Your

Expectations
 What
are this
courses’
 2. Identify attention,
different theories that
1. Define cognition as a explain the process of
science, reasons to study attention and how it
cognitive psychology. affects performance.

Goals
3. Recognize what is
4. Explain knowledge perception and
and how information emphasize on visual
are represented and perception and
the importance and pattern of visual
meaning to memory. recognition.
 6. Define human memory,
clarify encoding and storage,
distinguish different types
of memory and recognize 7. Recognize how to
factors influencing memory. retrieve information,
what influence our
retention and retrieval.
8. Recognize mental
imagery as a process
that takes place in the Goals
mind, distinguish mental 10. Define and
images from perceptions explain creativity
and clarify how we and the creative
construct these images. process.

9. Define problem
solving, identify how
problem solving
operates and what
influence our ability to
solve problems.
WHAT IS COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY?
Cognitive psychology is
the scientific study of
the mind as an
information processor.
 Cognitive psychologists
try to build up cognitive consciousness
models of the information
processing that goes on inside
people’s minds, including,

thinking

perception language
memory

attention
 Therapy
Eye
Memory
witness

Attention
Areas of Forgetting
application

Perception
Education
Moral
Development
 Basic Assumptions

Cognitive psychology is a pure science, based mainly on laboratory experiments.

Behavior can be largely explained in terms of how the mind operates, i.e., the information
processing approach

The mind works in a way similar to a computer: inputting, storing and retrieving data.

Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response.

 BEFORE WE BEGIN,
TAKE A MOMENT AND
 We analyze and
focus separately on
each function to
understand it.
Learning Objective
■ Demonstrate the nature of sensation.
■ Explain the nature and functions of attention
■ Describe the process of perception
■ Explain perception of shape and illusions
■ Understand the problem of space perception and cues used in it
■ Describe the factors influencing perception; and
■ Describe extra sensory perception.
 HOW WE
UNDERSTAND
OUR WORLD
 NATURE AND VARIETIES OF
STIMULUS
The external environment that surrounds us
contains a wide variety of stimuli. Some of them can
be seen (e.g., a house), while some can be heard only
(e.g., music). There are several others that we can
smell (e.g., fragrance of a flower) or taste (e.g.,
sweets). There are still others that we can
experience by touching (e.g., softness of a cloth). All
these stimuli provide us with various kinds of
information
 SENSE MODALITIES
We have very specialized sense organs
to deal with these different stimuli.
As human beings we are bestowed with
a set of seven sense organs.

These sense organs are also known as sensory

receptors or information gathering systems,
because they receive or gather information from
a variety of sources.
 SENSE MODALITIES
Our sense organs provide us with first-
hand information about our external or
internal world.

The initial experience of a stimulus or an object

registered by a particular sense organ is called sensation.
It is a process through which we detect and encode a
variety of physical stimuli.

Sensation also refers to immediate basic

experiences of stimulus attributes, such as
“hard”, “warm”, “loud”, and “blue”, which
result from appropriate stimulation of a
sensory organ.
 DO YOU THINK WE
CAN SENSE
EVERYTHING IN OUR
ENVIRONMENT?
Sensation

occurs when energy

from external or
internal source
stimulates receptor cell
in one or more sense
organs
 Transduction
conversion of
physical energy
into coded neural
signals.
Receptor cell
specialized cell
that responds to a Perception
particular type of
energy.

Sensation
the
experience of
sensory
stimulation.
How do sensation occurs?
Sensation
threshold

For sensation to occur

physical energy within
receptor cell must reach
minimum level of intensity
 Functional Limitations of Sense Organs
The same is true for
other sense organs also.
As human beings, we
function within a limited
It is important to note that our range of stimulation. For
being noticed by a sensory
sense organs function with certain receptor, a stimulus has
limitations. For example, our eyes to be of an optimal
cannot see things which are very intensity or magnitude.
dim or very bright. Similarly our
ears cannot hear very faint or The relationship between
stimuli and the sensations
very loud sounds.
they evoke has been
studied in a discipline,
called psychophysics.
 Difference
threshold or
Absolute
just-noticeable
threshold
difference (jnd)
Adaptation

Sensory
Thresholds
 Sensory Threshold
Thresholds often are thought of as the
stimulus intensity which defines the
lower limit of sensitivity of the sensory
system.
Absolute thresholds – the
smallest amount of energy Difference threshold or just-
needed for conscious detection noticeable difference (jnd) – the
of a stimulus. smallest change in stimulation
The minimum intensity of that can be detected.
stimulation (brightness of a The minimum change in intensity
light; loudness of a tone) required to produce a detectable
required to produce a change in sensory experience.
detectable sensory experience.

Adaptation – an
adjustment of the
senses to the level of
stimulation they are
receiving. So sensory
adaptation occurs when
sensation is unchanging.
When you walk through a busy street,
Think of
Definition of Attention
■ Attention is “the ability to focus on a task
or subject”.
■ Concentration is “the ability to maintain this
attention for a certain amount of time”.
■ Attention is “the means by which we actively
process a limited amount of the enormous
amount of information available through our
senses, our stored memories, or other
cognitive processes”.
 Definition of Attention
■ Ross (1951) has defined it as “the process of getting an object
or thought clearly before the mind”.
■ Whereas, according to William James, “attention is focusing of
consciousness on a particular object. It implies withdrawal
from some things in order to deal effectively with others.
It is taking possession of one, out of several simultaneous
objects or trains of thought by the mind, in clear and vivid
form”.
Definition of Attention
■ Attention refers to “the concentration and
focusing of mental effort”.
■ Attention is “the means by which we actively
process a limited amount of the enormous
amount of information available through our
senses, our stored memories, or other
cognitive processes”.
■ Attention is a central process and perception is
not possible without attentional processes.
■ That means attention precedes perception.
■ Attentional processes serve various functions in
the organization of our perceptions and other
cognitive functions.
■ It is essential to most cognitive processing
but only partially under our control.
Functions of Attention (What does attention
do?)
■ Monitors our interaction with the environment.
■ Assists linking past (memories) with present
(sensations) to give continuity to our
experiences.
■ Helps us to control and plan future actions.
 The various forms (functions) of
attention

5.Vigilance
1.Alerting 2.Selective 3.Divided 4.Executive
(Sustained
function function attention attention
attention)
 1.
Alerting Attention in this sense refers
When the teacher asks the student in the
function classroom to pay attention to what to a state of focused
he is teaching, it means that the student awareness with readiness
can voluntarily create conditions that to respond.
prepare him/her to be receptive and alert Distraction occurs when some
in the class. interference prevents the
individual to continue with the
ongoing task.
 2.
Selective
function

When we are encountered by numerous attention

grabbing environmental factors or stimuli, our brain
selectively focus on particular stimuli and block out
other stimuli consciously. This term of attention is
known as selective
attention.
The cocktail –party effect
The most important function of attention is selectivity.
Selectivity refers to a process by which attention is
focused on stimulus or stimuli of ongoing interest and
other stimuli are ignored. Selective attention
acts as a filter, that allows some information in and the
other (unwanted) out.
 How we select stimuli?

■ Selective attention is concerned mainly with the selection of a limited

number of stimuli or objects from a large number of stimuli. We have
already indicated that our perceptual system has a limited capacity to
receive and process information. This means that it can deal only with a few
stimuli at a given moment of time. The question is, which of those stimuli
will get selected and processed?
■ Psychologists have identified a number of factors that determine the
selection of stimuli.
 Factors affecting
Selective Attention

External factors Internal Factors

External factors are related to the features Lie within the individual.
of stimuli. Other things held constant, the
size, intensity, and motion of stimuli appear to These may be divided into two main
be important determinants of attention. categories.

Motivational factors
Large bright, and moving stimuli
easily catch our attention. Relate to our biological or social needs. When we
are hungry, we notice even a faint smell of food.
Stimuli, which are novel and -
A student taking an examination is likely to focus
moderately complex, also easily on instructions more than other students
get into our focus

Cognitive factors
Include factors like interest, attitude, and
preparatory set. Objects or events, which appear
interesting, are readily attended by individuals.
Similarly we pay quick attention to certain objects or
events to which we are favorably disposed
 3.
Divided
attention

It refers to the ability to maintain

attention on two or more tasks
simultaneously.
For example, texting while talking to
someone. According to some
psychologists it is the ability to
multi-task.
Limited
capacity It has been established through research that
we have limited capacity to process
channel information that is available in the outside
world. That is, tasks that require attentional
resources cannot be carried out
simultaneously because we have limited
capacity to process the incoming
information. We process the task one at a
time and this is called serial processing.

However, if one task is highly

practiced or routinized then it is
possible to carry on with two tasks
simultaneously.
 4.
Executive
attention

This form of attention helps us in

blocking out unimportant features of
the environment and motivates us to
attend only those features that are
important of our goal accomplishment.
 5.Vigilance
(Sustained
attention)

This form of attention helps us in

maintaining focus or concentration on
one task for a prolonged period of
time.
Maintaining attention on a task
continuously, for some
time, like looking at the radar screen,
is called vigilance or sustained
attention.
 ‫اختبار شطب األرقام‬
‫‪Number Cancellation Test‬‬
‫‪The letter or‬‬
‫‪numbers‬‬ ‫التعليمات‪" :‬مطلوب منك دلوقتى إنك تشطب على كل عدد ‪ 3‬يقابلك على أن يكون العدد اللى قبله عدد زوجى ‪ ،‬وعلى كل عدد‬
‫‪cancellation Test‬‬ ‫‪ 7‬يقابلك على أن يكون العدد اللى قبله عدد فردى"‪.‬‬
‫مثال‪:‬‬

‫‪7 2 3 5 6 2 7 9 4 5 3 8 5 1 8 36‬‬
‫‪6 8 3 6 5 7 3 6 9 4 5 3 2 7 6 14‬‬
‫‪7 9 4 6 7 5 9 2 4 5 7 8 3 6 3 25‬‬
‫‪1 8 3 6 1 2 9 6 8 3 7 3 2 5 6 71‬‬
‫واآلن واصل العمل بنفس الطريقة إلى آخر الصفحه‬
‫‪1 2 5 6 9 1 3 6 3 1 9 2 5 6 3 71‬‬
‫‪2 6 7 8 2 7 3 6 8 1 8 3 4 5 7 89‬‬
‫‪9 3 6 8 4 8 1 7 5 6 1 2 9 3 7 18‬‬
‫‪3 7 2 5 6 3 1 2 7 5 6 2 9 3 6 14‬‬
‫‪6 5 8 3 1 2 7 9 1 6 4 7 1 3 2 76‬‬
“EXCELLENCE IS IN THE DETAILS.

GIVE ATTENTION TO THE

DETAILS AND EXCELLENCE WILL
COME.”

PERRY PAXTON
 .2

Practice
attention Manage how you
speak to
3. Remember that
yourself
in order to improve
2.Whenever you
your concentration
1. Don’t say you need to focus
you need to train
cannot concentrate. your mind, tell
it, like any other
Manage how you yourself over and
again that you skill. Train to
speak to yourself
can concentrate. focus your mind on
Telling yourself that
Tell yourself that anything you want.
you cannot
you can develop Paying attention is
concentrate only
this ability. something that is
makes it more
learned. It can also
difficult. By doing so,
be taught.
you program your
mind to lack of
concentration and
attention.
 .2

Practice 5. When you focus

your attention on
attention anything, be alert,
and when you find
yourself thinking on
something else, try
to stay patient, and
4. Make deals with bring your mind 6. Often, when
your mind. to the subject you remember, try
If there is something
that is distracting your again and again. to fix your
attention, such as attention on
emotional problems or whatever you
unresolved business
problems, tell your mind
happen to be
that all these problems doing at the
can wait for a little moment.
while, and that you will
attend to them after
you finish what you are
doing.
 7. Get
some
Practice exercise.

attention
12. 8. Drink
Focus—and more
Refocus. fluids.

9. Take stock
11. Work on
of the
one set
important
objective at a
things in your
time.
life.

10. Get rid

of obvious
distractions.
 14. Increase the
strength of your focus
Practice gradually.
attention If you decide you want to
physically get in shape,
but are starting at
ground zero, the worst
thing you can do is to
13. Adjust the task. throw yourself into an
If you've tried just extreme training program
about everything, and – you’ll end up injured,
you're finding that your discouraged, or both, and
still can't stay focused you’ll quit before you
on the task at hand, you even really get started.
may want to break the
task down into smaller
parts – ones that can be
completed independent
of each other in less
time.
Diagnosing ADHD: DSM-IV
Lacks attention to
detail; makes careless
Attention Inattentiveness: mistakes
has difficulty sustaining
deficits attention
Has a minimum of 6 doesn’t seem to listen
symptoms regularly fails to follow
through/fails to finish
for the past six projects
months. has difficulty organizing
tasks
avoids tasks requiring
mental effort
Symptoms are present at
often loses items
abnormal levels for necessary for
stage of development completing a task
easily distracted
is forgetful in daily
activities
 Diagnosing ADHD: DSM-IV
Fidgets or squirms
Hyperactivity/ excessively
Attention Impulsivity: leaves seat when
inappropriate
deficits
runs about/climbs
extensively when
inappropriate
Has a minimum of 6 symptoms
regularly for the past six months. has difficulty playing
quietly
Symptoms are present at often “on the go” or
abnormal levels for stage of “driven by a motor”
development talks excessively
blurts out answers
before question is
finished
cannot await turn
interrupts or intrudes
on others
 Diagnosing ADHD: DSM-IV
Attention
deficits Symptoms causing
Additional impairment present
before age 7
Criteria:
Impairment from
symptoms occurs in two
or more settings
Clear evidence of
significant impairment
(social, academic, etc.)
Symptoms not better
accounted for by
another mental disorder
ADHD and the Brain II
Similarities of ADHD symptoms to those from
injuries and lesions of frontal lobe and prefrontal
Attention cortex
deficits MRIs of ADHD patients show:
Smaller anterior right frontal lobe
abnormal development in the frontal and
striatal regions
Significantly smaller splenium of corpus
callosum
decreased communication and processing of
information between hemispheres
Read out loud the text inside the
triangle.
What do you see?
What do you see?
Now, what do you see?
 The perceptual
process allows us
to experience the
world around us.

take a moment to
think of all the
things you perceive
on a daily basis. At
any given moment,

All of these things help

make up our conscious
experience and allow us
to interact with the people
and objects around us.
FROM SENSATION TO
REPRESENTATION
■ we will learn more
about how we go from
detecting stimuli in
the environment to
actually taking
action based on that
information.
What Is Perception?
■ the analysis of
sensory
information
within the
brain.
■ involves brain
organizing and
interpreting
this raw data or
giving it
meaning.
Steps in the
Perceptual Process

The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins

with the environment and leads to our perception of a
stimulus and action in response to the stimulus.
This process is continual, but you do not spend a great deal
of time thinking about the actual process that occurs when
you perceive the many stimuli that surround you at any
given moment.
1) The
Environmental
Stimulus

The world is full of stimuli that

can attract our attention through
various senses.
This might include anything that can be Imagine that you are
seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or heard. out on a morning
walking heading to
It might also involve the movements of your university.
the arms and legs or the change in
position of the body in relation to objects
in the environment.
2) The Attended
Stimulus

The attended stimulus is the specific object in the

environment on which our attention is focused.
In many cases, we might focus on stimuli that are
familiar to us, such as the face of a friend in a crowd
of strangers at the local coffee shop.
In other instances, we are likely to attend to stimuli
that have some degree of novelty.
3) The Image
on the Retina

*The eye relies on light which

passes through the cornea

*This light is focused by the lens and

the cornea onto the retina.

*It is the receptor cells in the retina

that translate the light into images.
3) The Image
on the Retina

*The image on the retina is actually upside

down from the actual image in the
environment.
*At this stage of the perceptual process,
this is not terribly important.
*The image has still not been perceived,
and this visual information will be changed
even more in the next step of the process.
4) Transduction

* The image on the retina is

then transformed into electrical
signals in a process known as
transduction. This allows the
visual messages to be
transmitted to the brain to be
interpreted.
5) Neural
Processing

*The electrical signals then undergo neural

processing. The path followed by a particular
signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e.
an auditory signal or a visual signal).

*Through the series of

interconnecting neurons located throughout
the body, electrical signals reach the brain.
 6) Perception

Perception occurs when the informational medium

carries information about a distal object of a
* In the next step of the perception person. When the person’s sense receptors pick up
process, we actually perceive the on the information, we never experience the distal
stimulus object in the environment. stimulus directly. Energy from it must activate our
* It is at this point that we become sensory system. We call the information that
consciously aware of the stimulus. reaches our sensory receptors the proximal
stimulation.
Modality Distal Object Information Proximal Perceptual
medium Stimulation Object

Vision— Grandma’s Reflected light Photon Grandma’s face

sight Face from Grandma’s absorption in
face (visible the rod
electromagnetic and cone cells
waves) of the retina,
the
receptor
surface in the
back of
the eye
(physical
representation
of the stimulus)
Stages of Perception
• The first stage of perception is “selection”. Since our brain has limited capacity,
therefore, it cannot attend to all stimuli at a time. We unconsciously or consciously
Stage I: select some stimuli and ignore others. The selected stimulus becomes the “attended
Selection stimulus”.

• In the second stage of the process of perception, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful
pattern.
• This process occurs unconsciously. Gestalt psychologists have proposed many principles for organizing
Stage II: stimuli. Such as, ‘figure-ground relationship’, ‘law of proximity’, ‘law of closure’ etc. It explains how
Organization humans naturally organize stimuli to make a meaningful pattern and thus interpretation.

• In this last stage, meaning is assigned to the organized stimuli. Interpretation of

the stimuli is based on one’s experiences, expectations, needs, beliefs and other
Stage III: factors. Thus, this stage is subjective in nature and the same stimuli can be
Interpretation interpreted differently by different individuals.
 7) Recognition

*Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of

the stimuli.

*It is also necessary for our brain to categorize and interpret

what it is we are sensing.

*Our ability to interpret and give meaning to the object is known

as recognition.
8) Action

*The final step of the perceptual process

involves some sort of action in response to
the environmental stimulus.
*This could involve a variety of actions, such
as turning your head for a closer look or
turning away to look at something else.

The action phase of perceptual development

involves some type of motor activity that occurs in
response to the perceived and recognized stimulus.
 PROCESSING APPROACHES IN
PERCEPTION
How do we identify an object?
Do we identify a dog because we have first recognized its furry
coat, its four legs, its eyes, ears, and so on, or do we recognize
these different parts because we have first identified a dog?
 Perceptual Processing

The notion that

recognition process
begins from the
whole, which leads to
identification of its The idea that
various components recognition process
is known as Top- begins from the
down processing parts, which serve
as the basis for the
recognition of the
whole as Bottom-up
processing
Perceptual Processing
Gestalt Principles
Rules that summarize how we tend to organize bits and pieces of information into
meaningful wholes

■ Gestalt Psychology
Tend to perceive the world in wholes. Gestalt means whole, shape, or form.
■ Similarity
* We group like things
* One of these things is not like the other
■ Closure
* We have fill in the details to complete a picture
* I don’t have a problem with closure…
■ Proximity
* We group things that are near
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual
Organization
Observer Characteristics

• Motivation and
emotion
Many
• Values
personal
• Expectations
factors • Cognitive style
influence • Experience and
perceptions culture
• Personality
Despite the fact that all Motivation and Emotion –
humans have the same sense people’s desires, needs, and
organs and perceptual fears shape their
capabilities, several personal perceptions. Values – the value that
factors can influence one’s people place on an object
perceptions. can influence their
perception of the object.

Expectations – people see what

Cognitive style or thinking style– is a concept used they expect to see, overlooking
in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals stimuli that are inconsistent
think, perceive and remember information. with their expectations.
For example, field-dependent individuals tend to perceive
the environment as a whole and do not tend to focus on
individual features or objects in their visual field. Field-
independent individuals tend to analyze the field and
become interested in its details. The holistic- analytic
dimension refers to how individuals gather and store
structured information. The verbal–imagery dimension
refers to how individuals decode structured information
Experience and Culture – cultural
differences cause people to attend to
different things while viewing the same
image; a person’s attention is often
drawn to what is novel. Also, a person
with much experience or expertise in a
subject can perceive more subtle
features of a stimulus than someone with
less experience or expertise.

Personality – personality
characteristics can serve to prime
individuals or make them more
likely to perceive stimuli that are
consistent with characteristics of
their personality.
 CAN MESSAGES
OUTSIDE OUR
AWARENESS AFFECT
OUR BEHAVIOR?
 Concept of absolute threshold implies that some
events occur below our awareness

Perception
Subliminal Implies possibility of presenting stimuli
subliminally

Subtle effect on behavior in laboratory setting

Subliminal
Perception

Some messages occur subliminally – below one’s

level of awareness. The ongoing debate is whether
or not subliminal messages influence behavior.
In a controlled laboratory setting, people
can process and respond to information
presented subliminally.
Subliminal message outside the laboratory
has no significant effect on behavior.
 HOW DO WE PERCEIVE
THINGS AS UNCHANGING
DESPITE CHANGING
SENSORY INFORMATION?
Perceptual Constancies

Perceptual constancy
Size constancy

Shape constancy

Color constancy

Brightness
constancy
Size

Objects are
perceived as
remaining
the same
size
regardless
of distance.
Color and Brightness

Objects are
perceived as
remaining the
same color and
brightness
regardless of
lighting
Space

The ability
to keep
objects in
the
environment
steady
What is an
illusion?

Caused by
an
Muller-Lyer illusion
inaccurate
One line is perceived
perception as being farther
away so we mentally
stretch it. This make
it appear longer.
What is an
illusion?

Reversible Figure
One object is
interpreted in an
alternate
manner
 Deficits in
Perception

■ Clearly, cognitive psychologists learn a great deal

about normal perceptual processes by studying
perception in normal participants. However, we
also often gain understanding of perception by
studying people whose perceptual processes differ
from the norm.
 Agnosias
and
Ataxias

Remember that there are two distinct visual pathways, one for identifying objects
(“what”), the other for pinpointing where objects are located in space and how to
manipulate them (“where” or “how”).

Difficulties
Perceiving
the “What”

■ Consider first the “what.” People who suffer from an agnosia have trouble to perceive
sensory information.
■ Agnosias often are caused by damage to the border of the temporal and occipital lobes
or restricted oxygen flow to areas of the brain, sometimes as a result of traumatic brain
injury. There are many kinds of agnosias. Not all of them are visual.
Difficulties
Perceiving
the “What”

■ Generally, people with agnosia have normal sensations of what is in front of them.
They can perceive the colors and shapes of objects and persons but they cannot
recognize what the objects are—they have trouble with the “what” pathway.
■ People who suffer from visual-object agnosia can see all parts of the visual field,
but the objects they see do not mean anything to them. For example, one agnosic
patient, on seeing a pair of eyeglasses, noted first that there was a circle, then
that there was another circle, then that there was a crossbar and finally guessed
that he was looking at a bicycle. A bicycle does, indeed, comprise two circles and a
crossbar.
 Difficulties
in Knowing
the “How”

■ A different kind of perceptual deficit is associated with damage to the “how”

pathway. This deficit is optic ataxia, which is an impairment in the ability
to use the visual system to guide movement.
■ People with this deficit have trouble reaching for things. All of us have had the
experience of coming home at night and trying to find the keyhole in the front
door. It’s too dark to see, and we have to grope with our key for the keyhole,
often taking quite a while to find it. Someone with optic ataxia has this problem
even with a fully lit visual field. The “how” pathway is impaired.
■ Ataxia results from a processing failure in the posterior parietal cortex,
where sensorimotor information is processed. People with ataxia
can improve their movements toward a visible aim when they hold off with their
movements for a few seconds.