40 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

Bias Connections
Forward-Bias Recall that a diode is forward-biased when a voltage source is connected as
shown in Figure 2–14(a). The positive terminal of the source is connected to the anode
through a current-limiting resistor. The negative terminal of the source is connected to the
cathode. The forward current (IF) is from anode to cathode as indicated. The forward voltage
drop (VF) due to the barrier potential is from positive at the anode to negative at the cathode.

䊳 FIG UR E 2 – 1 4 VF VBIAS
Forward-bias and reverse-bias con-
nections showing the diode symbol. I=0
IF

R R

VBIAS VBIAS

(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias

Reverse-Bias Connection A diode is reverse-biased when a voltage source is connected

as shown in Figure 2–14(b). The negative terminal of the source is connected to the anode
side of the circuit, and the positive terminal is connected to the cathode side. A resistor is
not necessary in reverse bias but it is shown for circuit consistency. The reverse current is
extremely small and can be considered to be zero. Notice that the entire bias voltage
(VBIAS) appears across the diode.

Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation
and can be represented by a simple switch. When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts
like a closed (on) switch, as shown in Figure 2–15(a). When the diode is reverse-biased, it

VF Ideal diode model

IF IF IF
R

Reverse bias Forward bias

(a) Forward bias
VR VF
0
Ideal diode model

I=0

R
IR
(c) Ideal V-I characteristic curve (blue)

(b) Reverse bias

䊱 FIG UR E 2 – 1 5
The ideal model of a diode.
 D IODE M ODEL S ◆ 41

ideally acts like an open (off) switch, as shown in part (b). Although the barrier potential, the
forward dynamic resistance, and the reverse current are all neglected, this model is adequate
for most troubleshooting when you are trying to determine if the diode is working properly.
In Figure 2–15(c), the ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode
operation. Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the
diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the
portion of the curve on the positive vertical axis.
VF = 0 V
The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using
Ohm’s law.
VBIAS
IF ⴝ Equation 2–1
RLIMIT
Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero, as indicated in
Figure 2–15(c) by the portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
IR = 0 A
The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.
VR = VBIAS
You may want to use the ideal model when you are troubleshooting or trying to figure out
the operation of a circuit and are not concerned with more exact values of voltage or current.
The Practical Diode Model The practical model includes the barrier potential. When the
diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent
voltage source (VF) equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V) with the positive side toward the
anode, as indicated in Figure 2–16(a). This equivalent voltage source represents the barrier po-
tential that must be exceeded by the bias voltage before the diode will conduct and is not an
active source of voltage. When conducting, a voltage drop of 0.7 V appears across the diode.

IF

Practical diode model Practical diode model

VF
A + – K A K
– +
VBIAS
–
IF I=0
R LIMIT R LIMIT VR VF
+ 0 0.7 V
VBIAS VBIAS
+ – – +
IR
(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias (c) Characteristic curve (silicon)

䊱 F IGURE 2–16
The practical model of a diode.

When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal
model, as shown in Figure 2–16(b). The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias, so it
is not a factor.
The characteristic curve for the practical diode model is shown in Figure 2–16(c). Since
the barrier potential is included and the dynamic resistance is neglected, the diode is as-
sumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the
curve to the right of the origin.
VF = 0.7 V
42 ◆ D IODES AND A PPLICATIONS

The forward current is determined as follows by first applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
Figure 2–16(a):
VBIAS - VF - VRLIMIT = 0
VRLIMIT = IFRLIMIT
Substituting and solving for IF,
VBIAS ⴚ VF
Equation 2–2 IF ⴝ
RLIMIT
The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the portion of the curve
on the negative horizontal axis.
IR = 0 A
VR = VBIAS
The practical model is useful when you are troubleshooting in lower-voltage cir-
cuits. In these cases, the 0.7 V drop across the diode may be significant and should be
taken into account. The practical model is also useful when you are designing basic
diode circuits.
The Complete Diode Model The complete model of a diode is the most accurate
approximation and includes the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
(r¿d), and the large internal reverse resistance (r¿R). The reverse resistance is taken into
account because it provides a path for the reverse current, which is included in this
diode model.
When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the equivalent
barrier potential voltage (VB) and the small forward dynamic resistance (r¿d), as indicated
in Figure 2–17(a). When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel
with the large internal reverse resistance (r¿R), as shown in Figure 2–17(b). The barrier
potential does not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.

IF

Slope due to
r'R the low forward
dynamic resistance
VB r'd
A K A K VR VF
0.7 V
Small reverse current
due to the high
IF IR reverse resistance
VBIAS VBIAS

IR
(a) Forward bias (b) Reverse bias (c) V-I characteristic curve

䊱 FIG UR E 2 – 1 7
The complete model of a diode.

The characteristic curve for the complete diode model is shown in Figure 2–17(c).
Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included, the diode is as-
sumed to have a voltage across it when forward-biased. This voltage (VF) consists of the
barrier potential voltage plus the small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance, as indi-
cated by the portion of the curve to the right of the origin. The curve slopes because the
 D IODE M ODEL S ◆ 43

voltage drop due to dynamic resistance increases as the current increases. For the complete
model of a silicon diode, the following formulas apply:
VF = 0.7 V + IFr¿d
VBIAS - 0.7 V
IF =
RLIMIT + r¿d
The reverse current is taken into account with the parallel resistance and is indicated by
the portion of the curve to the left of the origin. The breakdown portion of the curve is not
shown because breakdown is not a normal mode of operation for most diodes.
For troubleshooting work, it is unnecessary to use the complete model, as it involves
complicated calculations. This model is generally suited to design problems using a com-
puter for simulation. The ideal and practical models are used for circuits in this text, except
in the following example, which illustrates the differences in the three models.

EXAMPLE 2–1 (a) Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode in Figure 2–18(a)
for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in
each case. Assume r¿d = 10 Æ at the determined value of forward current.
(b) Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the diode in Figure 2–18(b)
for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in
each case. Assume IR = 1 mA.

RLIMIT RLIMIT

1.0 k⍀ 1.0 k⍀
+ +
VBIAS 10 V VBIAS 10 V
– –

(a) (b)

䊱 FIG UR E 2 – 18

Solution (a) Ideal model:

VF = 0 V
VBIAS 10 V
IF = = = 10 mA
RLIMIT 1.0 kÆ
VRLIMIT = IFRLIMIT = (10 mA) (1.0 kÆ) = 10 V
Practical model:
VF = 0.7 V
VBIAS - VF 10 V - 0.7 V 9.3 V
IF = = = = 9.3 mA
RLIMIT 1.0 kÆ 1.0 kÆ
VRLIMIT = IFRLIMIT = (9.3 mA) (1.0 kÆ) = 9.3 V
Complete model:
VBIAS - 0.7 V 10 V - 0.7 V 9.3 V
IF = = = = 9.21 mA
RLIMIT + r¿d 1.0 kÆ + 10 Æ 1010 Æ
VF = 0.7 V + IFr¿d = 0.7 V + (9.21 mA) (10 Æ) = 792 mV
VRLIMIT = IFRLIMIT = (9.21 mA) (1.0 kÆ) = 9.21 V