistors will be considerably less difference between the voltages at El and
than it would be if the emitters were con- E2.
nected directly to ground. This limits the When used in ICs, the basic differential
current increases through R2 and R3, result- amplifier circuit is usually modified as
ing in very little change in the voltage be- shown in Fig.12. Notice that the collector of
tween El and ground and E2 and ground. At Ql is brought directly back to the positive
the same time, the increase in the voltage power supply. The base of Q2 is operated at
drop across R5 further limits the change in signal ground potential by bypassing it to
voltage between El and ground and E2 and ground through Cl. The term signal ground
ground so that these two voltages remain es- potential simply means that insofar as any
sentially constant. input signal is concerned, the base of Q2 is
At the same time, any change in the volt- connected directly to ground. The reactance
age between El and ground and the voltage of C1 is so low that insofar as a signal is
between E2 and ground will be equal so that concerned, the base of Q2 is connected di-
there will be no voltage between El and E2. rectly to ground.
Thus, the equal in-phase signals fed to the The input signal is fed to the base of Q1
two inputs will not result in any output. This and the output signal is taken from the col-
is referred to as common-mode rejection. It lector of Q2. When the input signal causes
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Notice that there is no phase shift in this

differential amplifier. For a positive-going
input signal, we get a positive-going output
signal; for anegative-going input signal, we
get anegative-going output signal.
Constant-Current Circuit. Figure 13 is a
diagram of an integrated circuit using a
modified form of the differential amplifier.
Terminals 1through 5 are terminals of the
IC. The transistor Q3 is called a constant-
current sink or aconstant-current source. By
this we mean that the current through Q3
remains essentially constant. Let's see how
this works.
Notice that the connection from R4 goes to
terminal 4of the IC. A small positive voltage
is applied to this terminal. Current will flow
from ground through D2, D1, and R4 to ter-
minal 4. The voltage drop across D1 and D2

Figure 12. Modified differential amplifier circuit.

the base of Ql to swing in a positive direc-

tion, current through the transistor will in-
crease, increasing the voltage drop across R2.
This will swing the emitter of Q2 in a posi-
tive direction, reducing the forward bias
across the emitter-base junction of Q2. This
will cause the current through the transistor
to decrease, causing the voltage drop across
INPUT
R3 to decrease. Thus, the voltage between
the collector of Q2 and ground will swing in a
positive direction.
When the input signal applied to Q1
swings in the negative direction, it will re-
duce the current through the transistor,
which in turn will reduce the voltage drop
across R2. This will cause the forward bias
across the emitter-base junction of Q2 to in-
crease, increasing the current through the
transistor and thus the voltage drop across
R3. This means that the voltage between the
collector of Q2 and ground will decrease or, Figure 13. Differential amplifier with a constant-current
in other words, swing in anegative direction. sink
 9

will remain constant. If the voltage at ter- second differential amplifier can be used.
minal 4 increases slightly, the current However, in both Figs.12 and 13, the dc out-
through D1 and D2 will increase, as well as put voltage at the collector of Q2 is con-
the current through R4. This will cause a siderably higher than the base voltage at the
greater voltage drop across R4 so that the input of Ql. Therefore, rather than trying to
voltage drop across the series-connected D1 direct-couple the second differential ampli-
and D2 will remain essentially constant. fier, an emitter-follower stage is used be-
Similarly, when the voltage at terminal 4 tween the two to get the dc voltage down to a
drops slightly, the current flow in the circuit lower level. Then, a second differential am-
will drop, so the voltage drop across D1 and plifier can be driven quite conveniently.
D2 will remain constant. The circuit used to lower the dc level is
As long as the voltage drop across D1 and shown in Fig.14. Notice that in this circuit,
D2 is constant, there will be a constant for- Q1 and Q2 form adifferential amplifier that
ward bias across the emitter-base junction of is identical to the circuit shown in Fig.12.
Q3. As long as the forward bias across this The output from Q2 is coupled directly to the
junction is constant, the current flow base of Q3, and the output signal is taken
through the transistor will remain constant. from the emitter of Q3. By controlling the
If an input signal fed to terminal 1swings characteristics of Q3 and the size of R5, we
positive, the forward bias across the emitter- can obtain the correct dc voltage at the emit-
base junction of Ql will increase and the cur- ter of Q3 to correctly bias the base of the first
rent through this transistor will increase. stage of asecond differential amplifier.
Since Q3 is supplying emitter current for
both Ql and Q2, and the current through Q3
is constant, if the current through Q1 in-
creases, the current through Q2 must de-
crease. If the current through Q2 decreases,
the voltage drop across R2 will decrease and
the output at terminal 3will swing in aposi-
tive direction.
If the input signal drives terminal 1in a
negative direction, the forward bias across
the emitter-base junction of Q1 will decrease
and the current through Ql will decrease.
Again, since the current through Q3 is con-
stant, the current through Q2 must increase.
The voltage drop across R2 will increase so
that the voltage at the collector of Q2 will
decrease and the voltage at output terminal
3 will swing in a negative direction. Notice
that with this circuit we once again have an
output signal that is in phase with the input
signal.
DC Level Shifting. If we need more gain Figure 14. A differential amplifier and an emitter-follower
than we can get from a single amplifier, a stage.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

In some integrated circuits, you will find

two or three differential amplifiers and an
emitter follower connected in cascade, which
means that one differential amplifier is con-
nected after another. The differential ampli-
fiers are isolated from each other by an
emitter-follower stage that lowers the dc
level, so that in each case the output from the
emitter follower provides the correct forward
bias for the first stage of the following dif-
ferential amplifier.
Very high gain can be obtained by using
two, three, or more cascaded stages, as shown
in Fig.14. If three differential amplifiers
with an emitter-follower output are used in
an integrated circuit, and each differential
amplifier and emitter follower provides a Figure 15. A compound-connected emitter-follower cir-
gain of 10, the total gain of the three cas- cuit.
caded stages will be 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000. It
is relatively easy to obtain a gain of 10 in emitter current will flow through the col-
each differential amplifier and emitter- lector and 5% will flow through the base.
follower stage of this type. Thus, in Q2, only 5% of the emitter current
flows through the base. If Q1 has similar
characteristics, 95% of its emitter current
Compound-Connected Transistors will flow through the collector. Since 95% of
5% is 4.75%, this leaves only 0.25% of the
An example of a compound-connected emitter current of Q2 to flow to the base of
emitter follower is shown in Fig.15. This type Ql. The base current of Q1 will be much
of circuit is frequently called a Darlington lower than that of a single transistor stage.
circuit. Two important characteristics of this Hence, we have a higher input impedance,
type of circuit are a very high current gain and since the circuit behaves as a normal
and arelatively high input impedance. emitter follower, it will have a low output
Notice that in the circuit shown in Fig.15, impedance.
the base current of Q2 is the emitter current The relatively small base current of Ql,
of Ql. Thus, with similar transistors the base compared to the emitter current of Q2, re-
current of Q1 will be much lower than it sults in ahigher overall gain. Thus, the stage
would be if it were connected in the con- has two important characteristics: a high
ventional common-emitter or emitter- current gain and arelatively high input im-
follower circuit. A relatively small change in pedance.
the base current of Q1 will produce a large Compound-connected transistors are used
change in the emitter current of Q2. not only in emitter-follower circuits, but also
The relatively high input impedance of the in compound-connected differential ampli-
Darlington circuit is due to the low base cur- fiers, as shown in Fig.16. The gain of an am-
rent of Q1. In atypical transistor, 95% of the plifier of this type is considerably higher
 11

Q4 to decrease. This will cause a large de-

crease in the collector current of Q4. Since
both the collector currents of Q3 and Q4 de-
crease, there will be aconsiderable decrease
in the voltage drop across R3 so that E2 will
swing in apositive direction.
The signal voltage developed between
terminals El and E2 of the compound dif-
INPUT 1 W INPUT 2
ferential amplifier will be much greater than
it would be with a differential amplifier
using only two transistors, because in this
circuit all four transistors are amplifying the
input change. This type of circuit can be used
advantageously in an integrated circuit be-
cause we can get anearly perfect balance in
the two amplifiers. For example, since all
four transistors are formed at the same time,
they should have practically identical char-
acteristics. Similarly, it is possible to make
R1 equal to R4, R2 equal to R3, and R5 equal
to R6. This means that agiven input applied
Figure 16. Acompound-connected differential amplifier. to input 1will produce the same change in
El that the same input signal fed to input 2
than the gain of the differential amplifier will produce at E2.
shown in Fig.11.
In the circuit shown in Fig.16, when an A Dual-Differential Amplifier
input signal drives input 1in a positive di-
rection, the small increase in the base cur- The schematic diagram of an RCA type
rent of Q1 will cause alarger increase in the CA3026 IC is shown in Fig.17. It contains
emitter current of Ql. Since the emitter cur- two differential amplifiers, each with a
rent of Q1 is the base current of Q2, the base constant-current sink. Notice that there are
current of Q2 must increase substantially. no resistors or other parts in the IC except
An increase in the base current causes a the transistors used in the differential ampli-
large increase in the emitter current of Q2 fiers and the transistors used as current
and the collector current. Thus, we have the sources. The emitter of Q6, which is con-
collector current increasing, which increases nected to terminal 9, is also connected to the
the voltage drop across R2 so that El will metal case of the IC and to the IC substrate.
swing in anegative direction. Also notice that there are no circles drawn
If at the same time there is a negative around the transistors. It is common practice
voltage at input 2, the negative voltage will to omit the circles around the transistors and
cause the base current of Q3 to decrease. This diodes in the schematics of ICs. This indi-
decrease in base current will cause a much cates that they are not discrete or separate
greater decrease in the emitter current, components, but are a part of an integrated
which in turn will cause the base current of circuit.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

00 00 800 00

Figure 17. Schematic of adual differential amplifier, type CA3026 IC.

V C C

1k lk
_ENV T-41
1k

10. F

I
I

6
10
1k

1k
Vs"•— •

+12V

Figure 18. Using the CA3026 as atwo-stage amplifier.

 13

Figure 18 shows how this IC can be used as that pin 7is the base of Q4. The other tran-
atwo-stage amplifier. This is the type of dia- sistor in this differential amplifier is Q5 and
gram you'll see when ICs are used as two- the base of this transistor is connected to pin
stage amplifiers. As you can see, without 4. We see that pin 4 is connected to ground
knowing what is inside the IC it is difficult to through a 1k resistor. If the input signal fed
trace out the circuit. However, by referring to pin 7 swings in a positive direction, the
to Fig.17, which shows what is inside the IC, current through the transistor must in-
and to Fig.19, which shows the complete crease. Since there is a constant-current
schematic of the two-stage amplifier, you source (Q6), the current through the other
should be able to trace out the circuitry transistor in the differential pair (Q5) must
shown in Fig.18. decrease. As a result, we have a push-pull
Looking at Fig.18, we see that the input output between terminals 5and 6. The term
signal is fed to terminal 7. Figure 17 tells us push-pull means that as the voltage at one

+12 V

01 1k

o
OUTPUT
o

1k

0
—3 V —6 V
BIAS

Courtesy RCA

Figure 19. Complete schematic of the CA3026 two-stage amplifier.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

terminal swings in a positive direction, the

voltage at the other terminal is swinging in a h 0.335
0.305 —111
negative direction. DIA

The outputs from terminals 5 and 6 are

0.180
then fed through the le coupling capacitors MAX
to the bases of the other differential ampli-
fier pair, where the signal is amplified fur- 0.5
M
uj II 0111u

OF'
112.701
ther by this pair. The amplified push-pull
MIL__ 0100 12 LEADS
output will be present at terminals 11 and 12 --** 0.019 0.482
of the second differential amplifier, which is 0.370
o.
0.016 0.487
0.335
the output. DIA
The bases of the transistors used as
constant-current sources are brought to ex- 0.245

0.215
ternal connections, so different values of base
bias can be applied to the bases, depending 3 4
, 5

upon the application. In the example shown 20 •-• 06

0 0
in Fig.19, avoltage of —3volts is applied to 10 + —07
pins 2and 8of the IC. When the IC is used as 12._ _
08
30 ° 0 °
atwo-stage amplifier, there will be avoltage 0.034
\ 11 10 9
0.028
gain of about 1000.
To give you an idea of how much gain this 0.045
\ idle

actually represents, if we feed a 1microvolt 0.024

signal (in other words, a signal having an

amplitude of 1millionth of a volt) into ter- Courtesy RCA
minal 7, we will have an amplified signal of
1000 microvolts, which is equal to 1 mil- Figure 20. Physical layout of CA3026.
livolt, between the output of terminals 11
and 12. If we take asecond CA3026 and feed gives the dimensions of the case. Notice that
the output from terminals 11 and 12 of the the maximum diameter of the rim of the case
first IC into terminals 4and 7of the second is 0.370 inch, or considerably less than one-
IC, with the circuit essentially the same as in half inch.
Fig.18, we can get another voltage gain of The various leads are identified by means
1000. Therefore, at terminals 11 and 12 of of asmall tip on the rim of the case adjacent
the second IC, the amplitude of the signal to lead 12, as shown in Fig.20(B). Notice that
will be 1volt. In other words, by connecting there are 12 leads on this IC and lead No.12
two ICs in cascade so that the signal is ampli- is in the exact center of the tip on the rim.
fied first by one and then by the other, we can This is abottom view. Counting from lead 12
amplify the signal from 1microvolt to 1volt, in the clockwise direction, we come to leads
getting atotal gain of 1,000,000. 1, 2, 3, and so on.
You might wonder how large the CA3026 The CA3026 dual-differential amplifier is
IC actually is. This IC is housed in what is also available as the type CA3054 in apack-
called aTO-5 case. The drawing in Fig.20(A) age that is called a 14-lead, dual in-line
 15

Courtesy RCA

Figure 21. TO-116 case dimensions.

package, identified as aTO-116 package. The Most of the ICs you will encounter will be
physical dimensions of this package are in dual in-line packages. The number of pins
shown in Fig.21. Notice that there are 7 will vary from 8on up. The same numbering
leads on each side of the package. Also notice scheme is used on all in-line packages. For
the notch, called an index point, at one end of example, in the case of adual in-line package
the package. This enables us to identify the with 24 leads, the terminals on one side will
various pins. The view that shows the notch be numbered 1through 12 and those on the
is a top view, so looking at the IC with the other side will be numbered 13 through 24.
notch to your left, the pin below and to the Figure 22 is a drawing showing how the
left is terminal 1, and the pin above and to dual-differential amplifiers are connected in
the left is terminal 14. Notice that the pins the CA3054 IC. The differential amplifiers
on one side of the IC are numbered 1through in this IC are electrically identical to those in
7, and the pins on the other side are num- the CA3026 IC, but as you can see the pin
bered 8through 14. connection arrangements are quite different.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

00 00 ®00 Q0 0

c)4

Q
y
>

SUBSTRATE

Figure 22. Pin connections for the CA3054 IC.

Summary two transistors, the collector voltages

will swing in the same direction, so the
Some ICs have voltage regulators output will be zero.
built in them. The voltage regulator The differential amplifier can be
may be a zener diode or it may be a modified to use a single input and a
group of conventional silicon diodes single output. The differential amplifier
connected in series. A forward- is followed by an emitter-follower in
conducting silicon diode has a voltage order to reduce the dc voltage level at
drop of about 0.6 volt across it. the output of the amplifier. Differential
If you have a differential amplifier amplifiers and emitter-followers can be
using two npn transistors and the signal cascaded to obtain very high gain ampli-
fed to the base of one swings in a posi- fiers. The transistor, with its base volt-
tive direction, the voltage at its collector age held constant by means of the zener
will swing in anegative direction. If the diode, forms a constant-current source.
signal fed to the input of the other tran- A constant-current source is often re-
sistor swings in anegative direction, the ferred to as acurrent sink.
voltage at its collector will swing in a Two important characteristics of a
positive direction. The output voltage is compound-connected emitter-follower,
the difference in voltage between the often referred to as aDarlington circuit,
two collectors. If equal amplitudes in are avery high current gain and arela-
phase signals are fed to the bases of the tively high input impedance.
 17

Self-Test Questions 7 What purpose does Q3 serve in the

circuit shown in Fig.14?
Please check your answers on page 31. 8 Give two advantages of the
compound-connected emitter-
1 When a zener diode is used as a follower circuit over the emitter-
voltage regulator, is it forward bi- follower using asingle transistor.
ased or reverse biased? 9 Why might compound-connected
2 If five forward-biased diodes are transistors be used in adifferential
used as avoltage regulator and the amplifier?
voltage drop across one diode is 0.6 10 In the ICs shown in Fig.17, which
volt, what is the total regulator transistors are constant-current
voltage? sources?
3 When forward-biased diodes are 11 What type of circuits are contained
used as a voltage regulator in an in the ICs shown in Fig.17?
integrated circuit, why are the di- 12 In the circuit shown in Fig.18, do
odes likely to have identical charac- we have a single-ended input or a
teristics? push-pull input?
4 If a differential amplifier, such as 13 In the circuit shown in Fig,18, do
the one shown in Fig.11, is designed we have asingle-ended output or a
to provide a voltage gain of 10 in push-pull output?
each stage, and a 1 volt positive 14 Is the maximum diameter of the
signal is applied to both inputs, type TO-5 case greater than or less
what will the output voltage be? than one-half inch?
5 In the differential amplifier shown 15 How can you identify the various
in Fig.12, will the output signal be pins of an IC using a type TO-116
in phase or 180° out of phase with case?
the input signal? 16 In a 24-lead, dual in-line IC pack-
6 What is the purpose of Q3 in the age, what pin will be at the same
differential amplifier of Fig.13? end as and opposite pin 1?
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

DIGITAL CIRCUITS a negative voltage to produce an output, we

will get an output like that in Fig.23(D).
Linear circuits are used to amplify the sig- Again, notice there are only two output lev-
nal when we want the amplified circuit to be els: maximum positive and zero.
an exact copy of the original input. For ex- Digital circuits are widely used in com-
ample, if a signal like that shown in puters and microcomputers. Both use anum-
Fig.23(A) is fed to alinear amplifier, the out- bering system called abinary system. In this
put will be like Fig.23(B). The output is the system there are only two digits, 1 and O.
same, but it is greater in amplitude. Thus, in adigital system, full output can rep-
A digital circuit has only two output condi- resent 1and zero output can represent O.
tions: maximum positive output and zero out- This might seem a little complex at first,
put. If we feed a signal such as shown in but it is really quite simple. For example,
Fig.23(A) to adigital circuit that requires a look at the circuit shown in Fig.24. With the
positive signal to produce an output signal, switch in the position shown, there is no for-
we will get an output like that shown in ward bias across the emitter-base junction of
Fig.23(C). If we feed asignal like that shown the transistor. Therefore, there will be no
in Fig.23(A) to adigital circuit that requires current flow through the transistor or
through R2. Thus, if we measure the voltage
on output terminal 1, the voltage will be
positive and it will be equal to the full bat-
tery voltage. This might represent binary 1.
Now, when we throw the switch into posi-
tion B, the base will be connected to the posi-
tive end of the battery through Rl. This
places a positive voltage on the base of the
transistor, so the transistor will conduct

H2

H1

Figure 23. A comparison of signals from a linear circuit Figure 24. A transistor switch that produces binary out-
and adigital circuit. puts of 1and O.
 19

heavily. It will go into what we call sat-

uration, meaning it will conduct all the cur-
rent it is capable of conducting. As aresult,
the transistor acts as a very low resistance
between the emitter and the collector, while
R2 is a comparatively large resistance.
Therefore, the voltage drop across the tran-
sistor will be practically zero, whereas al-
most the entire battery voltage will be
dropped across R2. The voltage on terminal 1
will now drop to near zero. This condition
represents abinary O.
This system of representing the digits 1
and 0is called digital logic. The circuits used
for this purpose are called digital logic cir-
cuits or simply logic circuits. When 1is rep-
resented by the most positive voltage in the
circuit, we have what is called positive logic.
In positive logic, we often refer to 1as ahigh
and 0as a low.

The Inverter

The schematic diagram of an inverter used

with positive logic is shown in Fig.25(A). The
inverter does exactly what the name implies:
it inverts the signal. When the input is zero,
the transistor will not conduct because there Figure 25. (A) A typical inverter circuit, and (B) its
is no forward bias across the emitter-base symbol. (C) A logic table.

junction. The output will be +5 as shown.

When the input swings positive, the tran-
sistor will saturate and practically the entire NOT A. This means that if the input is A, the
5volts will be dropped across R2 so that the output is NOT A; it is the inversion of A. We
output voltage will drop to zero. When the summarize this in atable called atruth table,
input signal drops back to zero, the transistor which is shown in Fig.25(C). Where the input
will stop conducting and the output will is zero, the output is NOT 0; it is 1. When the
climb again to +5volts. input is 1, the output is NOT 1; it is O.
Figure 25(B) shows the symbol used to rep-
resent a logic inverter. The triangle repre-
sents some form of active circuit, such as a The AND Gate
transistor, and the small circle indicates in-
version. The input A is at either a 1or a 0 A gate is acircuit that looks at two or more
binary level. The output is À, which is read binary signals and produces abinary output
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

grounded, current will still flow from ground

to input B and through D2 and R1 to +12 V.
SW 1 SW 2 The voltage drop across D2 will be prac-
tically zero, so the voltage at output C will be
zero.
If we ground input A and connect the posi-
tive terminal of the battery to input B, cur-
rent will still flow from ground to input A
and through D1 and R1 to +12 V. The volt-
age drop across D1 will be practically zero, so
Figure 26. An example of an AND gate. the voltage at output C will be zero.
If we connect a 6 volt battery between
ground and each input terminal, current will
signal that depends upon the input signals. flow from ground through the battery to in-
An AND gate is a gate with two or more put A and through D1 and R1 to +12 V.
inputs that will produce a binary 1 output Current will also flow from ground through
signal only when there is a binary 1 input the 6volt battery to input B and through D2
signal at each input. and R1 to +12 V. The voltage drop across D1
Figure 26 is asimple example that demon- and D2 will be practically zero, but since in-
strates AND gate operation. You can see that puts A and B are now connected to +6volts,
with either SW1 or SW2 open, or with both the voltage at C will be +6 V, which repre-
SW1 and SW2 open, the lamp will not light. sents abinary 1.
The only condition under which the lamp In Fig.27(B), we've shown two signals ap-
will light is when both switches are closed. plied to inputs A and B and the output they
A semiconductor AND gate is shown in will produce at output C. Notice that there is
Fig.27(A). To see how this gate works, we abinary 1, represented by the positive volt-
will apply a logic level 0 to either input by age at the output of C, only when there is a
grounding the input. We will apply a logic binary 1present at both inputs A and B. At
level 1by connecting the negative terminal all other times, the output at C is zero.
of a6volt battery to ground and the positive The symbol for an AND gate is shown in
terminal to the input to which we wish to Fig.27(C). Notice that we have used the
apply alogic level 1. mathematical expression C = AB to desig-
If we ground both terminals A and B to nate the AND operation. The gate output is
apply a logic 0 to each input, current will designated C and the inputs are designated
flow from ground to terminal A and through A and B. The equation tells us that the out-
D1 and R1 to +12 V. Current will also flow put C occurs when both A and B are present.
from ground to terminal B and through D2 The truth table for an AND gate is shown
and R1 to +12 V. Since the conducting di- in Fig.27(D). Notice that when we have bi-
odes will have practically zero resistance, nary 1at inputs A and B, we have abinary 1
almost the entire 12 volts will be dropped at output C. With all other combinations, the
across R1, so the output at C will be zero. output will be 0 at C. Only when we have a
If we connect the positive terminal of the 6 binary 1at A and B will we have abinary 1
volt battery to input A, and keep input B at C.
 21

•1!

H1

[)1

[Y2

(B)
(A)
MOM* ALI I\ /
A

o o
o o
(C)
o o o

ID)

Figure 27. (A) The schematic symbol of adiode AND gate, and (B) the input and output signals. (C) The symbol for
an AND gate, and (D) the truth table.

AND gates are not limited to two inputs.

We could have three or more inputs. If, for
example, we have four inputs, the only time
we'll get abinary 1at the output is when we
have abinary 1at all four inputs.

The OR Gate

A simple example of an OR gate is shown in

Fig.28. Here, if we close switch 1, the light
will light. If we leave switch 1open and close
switch 2, the light will also light. In other
words, the light will light if either switch is
closed. The light will also light if both Figure 28. An example of an OR gate.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

switches are closed. The important thing to side of the supply through Rl. Current flows
note it that the light will light if either from the negative side of the supply through
switch 1or 2is closed. R1, through D1 and D2 to ground, and to the
The schematic diagram of adiode OR gate positive terminal of the 12 volt supply: Since
is shown in Fig.29(A). To see how the circuit the resistance of the conducting diodes is
works, we will do the same for logic level 0 practically zero, the voltage at output C will
and 1as we did with the AND gate. For 0, be zero, and the output is abinary zero.
we'll ground the input terminal. For 1, we'll With one input at ground and the other at
connect the negative terminal of the 6 volt logic level 1, the output, C, will also be at
battery to ground and the positive terminal logic level 1. Let's see why this is so.
to the input to which we wish to apply logic Let's apply a logic level 0 to input B by
level 1. grounding it, and alogic level 1to input A by
With logic level 0applied to both inputs A connecting the negative terminal of the 6
and B (that is, both inputs grounded), diodes volt battery to ground and the positive ter-
D1 and D2 will be forward biased because minal to input A. This will place atotal of 18
their cathodes are connected to the minus volts across D1 and R1 in series. D1 will con-

Figure 29. (A) A schematic diagram of an OR gate, and (B) input signals. (C) The symbol for the OR gate, and (D) the
truth table.
 23

duct, and since the diode is practically zero

resistance when it is conducting, the junction
B
of the cathode of DI and the cathode of D2
and R1 will be at +6 volts. This is abinary (A)
level 1, so we'll have abinary 1at output C.
Diode D2 can't conduct because it has a re- A

verse bias of 6 volts across it. The cathode AB

will have +6volts applied to it, and the an-

(B)
ode is at zero.
If input A is grounded and input B has +6 P
,
A
volts applied to it, diode D2 will conduct,
bringing terminal C to +6volts. In this case, o o
D1 will be reverse biased and will not conduct. o
if +6volts is applied to both terminals A and
o
B, both diodes will conduct, again bringing
terminal C to the +6volt or logic 1level. o
Notice the difference between the AND (C)
gate and the OR gate. With the AND gate,
we had a logic level 1 at the output only Figure 30. (A) An AND gate followed by an inverter be-
when we had alogic level 1at A and B. With comes aNAND gate. (B) The schematic symbol, and (C)
the OR gate, we had alogic level 1when we had the truth table.
alogic level 1at either A or B (or both).
Figure 29(B) shows input signals applied NAND gate is shown in Fig.30(B). The truth
to inputs A and B and the output produced at table for the NAND gate is shown in
terminal C. Figure 29(C) is the symbol used Fig.30(C). Notice that the NAND gate output
for an OR gate. Notice the mathematical ex- is exactly the opposite of an AND gate. This
pression C = A + B used to represent the is because the inverter inverts the output
OR gate. This is read C = A or B. The truth from the AND gate.
table for the OR gate is shown in Fig.29(D).
The NOR Gate

When an OR gate is followed by an in-

The NAND Gate verter, as shown in Fig.31(A), we have aNOR
gate. As you might expect, the name is de-
When an AND gate is followed by an in- rived from the words NOT and OR. The
verter, it becomes aNAND gate. The word is mathematical expression for the output is
derived from the words NOT and AND, read C = NOT A or B.
where the NOT refers to the inverter and the The schematic symbol for the NOR gate is
AND refers to the gate. In Fig.30(A), we have shown in Fig.31(B). The truth table for the
shown an AND gate followed by an inverter. NOR gate is shown in Fig.31(C). The output
Notice the mathematical output term AB; it is opposite of that of an OR gate because the
means that the output produced is inverted. gate is made up of an OR gate and its output
The schematic symbol used to represent a is then inverted.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

cerned with the type of circuitry inside the

A gate; the main thing to remember is the
C - A +B
function that the gate performs.

(A)

C - A+B Negative Logic

The logic we have been discussing thus far

is called positive logic. This means that a
A B C binary 1is represented by a voltage that is
positive with respect to binary O. In the ex-
0 0 1
amples we've discussed, we've used +6V as
0 1 0 binary 1, and 0as binary O.
Another type of logic that you will some-
1 0 0
times encounter is negative logic. In negative
1 1 0
logic, the voltage representing logic 1 is
(C) negative with respect to the voltage repre-
senting binary O. With this logic, binary 1
could be 0volt, and binary 0could be +6V.
Figure 31. (A) An OR gate followed by an inverter be- Binary 0could be 0V and binary 1could be
comes aNOR gate. (B) The schematic symbol for aNOR —6V
gate. and (C) the truth table. Notice the important difference here: In
both examples given, binary 1is represented
by a voltage level that is negative with re-
You might wonder why we need NAND spect to binary O.
and NOR gates. One reason is that in diode The schematic symbol for anegative logic
AND and OR gates there is no amplification. AND gate is shown in Fig.32(A). Figure
If the logic signal has to pass through several 32(B) is the truth table for the negative logic
gates, its amplitude will decrease as it goes AND gate. Notice that the truth table is the
through each gate, and the system will be- same as the truth table for the positive logic
come unreliable. By using a diode gate fol- AND gate. Regardless of whether positive or
lowed by a transistor inverter, we can am- negative logic is being used, to get abinary 1
plify the signal after it goes through the gate in the output of the AND gate you must have
and thus maintain our logic level constant. abinary 1at both inputs. The circuits for the
Gates such as NAND and NOR gates in two gates will be different, but they perform
which diodes and transistors are used are the same function.
referred to as diode transistor logic, abbre- Figure 33(A) shows the schematic symbol
viated DTL. In some logic circuits, you will for the negative logic OR gate, and Fig.33(B)
find transistor gates and transistor invert- is the truth table for the negative logic OR
ers. This configuration is referred to as tran- gate. Notice that with this gate, you'll get a
sistor transistor logic, abbreviated TTL. Both binary 1in the output if you have abinary 1
DTL and TTL logic is used, but most modern on either or both of the two inputs. This is the
logic gates use CMOS. We need not be con- same as for apositive logic OR gate.
 25

represented by 0 volts and 0 is represented

o by +6V, we get alogic level 1(0 volts) at C
o when either A or B, or both, are grounded.
(A) We get a logic level 0 (+6 volts) only when
+6 volts (logic level 0) is applied to both
A 6 C inputs. This means that with negative logic,
0 0 0 the diode gate shown in Fig.27, which
worked as an AND gate with positive logic,
1 0 0
will function as an OR gate with negative
0 1 0 logic. Similarly, the diode gate shown in
Fig.29, which functions as an OR gate with
1 1 1
positive logic, will function as an AND gate
(B) with negative logic.
Negative logic can be used with the gates
Figure 32. (A) The schematic symbol for a negative shown in Figs.30 and 31. When negative
logic AND gate, and (B) the truth table. logic is used with the circuit shown in Fig.30,
the AND gate becomes an OR gate and the
inverter performs the NOT function, so we
Let's go back and look at the gate shown in have it performing the NOR function. The
Fig.27. Remember that when we discussed symbol for the negative logic NOR gate is
this gate previously, we said that we'd use shown in Fig.34(A). Similarly, when the cir-
+6volts as one binary level and zero volts as cuit shown in Fig.31 is used with negative
the other. With 0 volts at either input, we logic, the OR gate becomes and AND gate
had 0in the output. The only time we got +6 and the output is inverted by the inverter, so
V in the output was when we applied +6V to the inverter performs the NAND function.
both inputs. With negative logic, where 1is The symbol for the negative logic NAND gate
is shown in Fig.34(B). Table 1is a summary
of the logic symbols and truth tables for the
logic gates discussed so far.

A B C

(A)
0 0 0

1 0 1
O
0 1 1

1 1 1
B)
(B)

Figure 33. (A) The schematic symbol for a negative Figure 34. (A) The symbol for the negative logic NOR gate,
logic OR gate, and (B) the truth table. and (3) the symbol for the negative logic NAND gate.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

TABLE I
A SUMMARY TABLE OF LOGIC SYMBOLS AND TRUTH TABLES

POSITIVE LOGIC

A
A B C A B C
AND C AB
0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1 1
NAND
1 1 1 1 1 0

AND NAND

D
A A B C A

OR C=AB
0 0 0 o O 1

0 1 1 O 1 O

A 1 O O
1 0 1
NOR C - A + B
1 1 1 1 1 O

OR NOR

NEGATIVE LOGIC

A
o A B C A B C

AND C - AB
o 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1

D
A
o 0 1 0 0 1 1
NAND C=A B
o 1 1 1 1 1 0

AND NAND

as A B C A B C

OR C A •B
0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0

A
1 0 1 1 0 0
NOR C + B

cy 1 1 1 1 1 0

OR NOR
 27

Flip-Flops rent begins flowing through Q2 because its

collector is connected through R2 to the posi-
Another important logic circuit is the flip- tive side of the supply and its base is con-
flop. The circuit is called aflip-flop because it nected through R3 and R1 to +V. Under
flips and flops between two stable states these conditions, the transistor will quickly
when trigger signals are applied. go into saturation so that the voltage at the
The flip-flop can be made by connecting collector of Q2 will drop practically to zero.
two logic inverters back to back as shown in When this happens, the voltage at the base of
Fig.35. One logic inverter is made up of Ql, Q1 will drop to zero so that Q1 will be cut off.
R1, and R4. The output from this inverter is The output at the collector of Q1 will be +V,
fed from the collector of Q1 through R3 to the which with positive logic we can call binary
base of the second inverter made up of Q2, 1. Unless something is done to the circuit, it
R2, and R3. The output from this inverter is will remain in this state with Q1 cut off and
fed through R4 to the base of Ql. If the out- Q2 saturated indefinitely. This is called a
put from the flip-flop is taken from the col- stable state because it will not change of its
lector of Ql, this is called the normal output. own accord.
The output from the collector Q2 is called the If we momentarily short the collector of Q1
complement output. Now let's see how the to ground, the positive voltage applied to the
flip-flop works. base of Q2 will be removed. This will cut off
When power is first applied to the circuit, Q2, and the current flow through R2 will
one transistor will start conducting faster drop to zero, so the collector of Q2 will sud-
than the other. Let's suppose that at the in- denly be highly positive. Since the base of Q1
stant the equipment is turned on, ahigh cur- is connected to the collector of Q2 through

NORMAL COMPLEMENT
OUTPUT OUTPUT

Figure 35. A flip-flop circuit.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

R4, the base will swing positive and base shown in Fig.36. With the normal output
current will begin to flow. This will cause Q1 taken from the collector of Q1 when the tran-
to saturate, so the collector voltage will drop sistor is cut off, the collector voltage will go
practically to zero. Since the base of Q2 is to +V, which will represent abinary 1with
connected to the collector of Q1 through R3, positive logic. When Q1 is cut off, Q2 will
the base voltage of Q2 will drop to zero, so Q2 saturate.
will be cut off. This is the second stable state Let's suppose that when the flip-flop is first
where Q1 is saturated and Q2 is cut off. Now turned on, Q1 saturates. The collector volt-
the output from Q1 will be zero, and we call age will drop to zero, so the voltage on the
this a binary O. Again, the circuit will re- base of Q2 will be zero. Q2 will be cut off, so
main in this stable state indefinitely, unless its collector voltage will be +V. Under these
something is done to cause it to change. circumstances, the output at the normal out-
Now you see how the circuit gets its name. put will be zero, which represents binary O.
It is called aflip-flop because one transistor Suppose, however, that we want it to repre-
is conducting while the other is cut off. When sent binary 1. We can accomplish this by
an external signal is applied, it flips over to feeding a positive pulse into the set input.
the other state and the first transistor that This will cause Q2 to conduct and go into
was saturated is now cut off, and the second saturation, so the collector voltage of Q2 will
one that was cut off is now saturated. If an- drop practically to zero. When this happens,
other signal is applied, it flops back to the the base voltage of Q1 will drop to zero so
original state. that Q1 will be cut off. With Q1 cut off and its
Another flip-flop circuit with two ad- collector current zero, there will be little or
ditional resistors and two input terminals is no voltage drop across Rl. Thus the current

+v

NORMAL COMPLEMENT
OUTPUT OUTPUT

Figure 36. A set-reset flip-flop circuit.

 29

swings to +V, so we have abinary 1stored

at the normal output. Summary
If we want to reset the flip-flop to store a
binary 0at the output of Ql, we feed aposi- Linear circuits are used to amplify
tive pulse into the reset terminal. This signals so that the output is an ampli-
causes Q1 to conduct and saturate, so the fied version of the input. Digital circuits
voltage at the collector of Q1 drops to zero. have only two conditions, on and off.
Once again, this causes the base voltage of In digital circuits you are dealing
Q2 to drop to zero so that Q2 will be cut off with two logic levels, one of which can
and the collector voltage will swing to ahigh be called 1and the other O. If logic level
positive value. Since the base of Q1 connects 1is more positive than logic level 0, we
to the collector of Q2 through R3, the base of have positive logic. If logic level 1 is
Q1 will be held at ahigh positive voltage, so more negative than logic level 0, we
Q1 will remain saturated. have negative logic. Remember that an
This type of flip-flop is called a set-reset inverter is a logic circuit that inverts
flip-flop. Often you will see it referred to as the logic level.
an SR or RS flip-flop. This circuit is also An AND gate is a gate with two or
called a latch because the circuit latches in more inputs that will produce a logic
one of the stable states and remains there level 1in the output only when all the
until changed by asignal fed into the set or inputs are alogic level 1. A NAND gate
reset inputs. The circuit latches itself in is an AND gate followed by an inverter.
either of the two stable states: one where Q1 If you have alogic level 0on any inpu tof
is cut off, representing a binary 1, and the aNAND gate, you'll have alogic lev€ l1
other where Q2 is cut off and Q1 is saturated, at the output.
representing abinary O. An OR gate is agate that will produce
alogic level 1at the output if there is a
logic level 1on any input. A NOR gate is
an OR gate followed by an inverter. A
Common ICs NOR gate will produce alogic level 0in
the output if you have alogic level 1on
There are a couple of terms you will see any input.
used with ICs and you should know what A flip-flop is acircuit with two stable
they mean. One is SSI; this means small- states. It will remain in one of the two
scale integration. This is an IC with the stable states until some external signal
equivalent of less than ten gates. MS/ causes it to flip to the other stable state.
means medium-scale integration. This is an
IC with the equivalent of more than ten
gates, but less than one hundred. LSI means
large-scale integration. This is an IC with the
equivalent of more than one hundred but less
than a thousand gates. VLSI means very
large-scale integration. This is an IC with the
equivalent of more than one thousand gates.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Self-Test Questions 20 If there is abinary 1at one input of

a NAND gate, will there be a bin-
17 How will aseries of positive pulses ary 1in the output?
fed into the input of an inverter ap- 21 If abinary 1is fed into one input of
pear at the output? aNOR gate, will there be abinary 1
18 What is the name given to the gate in the output?
where abinary 1must be present at 22 If the flip-flop circuit shown in
both inputs in order to produce a Fig.36 is storing a binary 0 in the
binary 1in the output? normal output, how do we change it
19 What is the name given to a gate to store abinary 1?
where a binary 1 at either input 23 If we feed a binary 1signal to two
will produce a binary 1at the out- inputs of a 4-input AND gate, will
put? we get abinary 1in the output?
 31

ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

1 Reverse biased. Zener diodes pass decreases, the voltage drop across it
very little current until the break- will decrease so that the voltage be-
down voltage is reached. This is the tween the collector and ground will
voltage that the zener maintains increase.
constant. Once this voltage is 6 It is a constant-current source. Q3
reached, if the voltage across the is also called a current sink. If the
diode tends to increase, the current current through Q1 increases, the
will increase rapidly to maintain current through Q2 will decrease
the voltage constant. because the current through Q3
2 3 volts. If the voltage drop across remains constant.
each diode is 0.6 volt, and five are 7 Q3 is an emitter-follower. It is used
connected in series, the voltage to isolate the differential amplifier
across the five will be 5 x 0.6 = 3.0 made up of Q1 ,Q2, and the fol-
volts. lowing stage. It is also used to re-
3 The diodes are likely to have iden- duce the dc output voltage so that
tical characteristics because they the output can be fed to another dif-
will all be formed at the same time ferential amplifier. By connecting
in the manufacturing of the IC. differential amplifiers followed by
Since they will be formed under an emitter-follower in this way, we
identical conditions, it is likely that can build an amplifier with a very
they will have identical character- good low-frequency response; as a
istics. matter of fact, it will even respond
4 Zero. If a 1 volt positive signal is to de at the input.
applied to each input, it will cause 8 It has a higher gain and a higher
the current through each transistor input impedance.
to increase, which will cause identi- 9 A compound-connected differential
cal voltage drops across R2 and R3 amplifier will have a much higher
so that the voltage between El and gain.
E2 will be zero. 10 Q3 and Q6.
5 In phase. The positive-going signal 11 Two differential amplifiers, each
applied to the input of Q1 will cause with acurrent sink.
the collector current to increase. 12 The circuit shown in Fig.18 has a
This will cause the current through single-ended input. The input is fed
R2 to increase, which will swing the into terminal 7.
emitter of Q2 in a positive direc- 13 We have a push-pull output. By
tion. This will reduce the forward looking at Fig.18, you see that the
bias across the emitter-base junc- output is taken from terminals 11
tion so that the current through the and 12. By referring to Fig.19, you
transistor and through R3 will de- see that terminal 11 is the collector
crease. If the current through R3 of one transistor and terminal 12 is
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

the collector of the other transistor AND gate, the output will be logic
in adifferential amplifier. level 0. The inverter will invert this
14 Less than one-half inch. Figure 20 so that binary 1will appear in the
shows that the maximum diameter output.
of the transistor is 0.370 inch, or con- 21 No. A NOR gate is made up of an
siderably less than one-half inch. OR gate and an inverter. If abinary
15 To identify the various pins of a 1 is fed into one input of an OR
TO-116 case, you hold the IC with gate, abinary 1will appear in the
its top toward you and the index output. The inverter will invert this
point on the left. The first pin on so that the output will be abinary
the lower left is pin 1. The lower 0.
pins are numbered 1through 7. The 22 We feed apositive pulse into the set
upper pins are numbered from the terminal. This will cause Q2 to con-
right, pin 8through pin 14. duct so that the voltage between
16 In a 24 lead, dual in-line package, the collector and ground of Q2 will
the pin at the same end as and op- drop practically to zero. This will
posite pin 1will be pin 24. cause the base voltage of Q1 to drop
17 They will appear as a series of to zero, so that Q1 will cut off and
negative-going pulses. The inverter the collector voltage on Q1 will
inverts the input signal. swing to the +V level, which is the
18 An AND gate. logic 1or binary 1level.
19 An OR gate. 23 No. In a4-input AND gate, we must
20 Yes. A NAND gate is made up of an have a logic level 1at all four in-
AND gate and an inverter. If alogic puts before we'll get a logic level 1
level 1 is fed to one input of the in the output.
 33

LESSON QUESTIONS

This is Lesson Number 2228.

Make sure you print your name, student num-

— Name Jotn Sreth
ber, and lesson number in the spaces provided Pint

on the Lesson Answer Form. Be sure to fill in Student No Lesson No.

the circles beneath your student number and les- XYo 237 9 Li
02,els
son number. 00000000
00000000
Reminder: A properly completed Lesson An- 00000000
00000000
swer Form allows us to evaluate your answers 00000000
and speed the results and additional study mate- 00000000
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rial to you as soon as possible. Do not hold your 00000000
Lesson Answer Forms to send several at one 00000000
00000000
time. You may run out of study material if you
do not send your answers for evaluation
promptly.

1. In the circuit shown in Fig.11, if a 3. If an input signal swings the base of Q1

positive-going signal is fed to input 1and in Fig.12 positive, which of the following
anegative-going signal is fed to input 2, statements is true?
the current flow will increase through: a. The collector of Q1 will swing nega-
a. Rl. tive.
b. R2. b. The collector of Q2 will swing posi-
c. R3. tive.
d. R4. c. The base of Q2 will swing positive.
d. The emitter of Q2 will swing nega-
2. If in-phase sine wave signals, each tive.
having an amplitude of 1volt, are fed to
inputs 1and 2of the differential ampli- 4. One of the important characteristics of
fier shown in Fig.11, the output between the compound-connected emitter-
the two output terminals will be: follower circuit is:
a. 0volts. a. High output impedance.
b. 1volt. b. High input impedance.
c. 2volts. c. Low input impedance.
d. 4 volts. d. None of the above.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

5. In the compound-connected differential 8. In order to get alogic level 1in the out-
amplifier shown in Fig.16, which two put of a2-input OR gate, you need alogic
transistors have the highest collector level 1at:
current? a. Input A.
a. Q1 and Q2. b. Input B.
b. Q3 and Q4. c. Inputs A and B.
c. Q1 and Q3. d. All three of the above will produce a1in
d. Q2 and Q4. the output.

6. In the IC shown in Fig.17, Q3 is: 9. You will have a logic level 0 in the out-
a. A current source. put of a 2-input NAND gate when you
b. Part of aDarlington circuit. have:
c. A voltage regulator. a. Logic 1at both inputs.
d. None of the above. b. Logic 0at both inputs.
c. Logic 1at input A.
7. In a4-input AND gate, in order to have a d. Logic 1at input B.
logic level 1in the output, we must have
alogic level 1at: 10. If alogic level 1is stored in the normal
a. One input. output of the set-reset flip-flop shown in
b. Two inputs. Fig.36:
c. Three inputs. a. Q1 will be cut off.
d. Four inputs. b. Q2 will be cut off.
c. Q1 and Q2 will be cut off.
d. Q1 and Q2 will be saturated.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
NOTES

Please use this page to record any notes

you may want to review during your studies.
 WV, Schools

WISHERS AND DOERS

How often have you said "I wish Ihad more money"? Many times,
possibly. But do you realize that if you are living in atown with a
population of 5,000, there may be 4,999 other people saying exactly
the same thing!

And yet, of these 5,000 "wishers," only about 100 are going to do
something about it. The others are going to continue dreaming.

Now, any person who shows enough self-motivation to undertake this

course proves that he or she is not amere wisher. Your job now is to
keep going forward on the road you have mapped out for yourself.

Every lesson in this course and every goal you work toward is astep
along the road. Don't let yourself wish that the lessons were easier,
that you could become successful without effort, or that well-paying
jobs would come looking for you. Do something to make your dreams
areality. Stay out of the class of the "wisher" — stay in the class of
the "doer."

LT2228 A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

•
 ArBWfrom your instructor...
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Fees Personal Dial-up Accounts: $150 Annual, $80 Semi-annual, $42 Quarterly, $14.95
Monthly. 800 /888 Toll-free Accounts: $250 Annual, $130 Semi-annual, $70 Quarterly,
$24.95 Monthly. All dial-up accounts include 100 hours access per month, with additional
hours billed at $0.50/hour. Additional e-mail accounts are available for $25/year. Dual-
Channel ISDN Accounts (SouthEastern Michigan only:) $275 Annual, $150 Semi-annual,
$80 Quarterly, $29.95 Monthly Leased Lines Start at $250 (telco charge included). Satellite
Access Up to T-1 speeds at prices comparable to ISDN. (Call for more information)
‘

WhyWeb Internet Services

Web Site [Link]

Telephone 1-888-694-9932

Software/Hours PC, Mac, 24 hours aday, 7days aweek, 365 days ayear

Dial-Up Services Offered 28.8, ISDN

Dedicated Access Services Offered 56K, FracT1, Ti, FracT3, T3, Frame Relay

Other Services Custom Business Solutions, Co-Location Services, LAN-ISDN with Static
IPs, Security Filtering Services, for both Intranet and Internet

Fees Unlimited 33.6: $14.75/mo, 100 hrs of 64k ISDN: $16.95/mo, 20 hrs of 128k ISDN:
$34.95/mo, 100 hrs of 128k PLUS ISDN: $84.95/mo, Additional ISDN hours 95e per hour.
********************PLEASE CALL OR VISIT OUR WEB SITE AT [Link].

Quantum Communications, Inc.

Web Site [Link]

Telephone +1-888-279-4638

Software/Hours PC, Mac, M—F 9-6

Dial-Up Services Offered 28.8, Rockwell

Dedicated Access Services Offered FracT1, Ti, FracT3, T3

Other Services Toll-Free Flat-Rate. Access from anywhere in the US.

Fees Local PPP $19.95/mo. and $19.95 setup. Toll-Free (Flat-Rate) PPP $24.95/mo. and
$19.95 setup. Web Page Hosting $50 and $50 setup (includes dialup PPP). DNS Registration
$150. Windows NT, 95, 3.x, & Novell Networking.

DS4486(709)
)
NRI Schools
4401 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
Telephone: (202) 244-1600 •Fax: (202) 244-2047

Instructions for On-line Projects 5647 and 5650

These projects are designed to demonstrate the knowledge and skills you learned from the PC
Communications and Internet lessons. You will be using an FTP site to retrieve the actual exam
material for Project 5647 as well as the information for Project 5650. You will be completing
both projects at the same time and submitting them together in one file. They will be graded
and recorded separately.

To retrieve the file:

Step 1: Log onto the Internet through your Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Step 2: Open your browser (if it is not automatically loaded).

Step 3: On the address line of your browser, type the address [Link]

Step 4: When the page is fully loaded, clear the address line on your browser and type the
address [Link] and press ENTER.

Step 5: Double click on the file labeled "[Link]."

NOTE: At this time, you will be given achoice of either opening the file, or saving the file
to disk. At this time, open the file. You will be saving it later. Click the OPEN FILE button
and click OK. The file will be opened in Notepad (which is part of your Windows 9X
operation system) or into your word processor program if you have loaded one.

From this point on, you will be following the instruction in the file that you have just opened.

NKM007388(911)

htnsion of The [Link] Comptenes

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IF Schools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

This section of your training deals with basic computer communications

and the Internet. In these lessons, you will learn how computers
communicate and how to use your modem. Then, you'll apply this
information by connection to the Internet. You'll explore the
Internet's history, culture, and the social impact of the Web.

To complete the projects in this package you will need an Internet

Service Provider (ISP). There are literally hundreds of ISPs from
which to choose. We have included a list of some of the ISPs along
with a description of the services provided by the ISP. When choosing
an ISP, keep in mind that most ISPs require a major credit card to
activate your account.

After you have selected an ISP and loaded the software from the ISP,
it's time to load the Netscape software provided with this package.
Refer to the Netscape Navigator Handbook for complete instructions on
the installation of Netscape Navigator. Once you have Netscape
Navigator loaded, be sure to visit our website at [Link].

The lessons in this package are designed to be completed in a

particular order. The recommended order for studying the material is:

Title
'6645 Using a PC for Communications
,//5646 Internet Basics
V5647 Practical Project 1
V' 648 the Internet 1 : Essential Internet Tools
5649 Navigating the Internet 2: The Web and Beyond
ie
/5650 Practical Project 2

If you have any questions during your studies, please don't hesitate
to contact your NRI Instructor. You can use one of the "Ask Your
Instructor...." forms, or you can use the Internet and send us an
e-mail. To use our e-mail, log onto [Link] and enter the "Students
On-Line Connection." Click on "Mail Box" and complete the form. A
reply to your e-mail will be returned to the address you enter on
the form.

(over, please)

ADivision of The McGraieHill Companies

Now, review the enclosed list and select an ISP, so that you can
complete these lessons and projects in this training unit.

Sincerely,
The NRI Instruction Staff

LR6508(709)
 00 Is
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student

The instructions in the Forefront user's manual on pages 2.2 and 2.3 tell you to make a
backup to the original diskette by using the MS-DOS DISKCOPY command.
Technology upgrades have made this instruction obsolete. If you use the copy or xcopy
commands under DOS, your original disk will be corrupted and will no longer boot your
computer.

To make acopy of you Troubleshooter diskette, insert ablank diskette into you're A:>
drive. Double click the "My Computer" icon. Click the "3 1 2 "Floppy (A)" icon so that it
/
is now highlighted. Press the right mouse button and select the FORMAT option from the
pull down menu. Select "Full Format" from the Format Disk window and click START.
After the formatting is complete, remove the formatted diskette and insert your
Troubleshooter diskette in the A:> drive. Again, double click on the "My Computer"
icon, and single click on the "3 1
/"Floppy (A)" icon. Press the right mouse button and
2

select Copy from the pull down menu. Follow the instruction on the screen and change
the diskettes as necessary. Using this method both disks will remain bootable.

If you vary from this procedure, both the original and target disks will be corrupted.

Cordially,

Your NRI Instructor

NSI007394(003)

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ADivision of The McGraw Hill Companies
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 PAGE 2

MODULE 1635MD: Introduction to Windows 98

In this module, you will learn the basics of the Windows 98 operating system.
You'll study the Windows 98 interface, programs, and accessories. You'll
learn how to personalize your system and look at how Windows 98 local and
network file systems function.

MODULE 1654MD: PII-400 Standard Computer

This module contains your computer system, based on a Pentium II processor. The
system contians 64 meg of RAM, 56K fax/modem, and a 6.8 gig hard drive. This
computer also includes a 16-bit sound card, 32X cd -ROM drive and a 14" SVGA
monitor.

MODULE 1636MD: Using Windows 98

In this module, you'll advance your knowledge of the Windows 98 operating
system by examining its Web browser and communications capabilities--such as
the Internet Explorer and Active Desktop. You'll also look at managinge and
configuring your Windows 98 system.

MODULE 1476MD: PC Communications and the Internet

This module covers basic computer communications concepts and Internet use.
You will learn how computers communicate and how to use your modem, then
apply this information to connecting with the Internet. You'll then explore
the Internet's history, culture, and social impact and how to download
files, join discussion groups, browse the World Wide Web, and much more.
Projects show you how to access Internet resources with both text and graphical
browsers.

NODULE 1370MD; Computer Diagnostics

This module contains your computer diagnostic software. This self-booting
software tests memory, both RAM and cache, IDE drives, monitors, CPU and
co-processors, monitors and video cards, and even multimedia devices such
as CD-ROMs and sound cards.

MODULE 1369MD: A+ Certification Reference

In this module you will receive information to help you prepare for the
A+ Certification Exam. You'll receive reference material on MS-DOS,
Windows 3.1, Local Area Networks, and the Macintosh computer systems. Also,
you will receive an interactive CD-ROM to help you prepare for the exalt.
This CD-ROM has sample questions and a practice test which simulates the
A+ Certification exam.
MAPArSchools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

PC Servicing

Student: Marion D McMains Jr STUDENT NUMBER: KW19286848

MODULE 1485MD: Introduction to Computers

You will discover how PCs work and what functions they serve in today's world
in this module. You'll also gain a working familiarity with fundamental PC
hardware and software.

MODULE 1483MD: Basic Electronics

This module introduces you to the basic concepts in electronics: voltage,
resistance, and current. You'll learn the difference between series and
parallel circuits. You'll also learn the difference between ac and dc voltage.

MODULE 1906MD: Hands-On Projects: Basic Electronics

In this module, you will construct and observe a number of electronic circuits
to demonstrate basic electronics theory. You'll also learn how to make voltage,
resistance, and current measurements with your Digital Multimeter.

MODULE 1484MD: Intermediate Electronics

In this module, you'll learn about coils and capacitors, and how they work
together. Next, you'll learn about semiconductors, and how semiconductors
are used. Finally, you'll look at transistors and their uses.

MODULE 1521MD: Analog Electronics

Here, you'll explore the theory and practice of more advanced electronic
circuits. You'll study and demonstrate amplifiers, oscillators, and power
supply circuitrli, using both discrete components and integrated circuits.

MODULE 1522M1); Digital Electronics

In this module, you'll enter the world of digital electronics. You will
study and demonstrate the operation of logic gates, flip-flops, and binary
counters and registers.

MODULE 5105MD: Microcomputer Hardware and Peripherals

This module examines the hardware and peripherals most often used in
microcomputers. Achieving a solid understanding of this equipment will allow
you to quickly identify core problems and execute simple solutions.

MODULE 4863MD: The 8085 Microprocessor

In this module, you will extend your understanding of digital circuitry to
the world of microprocessors. Here, you will demonstrate various features of
a typical microprocessor as you construct and test your own 8085-based system.

MODULE 1494MD: Micro Troubleshooting and Servicing

This module explores specific procedures and techniques for troubleshooting
and servicing microcomputers and common peripheral devices including disk
drives, monitors, and printers.

ise
# 7115 >
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ADivision of The McGraw Hill Companies
AlltrAWAdIrschools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

The A+ Certification package that you received is now aself-contained

training package. This new package no longer requires reference text to
supplement the information on the CD-ROM. The CD-ROM in this new
package gives you all of the training that you will need to study for and pass
the A+ Certification exam.

The CD-ROM contains in-depth content, practice test question, and hands-
on exercises for the most effective training available. You will receive the
knowledge and, most importantly, the skills required to manage current
technologies.

We know that you will enjoy this new training package.

Cordially,

Your NRI Instructor

NLR007397

ADivision of The McGraw Hill Companies

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4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

Welcome to Working with Windows 98. In this training module, you'll explore Windows 98's
Web browsing features and Internet Explorer, Active Desktop, subscriptions, and Web
channels. You'll also look at how Windows 98 handles e-mail and communication, Web
publishing, and mobile and remote computing. Finally, you'll learn how to better configure,
manage, and optimize your Windows 98 system.

This training module is centered around the textbook Windows 98 Made Easy: The Basics
and Beyond. You will use the Working with Windows 98 study guide, included in this
package, to navigate your way through the course. This study guide contains your
assignments and important information on taking an examination after each assignment.
This study guide also includes information about the hands-on project that you must
submit to your instructor for grading. Be sure to carefully read and follow all the directions
in your study guide.

Always remember that we're here to help you. If you have trouble with anything in your
course, please let us know. You'll find some "Ask Your Instructor" forms included with
your course material; you can use these forms to write to us. Or, you can phone us at
(202) 244-1600 between 8:30 a.m. and 4:30 p.m. Eastern time. Our instructors will provide
support for your course, and each of them has experience and training in this field to give
you any help you may need.

Let's get started now. Pick up your study guide and begin!

NR! Instruction Department

LR7328(904)
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ADivision of The McGraw Rill Companies

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ArnWSchools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Special Instructions for

7327 —Working with Windows 98

If you received your computer as part of your NRI training, your system was
supplied with Windows ME (Millennium Edition) not Windows 98. Since
the basic interface of these operating systems is the same, most of the
instructions for the exercises in this manual are the same for both operating
systems. The following instructions will cover the areas where the
instructions are different.

Exercise 3: When you open the Help files in Step 1, you'll notice that IDEX
is no longer atab as shown in Figure 1of the manual. In Windows ME, the
tabs have been changed into atool bar. Also, the topic you will need
displayed is "Connect to the Internet." Within that topic, select "from
MSN." Again, the display will be slightly different than shown in Figure 1.
The remaining instructions are the same for both operating systems.

Exercise 5: When you prepare the project diskette, you will not be able to
copy the systems files as directed in Step 1. This feature was removed from
Windows ME. In ME, the only way to create asystem diskette is through
"ADD/REMOVE Software" in the control panel. Since there is no practical
reason to create asystem diskette for this experiment, you should skip this
step.

To complete this exercise, format adiskette, including your student number

as the label. After the diskette is formatted, continue with copying the files
as directed in Step 2.

Cordially,

The NRI Instruction Department

NSI007399

ADivision of The McGnztveill Companies

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4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

In this module, the intermediate elements of basic electronics will be presented. You
should find that these concepts are just acouple of steps above what you have
already come to understand. Many of the principles presented during this module
assume that you already possess afoundational knowledge of electronics. Upon
completing these lessons, you will have been exposed to all of the elementary
principles you need to understand more complex circuits. It is important to
remember that you are at the start of an educational journey that will continue to
challenge you, even beyond this course.

The enclosed lessons are designed to be studied and completed in aspecific order.
For when they are accomplished in this sequence, each will serve as astepping
stone for the next lesson. It is, therefore, recommended that they be studied in the
following order:

Lesson Title

2222 How Coils are Used

2223 How Capacitors are Used
2224 How Coils and Capacitors Work Together
2225 Semiconductors
2226 How Transistors Work
2227 How Transistors are Used

Please be sure to send in your answers for each lesson as it is completed. Additional
materials are shipped to you based upon your rate of study. If you decide to hold
your answers in order to send in several at once, you may exhaust your study
materials before the next shipment is delivered to you.

If any difficulties or questions arise, please contact us by use of the enclosed "Ask
Your Instructor" forms, or by e-mail, fax, or telephone. It is our goal to assist you as
quickly and as efficiently as possible. To aid us in this effort, please be specific and
detailed in presenting the difficulty that you have encountered. This will enable our
staff to readily identify your problem area and address the issue thoroughly.

Sincerely,

NRI Instruction Department

LIt6740(807)

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ADivision of The McGraw -Hill Companies
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affSchools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

Now you begin your study of the power supply, regulator, amplifier,
and oscillator circuits used in modern electronic equipment. These
are called analog circuits because they work with continuously
varying voltage levels, as opposed to the discrete voltage steps
associated with digital circuits. The word analog is used because the
varying voltages are frequently used to represent other varying
physical quantities such as temperature, distance, speed, and sound
or light intensity. Changes in voltage are analogous to changes in
these other quantities. ,

The lessons in this package have been designed for study in a

particular order. This permits each lesson to serve as a foundation
for succeeding lessons. Therefore, for the best results, you should
study these lessons in the following sequence:

esson Title
228 Integrated Circuits
29 Power Supplies for Electronic Equipment
J2230 How Amplifiers Work
1
, 2231 How Oscillators Work

Please be sure to send in your answers for each lesson as you

complete the lesson questions. Additional materials are shipped to
you based on your rate of study. If you hold your answers and send
several sets in at once, you may run out of study materials before
the next shipment can reach you.

If you should encounter a problem or have any questions concerning

your lessons, please use one of the enclosed "Ask Your Instructor"
forms to request assistance. Provide as much detail as you can in
your request so that we can more readily identify the specific cause
of your difficulty, and can thus provide the information necessary to
complete your understanding of the specific topic.

Sincerely yours,

NRI Instruction Department

LR2457 (708)

ADivision of The McGraw•Hill Companies

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 Special Instructions
For 6629PL
PC Communication and the Internet

As you are aware, technology changes quickly. This is especially true in the
computer industry. Due to changing technology, we have had to make some
changes to this package. The changes we have made will in no way prevent you
from completing the lessons and projects in this package.

We have removed the software that was included in this package. The software
we had to remove was: Eudora Light, WinZip, Trumpet News Reader, and
Netscape. These software packages were necessary during the early years of
the Internet. Changes in technology have made much of this software obsolete.
Below is an explanation of the function of each piece of software and the reason
that it has been deleted from this package.

Eudora Light: This software is asimple software package for sending and
receiving email. This package is an MS-DOS based package that functioned
nicely under Windows 3.1 and Windows 95, but has caused some problems
under Windows 98. Since your computer was shipped with Windows 98, and
since most Internet Service Providers now include an email package, this
program has been deleted. A large section of lesson 5646 refers to Eudora
software. You can still complete this lesson without the software.

WinZip: This is afile compression program. Using WinZip enables you to

compress files in a smaller "zipped" file that will take up less space. This utility
also allows you to expand zipped files. A copy of WinZip was included in this
package so that we could send you Eudora Light on one diskette. The WinZip
that was included was an older version of this software. There are many newer
versions available on the web as "shareware" or "freeware." These newer
packages can be easily downloaded to your hard drive and offer you many new
options.

Trumpet News Reader: During the early years of the Internet, you needed a
special software package so you could view the information that was available in
news groups. ISPs now include software that allows you to connect and use
these news groups. The new software, as well as the advanced technology of the
Internet, in general, has made Trumpet News Reader obsolete.

Netscape: This is one of two primary Internet browsers. The other is Microsoft
Internet Explorer. At one time Netscape was commercially available on CD. Now,
this software is available as afree download over the Internet. Starting with
Windows 95, Microsoft has included Internet Explorer as part of the operating
system. Therefore, you already have one browser installed on your computer. If
you want to download the latest version of Netscape, you can go to the
[Link], and download the complete software package.

Since ISPs are more sophisticated now, your provider will have all the necessary
functions imbedded in their software package.

Cordially,

The NRI Instruction Department

NSI007393(911)
AteWSchools
4401 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008
Phone 202/244-1600 •Fax 202/244-2047

Dear Student:

In this module, the foundational elements of basic electronics will be presented. Though
these topics may initially appear to be unrelated, they are the fundamentals upon which
you will base all of your knowledge of electronics. Once you have an understanding of these
concepts, you will be able to take on more advanced theories without much difficulty. Keep
in mind that every sophisticated circuit used in today's world is based upon the simple con-
cepts presented in these six lesson units.

These enclosed lessons are designed to be studied and completed in aspecific order. For
when they are done in this sequence, each will serve as astepping stone for the next lesson.
It is, therefore, recommended that they be studied in the following order:

Lesson Title

4409 Introduction to Electronics

2217 Voltage, Current, and Resistance
2218 Series Circuits
2219 Parallel Circuits
2220 Power Sources
2221 How Resistors are Used

Please be sure to send in your answers for each lesson as it is completed. Additional materi-
als are shipped to you based upon your rate of study. If you decide to hold your answers in
order to send in several at once, you may exhaust your study materials before the next ship-
ment is delivered to you.

If any difficulties or questions arise, please contact us by use of the enclosed "Ask Your
Instructor" forms, or by e-mail, fax, or telephone. It is our goal to assist you as quickly and
as efficiently as possible. To aid us in this effort, please be specific and detailed in present-
ing the difficulty that you have encountered. This will enable our staff to readily identify
your problem area and address the issue thoroughly.

Sincerely,

NRI Instruction Department

LR7087(802)

ge2

ADivision of The McGraw-Hill Companies \

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• Examination 7325
Web Servers, NetMeeting, and Mobile/Remote

This is the examination for Assignment 7325.

Make sure you print your name, student

John SmIlh
bkrne
number, and lesson number in the space RInt
provided on the examination answer card. Be Student No. tasscn No.
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student X Y012379 73i2 5
number and assignment number.

Reminder: A properly completed examination

answer card allows us to evaluate your answers
and speed the results and additional study materi-
als to you as soon as possible. Do not hold your ex-
amination answer cards to send several at one
time. You may run out of study material if you do
not send your answers for evaluation promptly.

• Another Option: You can use the convenient TeleGrading service and receive your
exam results immediately. The TeleGrading service can be accessed only from atouch-
tone telephone. Please read these instructions before using the service.

1. Fill out your examination answer card.

2. Dial 1-202-686-5704.
3. Enter your eight-digit student number. Do not include letters that may precede the
number.
4. Enter the four-digit assignment number that appears on your examination.
5. Enter your answer for each question when prompted. On your telephone keypad,
number 1equals letter A; 2equals B; 3equals C; and 4equals D.
6. Listen carefully to the instructions as you receive them over the telephone. TeleGrad-
ing lets you review your answers and make changes, if necessary, before it scores your
exam.
7. If you hang up before you hear that your exam has been accepted, your exam record
will be deleted.

•
1. True or false. You can create ahome
page using FrontPage Express but not
5. When you see alist of users in your Net-
Meeting window: •
with Personal Web Server. PWS is used a. All the users listed are standing by
only as adesktop Web server and and waiting for acall.
doesn't have the capabilities for creating b. None of the users are standing by and
ahome page. waiting for acall.
a. True. c. It's impossible to tell who's standing
b. False. by and waiting for acall because the
list retains names long after users
have signed off.
d. You can't see alist of users in Net-
2. In PWS, folders that are located on your Meeting due to privacy restrictions.
hard drive but appear as if they were
part of the home page when visitors of
your home page view them are called:
a. Alias directories. 6. Which of the following is one way of
b. Published directories. transferring afile during aNetMeeting
c. Root directories. call?
d. Virtual directories. a. Press the Copy during Call button.
b. Click and drag the file into the Net-

•
Meeting window.
c. Cut the file from your hard drive and
3. Where can you keep alog of visitors to paste it into NetMeeting's Share
your Web site in PWS? folder.
a. In the Main page, enable "Visitor d. Chose File Transfer from the Edit
Log." menu.
b. In the Web site page, enable "Activity
Log."
c. In the Advanced page, enable "Allow
Activity Log." 7. A Windows 98 feature that automati-
d. In the Advanced page, enable "Save cally detects new devices and peripher-
Web Site Activity Log." als in your system and installs the
necessary software drivers to support
them is called:
a. Hot docking.
4. True or false. NetMeeting can be used b. Docking.
with adial-up modem connection where c. Plug-and-Play.
you directly call the other party's com- d. Dock-and-Play.
puter, and it can also be used with an in-
tranet or Internet connection where you
locate your party on the network.

•
a. True.
b. False.
• 8. The ability of your computer and operat-
ing system to control energy consump-
tion is called:
a. DCC support.
b. Power management.
c. BIOS.
d. Hardware profiles.

9. Which Windows 98 feature uses the Up-

date All button to synchronize files from
amobile computer with files on your
desktop computer?
a. DCC.
b. Windows CE.
c. Dial-Up Monitoring.
d. Windows 98 Briefcase.

• 10. The Windows feature that automati-

cally synchronizes information on
H/PCs with Windows-based computers
is called:
a. InSync.
b. ActiveSync.
c. Windows CE.
d. H/PC-Sync.

•
 •

FX7325(906)
• Examination 7326
Configuration and Management of Windows 98

This is the examination for Assignment 7326.

Make sure you print your name, student

number, and lesson number in the space Ncrne JOhn Smith
Rint
provided on the examination answer card. Be
Sludent No. LOSSal No.
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student
number and assignment number. X o i2 27 732 6
OCXYD@CXYD (XXX)
Reminder: A properly completed examination 00000000 0000
answer card allows us to evaluate your answers ®00CXXXX) 0000
CDOC)00®010 0000
and speed the results and additional study materi- 00000000 ®000
als to you as soon as possible. Do not hold your ex- 0000
amination answer cards to send several at one ®0000000 0000
00000000 0000
time. You may run out of study material if you do (XXX)
not send your answers for evaluation promptly. G0000000 000®

• Another Option: You can use the convenient TeleGrading service and receive your
exam results immediately. The TeleGrading service can be accessed only from atouch-
tone telephone. Please read these instructions before using the service.

1. Fill out your examination answer card.

2. Dial 1-202-686-5704.
3. Enter your eight-digit student number. Do not include letters that may precede the
number.
4. Enter the four-digit assignment number that appears on your examination.
5. Enter your answer for each question when prompted. On your telephone keypad,
number 1equals letter A; 2equals B; 3equals C, and 4equals D.
6. Listen carefully to the instructions as you receive them over the telephone. TeleGrad-
ing lets you review your answers and make changes, if necessary before it scores your
exam.
7. If you hang up before you hear that your exam has been accepted, your exam record
will be deleted.

•
1. If you want to take alook at the settings
of devices that are installed on your
4. If, when you add anew modem, the In-
stall New Modem Wizard doesn't appear, •
computer, you can use the: how can you access it to easily install
a. Add New Hardware utility. the proper drivers?
b. Device Manager. a. Open Modems in the Control Panel.
c. Resource Manager. b. Open the Install New Modem Wizard
d. Properties Manager. from the Edit menu in My Computer.
c. Right-click the System Properties
icon to Modem Installation.
d. You can't open the wizard; it must be
2. When you install aprinter to your com- done automatically by Windows 98.
puter, what must you install so that
other Windows applications know about
the printer?
a. Driver files. 5. True or false. DVD technology brings to-
b. Printer card. gether the computer and home-
c. Network files. entertainment industries. With DVD,
d. Printer icon. you can play movies on your computer.
a. True.
b. False.

3. How can you view the properties of your

printer?
a. Left-click the printer icon and select 6. Which Windows 98 tool should you run
•
the Devices tab. if you want to check your hard drive for
b. Right-click the printer icon and errors?
choose Properties from the shortcut a. Disk Defragmenter.
menu. b. ScanDisk.
c. Open the Computer Properties dialog c. Disk Cleanup.
box and click the Printers tab. d. FAT32.
d. Open the System Properties dialog
box and select the Performance but-
ton.
7. When files are broken up and scattered
throughout your hard drive, this can
cause Windows 98 to read the hard drive
at aslower pace. What Windows 98 tool
gathers up scattered file pieces and
stores them together so that Windows 98
can read them faster?
a. Disk Defragmenter.
b. ScanDisk.
c. Disk Cleanup.
d. FAT32. •
e 8. True or false. When you use the Win-
dows 98 Backup utility, you must always
back up your files to afloppy disk drive.
a. True.
b. False.

9. You can check your system's perform-

ance in the:
a. System Characteristics dialog box.
b. Properties file.
c. System Properties dialog box.
d. System file.

10. With ,you can make sure

that your system has the latest operat-
ing system software and device driv-
ers.

• a. System Update.
b. System Information.
c. System Monitor.
d. Windows Update.

•
 •

FX7326(906)
• Examination 7323
Internet Explorer and the Active Desktop

This is the examination for Assignment 7323.

Make sure you print your name, student

Min

number, and lesson number in the space Ncrne John Smith

FtInt
provided on the examination answer card. Be 'BMW

11
Student No. Larson No.
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student
X Y o112
Mal
9 73 23
number and assignment number. ma»

OCXXX)OCX) sOCX:XD
Reminder: A properly completed examination MUM
0000000CD 0000
answer card allows us to evaluate your answers CX)0CX:>000 CX:)0C)
11
CXDO000043 C)0®11
and speed the results and additional study materi- OGGCXX)00 CDOGG
als to you as soon as possible. Do not hold your ex- mMI
OCDOCXDOCX) °CM@
amination answer cards to send several at one 00C)CXX)0C) CXXX)
00000000 0000
time. You may run out of study material if you do el»
CXXXX)0C0 40(X)C)
not send your answers for evaluation promptly. •MI
CXDO®

• Another Option: You can use the convenient TeleGrading service and receive your
exam results immediately. The TeleGrading service can be accessed only from atouch-
tone telephone. Please read these instructions before using the service.

1. Fill out your examination answer card.

2. Dial 1-202-686-5704.
3. Enter your eight-digit student number. Do not include letters that may precede the
number.
4. Enter the four-digit assignment number that appears on your examination.
5. Enter your answer for each question when prompted. On your telephone keypad,
number 1equals letter A; 2equals B; 3equals C; and 4equals D.
6. Listen carefully to the instructions as you receive them over the telephone. TeleGrad-
ing lets you review your answers and make changes, if necessary, before it scores your
exam.
7. If you hang up before you hear that your exam has been accepted, your exam record
will be deleted.

•
1. Clicking the down arrow button on the
right side of the Address bar in Internet
4. What is the History list?
a. It's Internet Explorer's way of keep- •
Explorer will: ing track of where you've been on the
a. Show Microsoft's suggested sites to Web. Internet Explorer's default is
see. maintaining the information for 20
b. Show alist of sites that you've al- days.
ready visited. b. It's Internet Explorer's way of main-
c. Show only URL sites. taining the Favorites list.
d. Show only HTTP sites. c. It's Internet Explorer's way of keep-
ing track of search engines that
you've used. Internet Explorer's de-
fault is maintaining the information
2. If you've started to download apage in for 999 days.
Internet Explorer and then realize that d. It's Internet Explorer's way of keep-
you don't want to download the page, ing track of purging old Web site in-
what can you do? formation. Internet Explorer's default
a. Click the End button. is purging the information after 90
b. Click the Do Not Download button. days.
c. Click the Stop button.
d. Click the Escape button.

3. Web sites that you frequently visit in

5. True or false. You can't use plug-ins with
Internet Explorer; you can only use
•
them with Netscape Navigator.
Internet Explorer are called: a. True.
a. Bookmarks. b. False.
b. Favorites.
c. Frequents.
d. Regulars.
6. What is asubscription in Windows 98?
a. It's away of automatically receiving
information from Web sites.
b. It's away of joining an electronic dis-
cussion group.
c. It's away of receiving atelevision sig-
nal over Windows 98.
d. It's away of receiving electronic
magazines over email.

•
•
7. CDF files:
a. Provide Internet Explorer with an in-
dex of visitors who have searched a
10. True or false. All sites that provide
components for the Active Desktop re-
quire that you set up asubscription.
particular Web site. a. True.
b. Are afeature of Netscape Navigator, b. False.
not Internet Explorer.
c. Provide Internet Explorer with an in-
dex of what is new and what has
changed in aWeb site, making it
quick and easy for Internet Explorer
to obtain the latest information on
the site.
d. Provide Internet Explorer with non-
channel sites.

8. You can use the as aquick

way to find channels on the Internet
that can deliver news and information

•
directly to your Active Desktop.
a. Channel Broadcasting.
b. Offline Web Browser.
c. TV Tuner Card.
d. Active Channel Guide.

9. How can you view astandard television

broadcast on your computer?
a. With aTV tuner card.
b. With aspecial Windows 98 technol-
ogy called WebTV for Windows.
c. With aspecial Windows 98 technol-
ogy called WaveTop.
d. With aspecial Windows 98 technol-
ogy called DVD.

•
 •

•
FX7323(906)
• Examination 7324
Email, Newsgroups, and Web Pages

This is the examination for Assignment 7324.

Make sure you print your name, student a

number, and lesson number in the space Name John Smith
RInt
provided on the examination answer card. Be
Student No. Leeson No.
sure to fill in the circles beneath your student
number and assignment number. XY 0 i2 3 7 9 Li 7324
0(XXXXXX) CM@
Reminder: A properly completed examination 00000000 0000
answer card allows us to evaluate your answers (>00(XXXX) GOO()
and speed the results and additional study materi- CXX)0(X)00 0000
CXXXXX)()0 (X)®11
als to you as soon as possible. Do not hold your ex- CX>0000CX) 0(X)0
amination answer cards to send several at one CXXXXXXX) (XXX)
00000000 0000
time. You may run out of study material if you do CX)00(:)0CX) ®C>0®
not send your answers for evaluation promptly. CXXXX)000 CXDOC)

• Another Option: You can use the convenient TeleGrading service and receive your
exam results immediately. The TeleGrading service can be accessed only from atouch-
tone telephone. Please read these instructions before using the service.

1. Fill out your examination answer card.

2. Dial 1-202-686-5704.
3. Enter your eight-digit student number. Do not include letters that may precede the
number.
4. Enter the four-digit assignment number that appears on your examination.
5. Enter your answer for each question when prompted. On your telephone keypad,
number 1equals letter A; 2equals B; 3equals C; and 4equals D.
6. Listen carefully to the instructions as you receive them over the telephone. TeleGrad-
ing lets you review your answers and make changes, if necessary, before it scores your
exam.
7. If you hang up before you hear that your exam has been accepted, your exam record
will be deleted.

•
1. True or false. With Outlook Express, you 5. After you've composed your newsgroup
can use non-HTML formatting, and re-
cipients of your message will be able to
message in Outlook Express and verified
the newsgroup address, what final step
•
view your formatting, regardless of the must you take to send the message to
email software they use. the newsgroup?
a. True. a. Click the Send button.
b. False. b. Click the Post button.
c. Click the Compose button.
d. Click the Flame button.

2. To pick multiple recipients from alist of

names in your Outlook Express Address
Book, click the button or hold 6. With Outlook Express, how can you hide
the CTRL key while selecting multiple your email address in your outgoing
addresses. messages to newsgroups?
a. To: a. On the Tools menu, choose Accounts
b. Cc: and click the News tab. Then, choose
C. Select Recipients. an account and click the Properties
d. Insert Recipients. button. Under User Information in
the General tab, you can specify abo-
gus email address.

3. In Outlook Express, you can use the

to automatically move mes-
b. On the Tools menu, choose Accounts
and click the General tab. Open the •
Properties button and enter your bo-
sages from your email account at work
gus email address.
to your email account at home. C. On the Tools menu, choose Accounts
a. Address Book.
and click the email button. Be sure
b. Outlook Express folders.
that the "Block email address" option
c. Outbox Assistant.
is enabled.
d. Inbox Assistant.
d. It's not possible to hide your email ad-
dress in your outgoing messages to
newsgroups.
4. When you subscribe to anewsgroup us-
ing Outlook Express, the available mes-
sages for that group:
7. In FrontPage Express when you're sav-
a. Are uploaded to the Internet for you
ing your page, if you click the "As file"
to view.
option, your page is saved as a(n)
b. Are uploaded to your computer net-
file.
work.
a. HTML.
c. Are downloaded to your computer.
b. HTTP.
d. Are downloaded to azip drive.

•
c. FPE.
d. PWS.
•
8. True or false. FrontPage Express lets
you add special formatting, such as bold
and italic, but won't let you add hyper-
links. You must use PWS to add hyper-
links.
a. True.
b. False.

9. How can you create an email link on

your home page in FrontPage Express so
that visitors can send you an email mes-
sage?
a. Type your email address in the URL
field in the Open Pages tab in the
Create Hyperlink dialog box.
b. In the Create Hyperlink dialog box,
choose the World Wide Web tab, select
"[Link] in the Hyperlink Type box,

•
and type your email address in the
URL field.
c. Type your email address in the Tar-
get Frame field in the New Page tab
in the Create Hyperlink dialog box.
d. You can't create an email link in
FrontPage Express; you must use
PWS.

10. In FrontPage Express, where are

graphic elements stored?
a. In the HTM files.
b. In the Frup files.
c. In separate files.
d. In Web pages on the Internet.

•
 •

•
FX7324(002)
•

Project 7327: Working with

Windows 98

Introduction

Welcome to your Windows 98 hands-on project. In this

assignment, you will work on five exercises that you will
submit to your instructor for grading. Up to this point in
your course, you've been reading and learning about Win-
dows 98. With this project, you'll practice what you've
learned!

• As you'll see when you begin the project, when we ask

you to complete certain tasks, we don't tell you how to do
them. This makes the project more challenging for you
and gives you an idea of how vast your options are for per-
forming atask in Windows 98. Basically, you can do the
assigned tasks in any way that you choose. For example,
if we ask you to cut and paste some text, you can use the
Cut and Paste commands from the menus, the Cut and
Paste buttons on the Toolbar, or the CTRL-X and CTRL-
INSERT commands on the keyboard. As you know, Win-
dows 98 provides you with many options for performing a
task. The same goes for this project: Complete the task
however you want. You are the one in control of Windows
98.

Furthermore, you can set up Windows 98 in any way

that you'd like. You don't have to conform to any particu-
lar settings for this project. For example, you may have
your Windows 98 interface set up for the Active Desktop
and single-clicking. Or, you may choose to disable the Ac-

•
tive Desktop and use the traditional double-click.

1
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

It's up to you. Your project will not be affected by the set-

tings you choose for Windows 98.

As mentioned earlier, this project consists of five exer-

cises:

• Exercise 1: Creating aNew Folder

• Exercise 2: Creating Shortcuts
• Exercise 3: Copying, Pasting, and Formatting Text
• Exercise 4: Adding an Item to the Start Menu
• Exercise 5: Scanning Your Hard Disk for Possible Er-
rors

Take your time and complete all five exercises. As you

work on them, you'll be saving your work to afolder on
your hard drive called My Folder. When you've finished
with all five exercises, you'll copy the My Folder folder to a
diskette to submit to NRI for grading. Follow the direc-
tions at the end of this project for submitting the disk to
us.

Good luck, and get started now!

2
•

Exercise 1: Creating aNew Folder

Directions

In this exercise, we would like you to create anew

folder on your C drive. (If your drive is designated as any-
thing other than "C," just substitute that drive letter
when we mention "C drive.") Create C: \My Folder on your
C drive. You'll use this folder to store the files that you'll
create in this project.

• Now we are going to show you how to "take apicture"

of your new folder so that you can send it to us to show us
that you created My Folder on your computer. Open either
Explorer or My Computer so that you can view My Folder
in the window. When you can see it, press the "Print
Screen" button on your keyboard. (It's located on the top-
right section of most keyboards.) This button "takes apic-
ture" of what's displayed on screen and pastes it to the
Windows 98 Clipboard.

Next, open up the Windows 98 Paint program. Recall

that the current contents of the Clipboard can be pasted
into other applications. Within Paint, select the Edit menu
and then the Paste option.

The graphics image from the Clipboard should be

pasted in. Depending on how much memory (RAM) your
PC has, you may get amessage asking if you want to in-
crease the size of the bitmap within Paint so as to contain
the new image. Simply click Yes if this message box ap-
pears.

•
3
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Finally, save the image as abitmap file in My Folder.

Just select the File menu and then the Save As option.
Please call the file "My Folderbmp". Within the Save As
Type field, select the "16 Color Bitmap" option. Using this
option will reduce the size of the graphics file while main-
taining all essential characteristics. If you receive ames-
sage saying that you may lose some information saving
the file this way, just click OK.

Now when you open up My Folder from Explorer or My

Computer, you should see the one file called "My Folder"
in the window.

4
•

Exercise 2: Creating Shortcuts

Directions

You've already learned how shortcuts can be used to ex-

pedite your work in Windows 98. In this exercise, you'll
create three shortcuts:

1. Create ashortcut on the Desktop to My Folder.

2. Create ashortcut on the Desktop to Paint.

•
3. Create ashortcut on the Desktop to Explorer.

We'll provide you with some tips for creating these

shortcuts. The file that starts the Paint program is called
"[Link]". It's located in the Accessories folder in the
Program Files folder. The file that launches the Explorer
program is called "[Link]", and it's located in the
Windows folder on your C drive. (Remember, to be able to
view file extensions, go into the View menu in Explorer or
My Computer, select Folder Options, click on the View tab,
and uncheck the "hide file extensions for known types" op-
tion.)

As you did in Exercise 1, please "take apicture" of your

Desktop with the three new shortcuts on it. Save the file
as "[Link]" in My Folder. Be sure to save the file
as a 16-color bitmap file.

•
5
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Exercise 3: Copying, Pasting, and

Formatting Text

Directions

Windows makes it easy for you to transfer information

from one application to another. In this exercise, you'll
first locate some information within the Windows Help
system. You'll copy and paste that information into Note-
pad. From Notepad, you'll transfer the information to
WorciPad, where you'll format the text and save your
WordPad document.

Step 1. Open up the Help option from the Start menu.

Click on the Index tab and display the topics for "connec-
tions, Internet." Within the topics listed, choose "The Mi-
crosoft Network: The best way to go online." Look at
Figure 1to make sure you're accessing the correct infor-
mation in Help.

Step 2. Windows Help will display the requested infor-

mation —"The Microsoft Network: The best way to go on-
line" — in aseparate window on the right-hand side of the
Windows Help dialog box. We'd like you to copy the text in
this window to the Clipboard.

Step 3. Open up Notepad (located in Start IPrograms

IAccessories) and paste in the text. Within Notepad, we
simply want you to eliminate some of the extra spacing
that occurs between some lines within the text. To do this,
just click the mouse at the beginning of an empty line and
then hit the Delete key.

6
•
Do this for each blank line that's embedded within the
text, but leave the blank line between the title and the
first line.

When you've finished with this simple editing, save the

document: Select the File menu and then Save As. Type in
the following line within the File Name field:

C: My Folder\ [Link]

CIO
I. ab
Beek Famed Qplions Web Help

ÇArlosts Index I
lords I
The Microsoft Network: The best way
connectons. Irternet,MSN to go online

The Microsoft Network (MSN) is the exciting

automating
online service that gives you easy and
Mang manure,/ affordable access to electronic information
disconnecting and communication. MSN features include
Mutionk reliable electronic mail; useful and fun
ProPerbes communication services such as chat,
script nos Internet newsgroups, and special-interest
setting Le forums; a wide variety of original
troubieshooting entertainment; valuable information
connections, Direct Cable resources; and instant access to the ever-
expanding World Wide Web
infrared
re-establishing To install MSN, double-click Set Up the
seem to Microsoft Network on your desktop and
troubleshootng follow the instructions.
connections, Ftyper Terminal
Notes
connections, CEE 1394

•
correcbons, Internet • You can also start MSN by clicking Start.
Internet Connection wizard pointing to Programs, pointing to
Online Services, and then clicking The
Microsoft Network.
overnew
troubleshooting • After you have installed MSN, you can
usInn Netwarlire open it by double-clicking The
Microsoft Network on your desktop.
_1142P_kIe

àstatt 2 e [Link] 10.07AM

Figure 1.

Step 4. To better format the Help text, copy it from

Notepad into WordPad via the Clipboard.

Step 5. We want you to format the Help text and make

it look good. Although WordPad isn't as sophisticated a
word processor as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect, it has
enough capabilities to be very useful. You'll notice, for ex-
ample, that when you pasted text into WordPad, the
longer lines were automatically wrapped around so that
all the text was visible. This automatic word-wrap feature
is common to all word processing applications. Follow the
directions in the list on the next page for formatting in-
structions.

•
7
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

• Increase the font size for the title — "The Microsoft

Network: The best way to go online" — to 16 point.
• Change the title's font to Arial. (Substitute another
similar font if your computer doesn't have Arial. You
could use Helvetica or Swiss, for example.)
• Capitalize the title so that it reads: "The Microsoft Net-
work: The Best Way to Go Online".
• Make the title bold.
• Select all the text except the title and make it Times
New Roman 12 point.
• Insert ablank line above the paragraph that begins
with "To install MSN."
• Insert ablank line above the "Notes" header.
• Insert aspecial arrow character in front of the line that
begins with "To install MSN." Look at Figure 2, on the
next page, to see how this should look.
Hint: To insert aspecial character, you can use the Char-
acter Map program. To get the arrow, you can use any font
that has an arrow character in it; we used "Wingdings."
• Make the "Notes" header bold.
• Insert abullet in front of each paragraph in the "Notes"
section.
• Look at Figure 2to make sure that your formatted
document looks like the one that we did.

Step 6. Save your formatted document within Worsead

as "[Link]". Save it to My Folder. Keep in mind that the
extension ".doc" will differentiate this file from the
"[Link]" file that you saved in Notepad.

8
 dj Men WordF'ad Finn

•
Fie Eck Vrew Intert Fganat tlelp

I
T¡me:. New Rom,n

The Microsoft Network: The Best Way to Go Online

The Microsoft Network (MSN) is the exciting online service that pves you easy and affordable
access to electronic information and communication M:-7
. N features include reliable electroruc
mail, useful and fun communication services such as chat. Internet newsgroups, and special -
interest forums, awide variety of onginal entertainment, valuable information resources, and
instant access to the ever-expanding World Wide Web

—> To install MSN, double-click Set trp the Microsoft Network on your desktop and follow
the instructions

Notes
• You can also start MSN by clicking Start, pointing to Programs, pointing to Online
Services, and then clicking The Microsoft Network
• After you have installed MSN, you can open it by double-clicking The Microsoft
Network on your desktop
Once you are up and running on MSN, click the hand icon in the lower -right comer of
your desktop for additional information from MSN Member Services

For Help. press FI NÚM

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WordP... ejWildcraslielp {13341e 9.138N4

Figure 2.

•
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WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Exercise 4: Adding an Item to the

Start Menu

Directions

Windows 98 lets you add items and program folders to

the Start menu. In this exercise, add the Clipboard Viewer
program to the Start menu. The Clipboard Viewer is the
program that lets you see what is currently on the Clip-
board. It's currently located in Start IPrograms IAcces-
sories ISystem Tools. You can find the launch file in the
Windows directory: [Link]. (Note: If you can't find
the Clipboard Viewer on your system, it may not be in-
stalled. You must load the Clipboard Viewer from your in-
stallation disks or CD-ROM per the bullet list instruc-
tions at the end of this exercise.)

Place the Clipboard Viewer directly in the Start menu.

(That is, it shouldn't go inside another folder in the Start
menu; it should be its own folder.) Keep in mind that
there are several different ways to add programs to the
Start menu. Feel free to use whichever way is easiest for
you. Then, we'd like you to "take apicture" of your revised
Start menu and save it as abitmap file called
"[Link]" in My Folder so that we can evaluate
your work. Be sure to save the file as a 16-color bitmap
file.

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Installing the Clipboard Viewer

If the Clipboard Viewer isn't on your system, follow

these steps to install it:

• Open the Control Panel and double-click on the

Add/Remove Programs icon.
• Click the Windows Setup tab at the top of the Add/Re-
move Programs dialog box.
• Double-click the System Tools item that appears within
aComponents part of the dialog box.
• A System Tools dialog box appears with alist of appli-
cations, each with asquare box in front of the applica-
tion icon. If the box is checked, then the application is
already installed. Find the Clipboard Viewer applica-
tion in the list and click its box to insert the needed
check mark. Then click the OK button at the bottom of
the dialog box.
• You'll be returned to the Add/Remove Programs dialog
box. Click the OK button at the bottom of this box as
well.

• • Another dialog box will appear prompting you to insert

either aspecified Windows 98 installation diskette or
CD-ROM (depending on what medium was used for the
original installation). Insert the specified diskette or
CD-ROM and click OK. The necessary files for the Clip-
board Viewer will then be copied onto your hard drive.
Or, if the necessary files were loaded on your hard drive
but just not installed, you won't need to insert adisk-
ette or CD-ROM; Windows 98 will find the files for you
from your hard drive.
• When the installation is complete, you can close the
Control Panel.

•
11
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

Exercise 5: Scanning Your Hard

Disk for Possible Errors

Directions

Windows 98 comes with anumber of utility programs

that help you to maintain your disk drives. One such pro-
gram is ScanDisk, which can perform adetailed inspec-
tion of any disk within astand-alone PC. ScanDisk can
even make the needed repairs for you if aproblem is
found.

Although it can take up to an hour to perform a"thor-

ough" ScanDisk operation of alarge hard drive, we recom-
mend that you do so regularly — at least once amonth.
The sooner that disk errors are found and corrected, the
less chance that your whole hard disk will become cor-
rupted.

In this exercise, we want you to perform a"thorough"

ScanDisk operation of your primary hard drive. You'll
then copy the resulting [Link] file, containing
the results of the operation, to My Folder.

Since the ScanDisk operation requires substantial

time, you can plan to do something else — away from your
PC — while the program is running.

Step 1. There are two ways to start the ScanDisk pro-

gram, and you can choose any method that you like. One
way is to right-click your C: disk drive object from the My
Computer window. From the resulting menu, select the
Properties option.

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Then click the Tools tab from the resulting dialog box. The
first field in the Tools tab displays how many days it's
been since you last scanned that disk drive. You simply
click the Check Now button to initiate anew ScanDisk op-
eration.

The second way to start ScanDisk is via the Start

menu: Click Start IPrograms IAccessories ISystem
Tools. ScanDisk should be listed among the System Tools.

Step 2. Make sure that the desired hard drive (C:) is

selected within the first field. In the Type of Test field, we
want you to click on the Thorough option. It takes longer
to run than the Standard option, but it guarantees better
results. We'd also like you to click the Automatically Fix
Errors field. Finally, click the Start button.

Depending on the size of your hard drive and the speed

of your PC, it could take anywhere from ten minutes up to
an hour for the ScanDisk operation to run to completion.
The program continually alerts you as to exactly how
many disk clusters have been scanned so far out of the to-

•
tal number of clusters on the drive. When the program
finishes, it displays aScanDisk Results report, which
gives ageneral summary of the current conditions of your
designated disk drive.

Step 3. The ScanDisk Results report doesn't tell what

the ScanDisk program may have done to diagnose and re-
pair problem areas on your disk. For that, you need to
open the [Link] report that is automatically
produced every time the program runs. This report file is
placed in the root folder of the drive containing Windows
98 — probably your C: drive.

To look at this report, first open the root folder of your

primary hard drive (C:). Find the [Link] file ob-
ject and open it. You may then be prompted as to which
application to use to open this file. Select Notepad from
the displayed list. That will open the Notepad program
with the report file — atext file — contained inside. By
default, anew [Link] report is generated every
time that you run ScanDisk.

•
If no report is produced on your system, return to the
ScanDisk screen and click the Advanced button. On the

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WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

ensuing ScanDisk Advanced Options window, check the

Log File section and make sure that the "Replace log" op-
tion is selected.

Step 4. Copy your [Link] report file to My

Folder for submission to your instructor. You can copy the
file from the root folder to My Folder using any file copy-
ing method you like. Note that the report file will appear
simply as "SCANDISK" if you haven't specified the use of
filename extensions.

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Preparing Your Project Diskettes

This final step requires that you format asystem disk-

ette and then copy all the files from My Folder to the
floppy diskette. Then, you'll duplicate the diskette so that
you can keep acopy of it for yourself. You'll send the origi-
nal diskette in to your NRI instructor for adetailed
evaluation of your work.

Step 1. Get one of the two blank, 3.5" diskettes that

•
were included within this training package and format it.
(You can use the Format command when you right-click
your 3.5" drive in My Computer.) Make sure that the Ca-
pacity field at the top displays "1.44 MB (3.5")". For the
Format Type, select the Full option button. Within the La-
bel field, we want you to type in your Student Number to
help us in identifying your work. This Label value will be
encoded magnetically on the formatted diskette.

As for the Other Options field, we'd like you to click the
Copy System Files option. This will cause the primary
operating system files, including [Link] and
three hidden files, to be copied from your hard disk to the
diskette, allowing you to boot from your diskette. The
Display Summary button should be on by default — just
leave it as it is. Now you're ready to click the Start button
to begin formatting. It takes afew minutes to format the
diskette and copy over the system files.

When the process is complete, asummary report

should be displayed for you. The report should indicate
the amount of storage space, in bytes, available on the for-

• matted diskette, along with the number of bytes occupied

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WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98

by the system files. After looking briefly at the report,

close its window and then close the Format window.

Step 2. Next, we want you to copy all the files from My

Folder on your hard disk to the newly formatted system
diskette. You can use any type of Copy method you like.
Keep in mind that you will be copying the following files:

• My [Link]
• [Link]
• MSNdoc
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]

Step 3. Verify that all the files from My Folder were in

fact copied to the diskette. Note that [Link]
and three hidden files ([Link], [Link], and
[Link]) should also be present on the diskette,
since it was formatted as asystem diskette.

Step 4. Next, we want you to make an exact duplicate

of the diskette you just formatted and copied your work to.
The second diskette will serve as your backup in the event
that the primary diskette gets lost in transit. This second
diskette will also be asystem diskette, which you could
use to boot your PC in the event of ahard disk failure.

To duplicate the diskette, start by right-clicking the

3.5" drive object within the My Computer window. This
time select the Copy Disk option. It should show that it
will copy from one 3.5" floppy to another 3.5" floppy.

Verify this and then click the Start button to proceed. It

takes awhile to copy the contents of your diskette to the
PC's memory When this part of the operation is complete,
another dialog box should appear. Following its instruc-
tions, you should proceed to insert your second diskette
into the drive now so that it can receive all the informa-
tion that was copied from the first diskette. Note that the
second diskette doesn't have to be formatted first since
this Copy Disk operation will automatically format it for
you. After inserting the second diskette, hit the OK button
and wait while the copying operation completes.

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•
When the Copy Disk operation is complete, verify that
the second diskette now contains the same files as the
first diskette. Then write-protect both diskettes. This is
done by sliding the little square lever in the lower right
corner of the diskette's rear side until asquare opening
appears. This opening ensures that no new files can be
written to your diskettes.

Step 5. Get the disk mailer envelope and its NRI mail-
ing label now (they came with this training package).
Write your name, student number, and return address on
the envelope. Make sure that the NRI mailing label is cor-
rectly affixed to the envelope. Next, get two of the sticky
diskette labels that came with this training package. On
each of them write the following information: FX7327,
your name, your student number, and the current date.
Make the two labels identical and place one on each of the
two diskettes. Insert one of the labeled diskettes into the
diskette mailer envelope. Put the other diskette away for
safekeeping. Remember that you can use the backup disk-
ette to boot your PC during ahard disk emergency.

• Next, get ablank Lesson Answer card and proceed to

fill out only the Name, Student Number, and Lesson Num-
ber (7327) sections. Your NRI instructor will fill out the
rest of the card based on the contents of your diskette.

Place your Lesson Answer card in the diskette mailer

envelope as well. Seal the envelope and take it to your
nearest post office to weigh it and affix the needed post-
age before sending it to NRI.

We hope you have enjoyed working with these Windows

98 training materials. Windows 98 is envisioned to be the
principal PC operating system of the late 1990s. By
successfully completing these exercises, you'll have
demonstrated that you're well on the road to becoming a
proficient Windows 98 user.

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FX7327(002)