MODULE IN

PHYSICS for ENGINEERS (LECTURE)

ENGGPHYS

CIVIL ENGINEERING Department

SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and ARCHITECTURE
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 ENGG PHYS
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday p`henomena
and analyze problems on vectors,
one- and two-dimensional motion
and Newton’s laws.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on work,
energy, energy, and power, impulse
and momentum and dynamics of
rotation.
3. Demonstrate knowledge of physics
concepts and principles by
describing everyday phenomena
and analyze problems on simple
harmonic motion, fluids at rest, heat
transfer, mechanical waves,
PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS electricity, magnetism, and optics.
4. Demonstrate ability to use
(CALCULUS – BASED LECTURE)
mathematical tools, including
calculus in solving problems
involving physics concepts and
principles.

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 “Physics is essentially an intuitive and concrete science.
Mathematics is only a means for expressing the laws that
govern the phenomena”
Albert Einstein

COURSE OVERVIEW

Dear Future Civil Engineers,

In this course, you will learn about physics as a core component of engineering
analysis and computations. This course will enable you to understand and solve problems
applied to engineering principles by applying calculus and basic mathematics.

Your academic experience as Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this course.
To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at the end
of the semester, this module is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: VECTORS – This aims to give you an overview of vector quantities. It will enable
you to differentiate scalar quantities to vector quantities. It will enable you to perform
mathematical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) of vectors 1.)
graphically and 2.) analytically to solve corresponding application problems.

MODULE 2: KINEMATICS – This aims to give you an overview on motion along a straight
line and in two dimensions. It will enable you to Describe rectilinear motion using graphs,
diagrams, equations; and, in terms of distance/displacement, average/instantaneous
speed, velocity, and acceleration. This module will help you solve problems on rectilinear
motion with constant acceleration and free fall as well as two-dimensional motion in general
and particularly projectile motion.

MODULE 3: DYNAMICS – This aims to give you an overview on forces and Newton’s Laws of
Motion. It will enable you to apply Newton’s Laws of Motion to analyze and solve problems
involving a body in equilibrium or a body in acceleration.

MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER – This aims to give you an overview of the concept
of work, energy and power and work – energy relation. It will enable you to Solve problems
on work done by a constant or by a varying force, as well as problems in mechanics,
applying the concepts of gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, work-energy
theorem, and mechanical power.

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 MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM – This aims to give you an overview of the concepts on
impulse and momentum. This will enable you to Solve problems related to momentum,
impulse, and conservation of momentum.

MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
rotational motion particularly angular displacement, angular velocity and angular
acceleration, dynamics of rotation particularly torque and the rotation of rigid bodies and
elasticity particularly Hooke’s law and Young’s modulus of elasticity. This will enable you to
Solve problems on rotational motion, dynamics of rotation, and elasticity.

MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS – This aims to give you an overview on simple harmonic motion
and simple pendulum, spring-mass systems. It will enable you to Solve problems on SHM
involving horizontal spring system, vertical spring system, and simple pendulum.

MODULE 8: WAVES– This aims to give you an overview on the properties of waves and the
types mechanical of waves. It will give you an idea of the on the mathematical
representation of waves and the modes of vibration. It will enable you to Solve problems on
the mathematical representation of a wave and problems related to the modes of
mechanical waves.

MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST – this aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of fluids
at rest. This module will also enable you to Solve problems on the application of Archimedes’
Principle

MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER – This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
heat energy and heat transfer.

MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS– This aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
electrostatics and methods of charging. This module will also include discussions on electric
force and charging. It will enable you to solve problems involving the different methods of
charging and electric force.

MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY – This aims to give you an overview on Electricity specifically current,
voltage and resistance. This module will also include laws on electricity such as Ohm’s Law.
This module also includes series and parallel circuits. It will enable you to Solve basic problems
involving current, resistance, and voltage in circuits that contain DC sources and resistors in
series and/or parallel

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
4
 MODULE 13: MAGNETISM – this aims to give you an overview on the basic concepts of
magnetism specifically magnetic field, magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux. It will
enable you to solve problems involving magnetic field, magnetic field intensity and
magnetic flux

MODULE 14: OPTICS – this module will give you an overview of the basic concepts on the
nature and properties of light. It will enable you to solve problems involving the nature of
light, refraction, and reflection.
Sincerely,

Course Facilitators

Engr Joana Marie Casandra – Obfan

Engr Yuriko Lyn Abalos – Suba

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5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
COURSE OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................6
MODULE 1: VECTORS ................................................................................................................................... 10
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 10
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 18
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 20
MODULE2: KINEMATICS ............................................................................................................................... 21
MODULE 2 UNIT 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE................................................................................. 21
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 21
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 21
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 25
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 26
KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS ............................................................................ 27
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 27
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 29
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 30
MODULE 3: DYNAMICS ................................................................................................................................ 31
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 31
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 31
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 36
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 37
MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY and POWER ................................................................................................ 38
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 38

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
6
 EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 43
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 44
MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM ................................................................................................... 47
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 47
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 47
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 50
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 50
MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES................................................................................................................... 52
MODULE 6 UNIT 1: ROTATIONAL MOTION ............................................................................................... 52
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 52
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 56
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 57
MODULE 6 UNIT 2: DYNAMICS OF ROTATION ........................................................................................ 58
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 58
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 58
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 58
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 61
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 62
MODULE 6 UNIT 3: ELASTICITY .................................................................................................................... 64
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 64
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 64
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 64
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 67
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 67
MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 68
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 68
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 68
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 68

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 ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 71
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 72
MODULE 8: WAVES ....................................................................................................................................... 73
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 73
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 73
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 79
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 80
MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST.......................................................................................................................... 82
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 82
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 82
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 82
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 84
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 85
MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER ...................................................................................................................... 86
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 86
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 86
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 86
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 89
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 90
MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS.................................................................................................................... 92
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 92
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 92
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 92
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 96
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 101
MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY .......................................................................................................................... 102
ENGAGE ................................................................................................................................................... 102
EXPLORE.................................................................................................................................................... 102
EXPLAIN ..................................................................................................................................................... 102
ELABORATE............................................................................................................................................... 107
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 108

8
MODULE 13: MAGNETISM ......................................................................................................................... 110
ENGAGE ................................................................................................................................................... 110
EXPLORE.................................................................................................................................................... 110
EXPLAIN ..................................................................................................................................................... 110
ELABORATE............................................................................................................................................... 115
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 116
MODULE 14: OPTICS ................................................................................................................................... 117
ENGAGE ................................................................................................................................................... 117
EXPLORE.................................................................................................................................................... 117
EXPLAIN ..................................................................................................................................................... 117
ELABORATE: ............................................................................................................................................. 123
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 124
CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR .................................................................................. 126

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 MODULE 1: VECTORS

ENGAGE
Where can you apply physical quantities in your daily activities?

What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?

Which method is mor accurate in solving vector sums (graphical or analytical method?)

What is the difference between DOT and CROSS products?

EXPLORE
Read Module 1: Introduction and Vectors (pp 10 – 18)
EXPLAIN

PHYSICS
• Physics is the most fundamental science
- basis or the foundation of other physical sciences like chemistry, geology, and
astronomy
- most principles or laws of the other sciences are based on the principles of physics
• Physics is the study of the basic laws of nature
- basic concepts and laws of physics govern most of the things that happen around
us
• Physics is an experimental science
- physics is a science of measurement

Physics and its importance in the field of engineering:

Basically, physics is involved with the study of energy and its different forms. It
therefore serves as a foundation to engineering which is primarily involved with the design,
construction and operation of devices, machines, structures, and systems which in various
ways utilize these different forms of energy.

10
 Physics is a quantitative science. It involves a lot of measurements and computational
analyses. It is therefore imperative that the student of physics should have extensive
proficiency with mathematical concepts, principles, and operations. Student should have
considerable knowledge on algebra, trigonometry, analytic geometry, and calculus.

Basic Concepts of Physics:

1. matter – anything that occupies space and has weight
- it possesses inertia
- it is subject to gravity
2. mass – the amount or quantity of matter in a body
3. motion – the displacement of a body with reference to another body
4. force – that which is capable of changing the condition of rest or motion of a certain
body

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
1. Classical physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects moving less than the speed of light
- All branches established before 1900’s
Sub-branches: (some)
o Mechanics – oldest branch of physics; deals with the behavior of objects
subjected to forces and/or motion
▪ Statics – study of matter at rest, and forces in equilibrium
▪ Dynamics – deals with forces and their relation to motion
o Acoustics – deals with the behavior and properties of sound waves
o Thermodynamics – deals with the relation of heat and other forms of energy
2. Modern physics
- Branch of physics that deals with objects at Extreme events
Sub-branches: (some)
o Nuclear physics – physics of atomic nuclei and their interactions
o Theory of relativity
o Quantum physics – describes nature at smallest scale of energy of atoms and
subatomic particles

Physical Quantities:
The study of Physics involves dealing with a lot of physical [Link] physical
quantities are used to define all physical characteristics of matter such as length, mass and
time. In Mechanics, we have the basic quantities and all others are considered as derived
quantities because they are obtained or defined by simple relations between the basic
ones.

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Table 1.1 Basic Quantities
Basic Length, Mass, Time, Temperature, Luminous Current, Amount of
Quantities L m t T Intensity I Substance
Metric (SI) m g sec C Cd A Mol
English ft, in lbs sec F Mol

Table 1.2 Derived Quantities

Derived Quantities Combination of two or more basic quantities
area Length length
acceleration Length time
Force Mass acceleration
pressure Force area

In the proper expression of physical quantities, it should have magnitude. There should
at least be a number (to indicate how large or how small the quantity is) and the unit (to
indicate the nature and type of the quantity).

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY:

Many physical quantities have magnitudes only but no directions. These are called
scalar quantity. Examples are mass, time, density, temperature, etc. There are, however,
many physical quantities such as force, velocity, displacement, etc. which have directions
as well as magnitude and these aspects always have to be indicated when expressing these
quantities. They are called vectors.

In physical computations and analyses, we have to be aware of the difference

between vectors and scalars because the mathematical treatments are not the same. For
example, we add scalars arithmetically, but we cannot do the same to vectors. Special
methods are used.

BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT VECTORS

A. Vector notation
➢ Vectors are typically represented by a CAPITAL BOLD LETTER or drawing an ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ARROW
above the symbol. The arrow is used to convey direction and magnitude.
ForF
⃗ = a vector of magnitude|F ⃗ |or F and in a certain direction
⃗ = 30N due south
F
Direction
Magnitude

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B. Graphical representation of a vector
➢ Vector quantity is represented graphically by an arrow
Tail or foot tip or head (direction)
Magnitude
• the length represents magnitude
• the arrowhead faces the direction of motion

C. Specifying directions of vectors – There are two common methods being used:
Method 1: Using the angle Ɵ that the vector makes with the “zero-degree reference
line”.
Ex: A = 10 m 40o
A
B = 10 m 140o B
o
140
40o

Method 2: Using geographic directions. N

Ex. C = 30 km 500 N of E = E 50° N C
D = 10 km 60o W of S = S 60o W F
F = 20 km N 40o W = 40o W of N 40o
50o
W E
60o
D

S
OTHER CONCEPTS ON VECTORS:
o COLLINEAR – parallel vectors which lie on the same straight line irrespective of their
magnitudes and direction
o COPLANAR – parallel to the same plane, [Link] vectors parallel to the x-y plane
or any plane
o CONCURRENT – vectors which passes through the same point

Collinear Coplanar Concurrent

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VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Vector addition is the process of combining two or more vectors into one. The
combination is called the RESULTANT of the vectors. Subtraction is just like addition. In vector
subtraction, the negative of one vector is added to the other. For example, if two vectors A
and B are to be added, the operation is indicated as A + B. However, if vector B is to be
subtracted from vector A, the operation is indicated as A – B which is the same as A + (-B).
The negative of vector B is added to vector A. The negative of a vector is a vector of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction. For example, if vector A = 50 units 30oN of W,
its negative or –A = 50 units 30oS of E.

METHODS OF DETERMINING RESULTANT:

1. Algebraic Method (for co-linear vectors only).

o Resultant vector, R= algebraic sum of the vectors
o 𝐑 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐕𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐧 = 𝚺 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬
𝐕𝟐 +. . . +𝐕

2. Parallelogram Method
o Applied if only 2 vectors are given
o 2 vectors are joined tail to tail, forminga parallelogram (such for the name of the
method)
o a diagonal represents either the resultant or the equilibrant (depending on its
direction)

▪ STEPS:
1. Draw vectors on same point of origin (use a scale)
2. Form a parallelogram, identify parallels with (‘) A’
3. Connect the origin to the intersection of the B
parallel lines
R
4. The line formed from the origin to the intersection
represents the RESULTANT of the vectors
B’
5. The line formed from the intersection to the origin
A
represents the EQUILIBRANT
6. Measure the length (magnitude), and the angle
for the direction

** EQUILIBRANT – vector which when added to a set of vectors will result to zero, thus resulting
to an equilibrium or balance,it is exactly equal to the magnitude of the resultant but directly
opposite in direction

14
3. The Triangle Method (for two coplanar vectors at a time)
▪ STEPS:
1. Draw the vectors by joining them head to tail
2. Draw the resultant vector by completing the triangle
**(direction is from the origin)
3. Determine the value of the included angle of the given vectors
4. Solve for the value of the resultant (magnitude and direction)
[Link] the triangle formed is a right triangle, solve R by using Pythagorean Theorem and
the trigonometric identities.
Pythagorean Theorem: c 2 = a2 + b 2 c
b b
Direction: θ = Tan−1 (a)

5.b If the triangle formed is not a right triangle, solve R using sine and cosine law.

Cosine Law:
c 2 = a2 + b2 − 2abcos(C)
Sine Law:
a b c
= =
sin (A) sin(B) sin (C)

4. The Polygon Method (graphical method) – Tip to tail method

- suggested to be used for two or more vectors which are non-collinear but coplanar
The goal is to draw a mini version of the vectors to give an accurate picture of the
magnitude and direction.

Steps:
1. Pick appropriate scale.
2. Using ruler and protractor, draw the first
vector to scale in appropriate direction.
3. Draw the second vector starting from the
head of the first vector.
4. All vectors must be connected in head-to-tail fashion.
5. To determine the resultant vector, connect the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last vector drawn.
6. Measure the magnitude of R with a ruler and convert this length to its actual
amount and unit.
7. Measure the direction of R with a protractor and add this value along with the
direction after the magnitude.

15
5. The Component Method (used for any number of vectors which are non- co-linear)

Steps:
1. Resolve the vectors into their x- and y-components.
y – component When the angle  is measured from the horizontal
x component = A cos θ
A y component = A sin θ

 When the angle  is measured from the vertical

 x component = A sin 
x – component y component = A cos 

2. Add the x- and y-components of each vector to determine the components Rx

and Ry of the resultant vector, R.

3. To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:

R = √R x 2 + R y 2
4. To get the direction of the resultant:
Angles: Direction
Ry N of E or Nof W or
measured from the horizontal θ = tan−1 θ Y of X
Rx S of E or S of W
Rx W of N or E of N or
measured from the vertical ϕ = tan−1 ϕ X of Y
Ry W of S or E fo S

UNIT VECTORS
– is a vector having a magnitude of unity with no units. Its purpose is to describe a direction
in space. y

+j
Let i = unit vector pointing in the + x-axis
j = unit vector pointing in the + y-axis x
k = unit vector pointing in the + z-axis
+k +i

z
i.e.
Vector Ax = Axi Bx = Bxi
In terms of its components A = Axi + Ayj B = Bxi + Byj

16
VECTOR SUM:
Vector sum of unit vectors 𝐂 = 𝐀 + 𝐁
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣)
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 + 𝐁𝐱 )𝐢 + (𝐀 𝐲 + 𝐁𝐲 )𝐣
𝐂 = 𝐂𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐂𝐲 𝐣

If vectors do not lie in the x-y plane, then a third component is needed.
Then: 𝐀 = 𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀𝐳 𝐤
𝐁 = 𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤
𝐂=𝐀+𝐁
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀𝐳 𝐤) + (𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)
𝐂 = (𝐀 𝐱 + 𝐁𝐱 )𝐢 + (𝐀 𝐲 + 𝐁𝐲 )𝐣 + (𝐀𝐳 + 𝐁𝐳 )𝐤
𝐂 = 𝐂𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐂𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐂𝐳 𝐤

PRODUCTS OF VECTORS:
Since vectors are not ordinary numbers, ordinary multiplication is not directly
applicable to vectors.
a) SCALAR PRODUCT – is also called dot product. It is a scalar quantity and it may be
positive or negative.
If 𝟎° ≤ 𝛟 < 90°, then A ∙ B is 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
𝟗𝟎° < 𝛟 ≤ 𝟏𝟖𝟎°, then A ∙ B is 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
B
𝐀. 𝐁 = 𝐀𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 𝛟 = 𝟗𝟎° then A ∙ B = 𝟎
(Scalar product of two perpendicular
ϕ vectors is always zero)
A
Using unit vector representation:

𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐀𝐳 𝐤) ∙ (𝐁𝐱 𝐢 + 𝐁𝐲 𝐣 + 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)

𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐀 𝐱 𝐢 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤) + (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣)
+ (𝐀 𝐲 𝐣 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤) + (𝐀𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 𝐢) + (𝐀𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 𝐣) + (𝐀 𝐳 𝐤 ∙ 𝐁𝐳 𝐤)

If vectors are parallel to each other,ϕ = 0o; cos 0o = 1

If vectors are perpendicular to each other, ϕ = 90o; cos 90o = 0
i∙i=1 i∙j=0
j∙j=1 i∙k=0 𝐀 ∙ 𝐁 = 𝐀 𝐱 ∙ 𝐁𝐱 + 𝐀 𝐲 ∙ 𝐁𝐲 + 𝐀𝐳 ∙ 𝐁𝐳
k∙k=1 j∙k=0

17
 b) VECTOR PRODUCT – also called cross product. It is a vector
quantity with a direction perpendicular to the plane of the
vectors A & B and a magnitude given by ABsinθ.

|𝐀 × B| = |A||B| sin θ

Using unit vector representation:

𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax i + Ay j + Az k) × (Bx i + By j + Bz k)
0
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax i × Bx i)0 + (Ax i × By j)k + (Ax i × Bz k)j + (Ay j × Bx i)k + (Ay j × By j) + (Ay j × Bz k)i +
(Az k × Bx i)j + (Az k × By j)i + (Az k × Bz k)0

i×i=0 i×j=k j × i = −k
j×j=0 k×i=j i × k = −j i
k×k =0 j×k=i k × j = −i

𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ax By ) × k − (Ax Bz ) × j − (Ay Bx ) × k + (Ay Bz ) × i + (Az Bx ) × j − (Az By ) × i

𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ay Bz − Az By ) × i + (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) × j + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) × k

Another method on how to solve cross product is by using the method of determinants.

i j k i j
+
𝐀×𝐁 Ax Ay Az Ax Ay

Bx - By Bz Bx By

𝐀 × 𝐁 = Ay Bz i + Az Bx j + Ax By k − Bx Ay k − By Az i − Bz Ax j
𝐀 × 𝐁 = (Ay Bz − By Az ) × i + (Az Bx − Bz Ax ) × j + (Ax By − Bx Ay ) × k → same as the above
equation

ELABORATE
Directions:
Determine the equivalent directions for the following:
1. 15° S of E 2. 30° N of W 3. Due South

18
Algebraic Method:
1. For the given vectors: A = 50 km due east, B = 20 km due west, C = 30 km due west, D =
25 km due east, E = 60 km due west. Determine (a) their resultant, (b) C – D and (c) D – A
– B.

Parallelogram Method:
1. Determine the resultant for the given vectors by parallelogram
A: 15 km, 33° N of E B: 10 km, 27° S of E

TRIANGLE METHOD:
1. Given two vectors A = 70 m 60o N of E and B =35 m 30o S of E. Determine their resultant
(magnitude and direction).

POLYGON METHOD:
1. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the given vectors. Use
polygon method.
A: 2 kph 45° N of E; B: 2.8 kph 58° E of S; C: 5.1 kph W 28° S; D: 3.2 kph N 18° W

COMPONENT METHOD:
1. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E of
N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use component method to determine the magnitude and
direction of her resultant displacement.

2. A spelunker is surveying a cave. He follows a passage 180 m straight west, then 210 m in
a direction 45o E of S, and then 280 m at 30o E of N. After a fourth unmeasured
displacement, he finds himself back where he started. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the fourth displacement by using component method.

UNIT VECTORS:
1. Given three vectors A = -2i + 3j + 4k, B = 3i + 1j – 3k and C = 3i -4j + 2k, do the following:
a) Find the magnitude of each vector
b) Write an expression for the vector sum A + B using unit vectors
c) Write an expression for the vector difference A – C using unit vectors
d) Find the scalar product A ∙ B
e) Find the cross product A × B
f) Find the angle between A and B
g) Find (A x C) ∙ B

19
EVALUATE
1. Determine the equivalent directions for the given vectors.
a. 35° N of E c. S 40° E
b. 20° W of S d. N 65° W

2. Determine the equilibrant of the given vectors by (a) parallelogram method and (b)
triangle method. Use the given scale for your answer.
C = 10 kph, 12 N of W E = 15 kph, 83 S of E

3. Determine the resultant of the given vectors by component method. Summarize your
answers in the given table.
VECTORS  from 0° X – component Y - component

E 23 km 11° N of E

N 25 km 24° E of S

G 19 km 18° S of W

R 27 km 58° W of N

4. Given are the vectors A = 30 N 45o N of W and B = 45 N 75o S of E. Determine a) their

resultant and b) their vector difference B – A.

5. A sailor in a small boat encounters shifting winds. She sails 8 km south, then 15 km 30o E of
N, and then 12 km 25o N of W. Use polygon method to determine the magnitude and
direction of her resultant displacement.

6. Solve for the required using the given vectors

A = 3i – 8j + 6k B = 4 j + 9k – 5i C = 7k – 2
a. A ∙ B b. A × B c. (A × B) × C d. (B × C) ∙ A

20
 MODULE2: KINEMATICS
MODULE 2 UNIT 1: MOTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE

ENGAGE
Based on your learning from module 1, how can you apply vectors and scalar quantities in
the study of motion?

EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 1: Motion on a straight line (pp 21 – 24)
EXPLAIN

MOTION
➢ Change in position of an object in a given time interval
➢ A continuous change in position

KINEMATICS
➢ A branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects regardless of the cause
of motion
PARTICLE
➢ “Idealized model” representing a moving body; no rotation or change in shape
occurs during motion
COORDINATES (Rectangular)
➢ The mathematical method of locating points in a space or plane will also be used for
locating bodies as they move

MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE (RECTILINEAR MOTION)

We start our study with the simplest type of motion a body can undergo. This is called
rectilinear motion or motion along a straight line. For the analysis, we will be considering the
line of motion as a coordinate axis, i.e. the x-axis if the line of motion is horizontal or inclined
or the y-axis if the line of motion is vertical.

21
BASIC CONCEPTS:
1. Position, x

o indicate the location of the body at any time as it moves

o the distance from a given reference point along the path at any time
o usually given as a function of time like X = (10 m/s2) t2 or X = (5 m/s) t + 10 m, etc
o The form of the equation depends on how the body moves along the line.

• In cases where the line of motion is the y-axis, position is denoted by (y).

2. Displacement(x)
o the change in position of a body during a certain length of time or time interval

• Displacement is different from distance traveled in the sense that displacement is a

vector quantity directed from the initial to the final position. Distance is the length of
a path followed by a particle. However, in one directional rectilinear motion, the
magnitude of the displacement is the same as the distance traveled.

3. time instant vs time interval

timeinstant(t)
▪ the time at a certain point, i.e. at the time 3 secs after starting or time 5 secs before
stops, etc
timeinterval (t)
▪ a length of time, i.e. during the first 5 secs, or during the time from t1 = 4 secs to t2
= 7 secs, etc.

22
 4. Speed vs velocity
Speed – defines how fast an object moves
Velocity (V) – the rate of change in position of an object; the speed of a body
including its direction of motion

a. Averagevelocity (Vave)
▪ velocity of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points along its
path
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 ∆𝐱
𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 ∆𝐭
b. Instantaneous velocity (V)
▪ velocity of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
∆𝐱 𝐝𝐱
𝐕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝐭 →𝟎 ∆𝐭 𝐝𝐭
Where x is the position of the given as a function of time
*velocity is the derivative of displacement

5. Acceleration – the rate of change in velocity of an object; a body is said to be

accelerating when the velocity is changing
a. Average acceleration (aave)
▪ acceleration of a body taken during a time interval, or between two points along
its path (displacement)
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ∆𝐕
𝐚𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐥 ∆𝐭
b. Instantaneous acceleration (a)
▪ acceleration of an object at a specific time, or specific point along its path
∆𝐕 𝐝𝐕 𝐝𝟐 𝐱
𝐚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = =
∆𝐭 →𝟎 ∆𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
*acceleration is the derivative of velocityAND the 2nd derivative of the displacement

UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED RECTILINEAR MOTION (UARM)

➢ A very common and simple type of one-dimensional motion where the acceleration is
constant.
➢ In such a case, at any instant within the interval, and the velocity changes at the same
rate throughout the motion.

BASIC KINEMATIC EQUATIONS for UARM:

**To simplify the equations,
it will be assumed here that at time t = 0, the position xi = 0,Thus the time interval Δt will be
the same as time instant t (Δt = t) because ti = 0 and tf = t.
The displacement Δx will also become same as position x (Δx = x) because xi = 0 and xf =
x at time instant t.

23
 Derivation:
∆X X Take Vf from Eq 3.a and substitute in Eq 2
Vave = = → Eq a,
∆t t 2x
But − Vi = Vi + at
t
Vi + Vf 2x
Vave = → Eq b = 2Vi + at → 2x = 2Vi t + at 2
2 t
Equating Eq a and Eq b 𝟏
𝐗 = 𝐕𝐢 𝐭 + 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 → 𝐄𝐪 𝟑
𝐕𝐢 + 𝐕𝐟 𝟐
𝐗= 𝐭 → Eq 1
𝟐 Take Vi from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2
Eq 1 can be written as 𝟏
𝐗 = 𝐕𝐟 𝐭 − 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 → 𝐄𝐪 𝟒
2x 𝟐
= Vi + Vf → Eq 1. a
t Take t from Eq 1.a and substitute in Eq 2
From acceleration: 2X
t=
𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐢 + 𝐚𝐭 → Eq 2 Vi + Vf
2X 2X
Vf = Vi + a ( ) → Vf − Vi = a ( )
Vi + Vf Vi + Vf
(Vf − Vi )(Vi + Vf ) = 2aX
𝐕𝐟𝟐 = 𝐕𝐢𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝐗 → 𝐞𝐪 𝟓

FREE FALLING MOTION

➢ A freely falling body is one that moves vertically in air under the action of its weight
alone. Air resistance is neglected and there is no external additional factor that is causing
the body to move except gravity.
The specific equations for free fall are the following (based from Basic equations of UARM:

From UARM → Free Fall Sign convention:

1. 𝐗 =
𝐕𝐢 + 𝐕𝐟
𝐭 1. 𝐘 =
𝐕𝐢 + 𝐕𝐟
𝐭 Y is positive (+) if measured above the
𝟐 𝟐
starting point. It is negative (-) if measured
2. 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐢 + 𝐚𝐭 2. 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐕𝐢 + 𝐠𝐭 below the starting point.
Vi and Vfare positive (+) if directed upward,
𝟏 𝟏 negative (-) if directed downward.
3. 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐢 𝐭 + 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 3. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐢 𝐭 + 𝟐 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐 Time t is always positive (+).
𝟏 𝟏
4. 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐟 𝐭 − 𝐚𝐭 𝟐 4. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐟 𝐭 − 𝐠𝐭 𝟐 g is always negative (-):
𝟐 𝟐
(g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)
5. 𝐕𝐟𝟐 = 𝐕𝐢𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝐗 5. 𝐕𝐟𝟐 = 𝐕𝐢𝟐 + 𝟐𝐠𝐘

24
ELABORATE
HORIZONTAL MOTION
m
1. The motion of a particle along the x –axis is described by the equation x = (6 s ) t +
m
(0.5 3 ) t 3 where x is in meters, and t is in seconds. Determine the following:
s
a. Position of the particle 3 seconds after 2. Average acceleration during the
starting second 3 seconds
b. Displacement from 2 sec to 5 sec 3. Acceleration at t = 5 secs
c. Average velocity during first 5 seconds 4. Time the particle moves at 20m/s
d. Velocity at t= 4secs 5. The acceleration and velocity at start
of motion
UARM:
1. A car starting from rest moves with constant acceleration. after 10 sec, the velocity is now
30 m/s. Compute for (a) acceleration, (b) distance travelled after 10 sec, (c) time it took
to travel 100meters, and (d) its velocity after travelling 50 meters.
SOLUTION: First step of the solution is to identify the given values. Draw a simple diagram
representing the given.

2. A subway train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at a rate of 1.6 m/s 2 for 14 s.
It runs at constant speed for 70 s and slows down at a rate of 3.5 m/s2 until it stops at the
next station. Find the total distance covered.

FREE FALL
1. A stone is thrown vertically downward with a velocity of 5 m/s from a window 50 meters
above ground level. (a) How much time will it take to travel to the ground? (b) With what
velocity will it strike the ground? (c) How far did it fall in 2?

2. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the roof of a building. It just misses the roof on its
way down and passes a point 30 m below its starting point 5 s after it leaves the thrower’s
hand. Air resistance may be ignored. (a) What is the initial speed of the ball? (b) How
high does it rise above its starting point? (c) What is its velocity 5 s after it leaves the
thrower’s hand?

3. A stone is dropped from a building 50 m high. At what time will the stone reach the
ground? What is the stone’s velocity upon hitting the ground? What is the stones velocity
at 1 sec? what is the stones position at t=2 secs and t= 3 secs?

4. At what velocity must an object be thrown vertically upto reach its maximum height in
2.5 seconds? How high is the peak from the starting point?

25
EVALUATE
HORIZONTAL MOTION
m
1. The motion of a particle along the x –axis is described by the equation v = (3 s2 ) t +
m
(0.5 2 ) t 2 where x is in meters, and t is in seconds. Determine the following:
s
a. Position of the particle 3 seconds after e. Average acceleration during the
starting second 3 seconds
b. Displacement from 2 sec to 5 sec f. Acceleration at t = 5 secs
c. Average velocity during first 5 seconds g. Time the particle moves at 20m/s
d. Velocity at t= 4secs h. The acceleration and velocity at start
of motion
UARM:
1. A car is moving at uniform acceleration. Its velocity after traveling for 2 seconds is 4m/s
and is found 12 meters from where it started. If the car’s velocity at 5 seconds is 10 m/s,
determine (a) the car’s acceleration, (b) its displacement at t = 5 seconds measured
from its starting point and (c) its velocity at the start.

2. A ball is rolled on a flat surface with an initial velocity of 2 m/s. what is the ball’s
acceleration if it was found 15 meters away from its starting position after 5 seconds?
What is the ball’s velocity at a distance 20m? how long will the ball travel to achieve a
velocity of 20 m/s?

FREE FALL:
1. If the stone in example problem 3 was initially thrown downwards at 4 m/s, how much
time will it take to reach the ground? At what velocity will it hit the ground? At what time
will it reach a velocity of 12m/s? Where is the stone at v=6 m/s?

2. Resolve practice problem number 1, if the stone was thrown upwards instead. Use the
same given values. How high will the stone reach?

26
 KINEMATICS UNIT 2: MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
ENGAGE
From Module 2 Unit 2, what concepts can be applied in two- dimensional motion?

What factors would affect the motion of objects in two dimensions?

EXPLORE
Read Module 2 Unit 2: Motion in Two Dimensions (pp 27– 29)
EXPLAIN

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Motion in two dimensions can be modelled as two independent motions in each of
the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes. That is, any influence in
the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction and vice versa.

➢ PROJECTILE MOTION
o A curvilinear motion which moves under the sole effect of gravity. Air resistance is
neglected just like in free falling motion. The difference is that for a projectile, the
initial velocity called the velocity of projection is not vertical. It is directed either
horizontally, at an angle below the horizontal, or at anangle above the horizontal.
o the path is that of an inverted parabola, symmetric about a vertical line that
passes thru the vertex (highest point)

TRAJECTORY
o curved path followed by a projectile and is always in the form of an inverted
Parabola

HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS VERTICAL COMPONENTS

Displacement R = range Y
Velocity Vx = constant (Vix = Vfx) Vy (under free fall)
acceleration ax=0 ay = g = -9.81 m/s2

27
Equations for Projectile Motion:
Vertical: Sign convention:
1. 𝐘 =
𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝐕𝐟𝐲
𝐭 Y is positive (+) if measured above the starting point. It is negative
𝟐
(-) if measured below the starting point.
2. 𝐕𝐟𝐲 = 𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝐠𝐭
Viy and Vfyare positive (+) if directed upward, negative (-) if
𝟏 directed downward.
3. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐢𝐲 𝐭 + 𝐠𝐭 𝟐
𝟐
Time t is always positive (+).
𝟏
4. 𝐘 = 𝐕𝐟𝐲 𝐭 − 𝟐
𝐠𝐭 𝟐 g is always negative (-). (g=-9.8 m/s2; -980 cm/s2; -32 ft/s2)

5. 𝐕𝐟𝐲
𝟐 𝟐
= 𝐕𝐢𝐲 + 𝟐𝐠𝐘

Horizontal:
6. 𝐑 = 𝐗 = 𝐕𝐱 𝐭

x and y components of Initial Velocity

𝐯𝐱 = 𝐯𝐢𝐱 = 𝐯𝐢 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐯𝐢𝐲 = 𝐯𝐢 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
𝒗𝒊𝒚 𝒗𝒇𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙 2 2
𝒗𝒊 𝑉𝑓 = √𝑉𝑓𝑥 + 𝑉𝑓𝑦
𝛉
𝑉𝑓𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1
θ 𝑉𝑓𝑥
𝒗𝒇𝒚 𝒗𝒇
𝒗𝒊𝒙

CASES:

28
 1. Projectile launched HORIZONTALLY

θ at initial is zero
vi = vix = vx = vfx
Y is negative

2. Projectile launched at an angle BELOWthe horizontal

vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is negative
Y is negative

3. Projectile launched at an angle ABOVEthe horizontal

vi = vix = vx = vfx
Viy is positive
V approaches zero as it
reaches Ymax

ELABORATE
1. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 30 m/s from a window 40 m above ground
level. Solve for (a) the time it takes to travel to the ground, (b) the velocity 2 secs after
being thrown, (c) the horizontal displacement or range.

2. An airplane was diving at an angle of 30o below the horizontal when it dropped a bomb
from a height of 1000 meters. The bomb hits the ground 5 sec later. (a) What was the
velocity of the airplane? (b) With what velocity did the bomb hit the ground?

29
3. A cannonball is fired with a velocity of 40 m/s 30o above the horizontal from the top of a
cliff 50 meters high. (a) How much time will it take to travel to ground level? (b) What is
the highest point reached measured from ground level? (c) What is the range of the
cannonball? (d) With what velocity did the cannonball strike the ground?

4. During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into air at an initial speed of 70 m/s at Angie of
75 above the horizontal. The shell ignites once it reaches its highest point. (a) Calculate
the height at which the shell explodes. (b) how much time has passed between the
launch and explosion? (c) What is the horizontal displacement of the shell at explosion?

EVALUATE
1. In a game war, one team sets base on a cliff 15m high and 60m away from the
opponent’s base. At what velocity must the attack be launched so that the lower base
will be hit? The initial launch is at 20 degrees below the horizontal?

2. A baseball is hit at a velocity of 100fps at an angle 20 above the horizontal. Will the ball
hit a fence 20ft high and 200ft away from the batter’s plate? How far will the ball land
from the fence?

3. A boulder rolls over a 50m high cliff. How fast was the boulder moving if it was found 180
m on the ground? At what time did the boulder hit the ground? At what velocity was it
approaching the ground?

4. Graph the trajectory of a particle for every 1 sec, if it is moving at an initial velocity of 25
m/s from a height of 20 m, if (a) it is launched horizontally, (b) it is launched 15 above
the horizontal, and (c) it is launched 10 below the horizontal. Mark the highest point it
reaches, and its maximum horizontal displacements.

30
 MODULE 3: DYNAMICS
ENGAGE
Enumerate and differentiate the three (3) laws of Newton

What happens when a force is subjected to an object?

EXPLORE
Read Module 3: Dynamics (pp 31 - 35)
EXPLAIN

KINEMATICS vs DYNAMICS

Kinematics is the language for describing motion of an object which includes its position,
velocity, and acceleration but there was no consideration of what might influence that
motion.

Dynamics studies the causes of motion. The two main factors we need to consider to answer
question about why the motion of an object will change are the forcesacting on an object
and the massof the object. We begin our study of dynamics by discussing the three basic
laws of motion, which deal with forces and masses and were formulated by Isaac Newton.

LAWS OF MOTION
o Physical laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics
o Describes the relation between massive bodies and the interaction of forces
o According to Sir Isaac Newton, there are three laws governing motion

1STLAW: LAW OF INERTIA

▪ “Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion
unless an external force is applied”

➢ When the vector sum or resultant of the forces acting on a body is equal to
zero, the body will remain at rest if it is initially at rest or remains in uniform motion
along a straight line if it is initially in motion

31
 PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
▪ If the acceleration of an object that can be modelled as a particle is zero, the
object is said to be in equilibrium. A body in equilibrium is a body that is either at
rest or a body that is moving at uniform velocity. Mathematically, the net force
acting on the object is zero.
∑𝐅 = 𝟎
That is 𝜮𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜮𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎

Inertia and Mass

Inertia - The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity
Mass - is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an object
exhibits to changes in its velocity,a measure of the inertia of an object.

2NDLAW: LAW OF FORCE AND ACCELERATION

o “The force exerted on an object is directly dependent on its mass and is inversely
dependent on its acceleration”
o Any object under the second law has an unbalanced forced which result to an
acceleration
o The direction of motion is the same as the direction of the force
Mathematically represented as :
∑𝐅 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕
= 𝐚 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 =
𝐦 𝒎

If an object that can be modeled as a particle experiences an acceleration, there must be

a nonzero net force acting on it.
𝜮𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

3RDLAW: LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION

• “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
• Between any two bodies (A and B) exerting force on each other, the force
exerted by one body (body A) on the other body (body B) is always of the
same magnitude but in the opposite direction to the force exerted by body B
on body A.
𝑭𝑨𝑩 = − 𝑭𝑩𝑨

BASIC CONCEPTS:
1. FORCES, F
o Any interaction between objects, which when unopposed will result to a change
in motion
o Defined as either a push or a pull exerted on a body
o Expressed as Newton (N) in the metric system

32
 TYPES OF FORCES
a. Contact Forces – interactions between objects that involves physical contact
e.g. applied forces, frictional forces

Figure 3.1When a coiled spring is pulled, as in Figure a, the spring stretches.

When a stationary cart is pulled, as in Figure b, the cart moves. When a football
is kicked, as in Figure c, it is both deformed and set in motion. These situations
are all examples of a class of forces called contact forces.

b. Non-Contact Forces – also called field forces; attracts or repels from a distance or
through empty space; no physical contact is required
e.g. magnetic force, gravitational force

Figure 3.2 The gravitational force of attraction between two objects with mass,
illustrated in Figure d, the electric force that one electric charge exerts on
another, shown in Figure e (such as the attractive electric force between an
electron and a proton that form a hydrogen atom), and the force a bar
magnet exerts on a piece of iron (Figure f) are some examples of field forces.

2. Mass, m and WEIGHT, W

Mass
o amount of matter contained in a body
o A scalar quantity
o Remains constant wherever it is
Weight
o Or the force due to gravity; the gravitational force exerted on the body by
the earth (if the body is on or near the surface of the earth)
o Concentrated weight is considered as acting on the center of gravity of a body
and always directed (vertically)downward;
o Its value varies based on its location

33
 o simply defined as the product of the mass of the object and the gravitational
acceleration (where the object is placed)
𝐖 = 𝐦𝐠
o Always directed downwards (no matter what its position or location is
*NOTE:
the weight of a man standing is directed downward, same when the man is sitting or
lying down or face down.

The mass of a person is the same whether he is on earth or on mars or on the moon,
but his weight would vary depending on his location, that’s why a person is not fat/heavy,
he is just in the wrong planet! ☺

Figure 3.3 direction of weight is downward no matter what the orientation of the object is

3. TENSION, T
o A pulling/ stretching force aacitng from opposite ends applied axially through the
strings, cables, rope, etc

4. COMPRESSION, C
o Balanced inward force on a material or structure
o Occurs when a physical forces presses inward on an object causing it to become
compacted

5. NORMAL FORCE, Nf and FRICTIONAL FORCE, f

Whenever two surfaces in contact move or tend to move past each other, the two
surfaces will always exert two forces on each other
NORMAL FORCE, Nf
o Support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another object
o Always perpendicular and directed towards the surface of contact
FRICTIONAL FORCE, f
o The interaction between surfaces; a force resisting the relative motion between
surfaces; always present whenever a body is in contact with a surface (whether
the body is moving or not)
o Always opposite the direction of motion or impending motion and is always
parallel to the surface of contact

34
 2 Types of Friction (based on the motional relation between surfaces in contact)
a. Static friction, fs
▪ Acts when motion just impending or when there is no relative motion
between the surfaces in contact
b. Kinetic friction, fk
▪ Acts when one or both the surfaces are in motion
▪ Usually lesser compared to static friction

6. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION,
o The ratio between the force required to move one surface over another and the
pressure between surfaces
o Depends on the surfaces in contact and are nearly independent of the area of
contact
𝐟
𝛍=
𝐍𝐟
a. Coefficient of Static friction, s b. Coefficient of Kinetic friction, k
o The ration between the static o The ration between the kinetic
friction and normal force friction and normal force
𝐟𝐬 𝐟𝐤
𝛍= 𝛍=
𝐍𝐟 𝐍𝐟

7. FREE BODY DIAGRAM, FBD

• A diagram representing all forces (magnitude and direction) acting on a body in
question isolated from the other parts of the system
• Its construction is an integral part of the analysis of systems using Newton’s laws of
motion

** STEPS in illustrating an FBD:

choose one object, and draw an arrow to represent each force acting on it. Include
every force acting on that object. If the problem involves more than one object, a
separate free-body diagram is needed for each object. We consider for now, the
likely forces that could be acting are gravity and contact forces (one object pushing
or pulling another, normal force, friction).

35
ELABORATE
FBD:
1. Given the system below, draw the FBD of the blocks A A
and B, if block B will move downward and the
coefficient of friction between block A and the incline µ
is 0.3. B

System Diagram

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW:

1. For the system to be in equilibrium, determine the tension 45° in
each cord. C

60°
B A

80 kg

2. A man pushes a block of mass 25 kg so that it slides at constant velocity along a level floor.
Calculate the magnitude of the force if the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block
and floor is 0.20.
Given:

3. A man pushes a block of mass 20 kg so that it slides at constant velocity up a ramp that is
inclined at 11o. Calculate the magnitude of the force parallel to the incline applied by the
man if a) the incline is frictionless; b) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and
incline is 0.25.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW:

1. A 15 kg load of bricks hangs from one end of a rope that passes over a small, frictionless
pulley. A 28 kg counterweight is to be suspended from the other end of the rope. The system
is released from rest. a) draw two free body diagrams, one for the load of bricks and one for
the counterweight. b) What is the magnitude of the upward acceleration of the load of
bricks? c) What is the tension in the rope?

2. Block A has a mass of 4.0 kg , and block B has a = 2 m/s2

mass 12.0 kg. The coefficient of kinetic friction B
between block B and the horizontal surface is
0.25. a) What is the mass of block C if block B is µK = 0.25
moving to the right and speeding up with an
acceleration 2 m/s2? b) what is the tension in
each cord when block B has this acceleration? A C

36
EVALUATE
1. A 25kg wooden plate is held in place by two strings attached to the ceiling and the
wall. The string attached to the ceiling makes an angle 40 with the horizontal and the
string attached to the wall makes 90 with the wall. Determine the force in each string.

2. A block 4kg in mass rests on a horizontal plane. What value of horizontal force is
required to (a) move the block, (b) maintain the motion of the block once it is moved?
The coefficients of static and kinetic friction are 0.23 and 0.18, respectively. What will
the force be, if the force is instead applied 25 above the horizontal?

3. A block has a mass of 6kg and rest initially on a plane inclined at 35. What value of
force is required to stop the block from sliding if (a) the plane is frictionless, (b) the
plane has coefficients of fractions static and kinetic equal to 0.20 and 0.18
respectively? What will the value of the force be if the velocity is constant and is
directed upward parallel the incline?

4. In the figure, blocks A and B have masses 40 kg and 20 kg,

respectively. (a) Determine the minimum weight of block C to
keep A from sliding. The static and kinetic coefficient of
frictions between block A and the table are 0.18 and 0.15,
respectively. (b) What is the acceleration of block A?

5. A block of mass 5 kg starts to slide down a frictionless

plane, inclined at 25 as shown in figure 2. The block
moves from rest at the top. The length of the incline is 2.0
m. Find (a) the acceleration of the block, and (b) its
speed when it reaches the bottom of the inclined.

37
 MODULE 4: WORK, ENERGY and POWER

ENGAGE
From your learnings in kinematics and dynamics, what do you think causes work?

from kinematics and dynamics, will work have a direction? Explain.

EXPLORE
Read Module 4: Work, Energy and Power (pp 38-42)
EXPLAIN

The study of Physics is primarily involved with understanding energy in its different
forms. Many systems operate on the principle of conservation of energy which state that
energy of all forms possessed by an isolated system remains constant. The importance of
understanding the concept of energy stems from this principle and in this module, we will be
looking at the applications of the energy idea on a wide range of physical phenomena from
the simple case of a body being pushed along a surface to the operation of machines.
We will be concentrating on Mechanical energy, which is that form of energy
associated with the motion of the body and the forces acting on it. We will start by
considering the concept of work and its relation with the two forms of mechanical energy
i.e. potential and kinetic energy and finally consider the concept of power which is an
indication of the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred in or
out of a system.

WORK
➢ a measure of the amount of change (in a general sense) that a force produces when
it acts on a body
➢ The change may be in the velocity of the body, in its position, or in its size or shape
➢ By definition, the work done by a force acting on a body is equal to the product of
the force and the distance through which the force acts, provided that F and dare in
the same direction. Thus,
𝐖𝐤 = 𝐅 ∙ 𝐝
Work = force x distance
∗ we use W𝑘 to distinguished work W to Weight W
F F

38
Note that WORK is a scalar quantity, no direction is associated with it. If F and d are not
parallel but F is at the angle θ with respect tod, then

Applied Force Applied Force

F cos θ F cos θ

d
𝑾𝒌 = (𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) ∙ 𝒅

Where :
 = angle between the force and displacement

𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
❖ Force applied is in the same direction as its displacement,
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 0 ∙ 𝑑
WORK DONE IS POSITIVE
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑

𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
❖ Force applied is perpendicular with the direction of its
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 90 ∙ 𝑑
displacement , NO WORK IS DONE
𝑊𝑘 = 0

𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
❖ Force applied is in the opposite direction as its displacement,
𝑊𝑘 = 𝐹 cos 180 ∙ 𝑑
WORK DONE IS NEGATIVE
𝑊𝑘 = −𝐹 ∙ 𝑑

UNITS OF WORK:
UNITS SI CGS ENGLISH
Force,F Newton, N Dyne Pound, lb
Displacement,d Meter,m Cm Ft
Work,W N.m or Joule,J [Link] or Erg [Link]

WORK DONE BY VARYING FORCE:

Example: Work done to stretch or to compress a spring.
𝟏
𝑾𝒌 = 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐
Where: k = force constant of the spring
x = maximum elongation or compression of the spring

39
ENERGY
- property of an object that enables it to do work
➢ It is given to an object when a force does work on the object
➢ The amount of energy transferred to the object equals the work done
➢ The more energy an object has, the more work it can perform. Two general categories
of energy are kinetic energy and potential energy.

**NOTE: Since energy is equal to work, the units of energy is the same with work: Joule,
erg,and foot-pound

2 GENERAL CATEGORIES OF ENERGY:

o Potential energy, PE or U
o The energy a body has by virtue of displacement or position
a. Gravitational Potential Energy, Ugrav orPEgrav
o Energy stored by virtue of vertical position or height
o Energy stored as the result of gravity (weight) on the object
𝐔𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯 = 𝐏𝐄𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯 = Fd = Wh = 𝐦𝐠𝐡
Work done by gravity = -ΔU
Work done by external force = ΔU
Where: m = mass; g = gravitational acceleration; h = height or position

b. Elastic Potential Energy, Uspring or PE spring

o Energy stored in elastic materials as a result if stretching or compressing
o Uspring is proportional to the square of the amount of stretch or compression
𝟏
𝐏𝐄𝐬𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 = Fx = 𝐤 𝐱 𝟐 = area of F − x diagram
𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .

o Kinetic Energy
a. The energy a body has by virtue of motion
𝟏
𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝟐
Where: KE = kinetic energy; m= mass of object; v = velocity

40
WORK and KINETIC ENERGY
vi vf
F F
m

Note: The work done by the external forces acting on a body (except its weight) contributes
to the change of kinetic energy of the body, assuming ΔU = 0.

ALGEBRA DERIVATION CALCULUS DERIVATION

KE = Fd = ma d; ; let x = d
KE = Fd = ma d dv
but ad from but a =
dt
Vf 2 − Vi2 dv
Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ad; ad = ∫ KE = m dx
2 dt
Vf 2 − Vi2 1 dx
∴ KE = m ( ) = m (Vf 2 − Vi2 ) ∆KE = m dv = mV dv
2 2 dt
if Vi = 0 1
∆KE = m ∫ Vdv = m ( V 2 )
𝟏 2
𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 ∆𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦 𝐯 𝟐
𝟐

*Work Energy Theorem: States that the work done by the sum of all forces acting on a particle
equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle
𝐖𝐧𝐞𝐭 = ∆𝐊𝐄
𝐅𝐧𝐞𝐭 𝐝 = 𝐊𝐄𝐟 − 𝐊𝐄𝐢

*MECHANICAL ENERGY, E - the mechanical energy of an object is equal to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy, that is
𝐄=𝐊+𝐔

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

o States that in an ISOLATED SYSTEM:
a. “energy can neither be created not destroyed; it may only be transformed”
b. “the total amount of work done is equal to the change in the total energy”;
c. Assuming that the work done is equal to ZERO:
▪ “the total energy is constant”
▪ “the energy gained is equal to the energy loss”

41
o The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. A falling stone provides a simple
example: More and more of its initial potential energy turns to kinetic energy as its velocity
increases, until finally all its kinetic energy has become potential energy when it strikes
the ground. The kinetic energy of the stone is then transferred to the ground as work by
the impact.

Work done (by non-conservative forces) on an object is equal to the sum of the change
in object’s KE andchange in object’s PE

IN GENERAL: If there is NO NON_CONSERVATIVE force, then

Wk total = ∆ Total Energy Wk total = 0 → 0 = ∆KE + ∆U
Fd = ∆(U + KE) (U + KE)f = (U + KE)i → Law of Conservatio of Energy
Fd = (U + KE)f Uf − Ui = −(KEf − KEi ) → ∆U = −∆KE → U Gained = KE Lost
− (U + KE)i or
−(Uf − Ui ) = (KEf − KEi ) → −∆U = ∆KE → U Lost = KE Gained

** Conservative forces – are those forces that do work that can be recovered. Ex.
Gravitational force, elastic forces, magnetic and electric field forces
**Non-conservative or dissipative forces – are those forces which do work that can’t be
recovered. Ex. Friction and other externally applied forces

POWER
o Rate of how much work is done; or rate of how much energy is used/consumed
dW W Work
P= = =
dt t time
the more power something has, the more work it can perform in a given time

UNITS OF POWER
FORCE DISPLACEMENT WORK/ ENERGY POWER
METRIC Newton, N, kg – Meters, m N – m, Joules (J) J/s = Watts, W
m/s2 Dynes – cm (ergs) Horsepower, hp
dynes,g-cm/s 2

ENGLISH Pounds, lbs Foot, ft Lbs - ft Lbs-ft/s

*1N = 105 dynes *1J = 107 ergs *1hp = 746 watts
*1hp=550 lbs-ft/s *1Watt = 1 J/s = 1.34 x 10-3 hp

When a constant force F does work on a body that is moving at the constant velocity v, if F
is parallel to V the power involved is
W F∙d
P= = = Fv
t t

Since d/t= v, then Power = Force x velocity

42
ELABORATE
WORK:
1. A 30-N block is pulled up a plane inclined at 30o to the horizontal by a force P of 20 N
acting parallel to the plane. A frictional force of 5 N opposes the motion of the block. If
the block travels 15 m along the incline, calculate the following: (a) Work done by the
force P. (b) Work done by the gravity force. (c) Work done by the normal force. (d) Work
done by friction. (e) Total work done on the block.

2. A force of 100 N is observed to stretch a certain spring a distance of 0.4 m. (a) What force
is required to stretch the spring of 0.1 m? To compress the spring 0.2 m? (b) How much
work must be done to stretch the spring 0.1 m beyond its unstretched length? (c) How
much work must be done to compress the spring 0.2 m from its equilibrium position?

ENERGY
1. A 1.5-kg book is held 60 cm above a desk whose top is 70 cm above the floor. Find the
potential energy of the book (a) with respect to the desk, and (b) with respect to the
floor.

2. A 1.50-kg book is sliding along a rough horizontal surface. At point A it is moving at 3.21
m/s, and at point B it has slowed to 1.25 m/s. (a) How much work was done on the book
between A and B? (b) If awork of -0.750 J is done on the book from B to C, how fast is it
moving at point C? (c) How fast would it be moving at C if of work of +0.750 J were done
on it from B to C?

3. A baseball is thrown from the roof of a 22.0-m-tall building with an initial velocity of
magnitude 12.0 m/s and directed at an 53.1°angle of above the horizontal. (a) What is
the speed of the ball just before it strikes the ground? Use energy methods and ignore air
resistance. (b) What is the answer for part (a) if the initial velocity is at an angle of 53.1°
below the horizontal?

4. A small rock with mass 0.20 kg is released from rest at point A, which is at the top edge of
a large, hemispherical bowl with radius R = 0.50 m. Assume that the size of the rock is small
compared to R, so that the rock can be treated as a particle, and assume that the rock
slides rather than rolls. The work done by friction on the rock when it moves from point A
to point B at the bottom of the bowl has magnitude - 0.22 J. (a) Between points A and B,
how much work is done on the rock by (i) the normal force and (ii) gravity? (b) What is
the speed of the rock as it reaches point B?

43
5. A 60.0-kg skier starts from rest at the top of a ski slope 65.0 m high. (a) If frictional forces
do -10.5 kJ of work on her as she descends, how fast is she going at the bottom of the
slope? (b) Now moving horizontally, the skier crosses a patch of soft snow, where µk =
0.20. If the patch is 82.0 m wide and the average force of air resistance on the skier is 160
N, how fast is she going after crossing the patch?

6. A block of mass m= 2.00 kg is attached to a spring of force

constant k =500 N/m as shown in Figure below. The block is
pulled to a position xi= 5.00 cm to the right of equilibrium and
released from rest. Find the speed the block has as it passes
through equilibrium if (a) the horizontal surface is frictionless
and (b) the coefficient of friction between block and surface
is µk = 0.350.

7. A block with mass 0.50 kg is forced against a

horizontal spring of negligible mass,
compressing the spring a distance of 0.20 m
as shown in the figure below. When released,
the block moves on a horizontal tabletop for
1.00 m before coming to rest. The spring
constant k is 100 N/m. What is the coefficient
of kinetic friction µk between the block and the tabletop?

POWER
1. A 40-kg woman runs up a staircase 4 m high in 5 s. Find her minimum power output.

2. A tandem (two-person) bicycle team must overcome a force of 165 N to maintain a

speed of 9.0 m/s. Find the power required per rider, assuming that each contributes
equally. Express your answer in watts and in horsepower.

3. Working Like a Horse. Your job is to lift 30-kg crates a vertical distance of 0.90 m from the
ground onto the bed of a truck. (a) How many crates would you have to load onto the
truck in 1 minute for the average power output you use to lift the crates to equal 0.50 Hp?
(b) How many crates for an average power output of 100 W?

EVALUATE
WORK:
1. A 10 N force is applied to push a 20 N block across a frictionless Surface for a
displacement of 5.0 m to the right. What are the forces doing work on the object? What
is the amount of work done by each force? How much work is done on the object?

44
2. If the object in problem 1, is set on a surface with 0.25 coefficient of friction, how much
work is done?
3. How much work is done by an applied force to lift a 15 N block 3.0 meters vertically at
constant speed?
4. How much work is done on a 5 kg block if it is to be moved on a ramp 30 above the
horizontal and height of 1 meter? What are the values of work done by each force?
ENERGY
1. A 3000 kg car accelerates from rest to 15 m/s. determine the network done on the car.

2. Determine the potential energy for each position in the given figure. Determine the mass
of the ball if the height of each step is 10m.

3. Solve for the Kinetic energy and velocity at each position for problem 3, if the velocity
initial is (a) 0 m/s; (b) 2 m/s.

4. Determine the potential and kinetic energy for each position.

KE=0 J
PE=35 000 J

5. An object accelerates from 4 m/s to 9m/s. determine the mass of the object if the net
work done is 350 Joule.

6. a 2kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of spring is 4cm. how much potential
energy is there in the spring?

45
7. The potential energy of an elastic spring when elongated 12 cm is 3.5 Joule. Determine
the spring constant. What is the potential energy and force of the spring if its elongation
is 10 cm?

8. A 2 kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of the spring is 4 cm, determine the
potential energy of the spring. What is the value of the spring constant? How much force
is required to elongate the spring by 5 cm?

9. A spring has a force constant of 3N/m. How much force is required to compress the spring
by 2 cm? If a pulling force of 3N is applied how much is the spring’s deformation?

POWER
1. A 60 kg person runs up the stairs 12 meters high for 3 minutes. Determine the power.

2. Determine the mass of a person climbing a tree 5 meters high in 9 seconds with power of
450 Joule

3. Determine the energy used by a rotary pump with power of 400 watts. The pump works
for a period of 5minutes and rotates 5 rounds.

4. Determine the power required by an 80kg man to run down a slope from 1.0 m/s to 2.0
m/s in 2 seconds.

5. a 95 kg runningback runs accelerates from 5.0 m/s to a final velocity. determine his final
velocity given that the power is 200 Joule/sec and the running was done for 5 seconds.

6. How long would it take to for a a pulley to move a 50 kg sack with a power of 250
Joule/second. The sack moves from 3m/s to 5m/s.

46
 MODULE 5: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
ENGAGE
From your learnings of Newton’s 2nd and 3rd law, what concepts could be derived for impulse
and momentum?

EXPLORE
Read Module 5: Impulse and Momentum (pp 47 - 49)
EXPLAIN

LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

Another conservation principle worth looking at is the Law of conservation of
momentum. Many physical phenomena can also be analyzed using this law. In fact, in
several situations, it is even simpler to use it than the law of conservation of energy or
Newton’s laws of motion. Specific cases are impacts and collisions wherein large forces are
applied for short times and cause changes in the motion of the bodies in the system. In
addition to momentum, another concept called impulse will be introduced. Based on
Newton’s laws, these two concepts are related, and we will see how these relations apply in
many areas of physics and mechanics.

IMPULSE (J) – Impulse of a force is defined as the product of a force and the time during
which it acts. (in some books impulse is also denoted as I)
𝐉 = 𝐅𝐭

Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the direction of the force,
i.e. the impulse of a force directed upward is directed upwards. Its units are N.s in the SI.
If the force varies with time, then
𝐭𝟐
𝐉 = ∫ 𝐅 𝐝𝐭
𝐭𝟏
Where F is given as function of time t

LINEAR MOMENTUM (p) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v):
Linear momentum = (mass of body) (velocity of body)
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯

Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the velocity. The units of
momentum are kg-m/s in the SI, and can be expressed in component form:
p𝑥 = mv𝑥 p𝑦 = mv𝑦 p𝑧 = mv𝑧

47
Newton’s Second Law and Momentum
Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the momentum of a particle to the
resultant force acting on it.
∆𝐯 𝐦𝐯𝐟 − 𝐦𝐯𝐢
∑𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚 = 𝐦 =
∆𝐭 ∆𝐭
∆𝐩
∑𝐅 =
∆𝐭

The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting
on the particle.

The momentum of a system changes if a net force from the environment acts on the system.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM
The change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse (I) of the new force
acting on the particle.
Impulse = change in momentum
𝐈 = 𝚫𝐩
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞: 𝐈 = ∑𝐅𝚫𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝚫𝐩 = 𝐩𝐟 − 𝐩𝐢 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯
Therefore,
∑𝐅∆𝐭 = 𝐦(𝐯𝐟 − 𝐯𝐢 )

Impulse is a vector quantity whose direction is that of the force. Its units are N-s in the SI.

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM:

If the net external force acting on a system of objects is zero, the vector sum of the
momenta of the objects will remain constant.

IN COLLISIONS AND EXPLOSIONS:

the vector sum of the momenta just before the event equals the vector sum of the
momenta just after the event. The vector sum of the momenta of the objects involved does
not change during the collision or explosion.

Thus, when two bodies of masses m1, and m2 collide,

Total momentum before impact = Total momentum after impact
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 = 𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐
Where
u1 and u2 are the velocities before impact, and
v1 and v2 are the velocities after.

48
Types of Collision:
PERFECTLY INELASTIC
ELASTIC COLLISION INELASTIC COLLISION
COLLISION
• The bodies stick together
after collision and move • Bodies separate • Bodies somewhat
with a common velocity completely after collision separate after collision
v
• Linear momentum is • Linear momentum is • Linear momentum is
conserved conserved conserved
𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆
(𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 )𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓
Before:
Before: Before:
m1 m2
m1 m2 m1 m2
v1 v2
v1 v2 v1 v2
After After:
After:
v1 m1 m2
m1 m2
m1 m2 v v2
v1 v2
• Total Kinetic Energy is • Total Kinetic Energy IS • Total Kinetic Energy is
NOT conserved conserved NOT conserved
• e=0 • e=1 • 0<e<1

A PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION is one in which the sum of the translational kinetic energies
of the objects is not changed during the collision. In the case of two bodies,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION: For any collision between two bodies in which the
bodies move only along a single straight line (e.g., the x-axis), a coefficient of restitution e is
defined. It is a pure number given by
𝐯𝟐𝐱 − 𝐯𝟏𝐱
𝐞=
𝐮𝟏𝐱 − 𝐮𝟐𝐱

where
u1x and u2x are values before impact, and
v1x and v2x are values after impact.

Notice that |𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 | is the relative speed of approach and |𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 | is the relative speed
of recession.

49
ELABORATE
IMPULSE
1. A force of 100 N to the right is applied to a body for 2 s. What is the impulse of the force?

2. A force directed to the right has a magnitude that varies according to the equation
F=(0.4 N/ s2) t2. It is applied to a body from t1 = 2 s to time t2 = 5 s. What is the impulse of
the force during the time interval from t1 to t2?

MOMENTUM
3. A 10 kg block is initially moving to the right at 20 m/s. Determine the change in
momentum if (a) finally the body is moving at 10 m/s to the left and (b) the body is
finally moving at 5 m/s downward.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM

1. A 2-kg brick is moving to the right at a speed of 6m/s. How large a force F is needed to
stop the brick in a time of 7x10-4 s?

2. A 0.25-kg ball moving in the +x-direction at 13m/s is hit by a bat. Its final velocity is 19m/s
in the –x-direction. The bat acts on the ball for 0.01 s. Find the average force exerted on the
ball by the bat.

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

1. A 16-g ball is moving in the +x-direction at 30cm/s while a 4 g ball is moving in the –x-
direction at 50cm/s. They collide head on and stick together. Find their velocity after
the collision.
2. A 1-kg ball is moving to the right at 12m/s collides head-on with a 2-kg ball moving in
the opposite direction at 24 m/s. Determine the motion of each after impact if (a) e = 2/3,
(b) the collision is perfectly elastic and (c) the balls stick together.

EVALUATE
1. A 3kg object travels with a velocity 4 m/s to the east. It then changes direction and moves
3 m/s to the west. Determine the impulse given to the object.

2. An 8-g bullet is fired horizontally into a 9-kg cube of wood, which is at rest, and sticks in it.
The cube is free to move and has a speed of 40cm/s after impact. Find the initial velocity
of the bullet.

3. A ball has a mass of 4 kg and velocity of 8m/s to the north. Impulse is given at point,
changing its velocity to 6 m/s east. Determine tbe impulse and the change in
momentum.

50
4. Car A is 3000N moves at velocity 3 m/s east. A car B 2500 N approaches car A at velocity
4m/s west. Determine the velocity of car A if (a) the two cars get stuck together after
collision; (b) car B moves 5m/s west; (c) car B moves 3m/s east

5. A 50 kg mass is sitting on a frictionless surface. An unknown constant force pushes the

mass for 2 seconds until it reaches a velocity of 3m/s. (a) what is the initial momentum of
the mass? (b) what is the final momentum of the mass? (c) what is the value of the force
acting on the mass? (d) what is the impulse acting on the mass?

51
 MODULE 6: ROTATING BODIES
MODULE 6 UNIT 1: ROTATIONAL MOTION
ENGAGE
What is rotational motion? Cite an example of rotational motion.

What is the difference between translational and rotational motion?

What are the characteristics of rotational motion?

Can objects move in circular motion while moving linearly? Cite an example

EXPLORE
Read Module 6: Rotational Motion (pp 52 - 56)
EXPLAIN

ROTATIONAL MOTION
➢ Refers to motion of objects about a fixed axis
➢ It is also called angular motion or circular motion
➢ The earth’s revolution (and other planets as well) around the sun may be treated as
circular but is not an example of rotational motion as planetary orbits are elliptical in
reality
➢ An object may experience rotation while also experiencing linear motion, for example,
a football spinning like a top as it arcs through the air when passed, or a wheel rolling
down a street
➢ Treatment of objects under both rotational and linear motion are done separately,
though the two types of motion are analogous

52
RADIAN
Consider a planar object rotating about an axis perpendicular to its plane. the position
of a point on the object is described by the coordinates r and θ, where θis measured
with respect to the x-axis, as in Figure 1. When the object turns through an angle θ, the
𝒔
point moves a distance s alongthe arc. We define the angle θ in radians as𝜽 = 𝒓 or 𝒔 =
𝒓𝜽 . 1 radian is an angle subtended at the center of the circle by an arc of length equal
to the radius of the circle.
You can see that if θ is doubled, the arc length s will also be
doubled. Since θ is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless
quantity. The circumference of a circle is 𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓so θ for a full
circle is 2π. Thus 2π rad = 360o. It is easy to convert radians to
degrees or degrees to radians using a ratio
FIGURE 1 𝜽 (𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔) 𝟐𝝅
=
𝜽 (𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔) 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐

RPM
means revolutions per minute (rev/min). One revolution is equal to 2π rad or 360o.
Sometimes the angular velocity of a rotating body is expressed in RPM.

ROTATIONAL MOTION vs TRANSLATIONAL (LINEAR) MOTION

In physics, any quantity that can be described linearly can also be described in angular
terms

LINEAR ROTATIONAL

Position x Angular position , rads

angular
Displacement x, meters  , rads
displacement
dx ∆x m dθ ∆θ rad
Velocity v= = , Angular velocity ω= = ,
dt ∆t s dt ∆t s
dv ∆v m dω ∆ω rad
Acceleration a= = , Angular acceleration α = = ,
dt ∆t s 2 dt ∆t s 2

Average angular velocity

Average angular velocity 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑒 of the body in the time
interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 is the ratio of the angular displacement
∆𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 to ∆𝑡.
∆θ θ2 − θ1
ωave = =
∆t t 2 − t1

53
Instantaneous angular velocity,𝝎
The angular velocity of a rotating body may be constant, may be increasing or
decreasing. At one particular moment, the angular velocity of the body is called the
instantaneous angular velocity. It is the limit of the average angular velocity as ∆𝑡
approaches zero, i.e., the first derivative of 𝜃 with respect to time.
∆θ dθ
ω ≡ lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt

Angular acceleration,α
If the angular velocity of a rotating body changes, there is an angular acceleration. It is
understood that the angular velocity of the body either increases or decreases.

Average angular velocity ∆ω ω2 − ω1

αave = =
∆t t 2 − t1

Instantaneous angular acceleration ∆ω dω

α ≡ lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Take note that a particle moving with constant angular velocity has a tangential velocity, vt
in the direction perpendicular to r. even if the magnitude of vt is constant the direction of its
vector is continuously changing.
Since the vt is always changing, a centripetal acceleration, ac will exist, which is directed
inward toward the rotation axis

Magnitude
unit
formula
circumferential velocity = tangent m
vc= vt 𝐫𝛚
velocity at P s
radial acceleration = acceleration
𝐯𝐭 𝟐 m
ac towards the center (centripetal 𝐫𝛚𝟐 =
𝐫 s2
acceleration)
circumferential acceleration = tangent m
at 𝐫𝛂
acceleration at P s2

54
DERIVATION OF FORMULAS:
tangential velocity:
∆x Substitute x in v
Let  =
r θr
x = r v=
∆t
From linear velocity: Where
∆x r
v= 𝛚=
∆t ∆t
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, 𝐯𝐜 = 𝐯𝐭 = 𝛚𝐫

Circumferential acceleration:
dvc
a𝑡 = → But
dt But d(rω) rdω Therefore: 𝐚𝒕 = 𝐫𝛂
a𝑡 = a𝑡 = → dω
v𝑡 = rω → dt dt =α→
→ dt

radial acceleration:
Aporoximate the arc = chord
∆𝑥
From linear velocity: 𝑣 = ∆𝑡
By similar triangles:
∆𝑥 ∆𝑣 𝑟∆𝑣
= → ∆𝑥 =
𝑟 𝑣 𝑣
r∆v
Equate x: v∆t =
v
∆𝑣
from linear acceleration:𝑎 =
∆𝑡
∆𝒗 𝒗𝟐
Therefore, 𝒂= =
∆𝒕 𝒓
Or since
(𝑟𝜔)2
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 → ∴ 𝑎 = → 𝒂 = 𝒓𝝎𝟐
𝑟

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Whenever a body rotates with constant angular acceleration, its change of angular
velocity is constant for equal time interval. For example, a body which is initially at rest,
rotates with constant acceleration of 4 rad/s2. When time is 0, the angular velocity of the
body is 0, after 1 sec its angular velocity is 4 rad/s, after 2 sec (from starting time), its angular
velocity is 8 rad/s, after 3 sec ( from starting time), its angular velocity is 12 rad/s, etc.

Since, angular motion is analogous to linear motion, linear equations may also be applied
using angular quantities:

55
 From linear motion → Angular motion
Vi + Vf ωi + ωf
1. X = t 1. θ = t
2 2
2. Vf = Vi + at 2. ωf = ωi + αt
1 1
3. X = Vi t + 2 at 2 3. θ = ωi t + αt 2
2
1 1
4. X = Vf t − 2 at 2 4. θ = ωf t − 2 αt 2
5. Vf2 = Vi2 + 2aX 5. ω2f = ω2i + 2αθ

ELABORATE
RADIANS and RPM
1. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc 3 m in length, on the circumference of a
circle whose radius is 2 m?
2. What angle in radians is subtended by an arc of length 78.54 cm on the circumference
of a circle of diameter 100 cm? What is the angle in degrees?

3. The angle between the two radii of a circle of radius 2 m is 0.60 rad. What length of arc
is intercepted on the circumference of the circle by the two radii?

4. What is the angular velocity (in rad/s) of the crankshaft of an automobile engine that is
rotating at 4800 RPM?

ANGULAR QUANTITIES
1. A merry-go-round is being pushed by a child. The angle the merry-go-round has turned
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝟑
through varies with time according to the equation 𝜽𝒕 = (𝟐 𝒔
)𝒕 + (𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒔𝟑
)𝒕 .
b) Calculate the angular velocity of the merry-go-round as a function of time.
c) What is the initial value of the angular velocity?
d) Calculate the instantaneous value of the angular velocity at t = 5 s and the average
angular velocity for the time interval t = 0 to t = 5 s.

𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝟐
2. A rigid object rotates with an angular velocity that is given by 𝝎(𝒕) = 𝟒 𝒔
− (𝟎. 𝟖 𝒔𝟑
)𝒕
a) Calculate the angular acceleration as a function of time.
b) Calculate the instantaneous angular acceleration at t = 2 s and the average angular
acceleration for the time interval t = 0 to t= 2 s.

3. A room fan is switched from medium to high speed. The blades accelerate at 1.5 radians
per second squared for 1.5 seconds. Determine the final angular speed of the blade (in
rps) of the initial angular speed of the fan is 3.0 radians per second.

4. An average car tire has a radius of 0.35 meters. If the car accelerates in a straight line
from rest at 3.15 m/s/s , calculate for the angular acceleration of the front passenger tire.

56
5. A merry-go-round has an angular acceleration of 0.35 radians per second squared. At
what angle does the merry-go-round rotate after acceleration from rest for 3 seconds?

6. An electric motor is turned off, and its angular velocity decreases uniformly from 1000
RPM to 400 RPM in 5 sec.
a) Find the angular acceleration of the motor.
b) Find the number of revolutions the motor made in the 5-s interval.
c) After the 5-s interval, how many more seconds are required by the motor to come
to rest?

7. The angular velocity of a bicycle wheel is 4 rad/s at t = 0, and its angular acceleration is
constant and equal to 2 rad/s2. A spoke OP on the wheel is horizontal at t =0.
a) What angle does this spoke make with the horizontal at time t = 3 s?
b) What is the wheel’s angular velocity at this time?

EVALUATE
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. An object is attached to a 1 meter string and completes 5 rotation in 1 second. Find
the (a) tangential velocity, (b)angular velocity of the object and (c) angular
acceleration.

2. An object moving in uniform motion has a centripetal acceleration of 12m/s2. If the

radius of the motion is 3cm, what is the frequency of the motion?

3. The angular position of a particle is given by the equation 𝜽(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝒕 + 𝟑𝒕𝟐 .
Determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration as a function of time. What
is the angular position, angular velocity, and angular acceleration of the particle at
the start if motion?

4. Calculate the centripetal acceleration for an object on the surface of radius 4000 km
and, and the day is equal to 120 000 seconds.
5. A particle is moving along a circular path of radius 1.5 m and has an angular velocity
of 10 rads/s. What is the particle’s radial acceleration? What is the particle’s
tangential velocity?

6. An object sweeps out a central angle of π/2 radians in 0.50. seconds as it moves
along a circle of radius 2 m. Find its linear and angular speed over that time period.

7. An object travels a distance of 30 ft in 3 seconds as it moves along a path of radius

3ft. calculate for the linear and angular speed over the time period.

57
 MODULE 6 UNIT 2: DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
ENGAGE
As discussed in module 3: dynamics, a force applied to an object would cause linear motion.
Will this notion be applicable to rotational motion?

how are you going to compare the torques on an object caused by various forces?

EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 2: Dynamics of Rotation (pp 58 – 60)
EXPLAIN

TORQUE, τ (or MOMENT of a FORCE, M)

o A measure of the effectiveness of the force in producing rotation about an axis
o Sometimes called “twisting” or torsional force
o Causes an object to acquire angular acceleration; it is the product of the force F and
the distance of its action form the axis of rotation (lever arm)
𝝉=𝑭𝒙ℓ
o Where:
o F = torsionalforce applied
o ℓ = lever arm = moment arm = perpendicular distance of the force to the point
of rotation

o note: cross multiplication is applied to the force and distance, thus the resulting product
is a VECTOR. The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane formed by F and d

58
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
o the net force on a particle is zero; there is no translational or rotational motion, thus
o ∑ 𝐅 𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨; and o ∑ 𝐌 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 𝐳𝐞𝐫𝐨
▪ ∑ 𝐅𝐱 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝐅𝐲 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝐅𝐳 = 𝟎 ▪ ∑ Mx = 0; ∑ My = 0; ∑ Mz = 0

CENTER OF GRAVITY
- The center of gravity (cg) of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object
may be considered concentrated
- A single vertically upward force of the same magnitude as the weight of an object will
keep the object in equilibrium when applied through its center of gravity (try holding your
notebook at the center with your index finger, the point where you can balance your
notebook is the cg of the notebook! Try other things to appreciate ☺ )

DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
LINEAR MOTION ROTATIONAL MOTION
R m R m

a 
• Force is required to cause linear • Torque is required to create
acceleration rotational/angular acceleration
• From Newton’s 2nd law: • From Newton’s 2nd law:
o F = ma o  = I
Since  = F x ℓ; But
where ℓ= R = distance of force to the  = at/R (from angular acceleration)
axis of rotation So,
substituting,
at
 = ma x R = I maR = I
R
Therefore,
∴ 𝐈 = 𝐦𝐑𝟐 → moment of inertia of a particle

Moment of Inertia, I
➢ Also known as Rotational Inertia
➢ Quantity that expresses the tendency of an object to resist rotational acceleration

• Moment of inertia of a particle: 𝑰 = 𝒎𝑹𝟐

• Moment of inertia of a system : 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑰 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝟐 + … + 𝒎𝒏 𝒓𝒏 𝟐

59
Moment of inertia of composite sections
AREA – MOMENT OF INERTIA MASS – MOMENT OF INERTIA

𝐈𝐱 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐱 + 𝐀𝐫𝐲 ) 𝐈𝐱 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐱 + 𝐦𝐫𝐲 )

𝐈𝐲 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐲 + 𝐀𝐫𝐱 ) 𝐈𝐲 = ∑(𝐈̅𝐲 + 𝐦𝐫𝐱 )

where
Ix̅ = moment of inertia about centroidal x − axis
Iy̅ = moment of inertia about centroidal y − axis
ry = vertical distance from reference to the centroid
rx = horizontal distance from reference to the centroid
A = area; m = mass

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES

60
ELABORATE
TORQUE
1. A weightlifter is holding a 50.0 lb weight with his forearm as
shown in the figure. His forearm is positioned at =60 with
respect to his upper arm. The forearm is supported by a
contraction of the bicep muscles, which causes a torque
around the elbow. Assuming that the tension in the biceps
acts along the vertical direction, what tension must the
muscle exert to hold the forearm at the position show what is
the force on the elbow joint? Assume that the forearm’s
weight is negligible.

2. The given plate in the figure is is fixed at point O and is allowed – O +

to rotate at this [Link] the total torque applied by the
2m
forces? If the fixed point was instead at point A, determine the
corresponding torque of the forces. If F1 is moved at A, will the F1 = 4N
2m
torque change? If the F2 is moved at A will the torque A B
change? 3m F2 = 5N
F3 = 6N

3. Three masses are attached to a uniform meter stick as

shown. The mass of the meter stick is 150.0 g and the
masses are to the left of the fulcrum are m1 = 50.0 g
andm2 =75.0 g. Find the mass of the third mass that
balances the system when attached to the right end of
the stick. What is the force applied by the fulcrum to the stick?

MOMENT OF INERTIA
4. A 100-gram ball connected to one end of a cord with a length of 30 cm. What is the
moment of inertia of ball about the axis of rotation AB? Ignore cord’s mass.

5. Two masses m1 and m2 are connected by a rod of length 60cm. m1 and m2 are
100grams and 150 grams respectively. Determine the moment of inertia of the masses
about the axis of rotation AB at the center of the rod. Ignore the mass of the rod.

6. What is the moment of inertia of a 1.5 kg uniform rod with length of 2m and radius 10cm?
the axis of rotation is located at the center of the rod.?

7. What is the moment of inertia of the rod if the axis of rotation is through its center?

61
EVALUATE
PRACTICE PROBLEM:
1. Three forces act on a beam with length 6meters as shown. What is the net torque that
rotates the beam about the point O. Figure 1.

2. Determine the moment of a force about the axis of rotation at point A for the given
system. The angle = 30 and AB = BC = 1meter. Figure 2

3. Determine the magnitude and direction of Ra, Rb and Rc for the truss shown. Figure 3

4. The uniform beam shown in figure 4 weighs 500N and supports a 700N load. Find the
tension in the tie rope.

5. The arm shown in the figure 5. supports a 4kg sphere. The mass of the hand and forearm
together is 3kg and its weight acts at a point 15 cm from the elbow. Determine the force
exerted by the biceps muscle.

6. The mobile shown in figure below hangs at equilibrium. It consists of objects held by
vertical strings. Object 3 weighs 1.4N, while each of the identical uniform horizontal bars
weighs 0.5N. Find (a) the weights of objects 1 and 2, and (b) the tension in the upper
string.

7. If the masses in sample problem 5 are at 200 grams and 100grams respectively, and the
axis of rotation is located at mass2, calculate for the moment of the inertial of the masses/
ignore mass of rod

8. Four (4) masses 150 grams each are connected by 4 cords forming a rectangle. The
length of the cords are 60 cm and 40 cm. determine the moment of inertial of the masses
about the axis of rotation AB (a) if AB is located at the center of longer cords, (b) AB is
located at the center of shorter cords. Ignore the mass of rod.

9. What is the moment of inertial of a 3kg uniform rod with length 2 meters and radius 20cm,
if the axis of rotation is located at (a) one end of the rod, (b) at the center of the rod and
(c) through the center?

10. A 9 kg solid cylinder has a radius 0.10m and thickness 5 cm. the axis of rotation is located
at the cneter of the cylinder. Compute for the moment of inertia.

11. a uniform sphere has a radius of 0.10 m. the moment of inertia of the sphere when axis of
rotation is located at its center is 0.08 kg-m2, find the mass of the sphere.

62
12. A 2 kg rectangular thin plate has length of 0.5 m and width 0.20. the moment of inertia
of the plate is 0.29 kg-m2. Where is the location of the axis of rotation?

FIGURE 2
FIGURE 1

FIGURE 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 figure 6

63
 MODULE 6 UNIT 3: ELASTICITY

ENGAGE
What does it mean when an object is said to be elastic?

What factors would affect the elasticity of an object?

Is the work required to stretch the spring equal to the potential energy in the spring?

EXPLORE
Read Module 6 Unit 3: Elasticity (pp 64 – 67)

EXPLAIN

A rigid body is an example of an object that does not deform under the actions of
external forces. The extent to how an object is perceived as rigid depends on the physical
materials to which the object is made. As discussed in dynamics, forces causes motion but
aside from motion, forces could also cause changes in an object such as its length, and
volume, this change is known as the deformation.

Deformation is experienced by objects through the application of external force such

as twisting (Torque), shear, tension and compression. When an object experiences
deformation, the forces on the objects are describe by the stress and strain

STRESS- the measure of the forces that causes the deformation; it is the applied force
perpendicular on the area.
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨

64
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

▪ tensile stress,σis when a force pulls and object causing it to elongate (figure a)
▪ compressive stress, σis when a force causes compression and the object shrinks (figure
b)
▪ bulk (volume) stress, Pis the stress experience when an object is compressed from all
sides, usually experienced by objects in fluids
▪ shear stress, τ the stress experience when deformation is caused by tangential forces
to the surface

UNITS for Stress:

Metric English
N/m2= Pascal, Pa Pound per square inch, psi
(1kPa= 1kN/m )
2 (1psi = 6895 Pa)
atm (atmosphere) often used for bulk stresses
(1atm = 14.7psi = 1.013x 105 Pa)

STRAIN- the quantity that describes the deformation;

- it is a fractional change in either length (tensile/compression), or volume
(bulk) or shape (shear)
- it is a dimensionless value
- classified into three types, formulas are in table below
Type of strain Symbol Formula definition
Linear epsilon, ϵ ΔL
ϵ=
Lo
Shear gamma, γ Δx
γ=
y
Volume (bulk) theta, θ ΔV
θ=
Vo

ELASTICITY
- ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the forces
causing the deformation are removed

65
HOOKE’S LAW
- discovered by English scientist ROBERT HOOKE in 1660
- a principle of physics states that for a relatively small deformation of an object, the
displacement or deformation is directly proportional to the deforming force or load
- mathematically expressed as
𝐅 = −𝐤∆𝐱
Where ∆x = deformation of the object
F = force
k = spring constant
(−)negative sign indicates the object is returning to its original state

ELASTIC MODULI
- the coefficient that relates a particular type of stress to the resulting stress

Elastic modulus Stress Strain

Young modulus, Ε 𝑜𝑟 Υ Normal force to area, σ Linear deformation, 𝜖

shear modulus, G or S Tangential to area, τ Angular deformation, γ

Bulk modulus, K or B Normal to all surface areas, P Volume deformation, θ

YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

- quantity that describes a material’s response to stress applied to area
- it can be defined simply as the stiffness of a solid material
- young’s modulus states that the stress applied to the body is directly proportional to the
strain induced on the body, that is
σ α ϵ → to equate a constant Young ′ s modulus is applied
thus, σ = Yϵ
F ΔL
but, σ = and ϵ=
A Lo
therefore,
F ΔL 𝐅𝐋𝐨
=Y → 𝐘=
A Lo 𝐀𝚫𝐋

66
Note: Hooke’s Law may also be stated in the same relation as Young’s Modulus where “the
strain in a solid body is directly proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit of the
solid body”

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

ELABORATE
1. How much force is needed to pull a spring with a spring constant of 20 N/m for a distance
of 25 cm?
2. A nylon string has a diameter of 3mm and is pulled by a 150N force. determine the stress.
3. A string 4 mm in diameter has original length of 2m. the string is pulled by a 200N force. If
the final length of the spring is 2.02m determine (a) stress (b) strain (c) young’s modulus
4. A concrete has a height of t meters and has unit area of 3 square meters supports a mass
of 30,000 kg. determine (a) the stress (b) strain (c) change in height. Young’s modulus of
concrete is 20Gpa.

EVALUATE
1. A spring is pulled to 12 cm and held in place with a force of 450 N. what is the spring
constant of the spring? How much force is required compress back the spring to 2 cm?
2. A 5cm2cord has original length of 120cm is pulled by a 20N force. The change in length
in the cord is 5mm. find the strai, stress and elastic modulus.

3. A string has a diameter of 1cm and original length of 200 cm. the string is pulled by a
force 2kN. Determine the change in length of the string given that the young’s modulus
of string is 7.5GPa

4. A material is 250 cm long, 8 cm wide and 10 cm deep. The material is subjected to an

axial force of 4500kN resulting to an expansion of 3cm. calculate for stress, strain, and the
young’s modulus of elasticity for the material

5. An object has a Young’s modulus of elasticity of 14.5Gpa. determine the stress and strain
experienced by the object if it is 200cm by 200cm x 200cm and elongates by 5cm. what
is the magnitude of the force that acts on the object?

67
 MODULE 7: OSCILLATIONS
ENGAGE
How is oscillations or vibrations related to circular/rotational motion?

What are the conditions for an object to oscillate with SHM?

How does a pendulum oscillate?

EXPLORE
Read Module 7: Oscillations (pp 68 - 71)
EXPLAIN
PERIODIC MOTION
Vibratory motion or vibration is a type of motion where the particle undergoes to and
fro motion. It could be regular vibration which repeats itself over and over during a given
length of time (like the motion of a simple pendulum or the piston of a gasoline engine) or
irregular vibration (like the shaking of a building when there is an earthquake).

CHARACTERISTICS OF A BODY UNDERGOING PERIODIC MOTION:

1. Equilibrium position – that position of the body when the forces acting on it have zero
resultant. This is actually the position the body takes when it is at rest.
2. Restoring force, F– the force that brings back (restores) the body to its equilibrium
position. It is always directed towards the equilibrium position.
3. Displacement, x or y – the distance of the body from the equilibrium position at any
instant.
4. Amplitude, A– the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
5. One cycle of motion or one vibration – that part of the motion that is repeated
6. Period, T – the time it takes for a displaced object to make a complete oscillation
back and forth about its equilibrium position. (sec)
7. Frequency, f – the reciprocal of period, the number of oscillations per second
(cycles/sec or vib/sec or Hertz(Hz))
1 1
𝑇= 𝑓
𝑓= 𝑇
8. Angular frequency (or speed), ω = rate of change of an angular quantity that is
always measured in radians
ω = 2πf rad/s

68
 When we are confronted by a condition wherein the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement then we have SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

➢ Simplest type of periodic motion
➢ Restoring force is directly proportional to displacement
➢ Velocity of the body is inversely proportional to displacement
➢ Acceleration of the body is directly proportional to the negative of the displacement

➢ To help us visualize the concepts, we will be using as models body attached to a spring
and the simple pendulum.

EQUATIONS FOR SHM:

1. MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING
➢ If a body attached to a spring is displaced from its equilibrium position, the spring
exerts a restoring force on it, which tends to restore the object to the equilibrium
position.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 (𝑯𝒐𝒐𝒌𝒆’𝒔 𝑳𝒂𝒘)
where k is the spring constant (N/m), and x is
the displacement from the equilibrium position (in
m).

At equilibrium position, the mass has momentum because of the impulse that the restoring
force has imparted. Therefore, the mass continues past the equilibrium position, compressing
the spring. A net restoring force then tends to slow it down, until its velocity vanishes, whereby
it will attempt to reach equilibrium position again. As long as the system has no energy loss,
the mass will continue to oscillate.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

By Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of a vibrating body is constant.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐊 + 𝐔
where:
K = kinetic energy: m = mass of the body
1
K= 2
mv 2 in Joules v = velocity of the body
U = potential energy: k = spring constant
1
U= 2
kx 2 in Joules x=displacement of the body
Consider the body at the extreme position or at its maximum displacement (x = A):
1
v = 0: Total Energy = U = 2 kA2

69
 Because Total Energy is Constant:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒌𝑨 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

The instantaneous VELOCITYof the vibrating bodyis determined via the above energy
equation as:

k k
v = √ (A2 − x 2 ) but √ = ω therefore, v = ω√(A2 − x 2 )
m m

The instantaneous ACCELERATIONis determined via Hooke’s Law, F = -kx, and F = ma;
Equating these two expressions for F gives:

𝐤
𝐚=− 𝐱 = −𝛚𝟐 𝐱
𝐦
𝑘
From the equations of angular frequency, ω = 2πf and ω =√ , other equation to solve for
𝑚
frequency and period are as follows:

𝟏 𝐤 𝐦
Frequency 𝐟= √ Period 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑√
𝟐𝛑 𝐦 𝐤

Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration as a Function of Time, t

1. Displacement: 𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)

𝑣 2
from the energy equation: 𝐴 = √𝑥𝑜 2 + ( 𝜔𝑜 ) where: x0=initial

displacement
v0 = initial speed
𝑑𝑥
2. Velocity: v = 𝑑𝑡
𝐯(𝐭) = −𝛚𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
3. Acceleration: a = = 𝐚(𝐭) = −𝛚𝟐 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

2. SIMPLE PENDULUM

➢ Consists of a point mass suspended by a weightless, unstretchable string in a uniform

gravitational field whose path is not a straight line but an arc.
➢ If the pendulum swings with a small angle with the vertical, its motion is simple
harmonic.

70
The restoring force is the net force on the bob, equal to the component of the weight, mg,
tangent to the arc:
FR = −mgsinθ
• Small angle approximation: sin θ ≈ θ, angle in radian
FR ≈ −mgθ
• The displacement of the pendulum along the arc is given by A =
Lθ
mg
FR ≈ − x
L
This equation fits Hooke's law, F = -kx. The effective force constant is
mg
k=
L

Angular frequency: Frequency: Period:

1 𝑔
𝑘 𝑔 𝑓= √ 𝑙
ω=√ =√ 2𝜋 𝑙 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚 𝑙 𝑔

Where: 𝑙 = length of the string

g = acceleration due to gravity

❖ Laws of the simple pendulum (for small displacements)

1. The angle of swing (amplitude) does not affect the period.
2. The mass of the body does not affect the period.
3. The period is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
4. The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration.

ELABORATE
1. A 7.00-kg object is hung from the bottom end of a vertical spring fastened to an
overhead beam. The object is set into vertical oscillations having a period of 2.60 s. Find
the force constant of the spring.

2. A 0.500-kg object attached to a spring with a force constant of 8.00 N/m vibrates in
simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 10.0 cm. Calculate the maximum value of
its (a) speed and (b) acceleration, (c) the speed and (d) the acceleration when the
object is + 6.00 cm from the equilibrium position.

71
3. The position of a particle is given by the expression 𝐱(𝐭) = 𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝛑 𝐭, where x is in meters
and t is in seconds. Determine (a) the frequency and (b) period of the motion, (c) the
amplitude of the motion, and (d) the position of the particle at t = 0.250 s.

4. A simple pendulum has a mass of 0.250 kg and a length of 1.00 m. It is displaced through
an angle of 15.0° and then released. Using the analysis model of a particle in simple
harmonic motion, find (a) the period of vibration of the bob, (b)the maximum speed of
the bob, (c) its maximum angular acceleration, and (c) the maximum restoring force on
the bob.

EVALUATE
1. A body in simple harmonic motion has a velocity of 8cm/s when its displacement is 2cm
and a velocity of 2 cm/s when the displacement is 8 cm. what is the amplitude of the
oscillation?

2. The equation of motion of a particle started at t=0 is given by x = 10sin(10t+π/3) where x

is in centimeter and t in second. (a) at what time will the particle come to rest?, (b) the
time it will have a zero acceleration, and (c) the maximum speed.

3. A mass 2.5 kg is suspended through a vertical spring experiences simple harmonic motion
with period 6 seconds. If the oscillations are stopped and the body hangs in equilibrium,
determine the potential energy stored in the spring.

4. What period would you expect from a pendulum of length 0.5 m on the moon where g
= 1.6 m/s2? will the period be the same when the pendulum is on earth? What is the
value?

5. A 2kg mass is attached to one end of a spring with spring constant of 2kN/m. the period
of the spring is twice as the as the period when it is considered as a simple pendulum.
What is the length of the of spring?

72
 MODULE 8: WAVES

ENGAGE
How can you relate oscillations to waves?

Cite objects that could produce waves

Why do guitar strings have different pitch and tone?

What is your concept and understanding regarding the production of sound and the
process of hearing?

EXPLORE
Read Module 8: Waves (pp 73 - 79)

EXPLAIN

WAVE
-any disturbance from an equilibrium condition that propagates or travels from one region
to another.
Examples: water wave, sound wave, light wave, heat wave

Two Classifications of wave:

1. Electromagnetic wave
– wave wherein the disturbance can travel through empty space or vacuum.
Examples: radio wave, TV signal, microwave, X-ray

2. Mechanical wave
– wave wherein the disturbance travel through a medium through the mechanical
vibration of the particles in the medium.
Examples: wave travelling through a vibrating string, sound wave

73
Two types of mechanical waves:
1. Longitudinal or Compressional wave- the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to
the direction of the wave. When longitudinal wave travels through a medium, at each
instant, there are alternate compression points and rarefaction points in the medium.
Examples are waves travelling thru liquids, air, metal bars or rods

2. Transverse wave –the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction
of wave.
Examples are waves travelling through any flexible material like strings, wires or cords.

Figure 1. Longitudinal Waves

Figure 2. Transverse Waves

PROPERTIES OF WAVE:
1. Amplitude, A
– the maximum displacement of a particle in the medium.

2. Wavelength, λ
– the distance between two consecutive, identical points along the repeating wave
in the same phase.

3. Frequency, f
– the number of waves that pass through a point in the medium per second. It is equal
to the vibration made by a particle in the medium per second.

4. Speed of propagation, v
– the distance travelled by the wave through the medium per unit time.

GENERAL EQUATION: 𝐕 = 𝐟𝛌

74
MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A TRAVELLING SINUSOIDAL WAVE
A wave cannot be analyzed completely unless its mathematical description or
equation is used. Just like any other curve, a wave is also expressed by means of an
equation. Ordinarily, the equation is a simple sine or cosine function but since it is a traveling
wave, consideration is made on the distance it travels thru the medium during a time, t.
General Equation: 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 ± 𝝎𝒕)
where: A = amplitude
ω = 2πf = angular frequency
𝟐𝛑
k= 𝛌
= wave number or propagation number
y = the displacement of a particle in the medium during a time t which is at a
distance x from the source
ωt = wave is (-) when moving in the +x direction; (+) if moving in the –x direction

Note: Y, x, t are the variables of the equation while A, ω, and k are the constants. Y is the displacement
at any time t of a particle in the medium which is at a distance x from the source (x=0).

STATIONARY (STANDING) WAVES

Stationary or standing waves formed when two component waves (i.e. incident and
reflected waves) of similar properties travel in opposite directions though the same medium.

(a) Five snapshots of a wave traveling to the right, at the times t indicated below part (c)
(T is the period of oscillation). (b) Five snapshots of a wave identical to that in (a) but
traveling to the left, at the same times t. (c) Corresponding snapshots for the
superposition of the two waves on the same string. At t = 0, ½ T, and T, fully constructive
interference occurs because of the alignment of peaks with peaks and valleys with
valleys. At t = 1/4T and 3/4T, fully destructive interference occurs because of the
alignment of peaks with valleys.

75
As the waves move through each other, some points never move (nodes) and some move
the most (antinodes).

From the figure, we can derive a wave function for that specific standing wave by
adding the wave functions y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t):

where: y1 (x, t) = Asin(kx − ωt)

(incident wave traveling to the right)
and
y2 (x, t) = Asin(kx + ωt)
(reflected wave traveling to the left)

The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave (stationary wave):
y𝑠 (x, t) = y1 + y2 = Asin(kx − ωt) + Asin(kx + ωt)
*Review: cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB
sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB

y𝑠 (x, t) = A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) − cos(kx)sin(ωt)] + A[sin(kx)cos(ωt) + cos(kx)sin(ωt)]

y𝑠 (x, t) = 2Asin(kx)cos(ωt)
𝐲𝒔 (𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝐀𝒔𝒘 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐤𝐱)𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭)
magnitude - gives amplitude at position x
Asw = amplitude of the standing wave

MODES OF VIBRATION
• Modes – frequencies of waves associated with their wave patterns
• Harmonics – a note of which the vibration rate is a whole number
- a note whose frequency is a multiple of the fundamental frequency
• Overtone – a term preferred by musicians instead of
harmonics

I. Modes of Vibration of a String Fixed at Both Ends:

Fundamental freq. or 1st harmonic freq. 2nd harmonic freq. or 1st overtone freq.

3rd harmonic freq. or 2nd overtone freq.

76
Since both ends of the string are fixed in position, the ends must be nodes in the standing
waves; we can observe from the figures that the length L of the string must be an integer
number of half wavelength.

For the fundamental frequency:

λ
L = ; λ = 2L and from v = λf; f = v/ λ
2
𝑣
𝑓1 =
2𝐿
For the general equation:
Let n = harmonic number 𝒏𝑽
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 = , 𝐻𝑧
x= overtone number 𝟐𝑳
n = x+1 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5, …

But the VELOCITY of Where: T = tension on the string/cord/wire, Newton

wave traveling thru μ = mass per unit length of the string = m/L ,
vibrating strings, cords kg/m
or wires is: μ = linear density = ρA
𝑻 where: ρ = density of string = SG x mass density of
𝒗 = √
𝝁 water
A = cross-sectional area of string

𝐧 𝐓
Therefore: 𝐟𝐧 = √
𝟐𝐋 µ

*For string fixed at both ends, the harmonic number is the same as the number of segments.

II. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Clamped at One End:

• It will always be a node at clamped end and an antinode at the free end.

Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone

5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

For the general equation:

Let n = harmonic no. 𝐧𝐕
𝐟𝐧 = 𝐧𝐟𝟏 = , Hz
x = overtone no. 𝟒𝐋
n = 2x + 1 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

77
The VELOCITY of wave traveling thru metal rods is:
𝒀
𝒗 = √𝜌 where: Y = Young's modulus of elasticity, Pa

ρ = density of rod or bar

Young's modulus of elasticity
Y = stress/strain
Stress = Force / cross-sectional area = F/A
Strain = elongation / original length = e/Lo
𝐹/𝐴 𝑭𝑳
𝑌 = =
𝑒/𝐿𝑜 𝒆𝑨
III. Modes of Vibration of a Rod Fixed at Midpoint:
• It will always be a node at midpoint and antinode at the ends.
Fundamental Freq. or 1st Harmonic Freq. 3rd Harmonic Freq. or 1st Overtone

5th Harmonic Freq. or 2nd Overtone

For the general equation: 𝐧𝐕

𝐟𝐧 = 𝐧𝐯𝐟𝟏 = , Hz
Let n = harmonic no. 𝟐𝐋
x = overtone no. 𝑛 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
n = 2x + 1

IV. Modes of Vibration of an Air Column:

Pipes can either be open on both ends or on only one end. The open ends act as free-end
reflectors (producing antinodes) and the closed ends act as fixed-end reflectors (producing
nodes).

A. OPEN PIPE
In general:

𝑣
f= *L =λ/2, λ = 2L
λ

f = v/2L

𝒏𝑽
fn = n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,...
𝟐𝑳

78
 For the general equation: 𝐧𝐕
𝐟𝐧 = 𝐧𝐟𝟏 = , Hz
Let n = harmonic no. 𝟐𝐋
x = overtone no. 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ….
n=x+1

The VELOCITY of wave traveling thru air is:

𝐦 𝐦
𝐯 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐨 𝐓
𝐬 𝐬− 𝐂
where: T = temperature in OC
B. CLOSED PIPE
For the general equation:
Let n = harmonic no.
x = overtone no.
n = 2x + 1

𝒏𝑽
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝟏 = , 𝐻𝑧
𝟒𝑳
n = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

ELABORATE
EXAMPLES:
1. A transverse wave on a string is described by the wave function y = 0.120
𝝅
sin( 𝟖 𝒙 + 𝟒𝝅𝒕)where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. What are (a) the
wavelength, (b) the frequency, and (c) the speed of propagation and the direction of
this wave? Determine (d) the transverse speed at t = 0.2s for an element of the string
located at x = 1.60 m.

2. Transverse waves travel with a speed of 20.0 m/s in a string under a tension of 6.00 N.
What tension is required for a wave speed of 30.0 m/s in the same string?

3. A 2-m-long wire having a mass of 0.1 kg is fixed at both ends. The tension in the wire is
maintained at 20 N. (a) What are the frequencies of the first three allowed modes of
vibration? (b) If a node is observed at a point 0.400 m from one end, in what mode and
with what frequency is it vibrating?

4. A 2m long rod clamped at one end has a diameter 0.5cm and a specific gravity of 9. It
elongates by 2mm when acted upon by a tensile force of 500 N. (a) What is the speed
of sound thru the rod? (b) What would be the frequency of the waves if the rod forms an
equivalent of 3.5 segments every time?

79
5. An aluminum rod 1.60 m long is held at its center. It is stroked with a rosin-coated cloth to
set up a longitudinal vibration. The speed of sound in a thin rod of aluminum is 5 100 m/s.
What is the fundamental frequency and the first two overtone frequency of the waves
established in the rod?

6. A 1.2m long rod is fixed at midpoint and free at both ends. It produces a 2nd overtone of
frequency 6000Hz. Solve for the speed of the wave.

7. A pipe open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz when the temperature
is 0°C. (a) What is the length of the pipe? (b) What is its 2nd overtone frequency at a
temperature of 30°C?

8. A closed pipe has a fundamental frequency of 300 Hz when the temperature is 0°C. (a)
What is the length of the pipe? (b) What is its 2nd overtone frequency at a temperature
of 30°C?

EVALUATE
6. A rope is held tightly and shook until the standing wave
pattern shown in the diagram at the right is established
within the rope. The distance A in the diagram is 3.27 meters.
The speed at which waves move along the rope is 2.62 m/s.
(a) Determine the frequency of the waves creating the
standing wave pattern(b)Determine the number of
vibrational cycles which would be measured in 20.0
seconds.

7. the frequency of a mechanical oscillator is adjusted

in order to vibrate a 1.5 m length of elastic cord at
one of its harmonic frequencies. The cord vibrates
with the pattern shown below when the frequency
is set to 75 Hz. Determine the speed of the waves in the elastic cord.

8. A 1.6 meter long rope creates a wave which travels at 2.4 m/s and has a frequency of
1.5 Hz. What would be the new wavelength and speed if they double the frequency of
vibration of the cord?

9. A standing wave is created through a 246-cm long rope. Vibrations travel within the rope
at speeds of 22.7 m/s. Determine the frequency of vibration of the rope.

10. On a six string guitar, the high E string has a linear density of 3.09×10−4kg/m and the low
E has a linear density of 5.78×10−3kg/mde (a) determine the speed of the wave if the
tension on the string is 60N if the high E string is plucked (b) the linear density of low E is

80
 approximately 20 times greater that high E string. should the tension in low E strings be
increased (or decreased?) in order for waves to travel the same speed as waves in high
E? (c) what should be the tension of the low E string to travel the same speed as in the
high E.

11. A copper wire has a density of 8920 kg per cubic meter, a radius of 1.5mm and an
unknown length. The wire is held under a tension of 12N. transverse waves are sent
through the wire, (a) determine the linear density of the wire, (b) determine the speed
through which wave travel through the wire.

12. A rod is fixed at midpoint with both ends free. The rod produces a 3rd overtone of 7500Hz.
The speed of the wave is at 3000 m/s. determine the length of the rod and the
fundamental frequency.

13. Resolve problem 7 if the rod is fixed at one end and free at the other end?

14. A pipe is open at both ends and has a 2nd overtone of 353 Hz and speed of 353 m/s.
Determine (a) the temperature to which the wave is traveling, (b) length of the pipe (c)
the fundamental frequency of the wave?

15. Resolve problem 9 if the pipe is closed at one end and open at the other?

16. Determine the speed and the first three overtones of the pipe in problem no. 10 if the
temperature is increased by 5 degrees Celsius.

81
 MODULE 9: FLUIDS AT REST

ENGAGE
what would happen to objects when they are submerged or immersed in fluids?

what forces do you think are responsible in your answer in the first question?

In recreational diving, divers can only reach 40 meters, why is this so? Explain the concept
behind this?

what causes ships and boats to float on water?

why do you think Jack did not ride the plank of wood with Rose when the Titanic sank?

EXPLORE
Read Module 9: Fluids at Rest (pp 82 - 84)
EXPLAIN

Fluids are materials that can flow. They have no definite shape and they can be
liquids or gases. Gases are highly compressible but liquids are practically incompressible.
Fluid statics is the study of fluids at rest while Fluid dynamics is the study of flowing fluids.

Basic concepts:

1. Density (ρ) of a substance is the mass per unit volume thus in SI system it is expressed
in kg/m3.
mass m
ρ= =
volume V

82
 2. Specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
Sometimes it is called “Relative density”. It has no unit.
𝛒𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐒𝐆 =
𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫
➢ The density of water is 1 g/cm or 1000 kg/m3
3

3. Fluid Pressure
Pressure at any point in a fluid is equal to the force per unit area of a surface
placed at the point.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑃= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
➢ Pressure has a unit of N/m2 or Pascal, Pa in SI.

It can also be shown that because of the weight of the fluid above a certain point, the
pressure varies with the depth as given by the formula
Pa 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Where Pa is the pressure at the surface = Atmospheric pressure. Also
called Barometric pressure because it is measured by a barometer.
At sea level: Pa = 14.7 psi = 76 cm Hg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa
• It is less at higher elevations.
𝝆𝒈𝒉= gage pressure because this is what is measured by pressure
measuring devices like Hg manometers, Bourdon pressure gage, etc.
P = absolute pressure
Pascal’s Principle
“Any pressure applied to a confine fluid will be transmitted undiminished to all
parts of the fluid”

P1 = P2
F1 F2
=
A1 A 2

where A = area,

F = force,

P = pressure

4. BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is a phenomenon wherein a body immersed in a fluid experiences
an upward force called the buoyant force which tends to lessen its weight in the fluid
compared to its weight in air.

83
Archimedes’ Principle
“Whenever a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, a buoyant force will
act on the body that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced”.

Buoyant force
Thus, 𝑩𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑩𝒇 = 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 ∗ 𝒈 ∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
➢ If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force, the object will sink (but
still it experiences a buoyant force, which is why a rock does not feel heavy when it is
submerged as it does when it is lifted out of the water). If the weight of the object is
less than the buoyant force, it will experience a net upward force and will float to the
surface. Some of the object will protrude above the surface, so that the portion still
submerged will displace a weight of fluid equal to the weight of the object.

ELABORATE
FLUID PRESSURE:
1. A diving bell is designed to withstand pressure of sea water at a depth of 600 meters. (a)
What is the gage pressure at this depth? (b) What is the absolute pressure? (c) What total
force acts on a circular glass window 15 cm in diameter if the pressure inside the diving
bell is atmospheric? Assume density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
1. Find the minimum gauge pressure which must be supplied to an automobile lift pump
with a piston of area 120 in2 to lift an automobile and piston weighing 3,000 lb.

2. Calculate the force that must be exerted on the master cylinder of a hydraulic system to
lift a 10,000 kg truck with the slave cylinder. The master cylinder has a diameter of 1.50
cm and the slave has a diameter of 30.0 cm.

BUOYANCY
1. An object weighs 12 N in air and 10 N when immersed completely in water. Find the
volume of the object and its density.

84
2. A man fishing in the Aegean See hooks an ancient gold crown. The density of gold is19.3
x 103 kg/m3, and the density of seawater is 1030 kg/m3. While he is pulling up the treasure,
the tension in his line is 20 N. What will be the tension when he lifts the object out of the
water?

EVALUATE
1. A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN m–2. Express this pressure in terms
of a head of (a) water (ρwater = 1000 kgm–3) and (b) mercury (relative density 13.6kgm-
3).What would be the absolute pressure in the cylinder if the atmospheric pressure is at

101.3 kNm–2?
2. Determine the water gauge pressure at a house at
the bottom of a hill fed by a tank of water 8.0m 8m
deep and connected to a house by a pipe that is
120m long and at an angle of 50° from the 120m
horizontal. Assume the tank is full.

50°

3. A piece of metal weighs 10 g in air, 9.20 g in water, and 8.93 g when immersed in
gasoline.a) What is the density of the metal? b) What is the density of the gasoline?

4. A block of wood with the dimensions 0.15 by 0.35 by 0.4 cubic meters floats along a river
with the broadest face facing down. The wood is submerged to a height of 6cm. What
is the mass of the piece of wood?

5. A car’s weight is given as 20kN. Determine F the

external input force F for the given
diagram.
A Aa=75 cm2

Ab=3500 cm2 B

6. The hydraulic lift has a large cross section and a small cross section. Large cross-sectional
area is 25 times the small cross-sectional area. If on the small cross section is given an
input force of 50 N, then determine the output force.

85
 MODULE 10: HEAT TRANSFER
ENGAGE
How is heat transferred?

How do you explain the heat transfer processes in cooking using an electric stove?

Cite simple situations where you can observe heat transfer.

What do you think happens to objects when they transfer heat?

EXPLORE
Read Module 10: Heat Transfer (pp 86 – 89)
EXPLAIN

HEAT TRANSFER
- The movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.
HEAT
- Form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference in temperature
- usually measured by the temperature (Celsius, C; Fahrenheit, F; Kelvin, K)

FACTORS that affect Energy gained or lost by an object during heat transfer:
o Mass
o specific heat
o change in temperature

*3 Processes by which heat is being transferred from one body to another:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

86
CONDUCTION
• The transfer of thermal energy between neighboring molecules in a substance
due to a temperature gradient.
• Temperature gradient – is the rate of change of temperature with distance.
• It is a process by which heat energy is transferred from particle to particle by
collisions or direct interactions.
** For example, if you hold one end of a long metal bar and insert the other end into
a flame, you will find that the temperature of the metal in your hand soon increases.
The energy reaches your hand by means of conduction.

INSULATORS VS CONDUCTORS:
INSULATORS – these are materials that do not transfer heat well
[Link], wood, wool
CONDUCTORS – materials that transfer heat well
[Link], fiberglass, tile

EQUATIONS FOR CONDUCTION:

𝐤𝐀(𝐭 𝐡 − 𝐭 𝐜 )𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐤𝐀∆𝐓𝐭

𝐐= =
𝐝 𝐝
Q kA∆T
P= =
t d
where: Q = heat conducted (cal or J)
A = area (cm2 or m2)
∆T = temperature difference (°C) = Thot − Tcold
t = time (sec)
d = thickness (cm or m)
cal J
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity (sec−cm℃ or sec−m℃)
P = power (watts)

CONVECTION
• It is the transfer of heat by the motion of a volume of hot fluid from one place to
another.
• Heat transfer by the actual movement of the heated material itself.

** 2 Process:
Force Convection – if the heated substance is forced to move by a fan or pump.
Natural Convection - the change in density that takes place when a fluid is heated.
*example: Airflow at a beach

87
EQUATIONS for CONVECTION:
𝐐
𝐏= = 𝐡𝐀∆𝐓
𝐭
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
where: ℎ = heat transfer coefficient ( 𝑚2 𝐾 )
𝐴 = area (m2)
∆𝑇 = temperature difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid away
from the surface (K)
𝑃 = rate of convective heat flow (watts)

Value if h applies to natural convection of air at atmospheric pressure:

1. Horizontal plate with air passing the top surface
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗(∆𝐓)𝟒
2. Horizontal plate with air passing the bottom surface
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏(∆𝐓)𝟒
3. Vertical plate
𝟏
𝐡 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕(∆𝐓)𝟒
4. Horizontal plate or vertical pipe of diameter D
𝟏
∆𝐓 𝟒
𝐡 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 ( )
𝐃

RADIATION
• It takes place by means of electromagnetic waves which require no material
medium for their passage.
• It consists of electromagnetic waves which transmit energy from a source to an
absorber.

EQUATION for RADIATION

𝐐
𝐏= = 𝛔𝐄𝐚𝐓 𝟒
𝐭

where: σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant

watt
= 5.67 × 10−8 m2 K4

e = emissivity = 0, ideal reflector; 1, ideal absorber

T = surface temperature (K)

A = area (m2)

P = power (watts)

88
 Figure 10.1 In a fireplace, heat transfer occurs by all three
methods: conduction, convection, and radiation. Radiation is
responsible for most of the heat transferred into the room. Heat
transfer also occurs through conduction into the room, but at a
much slower rate. Heat transfer by convection also occurs
through cold air entering the room around windows and hot air
leaving the room by rising up the chimney.

ELABORATE
EXAMPLE SITUATIONS:
CONDUCTION:
1. when you hold one end of an iron rod while the other end is in direct contact with a
flame. Heat will transfer through the metal by conduction.
2. The knives and forks use a wooden handle to break with the conduction of heat.
3. When you pour hot coffee to the cup containing it. Hot liquids transfer the heat to the
container containing them, causing the latter to warm up a bit.
4. Compresses (hot water bags) used to relax muscles. The heat is transferred from the
compress to the skin and from there to the muscles.
5. An ice cube melts when placed on apersons hand. The heat from the skin is transferred
to the ice cube causing it to melt.

CONVECTION:
1. The heat transfer of a stove.
2. Hot air balloons, which are held in the air by hot air. If it cools, the balloon immediately
begins to fall.
3. When the water vapor fogs the glass of a bath, by the hot temperature of the water
when bathing.

RADIATION
1. The transmission of electromagnetic waves through the microwave oven.
2. The light emitted by an incandescent lamp.
3. The emission of gamma rays by a nucleus.

89
COMPUTATION EXAMPLES:

CONDUCTION:
1. The wall of shed in which ice is stored consists of an outer layer of wood 2cm and an inner
layer of rock wool 3cm thick. Find the heat conducted through 50m2 of the wall in 1hr.
When the outer wood surface is at 20°C and the inner rock wool surface is at 5°C. Also
find the temperature of the wood-rock wool interface.

CONVECTION:
1. A Bathroom is heated by a floor-to-ceiling steam pipe that is 10cm in diameter. The ceiling
height is L=3.0m and the temperature of the bulk of air in the room is 22°C. If the pipe
surface is at 90°C, what is the rate of convective heat transfer?

RADIATION:
1. A copper ball 2cm in radius is heated in a furnace to 400°C. If the emissivity is 0.3, at what
rate does it radiate energy?

2. The sun’s surface has a temperature of about 5800K, and the radius of the sun is about
7x108m. Calculate the total energy radiated by the sun each day, assuming the emissivity
is e=1. By way of comparison, the total energy consumed worldwide each year by
humans is about 1021J.

EVALUATE
1. Identify whether the given situations are examples of conduction, convection or
radiation.
a. Solar ultraviolet radiation, precisely the process that determines the Earth’s
temperature.
b. Ironing of clothes
c. When you walk barefoot on the hot street, and it burns your toes.
d. The heat transferred by hand or hair dryer
e. When teaspoons get hot when placed in hot coffee
f. The heat transfer generated by the human body when a person is barefoot.
g. The heat emitted by a radiator.
h. A thermometer works because the liquid in it contracts when heated.
2. Identify the word/s defined in each item
a. the measure of the amount of energy in matter
b. The movement of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object
c. Materials that do not transfer energy (heat) easily
d. The transfer of heat through empty space

3. Answer the following questions as either TRUE or FALSE

a. the Sun directly heat the air in our atmosphere

90
 b. higher temperature means faster moving molecules
c. Air a great conductor of heat
d. Heat always comes from cooler temperature to warmer temperature
e. The transfer of heat When the warmth of the sun heats rocks is an example of
radiation
f. A thermometer works because the liquid in its contracts when heated which is an
example of conduction
g. temperature is a measure of total kinetic energy

PRACTICE PROBLEMS:

1. The thermal conductivity of ice is 5.2 x 10-4 kcal/m-s-oC. At what rate is heat lost by the
water in a 6m by 10m outdoor swimming pool covered by a layer of ice 1cm thick if the
water is at a temperature of 0oC and the surrounding air is at a temperature of -10oC?

2. Forced air flows over a heat exchanger in a room heater, with a convective heat transfer
coefficient, h = 150 BTU/hr-ft2-oF. The surface temperature of the heat exchanger is held at
200oF while the air in the room is maintained at 72oF. Find the surface area of the heat
exchanger if 20,000 BTU/hr is delivered by the heater.

3. An incandescent lamp filament, with a surface area of 100mm2, operates at a

temperature of 2300oC. Assume that the filament acts like a blackbody(e = 1). (a) What is
the rate of radiation from the filament? (b) If the walls of the room in which the lamp
operates are at 27oC, What is the rate at which the filament absorbs radiation? (c) At what
rate does electrical energy have to be supplied to the filament to keep its temperature
constant? (Ignore conduction and convection losses from the filament.)

91
 MODULE 11: ELECTROSTATICS
ENGAGE
What happens when two atoms like charges are near each other?(i.e. both are positively
charged)

An electron is negatively charged particle of an atom. What happens when an atom loses
an electron?

What happens to the force between two atoms when they are placed too far from each
other?

When a rubber comb is run through the hair and is then placed near small pieces of paper,
the pieces of paper are attracted to the rubber comb. Explain why?

EXPLORE
Read Module 11: Electrostatics (pp 92 - 95)
EXPLAIN

Electrostatics
- Branch of physics that deals with the study of charges at rest
- "Electrostatic" pertains to electric charges at rest or to fields or phenomena produced
by stationary charge(s)
- Static electricity is the accumulation of electrical charges on the surface of a
material; may result in sparks, shocks or materials clinging together.

Electric Charges
- one of the basic properties of the elementary particles of matter giving rise to all
electric and magnetic forces and interactions.

There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative

these charges are commonly known as protons (+) and electrons (–)

92
Atomic Structure:
Particle Charge Mass (kg)
-1.6 x 10-19 C or
Electron (e) 9.1094 x 10-31
-4.8 x 10-10esu (or statC)
+1.6 x 10-19 C or
Proton (p) 1.6726 x 10-27
+4.8 x 10-10esu (or statC)
Neutron (n) 0 1.6749 x 10-27

*1C = 3 x 109statC

ELECTRON THEORY:
1. A neutral body is one that has exactly as many electrons as there are protons.

2. When a neutral body gains electron from an outside source, it acquires a negative
charge.
Hence, a negatively charged body has more electrons than protons.

3. When neutral body loses some of its own electrons, it acquires a positive charge.
Hence, a positively charged body has fewer electrons than protons.

LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS:
1. INTERACTION OF CHARGES:
a. Like charges repel
b. opposite charges attract , and each other
c. Charged particle and neutral attract:
Example: a charged comb (ran through the hair) attracts bits of uncharged
(or neutral) bits of paper

+ - -

- - +

Figure 11.1 Direction of interaction of Charges

93
2. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
- The algebraic sum of the electric charge in any closed system remains constant
- charge is always conserved
- When all objects involved are considered prior to and after a given process, the total
amount of charge among the objects is the same before the process starts as it is
after the process ends.

ELECTRIFICATION (CHARGING OF BODY):

- The process of gaining or losing electron (transfer of electrons from one material to
the other)

The Triboelectric Series

- a list of materialsshowing which have a greater tendency to become positive (+)
and which have a greater tendency to become negative (−)
- atoms of different materials hold on to their electrons with different strengths
- the materials would acquire the same amount of charge (but opposite type
or sign)
- the greater the separation in the series, the greater the exchange of charges

Methods of Electrification/ Charging:

1. Friction
- results in a transfer of electrons between two objects that are rubbed
together
2. Conduction
- charging a neutral body by bringing into contact with a charged body
- (also known as charging by contact) involves the contact of a charged object
to a neutral
3. Induction
- The charging body is brought near the neutral body, thus inducing it to have
an opposite charge as that of the charging body
- object is charged without actually touching the object to any other charged
object

**OTHER PROCESSES:

Polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an object. The

positive charge becomes separated from the negative charge. By inducing the
movement of electrons within an object, one side of the object is left with an excess
of positive charge and the other side of the object is left with an excess of negative
charge. Charge becomes separated into opposites.

94
 Grounding
: the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of
electrons between it and another object of substantial size. When a charged object
is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of electrons between the
charged object and a ground.
Ground: an object that serves as a seemingly infinite reservoir of electrons; the ground
is capable of transferring electrons to or receiving electrons from a charged object in
order to neutralize that object. (ex. ground or earth)

3. COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS (CHARLES AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB)

- The electric force F between two electric charges is directly proportional to the
product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

ELECTRIC FORCE
- The attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged objects; an
action-at-a-distance force
- hold atoms together; makes possible the existence of material things, human
activities, and properties and attributes (tasting, smelling, thinking, etc)

COULOMB’S LAW
|𝒒𝟏 ||𝒒𝟐 | Where:
𝐅 = 𝐤
𝒓𝟐 F = force between the charges; N or dynes
q1& q2 = magnitude of the charges; C or esu (or statC)
r = distance between them; m or cm
k = Coulomb’s constant (depending on
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝜺
Where:
ε = permitivitty of the medium
For vacuum: ε = 8.85 x 10−12 C 2 /N − m2
k = 9 x 109 N − m2 /C2 = 1 dyne − cm2 /esu2

95
ELABORATE
ELECTRIFICATION: (Amounts of charge given are fictitious and given for purposes of
illustration only)

CHARGING BY FRICTION:
1. What type of charge would each material acquire for each of the following pairs
rubbed together?
Assume they are all initially uncharged or neutral.
a) acetate and wool
b) paper and polyester

2. Which pair would acquire higher amount of individual charge?

96
CHARGING BY CONDUCTION:

1. Initially, object A is positively charged 2. A is brought in contact with B. Since A is

with +8μC; object B is neutral positively charged, electrons in B are
attracted towards A.

Then the A and B are pulled apart.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (+8μC) + 0 = +8μC
3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged. A gains those electrons lost by B;
so, A becomes less positively charged.
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (+5μC) + (+3μC) = +8μC
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:
4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION
1. Initially, object A is negatively 2. A is brought close to but not in contact with
charged with -15μC; objects B and B. Since A is negatively charged, electrons
C are neutral in B are repelled and move as far away as
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶 possible from A. These electrons transfer to
C. Then the A and B are pulled apart.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−15μC) + 0 + 0 = −15μC

3. B loses electrons; so, it becomes positively charged C gains those electrons lost by B;
so, C becomes negatively charged. A retains its original charge
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−15μC) + (+6μC) + (−6μC) = −15μC
As shown in no. 1 and 3, by conservation of charge:
4. The total charge in the system of charges is the same before and after the charging
process.

97
POLARIZATION:
1. Initially, object A is negatively charged 2. Since A is negatively charged, electrons
with -10μC, and B is neutral. on the left edge of Bare repelled and
move as far away as possible from A.
There are no other objects these
electrons can go to. So, they
accumulate at the right edge of B.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−10μC) + 0 = −10μC
3. B neither loses nor gains electrons; the electrons only move to a different part of the
object. So, B remains in its initial state which is being neutral.
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵

4. 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (−10μC) + 0 = −10μC

GROUNDING

1. Identify the following particles as being

charged or uncharged. If charged,
indicate whether they are charged
positively or negatively.
(n = neutron, p = proton, e = electron)

2. b) 3.12 x 1014 protons and 4.5488 x 1016

a) 8.25749 x 1017 protons and 5.26 x 1014 electrons; the charge on this object is ____
electrons; the charge on this object is ____ C.
C. 𝑞 = (3.12 𝑥 1014 𝑝)(+1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑝)
+(4.5488𝑥 1016 𝑒)(−1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑒)
17 −19
𝑞 = (8.25749 𝑥 10 𝑝)(+1.6𝑥10 𝐶/𝑝)
+(5.26 𝑥 1014 𝑒)(−1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑒) 𝒒 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕 𝐂

98
 𝒒 = +𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝑪
(Amounts of charge given are fictitious and given for purposes of illustration only)
a. Neutralizing a positively b. Neutralizing a negatively charged object
charged object
Object A being negatively
charged repel electrons at
the surface of the ground.
These electrons move as far
away as possible from A.
The surface of the ground
Object A is brought in contact with
now becomes positively
ground, which has abundance of
charged. In turn, electrons
electrons. Electrons from ground
from object A are attracted
are attracted to A because this
to the ground. When
object is positively charged
enough electrons have
(means that it has “electron
transferred out of A, A
vacancies”). When enough
becomes neutral.
electrons have transferred into A
(or filled up the “electron
vacancies”), A becomes neutral.

COULOMB’S LAW:
Given:
q1 = −5 nC located at (+0.2 m,0)
q2 = +8 nC located at (+0.6 m,0)

Determine the magnitude and direction of

the force on each charge.

99
Draw the charges along a line.
q1 and q2 have opposite types of charge;
so, they are attracted to each other.
q1 is pulled by q2 q2 is pulled by q1

The force vector of each charge is

directed toward the other charge:

Given:

𝑞1 = +4 𝜇𝐶 located at (0,+0.3 m)
𝑞2 = +6 𝜇𝐶 located at (0, -0.2 m)

Determine the magnitude and direction of

the force on each charge.

100
EVALUATE

1. Three charged particles are aligned along the x axis as shown. Find the electric force
between the three charges.

2. Three point charges are located on a circular arc as shown. aFind the electric force that
would be exerted on a 5nC point charge placed at P.

3. Two particles, with charges of 20nC and -20nC, are placed at the points with coordinates
(0, 4cm) and (0, -4cm) respectively. Find the electric charge on a 10nC located at the
origin.

101
 MODULE 12: ELECTRICITY
ENGAGE
In your opinion, how do electricity work, does it move from positive to negative or otherwise?

Why is it important to follow the electric specifications on chargers and appliances?

A small amount of current is generated by putting your tongue to a 9V battery, however the
amount of current cannot be felt by holding 9V battery using your dry hands. What is the
concept behind the difference between the amount of current generated?

EXPLORE
Read Module 12: Electricity (pp142–147)
EXPLAIN
CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
I. ELECTRIC CURRENT
• charges in motion
DC (Direct Current)
: is a constant flow between two points having a different electrical potential and
thecharge flow is one way (ex. cell or battery)
AC (Alternating Current)
:the charge flows alternately backwards then forwards in a circuit many times
everysecond (ex. power plant, generator, mains supply)
Direction of Current
CONVENTIONAL FLOW ELECTRON FLOW

In a metallic conductor, the moving A conventional current is treated as a

charges are electrons — but the flow of positive charges (would move
current still points in the direction from the positive battery terminal and
positive charges would flow. toward the negative terminal).
`

102
 The motion of positive charge carriers in one direction has the same effect as the actual
motion of negative charge carriers in the opposite direction. So for historical reasons,
however, we use the following convention:
A current arrow is drawn in the direction in which positive charge
carriers would move, even if the actual charge carriers are
negative and move in the opposite direction.

• Current as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor connected

between two points of different potentials
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
where:
I = current, Ampere (amp or A)
t = time, s
Q = total charge that flows, coulomb
* Note that for a metallic conductor, charges that flow are electrons
Q= Nq
where:
N = number of electrons that flow during a time t
q = charge of an electron, |qe| = 1.6x10-19 C

➢ Current in Relation to the Drift Velocity of the Charges

When an electric field 𝐸⃗ is established in a conductor, the charge carriers (assumed
positive) acquire a drift speed 𝒗𝒅 in the direction of 𝐸⃗ ; the current is related to the drift
speed by

𝑰 = 𝒏𝒒𝑨𝒗𝒅

where: A = cross sectional area of conductor (m2)

n = free electron(conduction electron) density or concentration of particles
= the number of carriers per unit volume (n = N/V)
❖ (nq) = carrier charge density

➢ Current Density in a Conductor, J

• It is the current per unit cross-sectional area.
I A
❖ J = A , m2
❖ J = nqvd → vector current density

103
II. RESISTIVITY AND RESISTANCE
➢ Resistivity, 𝝆
• The quantitative measure of a material’s opposition to the flow of current. It is an
intrinsic property of the material (metal element) which depends only (if
temperature is constant) on the chemical composition of the material and
temperature, not its shape or size.
• Good conductors have small resistivity; good insulators have large resistivity.

➢ Resistance, R
• It is the obstruction or opposition offered by the material (conductor) in the flow
of current through it. It is the extrinsic property of the material which depends upon
the amount of material present (shape and size).

Ohm’s Law: For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current density to
the electric field is a constant 𝜎 that is independent of the electric field producing the
current.
𝐽
=𝜎
𝐸
Materials and devices that obey Ohm’s Law are said to be ohmic
potential difference across wire, ∆V = Eℓ σ: conductivity
∆V E: Electric Field
J=σ
l ℓ: length of wire
Resistance: the ratio of the potential Resistance of a block of material along
difference across a conductor to the the length ℓ:
current in the conductor l
∆V R=ρ
R= A
I 1
1 Ω = 1 V/A resistivity, ρ =
σ
Resistance and Temperature
Over a limited temperature range: ρ: resistivity at temp T
ρ = ρo [1 + α(T − To )] ρo : resistivity at temp To
R = R o [1 + α(T − To )] α: temperature coefficient of resistivity

III. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, emf or ℰ

the maximum potential difference between two electrodes of a galvanic or voltaic cell
energy per unit electric charge that is imparted by an energy source, such as an
electric generator or a battery.

Sources of Electrical Energy: burning oil or coal, hydroelectric plant, geothermal, wind,
solar, nuclear, natural gas, hydrogen, biofuel, biomass, fruits and vegetables with
moderate to high levels of acidity, cell

104
IV. OHM’S LAW
➢ Georg Simon Ohm (1787 – 1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the
relationship between current and voltage for a resistor.
➢ The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current, i flowing through
the resistor.
∴𝐕∝𝐈
➢ Ohm further defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance,
R.
∴ 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
➢ Thus, the resistance, R is the ability of an element to resist the flow of electric current;
measured in ohms (Ω).
𝐕 𝟏𝐕
∴ 𝐑 = ∴ 𝟏𝛀 =
𝐈 𝟏𝐀
➢ The power dissipated by a resistor is given by:
𝐕 𝐕𝟐
𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈 = (𝐈𝐑)𝐈 = 𝐈 𝟐 = 𝐕 ( ) =
𝐑 𝐑

V. SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

➢ What is Series?
- Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
- The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a series is the sum
of the individual resistances.
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑 𝐍 = ∑𝐍
𝐧=𝟏 𝐑 𝐧

- For the given figure:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
- The current in a series circuit is the same for each
of the elements or resistors.
𝐢 = 𝐈𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝐈𝐍

- The total voltage in a series circuit is equivalent to

the summation of all resistance voltages or
voltage drops in the circuit
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐞𝐪 = 𝐯𝟏 + 𝐯𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐯𝐍

105
 ➢ To determine the voltage across each resistor;
Ohm’s Law
v1 = iR1, v2 = iR 2
Substitute
v v
i= =
R eq R1 + R 2
R1
∴ V1 = v
R1 + R 2
R2
∴ V2 = v
R1 + R 2
- Note that source voltage 𝑣 is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their
resistances
- This is regarded as the principle of voltage division
- In general, if a voltage supply has 𝑁 resistors in series with the source voltage 𝑣, the
𝑛th resistor (𝑅𝑛) can be expressed as:
𝐑𝐧
𝐯𝐧 = 𝐯
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐑𝐍

VI. Parallel Resistors and Current Division

➢ What is Parallel?
- Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nods
and consequently have the same voltages across them.
- The equivalent resistance o 2 parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistance divided by their sum.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐
𝐑 𝟏𝐑𝟐
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 =
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

- Generally, the equivalent resistance of

a circuit with 𝑁 resistors in parallel is:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ⋯+
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐 𝐑𝐍
-
- The current in a parallel circuit is equivalent to the summation of all branch currents
in the circuit
𝐢 = 𝐈𝐞𝐪 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐈𝐍

- The resistance voltages are each equal to the source voltage of the parallel circuit.
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐞𝐪 = 𝐯𝟏 = 𝐯𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝐯𝐍

106
 ➢ To determine the current through each resistor
Ohm’s Law
𝐯 𝐯
𝐢𝟏 = 𝐑 𝐢𝟐 = 𝐑
𝟏 𝟐

Substitute
iR1 R2
v = iR eq = R
1 +R2
iR 2
∴ i1 =
R1 + R 2
iR1
∴ i2 =
R1 + R 2
- Note that the total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances.
- This is regarded as the principle of current division

Generally
𝐑 𝐞𝐪
𝐢𝐧 = 𝐢𝐞𝐪
𝐑𝐧

ELABORATE
CURRENT, RESISTANCE and EMF
1. Suppose you wish to fabricate a uniform wire from 1.00 g of copper. If the wire is to have a
resistance of 0.500 Ω and all the copper is to be used, what must be a) the length and b) the
diameter of this wire? Density of copper= 8.92 g/cm3, and resistivity = 1.7x10−8 Ω·m.

2. A 34.5 m length of copper wire at 20.0°C has a radius of 0.25 mm. If a potential difference of 9.00
V is applied across the length of the wire, determine the current in the wire. b) If the wire is
heated to 30.0°C while the 9.00 V potential difference is maintained, what is the resulting current
in the wire? Temperature coefficient of resistivity is 3.9x10−3 /°C. Resistivity is 1.7x10−8 Ω ∙ m.

3. A toaster has a heating element made of Nichrome wire (resistivity is 150x 10 -8Ω·m and
temperature coefficient of resistivity is 0.4x10-3/°C). When the toaster is first connected to a 120 V
source (and the wire is at a temperature of 20.0°C), the initial current is 1.50 A. The current
decreases as the heating element warms up. When the toaster reaches its final operating
temperature, the current is 1.20 A. Find a) the power delivered to the toaster when it is at its
operating temperature b) the final temperature of the heating element

107
SERIES CONNECTION

1. Given 4 resistors connected in series, R1=2Ω, R2=1Ω, R3=4Ω and R4=8, connected to a 30 Vol
source, find for a) Total Resistance b) Total Current and c) Voltage drops across each resistor.

PARALLEL CONNECTION
2. If the resistors in Problem 4 are connected in parallel, find for the a) Total Resistance, b) Total
Voltage and c) Currents through each resistor.

SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION
Problem 1 Problem 2
By combining the resistors in the given Find 𝑅𝑎𝑏 for the circuit shown:
circuit, find 𝑅𝑒𝑞

EVALUATE
1. A steady current of 2.5 A exists in a wire for 4.0 min. (a) How much total charge passed
by a given point in the circuit during those 4.0 min? (b) How many electrons would this
be?

2. A 200-km-long high-voltage transmission line 2 cm in diameter carries a steady current of

1000 A. If the conductor is copper with a free charge density of 8.50 x 10 28 electrons per
cubic meter, how many years does it take one electron to travel the full length of the
cable?

3. An 18-gauge copper wire (ρ = 1.72x10-8 Ω.m) has a diameter of 1.02 mm and a cross-
sectional area of 8.20x10-7m2. It carries a current of 1.67 A. Find (a) the electric-field
magnitude in the wire; (b) the potential difference between two points in the wire 50m
apart; (c) the resistance of a 50m length of this wire.

4. A certain lightbulb has a tungsten filament with a resistance of 19 V when at 20°C and
140 V when hot. Assume the resistivity of tungsten varies linearly with temperature even
over the large temperature range involved here. Find the temperature of the hot
filament. (αTungsten = 4.5 x 10-3/OC)

108
5. When an external resistance of 10 ohms is connected to a source, a current of 0.5A flows,
when the resistance is changed to 20 ohms, the current becomes 0.3 amperes. What are
the open circuit emf and the internal resistance of the source?

6. A battery has an emf of 15.0 V. The terminal voltage of the battery is 11.6 V when it is
delivering 20.0 W of power to an external load resistor R. (a) What is the value of R? (b)
What is the internal resistance of the battery?

7. Find the voltage needed so that a current of 10 A will

flow through the series circuit shown in the figure.

8. Find the voltage across each resistor in the circuit

of Problem 7. Show that the voltage drop equals
the applied voltage of 100V.

9. For the given circuit, find (a) the total resistance,

(b) each branch current, and (c) the total
current.

10. Find I3 in the parallel circuit using current divider.

109
 MODULE 13: MAGNETISM
ENGAGE
In your opinion, do you use electromagnetism in your daily lives? Can you cite example
where you apply or use them?

How do compass (navigation) work?

In your opinion, what is the importance of the earth’s magnetic field?

EXPLORE
Read Module 13: Magnetism (pp110 - 115)
EXPLAIN

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Many applications of electricity are based on the fact that electric current passing
thru a conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor or vice versa, i.e. when
a conductor moves thru a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) is generated and
hence current could flow if there is a complete loop. This is called electromagnetism. The
operation of such devices or machines like the electric motor, generator, the transformer,
the inductor coils, etc. are all based on this phenomenon.

A. The Magnetic Field

It is a region in space wherein a force acts on a charge moving through it.
Ex. The space around a magnet
The space around a current-carrying conductor

One characteristic of a magnetic field is its direction which is usually indicated by a

set of lines drawn in the magnetic field called magnetic field lines (also called magnetic lines
of force or lines of induction).

110
 Figure13.1 Different Examples of Magnetic field

Note: When the lines are curved, the magnetic field is non-uniform and the direction at any
point is taken by the tangent to a line passing through that point.

Figure13.2 Magnetic field taken at point P

B. Magnetic Flux (∅)

A set of magnetic field lines or a group of lines taken or computed as one

C. Magnetic Flux Density ( ) at a point

Magnetic flux passing per unit area of a surface placed at the point perpendicular to
the magnetic field.

111
Note: 1. If the surface area A is PERPENDICULAR to βthen, ∅ = βA
2. If the surface area A is NOT PERPENDICULAR to βthen, ∅ = βAcosθ

Magnetic flux density is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the
magnetic field at a point.

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD

I. MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MOVING CHARGE

When a charge moves through a portion of space, a

magnetic field is created around the charge.
To obtain the magnetic field produced by a charge, q,
moving at velocity v, at a point located at a displacement
r from charge, we need a mathematical expression the
field in terms of q, v and r.

where: β = magnetic field at any point “P” near the moving charge (Tesla or Gauss)
q = electric charge (Coulomb, statcoulomb)
v = speed of the electric charge (m/s, cm/s)
r = distance of the point from the charge
θ = angle between r and v
μ0= permeability of free space (Permeability is the measure of the ability of a
material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself.)
= 4π x 10-7T.m/A

112
Direction: RIGHT HAND RULE Thumb: velocity, v
4 fingers: magnetic field, β

NOTE: If the point charge is negative, the directions of the field and field lines are the
opposite with that of positive charge.

II. MAGNETIC FIELD at any POINT NEAR a STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

a) Short Straight Conductor
The magnetic field due to the electric current in a straight wire is
such that the field lines are circles with the wire at the center.

Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P away from the

conductor
I = current through the conductor
r = perpendicular distance between point P and conductor
θ1& θ2 = angles it make at the point with the conductor

USING RIGHT HAND RULE:

Thumb: current, I
4 Fingers: magnetic filed, 𝛽

113
 b) Long Straight Conductor
For infinite/long straight conductor, θ1& θ2 = 90O and sin(90O) = 1, so the equation now
becomes

III. MAGNETIC FIELD of a CIRCULAR COIL or LOOP

The field depends on the distance x along the axis from the center of the loop to
the field point.

Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P along the axis

of the coil
N = number of turns
I = current in the coil
a = radius of the coil
r = distance from the point P to the radius of coil

Note: At the center of the coil (r=a),

IV. MAGNETIC FIELD due to a SOLENOID

A long coil of wire consisting of many loops is called a solenoid and each loop
produces a magnetic field. Between any two wires, the fields due to each loop
tend to cancel. Toward the center of the solenoid, the fields add up to give a field
that can be fairly large and fairly uniform.

Let “P” be any point along the axis of solenoid

114
 Where: βP = magnetic field at a point P along the axis of the solenoid
N = number of turns
I = current in the solenoid
L = length of the solenoid

ELABORATE
Magnetic Field:
1. The figure below is a perspective view of a flat surface with area 3cm2 in a uniform
magnetic field. The magnetic flux through this surface is +0.9 mWb. Find the magnitude
of the magnetic field.

2. Determine the flux that passes through the area as shown on the figure below.

3. A pair of point charges, q1 = 5µC and q2 = -3µC are moving in a reference frame as
shown. At this instant, what are the magnitude and direction of the net magnetic field
produced at the origin? v1 = 6x105m/s and v2 = 8x105 m/s.

115
4. A coil consisting of 25 turns has a radius of 20cm and carries a current of 8 Amp.
Determine the magnetic field at (a) its center and (b) a point on its axis 10cm from its
center. Draw a diagram to indicate the current and the magnetic field. (The coil is along
the x-z plane whose current is moving from the z to the x-axis.)

EVALUATE
5. A +6µC point charge is moving at a constant speed of 8x106 m/s in the +y-direction,
relative to a reference frame. At the instant when the point charge is at the origin of this
reference frame, what is the magnetic-field it produces at point with coordinates x=0.5m
and y=0.5m?

6. Two infinitely long wires carrying 12A and 8A in

opposite directions are laid parallel in air 10 cm
apart. Find the resultant magnetic field at a point
a) midway between the wires.
b) 2cm from 8A and 12cm from 12A.
c) 8cm from 8A and 10cm from 12A.

7. In the figure, solve for the resultant magnetic field

at point “O”.
Coil 1: I1 = 2A
N1 = 30 turns

a1 =
Coil 2: I2 = 4A
N2 = 25 turns

a2 =

8. A solenoid is positioned with its axis on the y-axis as shown. The current I = 10 A and its
radius is 0.1m. It has 100 turns. Solve for the flux density at point “O”.

116
 MODULE 14: OPTICS
ENGAGE
What is the difference between refraction and reflection?

What is the difference between transparent, translucent and opaque objects?

How is it that when you raise your right hand infront of a mirror your image raises its left hand?

Why is the word Ambulance is spelled backward in front of the vehicle?

Why do a spoon placed on a glass with water looks like it is broken?

If you can see the face of a friend who is under water can your friend also see you? Justify
your answer.

EXPLORE
Read Module 14: Optics (pp117 - 123)
EXPLAIN

OPTICS — NATURE OF LIGHT

Optics – branch of physics that deals with the study of the behavior and properties of light
*Light – a transverse wave, and it is the only visible wave/ray among the electromagnetic
spectrum. It can travel through a vacuum and many other media. In a vacuum, the
speed of light is a constant, c = 3 x 108 m/s. Light will travel slower through different
media.

117
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT
A light ray that encounters a change in media will: reflect, and/or refract (pass through),
and/or be absorbed.

Reflection of Light – the return or bouncing of light wave from a surface

A reflection can occur in an organized way (smooth surface) or in a random way (rough
surface).
* Reflection off of a smooth surface is called specular reflection.
* Reflection off of a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.

Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence with respect to the normal of the reflecting surface
θi, equals the angle of reflection θr:

𝜽𝒊 = 𝜽𝒓

The amount of energy that is reflected compared to the amount incident is called the
reflectivity of the surface. This also is called albedo. The reflectivity of a mirror is about 96%
(albedo = 0.96).

118
Refraction of Light
When light travels from one medium to another, part of the light can be transmitted
across the media surface and refracted.
a) Refraction means that the light beam bends.
b) b) This bending takes place because the light beam’s velocity changes as it goes
from one medium to the next.

• If the light goes from the medium of high velocity to the one of low velocity, it is bent
toward the normal to the surface
• If the light goes the other way, it is bent away from the normal.
• Light moving along the normal is not deflected.

The index of refraction of a transparent medium is the ratio between the speed of light in
free space or vacuum, c and its speed in the medium, v:
𝐜
INDEX OF REFRACTION, 𝐧 =
𝐯

* The greater its index of refraction, the more a beam of light is deflected on entering a
medium.

Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law):

According to Snell’s law, the angles of incidence θi and refraction θr are related by the
formula
sin (θi ) v1 n2
= =
sin (θr ) v2 n1

where v1 and n1 are, respectively, the velocity of light and index of refraction of the first
medium and v2 and n2 are the corresponding quantities in the second medium. Snell’s law
is often written
𝐧𝟏𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝐢) = 𝐧𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝐫)

119
THIN LENSES
The most familiar and widely used optical device (after the plane mirror) is the lens. A lens
is an optical system with two refracting surfaces. The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces
close enough together that we can neglect the distance between them (the thickness of
the lens); we call this a thin lens.

There are 2 basic types of lenses:

a) Convex Lens (Converging lens):
i) Lens thicker at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted towards the focal point, F, on the other side of the lens.

b) Concave Lens (Diverging lens):

i) Lens thinner at center than edges.
ii) Light rays are refracted in a direction away from the focal point, F, on the inner side of
the lens.

Thin Lens Equation:

Just as we had for mirrors, the thin lens equation is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐃𝐢 𝐃𝐨
Where: Di = Image distance
Do= Object distance
f = Focal length
f = (+) for convex lens; ( – ) for concave lens

120
Graphical Methods for Lenses
We can determine the position and size of an image formed by a thin lens by using a
graphical method very similar to the one we used for spherical mirrors.
1. A ray parallel to the axis emerges from the lens in a direction that passes through the
second focal point of a converging lens, or appears to come from the second focal point
of a diverging lens.
2. A ray through the center of the lens is not appreciably deviated; at the center of the lens
the two surfaces are parallel, so this ray emerges at essentially the same angle at which it
enters and along essentially the same line.
3. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the first focal point emerges parallel to the axis.

MIRROR
A mirror is a surface that can reflect a beam of light in one direction instead of either
scattering it widely in many directions or absorbing it.

A. Plane Mirrors.
Images formed by plane (i.e., flat) mirrors have the following properties:

• The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.

• The image is unmagnified, virtual, perverted and upright.
*Perverted means that the image is flipped about the vertical,
i.e. when you raise your right hand infront of a plane mirror, your image raises its left hand
i.e. when you have a mole on your left cheek, your image will have its mole on the right

121
B. Spherical Mirrors.
Spherical mirrors have the shape of a segment of a sphere.
• Concave mirror: Reflecting surface is on the “inside” of the curved surface.
• Convex mirror: Reflecting surface is on the “outside” of the curved surface.

Focal Length and Focal Point

The focal point of a mirror is the point where parallel rays converge after reflection from
a concave mirror (converging mirror), or the point from which they appear to diverge after
reflection from a convex mirror (diverging mirror). The distance from the focal point to the
vertex is called the focal length, denoted as f.
If the radius of curvature of the mirror is R, the focal length f is R/2. For a concave mirror,
f is positive, and for a convex mirror, f is negative.
R
Concave mirror: f = +
2
R
Convex mirror: f = −
2

Mirror Equation
When an object is a distance Do from a mirror of focal length f, the image is located a
distance Di from the mirror, where:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐃𝐢 𝐃𝐨

This equation holds for both concave and convex mirrors.

122
Graphical Methods for Mirrors
We can also determine the properties of the image by a simple graphical method.
1. A ray parallel to the axis, after reflection, passes through the focal point F of a concave
mirror or appears to come from the (virtual) focal point of a convex mirror.
2. A ray through (or proceeding toward) the focal point F is reflected parallel to the axis.
3. A ray along the radius through or away from the Radius of curvature R intersects the
surface normally and is reflected back along its original path.
4. A ray to the vertex V is reflected forming equal angles with the optic axis.

ELABORATE:
REFRACTION:
1. A layer of oil (n = 1.45) floats on water (n = 1.33). A ray of light shines onto the oil with an
incidence angle of 40o. Find the angle the ray makes in water.

THIN LENSES:
1. An object OO’, 4 cm high, is 20 cm in front of a thin convex lens of focal length + 12
cm. Determine the position and height of its image II’ (a) by computation and (b) by
construction (ray diagram)

2. An object OO’, is 9 cm high, is 27 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length -18 cm.
Determine the position and height of its image II’ (a) by computation and (b) by
construction (ray diagram).

MIRRORS
1. An object OO’, 5 cm high, is 25 cm from a concave mirror of radius 80 cm. Determine
the position and the relative size of the image II’ (a) by the use of the mirror equation
and (b) by construction.

2. An object OO’ 6 cm high is located 30 cm in front of a convex spherical mirror of

radius 40 cm. Determine the position and height of its image II’ by (a) use of the mirror
equation and (b) construction.

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EVALUATE
1. the speed of light in an unknown medium is measured to be 2.76 x 108 m/s. (a) What is
the index of refraction of the medium?

2. Optical fibers are generally composed of silica, with an index of refraction around
1.44. (a) How fast does light travel in a silica fiber, and (b) How long will it take for that
light to travel from Baguio to Manila (distance between the two cities 128miles)

3. Light travels from fiber optic cable into diamond with an angle of refraction (θr) of 36.1 °.
if the refractive index of fiber optic cable is 1.6 and the refractive index of diamond is 2.4,
determine (a) the angle of incidence(θi); (b) critical angle; (c) the speed of light in each
material.

4. A light ray strikes a reflective plane surface at an angle of 58° with the surface. (a) Find
the angle of incidence.(b) Find the angle of reflection.(c) Find the angle made by the
reflected ray and the surface.(d) Find the angle made by the incident and reflected rays.

5. If the reflective surface in problem no. 4 is placed at an angel 10° above the horizontal.
Calculate all required values.

6. A ray of light is reflected by two parallel mirrors (1) and (2) at points A and B. The ray
makes an angle of 30° with the a parallel line between the two mirrors. Calculate for (a)
the angle of reflection at the point of incidence A; (b) the angle of reflection at the point
of incidence B (c) the apporxinatenumber of reflections made by the two mirrors if the
distance between the two mirrors id d = 4 cm and the length L of the two mirror system is
3 meters, (d) In a real system, at each reflection, there are losses of the light energy
travelling between the two mirrors. If L and d are fixed, what can be done to decrease
the number of reflections on the mirrors and hence the energy lost by reflection?

30°

7. An 2cm object is placed 20 cm from a concave mirror. The focal length is 10 cm.
Determine (a) The image distance (b) the image size (c) magnification and (d) describe
the image formed

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8. An image formed by a concave mirror is 3 times greater than the object. If the radius of
curvature 20 cm, determine the object distance in front of the mirror and describe the
image formed

9. The focal length of a convex mirror is 10 cm and the object distance is 15 cm. Determine
(a) the image distance (b) the magnification of image (c) the image size of the object is
3 cm tall and (d) describe the image formed

10. A biker sees the image of a motorcycle behind it 1/6 times its original size when the
distance between the biker and motorcycle is 30 meters. Determine (a) the radius of
curvature of the rear-view mirror (b) the image distance (c)describe the image formed

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 CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

CIVIL /GEODETIC ENGINEERING CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Engr. Yuriko Lyn M. Abalos-Suba Engr. Normalita L. Escalante
FB account/messenger: Ym Abalos FB account/messenger:
E-mails: ylasuba@[Link] E-mails: nlescalante@[Link]

Engr. Joana Marie F. Casandra - Obfan Engr. Mylene M. Occasion

FB account/messenger: Jei-Em Cee-Oh FB account/messenger:
E-mails: jmcobfan@[Link] E-mails: mmocasion@[Link]

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Engr. Blanche Rosaida P. Mallar Engr. Marc Gabriel M. Labagnoy
FB account/messenger: FB account/messenger:marclabagnoy
E-mails: brpmallare@slu@.[Link] E-mails: mgmlabagnoy@[Link]

THIS MODULE PREPARED BY: THIS MODULE WAS COMPILED AND EDITED
Engr. Normalita L. Escalante BY:
Engr. Blanche Rosaida P. Mallare Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion
Engr. Mylene M. Ocasion Engr. Joana Marie C. Obfan
Engr. Joana Marie C. Obfan
Engr. Yuriko Lyn A. Suba

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