REVIEW ARTICLE

ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES

OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn
1
A.A. Ibrahim 2A.M. Dogondaji, 3A. Nura

Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia

Corresponding Email: dogondajialiyu@[Link]

Received: 18-01-2025; Revised: 15-02-2025; Accepted: 08-03-2025

ABSTRACT
Abstract. This study investigates the structural properties of the Intersection Graph Γ int(Zn) of the
subgroups of Zn, focusing on cases where n = p, n = pq, n = p2 (p, q primes), and n = 2k (k a natural
number). The research examines the connectedness of the graph. The results reveal unique properties of
Γint(Zn) for each case of connectedness. Notably, for n = 2k, the graph is regular, complete, and exhibits
rapid growth in size as k increases. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the structural
properties of Γint(Zn) and contributes to the existing body of knowledge on graph theory and group theory.

Keywords: Univalent function, radius of star like and radius of convexity.

INTRODUCTION

The importance of graph theory as a field of study stems from the fact that it is a powerful tool for
modeling and analyzing a number of algebraic theoretic concepts such as optimization processing and
combinatorial problems, including in theoretical computer science. Graph theory finds applications in
various real-world scenarios. Some recent references showcasing the application of graph theory include:
• Social Networks: Analyzing social networks using graph theory helps in understanding relationships
between individuals, identifying influencers, and predicting trends [6].
• Bioinformatics: Graph theory is used in bioinformatics for analyzing biological networks like protein-
protein interactions or gene regulatory networks [3].
• Transportation Networks: Modeling transportation systems as graphs aids in optimizing routes, traffic
flow analysis, and infrastructure planning [2].
• Subgroups of Zn: In the study of subgroups of Zn using the graph theoretic properties of intersection
graphs, researchers analyze the structure and properties of subgroups within the additive group Z n.
Subgroups are subsets of a group that form a group under the same operation as the original group. By
representing these subgroups as vertices in an intersection graph and connecting them based on their
intersections, researchers can gain insights into the relationships between different subgroups. An
intersection graph is a type of graph that represents intersections between sets. In the context of subgroup
analysis in group theory, intersection graphs play a crucial role in understanding the relationships
between subgroups. Specifically, when studying subgroups of Zn (the additive group of integers modulo
n), the intersection graph can be used to visualize how these subgroups intersect with each other.

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

• The intersection graph of Zn: This is a graph whose vertices correspond to the elements of Zn, and two
vertices are subgroups in a cyclic group [1]. This paper explores the intersection graphs of subgroups in
cyclic groups like Zn and investigates their structural properties using advanced graph theoretical
techniques.

METHODOLOGY
This section provides an explanation of the methodology employed to find the properties of the
intersection graph. The theoretic properties to be investigated are as follows:

(1) Vertex degree

(2) Completeness
(3) Connectedness
(4) Size of a graph
(5) Independence number
(6) Chromatic number
(7) Clique number

Subgroups of Zn. Theorem 1 (Subgroup Theorem)[4]: For a cyclic group Zn (where n is a positive
integer), every subgroup is also cyclic, and for each positive divisor k of n, there is a unique subgroup of
𝑛
order k, which is generated by ⟨𝑘 ⟩.
It means for each factor of n, we have a unique subgroup. Therefore, assuming n has k + 1 factors, then
Zn will have k + 1 subgroups, including k, non-trivial subgroups.

For instance, if n = pq has a set of factors given by {1, p, q, n} where p and q are prime numbers, then we
may have the following subgroups:

𝑛
• Subgroup 1: ⟨ 1 ⟩ = ⟨n⟩ = {0}
𝑛
• Subgroup 2: ⟨𝑝 ⟩ = ⟨q⟩
𝑛
• Subgroup 3: ⟨𝑞 ⟩ = ⟨p⟩
𝑛
• Subgroup 4: ⟨𝑛⟩ = ⟨1⟩ = Zn

Example 2.1

Let Z16 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}.

The factors of 16 are: k = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16}.

The corresponding subgroups are:

16
⟨ 1 ⟩ = ⟨16⟩ = {0}
16
⟨ 2 ⟩ = ⟨8⟩ = {0, 8}
16
⟨ 4 ⟩ = ⟨4⟩ = {0, 4, 8, 12}
16
⟨ 8 ⟩ = ⟨2⟩ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
16
⟨16⟩ = ⟨1⟩ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15} = Z16.

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

Lemma (Intersection of Cyclic Subgroups Lemma) [5]: If a and b are elements of a group G, then the
cyclic subgroups generated by a and b have a non-trivial intersection if and only if a and b have a
common divisor greater than 1.

Example:

Consider Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}.

The factors of 12 are: k = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}.

The corresponding subgroups are:

12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨12⟩ = {0}
1
12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨6⟩ = {0, 6}
2
12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨4⟩ = {0, 4, 8}
3
12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨3⟩ = {0, 3, 6, 9}
4
12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨2⟩ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
6
12
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨1⟩ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} = Z12.
12

Definition: The intersection graph of a group is a graph whose vertices are the non-trivial subgroups of
G, and two distinct vertices H and K are connected if H∩K ̸= {e}, denoted by Γint(G) [7].

Connectedness Methodology [1, 4]: Let Γ(V,E) be a graph with vertex set V = {v1, v2, v3, . . . , vn} and
edge set E = {e1, e2, e3, . . . , em}. We use the following algorithm to determine whether the graph Γ(V,E)
is connected:

(1) Select any two distinct vertices vi, vj ∈ V , where i, j ∈ {1, 2, 3, . . . , 11} arbitrarily.
(2) Using the graph definition, check whether there exists a path connecting vi and vj.
(3) If a path exists, then the graph is connected; otherwise, it is not connected.

RESULT

Vertices Intersection Connection

⟨4⟩ ∩ ⟨2⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨4⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨2⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0, 3} Connected

Table 1 Vertices Connection Table

1 2

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

Figure 3.1: Intersection graph of Z4

Vertices Intersection Connection

⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨5⟩ = {0} Not connected

⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨2⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨5⟩ ∩ ⟨2⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨5⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0, 5} Connected
⟨2⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} Connected

Table 2 Vertices Connection Table for Z10

9 2

1 5

Figure 3.2: Intersection graph of Z10

Vertices Intersection Connection

⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨5⟩ = {0} Not connected

⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨2⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨10⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨5⟩ ∩ ⟨2⟩ = {0} Not connected
⟨5⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0, 5} Connected
⟨2⟩ ∩ ⟨1⟩ = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} Connected

Table 3: Vertices Connection Table for Z10

16

4 2

1 8

Figure 3.3: Intersection graph of Z16.

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

We begin our result and discussion section by analyzing the structures of the intersection graphs of Zn in
terms of finding the numbers of edges it contain for the different values of n considered. The following
three theorems gives the structures of the sizes of these graphs.

DISCUSSION

Theorem 3.1 If n is a prime number, then Γint(Zn) has no edge.

Proof: Assume n is prime, then n has only 2 positive divisors: 1 and n. By Theorem 1, Z n has
2 unique subgroups which are:

𝑛
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨n⟩ = {0} = {0}
1

𝑛
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨1⟩ = {Zn}
1

Since V (Γint (Zn)) are the non-trivial subgroups of Zn, then Γint (Zn) contains only one vertex (Zn) with no
edge. Hence proved.

Theorem (3.1) reveals that when n is a prime number, the intersection graph Γint(Zn) has no edges. This
result has profound implications for the structure of Zn, underscoring its unique subgroup arrangement.
The absence of edges in Γint(Zn) indicates that Zn boasts a singular subgroup structure, devoid of
intersections between its subgroups. This, in turn, reinforces the cyclic nature of Z n, as the graph’s
emptiness reflects the group’s simple, cyclic architecture. The derivation of Z n’s properties from the
graph’s properties is particularly insightful. The lack of edges in Γint(Zn) implies that Zn is characterized
by an absence of non-trivial intersections between its subgroups. Furthermore, the graph’s emptiness
suggests that Zn’s subgroup lattice is remarkably simple, with no complex relationships between
subgroups. This simplicity is a direct consequence of the prime nature of n, which imposes a stringent
structure on Zn’s subgroups. Theorem (3.1) is intimately aligned with the aim and objectives of this
research. By investigating the graph-theoretic properties of Zn, we gain a deeper understanding of the
group’s underlying structure. Theorem (3.1), in particular, provides a nuanced analysis of Z n’s subgroup
arrangement, shedding light on the unique properties that emerge when n is prime. This result has
significant implications for our comprehension of Z n’s behavior, particularly in the context of group
theory and its applications.

Theorem 3.2 If n = pq, where p, q are distinct numbers, then Γint(Zn) contains only 2 edges.

Proof: Assume n = pq, then n has 4 factors: 1, p, q, and n, with n = pq and p ̸= q. By Theorem
1, Zn has the following subgroups:

⟨n⟩ = {0}
𝑛
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨q⟩
𝑝
𝑛
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨p⟩
𝑞

Zn is adjacent to ⟨q⟩ because Zn ∩ ⟨q⟩ = {q} ̸= {0}.

Zn is adjacent to ⟨p⟩ because Zn ∩ ⟨p⟩ = {p} ̸= {0}.
⟨q⟩ is not adjacent to ⟨p⟩ because by Lemma 1, gcd(p, q) = 1, thus ⟨q⟩ ∩ ⟨p⟩ = {0}.
Therefore, Γint(Zn) has only 2 edges: Zn ∼ ⟨p⟩ and Zn ∼ ⟨q⟩, Hence proved.

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

Theorem (3.2) presents a fascinating result, stating that if n = pq, where p and q are distinct prime
numbers and n has only four factors (1, p, q, and pq), then the intersection graph Γ int(Zn) contains exactly
two edges. This theorem offers valuable insights into the structural properties of Zn and its intersection
graph. The presence of two edges in Γint(Zn) indicates that the subgroups of Zn intersect in a highly
structured manner. Specifically, the 2 edges represent the non-trivial intersections between the subgroups
generated by p, q, and pq. This result highlights the intricate relationships between the subgroups of Zn,
which are dictated by the prime factorization of n. The derivation of Zn’s properties from the graph’s
properties is once again enlightening. The presence of 2 edges in Γint(Zn) implies that Zn has a relatively
simple subgroup lattice, with a limited number of intersections between subgroups. Furthermore, the
graph’s structure suggests that the subgroups of Zn can be organized into a hierarchical arrangement, with
the subgroups generated by p and q serving as the foundation. Theorem (3.2) is closely aligned with the
aim and objectives of this research, as it provides a detailed analysis of the intersection graph of Zn. By
examining the structural properties of Γint(Zn), we gain a deeper understanding of the underlying
relationships between the subgroups of Zn. This result has significant implications for our comprehension
of Zn’s behavior, particularly in the context of group theory and its applications.

Theorem 3.3 If n = p2, then Γint(Zn) has only one edge.

Proof: Assume n = p2, then n has only 3 factors: 1, p, and p2.

By Theorem 1, Zn has 3 unique subgroups which are:

⟨p2⟩ = {0}
𝑝2
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨q⟩
𝑝
𝑝2
⟨ ⟩ = Zn
𝑝

⟨p⟩ ∼ Zn because p ∈ ⟨p⟩ ∩ Zn, with p ̸= 0, and this is the only edge since there are only two non-trivial
subgroups.
Hence, Γint(Zn) contains only 1 edge.

Theorem (3.3) presents an intriguing result, stating that if n = p 2, where p is a prime number, then the
intersection graph Γint(Zn) has only one edge. This theorem provides a fascinating insight into the
structural properties of Zn and its intersection graph. The presence of only one edge in Γint(Zn) indicates
that the subgroups of Zn intersect in a highly restricted manner. Specifically, the single edge represents
the non-trivial intersection between the subgroup generated by p and the subgroup generated by p2. This
result highlights the rigid structure of Zn’s subgroups, which is dictated by the prime factorization of n.
The derivation of Zn’s properties from the graph’s properties is once again enlightening. The presence of
only one edge in Γint(Zn) implies that Zn has a highly simplified subgroup lattice, with minimal
intersections between subgroups. Furthermore, the graph’s structure suggests that the subgroups of Zn are
organized in a hierarchical manner, with the subgroup generated by p serving as the foundation. Theorem
(3.3) is closely aligned with the aim and objectives of this research, as it provides a detailed analysis of
the intersection graph of Zn. By examining the structural properties of Γint(Zn), we gain a deeper
understanding of the underlying relationships between the subgroups of Zn. This result has significant
implications for our comprehension of Z n’s behavior, particularly in the context of group theory and its
applications. This result can be seen as a natural extension of Theorem (3.1), which states that if n is
prime, then Γint(Zn) has no edges. In contrast to Theorem (3.2), which shows that n = pq results in a graph
with four edges, Theorem (3.3) demonstrates that n = p2 yields a graph with only one edge, highlighting
the significant impact of the prime factorization of n on the structure of Γ int(Zn). The next theorem
discusses the element that is common to all non-trivial subgroups of Zn for n = 2k.

Theorem 3.4 If n = 2k, then every non-trivial subgroup of Zn contains the element 2k−1.

Proof: Assume n = 2k. Then, by Theorem 1, n has (k + 1) factors as follows:

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

1, 21, 22, 23, 24, …, 2k.

For each factor, we have a unique subgroup (by Theorem 1). Therefore, Z n has (k+1) subgroups, one for
each factor, and hence k non-trivial subgroups as follows:

𝑛 2𝑘
⟨ ⟩ = ⟨ ⟩ = ⟨2k-1⟩ = {0, 2k-1}
2 2
𝑛
⟨ 2 ⟩ = ⟨2k-2⟩ = {0, 2k-2, (2)2k-2, (3)2k-2}
2

𝑛
⟨ 3 ⟩ = ⟨2k-3⟩ = {0, 2k-3, (2)2k-3, …. , (7)2k-3}
2
:
:
𝑛
⟨ 𝑘 ⟩ = Zn
2

𝑛
This gives k non-trivial subgroups of Zn. Claim: 2k−1 ∈ ⟨ 𝑙 ⟩, for all l = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k.
2
Consider a non-trivial subgroup of Zn,
𝑛 2𝑘
⟨ 𝑙 ⟩ = ⟨ 𝑙 ⟩ = ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩,
2 2
for some l = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k.

𝑛
Then ⟨ 𝑙 ⟩ has 2𝑙 elements for all l = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k:
2
𝑛
⟨ 𝑙 ⟩ = ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩ = {0, 2𝑘−𝑙 , (2) 2𝑘−𝑙 , (3) 2𝑘−𝑙 , …, (2𝑙 − 1) 2𝑘−𝑙 }
2

Since ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩ consists of elements of the form (x) 2𝑘−𝑙 with x between 1 and 2𝑙 , then:

2𝑙
( 2 ) 2𝑘−𝑙 ∈ ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩
Thus:

2𝑙
( )(2𝑘−𝑙 ) ∈ ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩
2
⇒ (2𝑙 − 1)( 2𝑘−𝑙 ) ∈ ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩.
⇒ (2𝑙 − 1 + k − l) = 2𝑘−𝑙 ∈ ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩.

Since ⟨2𝑘−𝑙 ⟩ is arbitrary, this proves our claim, Hence the result.

Theorem (3.4) presents an intriguing result, stating that if n = 2 k, then every non-trivial subgroup of Zn
contains the element 2𝑘−𝑙 . This theorem provides valuable insight into the structural properties of Zn’s
subgroups. The presence of the element 2𝑘−𝑙 in every non-trivial subgroup of Zn indicates that these
elements play a crucial role in the subgroup structure of Zn. Specifically, the elements 2𝑘−𝑙 serve as a
kind of ”skeleton” for the subgroups of Zn, as every subgroup must contain these elements. The
derivation of Zn’s properties from the subgroup structure is once again enlightening. The presence of the
elements 2𝑘−𝑙 in every nontrivial subgroup of Zn implies that Zn has a highly structured subgroup lattice,
with these elements serving as a foundation for the lattice. Theorem (3.4) is closely aligned with the aim
and objectives of this research, as it provides a detailed analysis of the subgroup structure of Zn. By
examining the properties of Zn’s subgroups, we gain a deeper understanding of the underlying

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 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SOME THEORETIC GRAPH PROPERTIES OF THE INTERSECTION GRAPH OF Zn4

relationships between the elements of Z n. This result has significant implications for our comprehension
of Zn’s behavior, particularly in the context of group theory and its applications. This result highlights the
importance of the prime factorization of n in determining the subgroup structure of Zn. The fact that n =
2k leads to a highly structured subgroup lattice suggests that the prime factorization of n plays a crucial
role in shaping the internal structure of Zn.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study has successfully investigated the structural properties of the intersection graph
Γint(Zn) of the subgroups of Zn, with a focus on the cases where n = p, n = pq, n = p2 (p prime), and n = 2k
(k a natural number). The study aimed to determine the connectedness of the above graphs. The
objectives of the study were fully achieved, as the research provided a comprehensive analysis of the
structural properties of Γint(Zn) for the specified cases. The findings revealed unique and intriguing
properties of the graph.

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1,2,3Department of Mathematics, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Sokoto State, Nigeria.
Email address: nuraabubakar4157@[Link]

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