The English Literature Journal

Vol. 2, No. 4 (2015): 426-434

Article
Open Access
ISSN: 2348-3288

Stylistic Significance of Code Switching and Code

Mixing in Three African Novels
Dr. Theresa Ennin* and Isaac Afful

Department of English, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.

*Corresponding author: Dr. Theresa Ennin; e-mail: tennin@[Link]

Received: 07 July 2015 Accepted: 22 July 2015 Online: 31 July 2015

ABSTRACT
In recent times, a lot of studies have been conducted on language use in African literary studies, focusing on literary
devices such as metaphor, foreshadowing, imagery. This paper investigates the use of code switching and code
mixing in three African novels in order to ascertain how these devices contribute to the stylistic effects of the African
novel. The texts studied are I Will Marry When I Want, A Man of the People and The Blinkards. African writers
engage their characters in code switching as a way of Africanising the English Language. Characters code switch in
African novels depending on the setting they find themselves and on the situation at hand. Studies have shown that
the use of code switches and code mixes also help African writers to reach out to a large number of readers. The
paper is germane as it contributes significantly to the ongoing scholarship on the interface between language and
the African novel and that of language contact, with particular emphasis on code switching.

Keywords: Code switching, Code mixing, Contact Linguistics, African novel.

INTRODUCTION switch from one variety of language to the other. This

For an African, writing in English is not without paper examines the use of code switching and code
its serious setbacks. He often finds himself mixing in three African novels paying attention to the
describing situations or modes of thought, stylistic significance of the use of such novels. Over the
which have no direct equivalent in the English years, researchers and writers have held disparate
way of life. Caught in that situation he can do views as to what elements qualify a novel to be African.
one of two things. He can try and contain what
While some scholars are of the view that the African
he wants to say within the limits of
conventional English or try to push back those
novel is that novel that treats issues related to Africa,
limits to accommodate his ideas. The first others are of the view that the African novel is that
method produces competent, uninspired and novel which has an African setting. As regards the use
rather flat work. The second method can of language in such novels, others such as Ngugi hold
produce something new and valuable to the the view that the African novel must be written solely
English language as well as to the new material in an indigenous African language while writers such
he is trying to put over. But it can also get out of as Chinua Achebe and Senghor support the view that
hand. It can lead to bad English being accepted the English language used in writing African novels
and defended as African or Nigerian. I submit should be Africanised or indigenised. As Osabutey
that those who can do the work of extending
the frontiers of English so as to accommodate
(2007:42) observes,
African thought-patterns must do it through
their mastery of English and not out of “Language is a major problem facing literary
innocence. By including many Igbo words, artistes in their writing of African Literature.
proverbs, folktales and the rhythm of the Igbo The words that the African literary artiste
language [Achebe, The Role of the Writer in a wants to use and the meaning they want to
New Nation (1973]. convey may not have their equivalents in the
standardized English language. In an attempt to
portray as accurately as possible the meaning
One of the main functions of language is they want to put across, African writers localize
communication. As humans interact with other people the English Language to suit the African setting
in different cultures, they tend to mix the codes or and environment.”

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Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, the celebrated Kenyan writer, is discuss briefly, this fast developing field in Language
one writer who believes that it is high time African study. In brief, Contact Linguistics is the sociolinguistic
writers stopped writing in the colonial language. He study that looks at the linguistic phenomena that arise
avers that African novels must be written in an as a result of languages coming together. According to
indigenous or local language rather than they being Nilep (2006), the concept of Language in contact or the
written in colonial languages such as English, discipline of Contact Linguistics is believed to have
Portuguese and French. It must be noted that Ngugi originated from Uriel Weinreich when he published his
himself used to write in English but he now writes most seminal book, Languages in Contact (1953). Factors
of his novels in the local Gikuyu language to that lead to languages coming in contact with each
communicate effectively to his people and to react to other include commerce, education, religion and
national issues. To him, writing African novels in migration. This results in linguistic outcomes such as
English is suggestive that African writers have not yet pidgins, creoles, code switching, code mixing, diaglosia
been liberated from the colonial rule. Since language is and borrowing. These outcomes come are seen in
a core element of culture, writers must write their bilingual or multilingual countries. In such complex
novels employing an indigenous language or a language linguistic situations as in most African countries such
that depicts the African culture. In his seminal article, as Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria, one variety of the
Decolonising the mind: The Politics of language in language is given a high status while the other local
African Literature (1986), he asserts that the varieties appear to be relegated to a lower status.
continuous practice where the African writes in the
colonial language, results in colonial alienation where Code switching, as indicated, is one of the major
Africans are indoctrinated that they can only see outcomes of languages in contact. The term code
something good in their countries only through the switching, as Lyons (1977) observes, refers to the
eyes of the Europeans and Africans gradually become ability of members of a language or speech community
exiled from their cultural values. In effect, Ngugi is of to pass one dialect or a variety of the language to
the view that to be truly free of Africa’s old European another according to the situation of an utterance.
masters, one must write in an African language. That is, Simply put, code-switching can be defined as the use of
our minds must be decolonized rather than being re- two or more languages in the same conversation or
colonised. He concludes by postulating that Europeans utterance (Gardner-Chloros as cited by Skovde, 2007).”
understood that it was not enough to take over It is alsoseen as the act of alternation of two languages
Africa with guns alone. They also needed to take over within a single discourse, sentence or constituent
the minds of its people. They did that through English (Poplack, 1980:583). More technically, when code
and French and Portuguese and the fine educations switching occurs, there is a mixing of various linguistic
offered in those languages. Africa’s current condition units such as words, phrases, sentences and clauses
shows that they have succeeded (cited in Abagond, from two participating grammatical systems of
2011).These assertions and postulations made by languages across sentence boundaries within a speech
Ngugi and his followers have been challenged by other event (Richards, Platt and Weber, 1985). Code
writers such as Achebe and Senghor. Chinua Achebe, switching is thus inter sentential. In code switching,
for instance, challenges Ngugi’s position in his article, people who are fluent in two or more languages may
The Politics and Politicians of Language in African regularly code switch from one to the other according
Literature (1989), Achebe defends his writing in the to the situation, the person being addressed, or even
English Language. He proposes that African writers the topic (Finch, 2000). Thus, there is a rapid switch or
should use the English language and other “so- called change from one language to the other depending on
colonial languages” in their writings as a lingua Franca. the situation, audience or subject matter (Ibhawaegbele
For Achebe, this method helps writers to reach out to a and Edokpayi, 2012).
great number of readers across the globe. Achebe
opines that the English Language should be Africanised. Like code switching, code mixing also occurs in
By Africanisation, Achebe means that African writers bilingual and multilingual situations. As Skovde (2007)
can make use of the English language to address the observes, it is a common phenomenon in many parts of
concerns of Africans and spice up the English language the world where much immigration or colonisation has
with elements that typify African oral literature such as taken place, and the population is bi- or multilingual.
proverbs and code switching. Ngugi however, describes Finch (2000) also posits that bilingual speakers do
writers such as Achebe and Senghor as handmaidens of more than simply switch dialects and that people who
the imperialism. It is against this backdrop that this are fluent in two or more languages may regularly
study examines how writers use code switching in switch from one to the other according to the situation,
African novels paying attention to their stylistic the person being addressed or even the topic. It is
significances. worth mentioning that speakers who code switch
between languages do not do that for the fun of it. Code
The conceptual framework that underpins the study, as switching as Coulmas notes, is drenched with social
earlier indicated, is code switching and code mixing. meanings and is rule-governed. Obiamulu and Mbagwu
These two terms are in a symbiotic relationship. Given (2008)in their paper, Motivations for Code Switching,
that code switching and code mixing are resultants point out that,
from the field of Contact Linguistics, it is necessary to

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“Not until recently, code switching/ mixing was switching from purely linguistic perspectives. Such
seen as evidence of “internal mental confusion, studies thus concentrated on the semantic and
the inability to separate two languages syntactic elements that depict code switching in novels.
sufficiently to warrant the description of true
For example, Skovde’s (2007) study, focused on
bilingualism” (Lipski 1982:191). Studies have
shown that code-switching is not a
syntactic and semantic code switching in four of
manifestation of mental confusion but a rule- Achebe’s novels, Things Fall Apart, A Man of the People,
governed behaviour among bilinguals which is Arrow of the Gods and Anthills of the Savannah. His
motivated by various socio-psychological as work was more concerned with investigating the tense
well as linguistic factors.”(p. 27). and aspects of Nigerian Pidgin English employed by
Achebe in his novels on one hand and also examining
Two kinds of code switching can be identified: the semantics of Igbo vocabulary and proverbs in
situational code switching and conversational code Achebe’s novels on the other hand. His analysis and
switching. While the former concerns itself with discussion of the data pointed to three key findings.
variations in language choice, the latter focuses on First, the semantic analyses revealed that the use of
changes motivated by factors within the conversation Igbo proverbs in the novels is ubiquitous and most of
(Skovade, 2007). Like Finch (2000), Skovde (2007) the Igbo lexical items can be understood to at least
describes situational code switching as occurring when some degree. It also showed that proverbs are very
language switches concurs with a change of common even in everyday speech and that they can be
interlocutor, setting or topic. Code switching can also translated in different ways, giving them slightly
be classified into semantic code switching and syntactic different semantic meaning. Skovade then concludes
code switching. The former focuses more on the lexical that “the proverbs give us a vivid picture of how the
choices that are interwoven in the code switched Igbo people experience the world around them,
languages and more importantly, the meaning relations especially when compared to English proverbs having
that arise when there language come into contact and approximately the same meaning (p.25).” The syntactic
there is a switch from one variety of language to the analysis of the code switching revealed that “although
other while the latter is concerned about the syntax or the past tense constructions on the whole were much
grammatical ordering of linguistic elements from the less common than present tense constructions, it is the
substrate language and the superstrate language. It past tense constructions which really differ from
thus looks at issues of tense, aspects, phrase structure Standard English, portraying a different language and
and clausal elements in languages where code culture (p.25).”
switching and mixing are employed.
From a literary perspective, it is seen that in Africa,
Code mixing on the other hand, refers to the alternate there have been some attempts by researchers to look
use of constituents from two languages within a at code switching and code mixing in novels. In the 80’s,
sentence. It deals with alternating especially the Azikue (1987), for instance, investigated code
grammatical rules of one language to the other. Code switching and code mixing as stylistic devices in
mixing occurs within a sentence and thus, it is character delineation. He did a comparative analysis in
intrasentential, constrained by grammatical principles investigating two of the works of the most celebrated
and is motivated by socio-psychological factors. It is African novelist, Chinua Achebe’s A Man of the People
important to note that sometimes, speakers code mix and No longer at ease. His study concluded that Nigeria
due to the fact that it becomes difficult for them to find writers employ code switching for varying stylistic
appropriate words and expressions to convey the effects to bring out the Africanness of the foreign
thoughts they seek to express to other interactants in a English Language. Later on, Essien (1995) also looked
speech event. Like code switching, code mixing occurs at code mixing of the phenomenon in Ibibio language,
usually in informal contexts such as at social events or an indigenous language in Southern Nigeria.
in familial discourses. In such situations, the
interactants in the discursive event share common In a more recent study, Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi
linguistic backgrounds and so each one can understand (2012) examined code switching and code mixing in
the code mixed variety or language. It is worth re- three Nigerian novels: A Man of the People by Chinua
echoing that unlike code switching, code mixing occurs Achebe, Purple Hibiscus by ChimandaNgoziAdichie and
within a sentence structure but both code mixing and Everything Good Will Come by Sefi Atta. Ibhawaegbele
code switching serve some linguistic and social et al (2012) concluded that Nigerian writers employ
functions. code switching and code mixing as one of the stylistic
strategies that tackle the problem of language use in
It is worth mentioning again that many studies have Nigerian novels. Of concern in their paper is the finding
been conducted on code switching and code mixing that the use of code mixing and code switching in the
from varying perspectives (see Nilep, 2006, Larsson, novels reflects the realities of the use of English in
2007, Hill, 2009). However, there appear a dearth or Nigeria as they cater adequately for the varying or the
paucity of studies looking at the concept of code multilingual situation of Nigerian situations, culture
switching in literary texts (with the notable one being and environments.
Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi, 2012). To a large extent,
most researchers have concentrated much on code

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Employing an ethnographic approach, Obiamulu and researchers(Azikue, 1987; Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi,
Mbagwu (2008) in their research, sought to explain the 2012),
rationale behind the pervasiveness of code switching
among the Igbos from a socio-psychological and a Data Source
linguistic point of view. Their study revealed that one of As indicated, we used three African literary texts as my
the socio-psychological factors that account for the data for the study. These are:A Man of the People by
dominance of code switching among the Igbos is the Achebe, a Nigerian prolific writer, I will Marry when I
prestige that speakers attach to the English language. Want by Ngugi & Ngugi, two celebrated Kenyan writers
Thus, language attitude or loyalty to the English and The Blinkards by the Ghanaian playwright,
language stands out tall as one major contributor to the KobinaSekyi. The choice of three books from these
complex linguistic situation among the Igbos. Another countries was to give a fair representation of African
key finding of their study was that lexical gap between literary texts read by most Africans. That is to say that
the indigenous Igbo language and English as well as in Africa, it is usually the case that Nigerian Literature,
that low level of competence in Igbo serve as linguistic Kenyan Literature and Ghanaian Literature books
factors that account for the ascendency of code appear to be the most read by a majority of people from
switching in Igbo communities. Their results also various socio-economic backgrounds. Consequently, a
pointed to the view that subconscious linguistic majority ofresearch articles in African Literature
behavior and cultural disloyalty are also key socio- normally use books from these countries as their
psychological factors that trigger the predominance of primary sources of data.
code switching.
A Man of the Peopleis written by the prolific Nigerian
Some deductions can be inferred lucidly, from the writer, Chinua Achebe. The novel is preoccupied with
review of studies done so far. First, there are a number societal issues. In the novel, Achebe exposes the ills in
of studies that have focused on code switching and code most African nations. Such ills include corruption in
mixing from both grammatical and sociolinguistic government, social inequalities, rigged elections,
perspectives with fewer studies focusing on code poverty and injustice. Through the eyes of Odili, the
switching in literary circles. The sociolinguistic studies hero, all the vices in the novel are revealed. Achebe
have focused on the significance of social factors in the emphasizes the failure of the new generation of
occurrence of code switching with the aim of educated Africans to resist corruption, temptations and
determining the patterns of occurrence of code abide by their principles, and fulfill the electoral
switching and how such patterns can be affected by promises to the people. The major character in the
social variables such as age, gender and cultural novel is Chief Nanga, the man of the people, who is a
context. The grammatical studies on code switching man of charm, and an expert in public relations. He
have focused on the structural aspects of code employs various skills as political weapons in his
switching with the aim of teasing out the syntactic, political activities (Ibhawaegbele & Edokpayi, 2012).
semantic and morphological features of code switched
constructions. Again, in the literary domain, it can be I Will Marry When I Want, a comedy on love; a satire on
seen that studies in African literature on code switching religion and a scathing political attack addresses
have focused more on literary texts from Nigeria only. neocolonialism. The noel was co-authored by Ngugi Wa
This study however, adopts a cross-cultural approach Thiong’o and Ngugi Wa Mirri. The storyline starts with
by looking at code switching in novels from three a Kenyan farm laborer, Kiguunda, and his wife Wagenci
African countries whose literary texts, in my view, are and their efforts to protect their small piece of land
most read – Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria. In the next from being bought out to erect an insecticide factory.
section, I shall discuss the methodology adopted in The one bit of pride the couple has is a title-deed to
conducting the study. their one-and-a-half acres of land. The drama that
ensues is ironically comical but serious; it sympathizes
MATERIALS AND METHODS with the peasant laborer examining how those who
The study was rooted in the qualitative research fought for Kenya's liberation grow corrupt with power
paradigm, specifically, in the content qualitative and collude with the imperialists to keep their
analytical approach. Given that the present study economic foothold in the country as well as how
attempts to interpret or make sense of a human religion and Christian missionary conspire to
phenomenon or a social construct, we believe this complicate economic challenges. While the play ends
research design is appropriate and suitable. In its on a sour note, it also has a hopeful view that the
employment of qualitative content analytical approach, struggle for true liberation continues.
this study intends to gain an in-depth and holistic
understanding of how such sociolinguistic phenomena The Blinkards, written by Kobina Sekyi, satirizes the
are used in the novels under study and what roles they nouveaux riches of the Western-oriented Fantes of
play in contributing to the entire stylistic effect of the Cape Coast who accepted European standards
novels. Furthermore, the employment of qualitative uncritically. Sekyi resonates this theme in the play
approach in this study was intended to contribute to through the semi-educated Mrs. Brofos[m, who like
the findings of the studies conducted by previous many ‘been-tos’, mistakes English working class culture
for what he thinks is the English culture, and through

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the over-credulous cocoa farmer, Tsiba, who is easily appropriateness in language use re-echoing Gumperz
taken in by Mrs. Brofos[m’s ludicrous imitation English and Hymes’ assertion that different situations and role
mannerisms and her half-baked civilization. shifts demand appropriate language codes for effective
communication (see Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2012). Sometimes, his characters communicating in
We found out that code switching and code mixing are English switch to indigenous languages or Pidgin
prevalent in most African novels and that, African English and vice versa depending on the level of
writers do not employ code switching for its own sake. formality of the situation. In informal occasions, Pidgin
That is to say, such sociolinguistic phenomena such as or local languages are employed, while English
code switching and code mixing are not done becomes the medium of communication in formal
haphazardly. Corroborating the finding of situations. For instance, in the opening phases of the
Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi (2013), the study revealed book, the main character of the novel, Chief the
that writers take into consideration issues such as the Honorable Nanga, communicates in Standard English
appropriateness of language use, the situation in which while addressing the students of Anata Grammar
characters find themselves, the social relationship or School. This was the occasion when a reception was
roles between the characters before employing code organized for the honorable minister to address the
switching to achieve various stylistic effects. These students at Anata Grammar School. Here, we see that
assertions are buttressed by the following points in the Mr. Nanga gained cognizance of the nature of the
discussion below: occasion as formal and that made him speak Standard
English to suit the occasion. Sekyi-Baidoo (2003) notes
To begin with, we realized, quite unsurprisingly, that in that one key factor that characterizes formality is the
the Man of the People, Achebe employs code switching context of interaction which embodies the nature of the
as a prevailing stylistic device. This is typical of Achebe communicative event and the participant roles
in most of his novels such as Things fall Apart (1958) involved. In other words, the context within which an
and Arrow of God (1964). In A Man of the People, interaction takes place affects the level of social
Achebe engages his characters in code-switching, distance between the participants. The extract below
depending on the situations in which the characters illustrates this:
find themselves. By doing this, he focuses on the

Extract 1:
Changing the subject slightly, the Minister said, “Only teachers can make this excellent arrangement”.
Then, turning to the newspaper correspondent in his party, he said, “It is a mammoth crowd. The
journalist whipped out his note-book and began to write, “It is an unprecedented crowd in the annals of
Anata”, said Mr. Nwege (p.11).

Here, we see that Mr. Nanga and Odili are close friends English to the admiration of the teeming crowd.
(Odili is a former student of Nanga but due to the Comparatively, in the next few minutes, when Mr.
formal nature of the event, they do not speak Pidgin Nwege hosted the minister at the former’s residence,
English as they usually do but rather, they speak Mr. Nanga switches code and communicates to Mr.
Standard English. Expressions like mammoth crowd, Nwege and Odili, the narrator, in Pidgin Language. Odili
unprecedented crowd, annals of Anata exhibit the level recounts this instance in the extract below:
of formality that characterizes the interaction. During
the speech itself, the minister also spoke Standard

Extract 2:
“Later on in the Proprietor’s Lodge, I said to the Minister: ‘You must have spent a fortune today’. He
smiled at the glass of cold beer in his hands and said: ‘You call this spend? You never see something my
brother. I no de keep anini for myself, na so troway. If some person come to you say ‘I wan make you
Minister’ make you run like blazes commot. Na true word I tell you. To God who made me.’ He showed the
tip of his tongue to the sky to confirm the oath. ‘Minister de sweet for the eye but too much katakata de for
inside. Believe me yours sincerely’ (p.16).”

We see in Extract 2 that Nanga responds to Odili in played out by the cook, he teased Mr. Koko by speaking
Pidgin English due to the context of situation. Later on, Pidgin English. He says, “But S.I., ‘you too fear death.
when a serious issue about Odili’s intention of studying Small thing you begin holler ‘They done kill me, they
abroad for his postgraduate education came up in the done kill me!’ Like person wey scorpion done lego am for
dialogue, the two interlocutors switch back to Standard him… (p.40).” In another instance, when another
English. In another instance at page 40, Chief Nanga serious issue came up – the issue concerning the
speaks Standard English when he made a distress tarring of the roads – Chief Nanga communicates to
phone call to the doctor on a serious issue that Honorable T.C, Kobino, the transport minister using
concerned the suspected poisoning of Mr. Koko’s coffee Standard English (Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi, 2012).
but when he realized that the incident was a mystery

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The key point to be noted in all these instances is that, that different situations and role shifts demand
code switching is used by Achebe to suit different appropriate language code for effective communication.
occasions. Thus, where the situation is formal, as in
Anata Grammar School, Achebe engages the characters We also found few cases of code-mixing employed by
using Standard English but where the setting or the Achebe in A Man for the People. As earlier explained,
issue at hand is less serious, the characters employed code mixing usually occurs when there is a lexical gap
non-standard English or Pidgin language. The issue of in both the superstrate and substrate languages. When
appropriateness as far as language use is concerned, is this occurs, there are some vocabulary items in a non-
therefore paramount in code switching in A Man of the standard or indigenous variety that are interwoven into
People. As Ibhawaegbele and Edokpayi (2012) the Standard English. Extract 3 is an instantiation of
illustrate, Achebe’s display of linguistic craftsmanship code mixing in A Man of the People:
in A Man of the People gives evidence to the assertion

Extract 3:
‘Yes,’ I said, ‘you hit him hard.’ Actually, I amused how Andrew was desperately trying to convince
himself – and me – that he had gone to the reception with the avowed intention to deflate his empty-
headed kontriman … (p.25)

Here, it is seen that Achebe employs code mixing by ridicules the attempts by the then Gold Coasters to
inserting the lexical item, kontriman into the speak Standard English. Sekyi uses code switching to
superstrate language instead of giving its standard underscore the point that it is time for Africans in
English equivalent as country man. This use of code general, to go back to the roots of their culture rather
mixing is of stylistic significance; Perhaps, it is to depict than blindly imitating the lifestyle and culture of the
Nigerian environment as regards their use of language. whites. Through their attempts to code switch to
Notwithstanding, in most instances in the novel, code English, characters such as Mrs. Brofos[m, Mr. Okadu,
mixing is employed because of the apparent lack of Members of the Cosmopolitan Club and Mr. Tsiba are
lexical equivalent in the Standard variety of English. stairised. The issue of the appropriateness of the
This is seen in this example: “…beyond the gleaming situation as having a bearing to code switching is also
bathroom and the towels as large as a lappa. (p.41).” evident in The Blinkards. Mrs. Brofos[m for instance,
speaks the indigenous language (Fante) when she is
Moving on, The Blinkards also abounds with interacting with Niamey[but when he sees Mr.
instantiations of code switching. Basically, in The Brofos[m enter the room, she switches back to English.
Blinkards, Sekyi employs code switching to as a tool for The discourse in Extract 4 is worth citing here:
foregrounding the theme of misplaced identity. He

Extract 4:
Mr. Brofo: (Aside) What luck! (To Mrs. Bor]fosem)Very good Duckie. Please yourself
Mrs. Bor]fosem: (To Nyameky[): Eb[y[ d[n?
Nyameky[: Kuku se membebisa wo nand[ so [ny[ tatar no bi a?
Mrs. Brofosem: Nyew. Mase no d[, s[ ]ammfaBor]fo-ad]k]d]k]dzeannkaedzibanbiara ]b[y[ ho a, mibeyi no
adzi. Se no d[maramese wo d[ se no (exit Nyameky[). }y[serew ae!
Nky[nkaanomennyabor[dzenkyeweeanaasoesiatoampepam’anomu a, nnamenntse d[ medzidzi (sees Mr.
Brofos[m). O! mower[ efimoho. I mean to say that I have forgot myself (Mr. Brofo laughs). What makes you
laugh! You always make me ridiculous, you brute! [I.i:13]

Again, we found out thatMrs. Bor]fos[mswitches from variety of language, when communicating to Nyameky[,
Fante to English depending not only on the situation a servant.
the characters find themselves but also, on social
status of the other interactants in the communicative In a similar instance, Lawyer Onyimdze switches codes
event. Nyameky[ for instance, is portrayed as a when interacting with his servant, Half Crown, and this
character with poor educational background while could be due to the lower educational background of
theBor]fosems are portrayed as the been-tos; hence, the servant, but Onyimdze switches to Standard English
they speak English to each another while they speak when speaking to Mr. Okadu and Mrs. Brofos[m as
Fante, which they consider to be a less prestigious illustrated in Extract 5 and Extract 6:

Extract 5:
Mr. Onyimdze: …Mefurantam; meyim’ananefiasopaatre mu, mahy[mpaboa. Afei mob]nomebuwakakra
(A knock is heard). Who is there?
(Enter Half crown)
Mr. Ony: Half Crown!
Half Crown: Some man day sah
Mr. Ony: What kind man?

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Half C: E get plenty fine clo’es, big collar, boots shine all same glass. E shine for true
Mr. Ony: Where the devil is he?
Half C: Ou’sidesah
Mr. Ony: All right, tell him say come
Half C: Yes, sah (Exit Half Crown) [[Link].25-27]
….

Extract 6:
Enter Mrs. Bor]fos[m and Miss Tsiba
Mr. Ony: How d’you do, Mrs. Bor]fos[m? Take a seat please.
Mrs. Bor]fos[m: I really must apologise for my rudeness (Touching Mr. Onyimdze’s finger tips with her
finger tips) I ought to call long ago. Now I have to take Miss Tsiba (Presenting Miss Tsiba) round to see
my friends. So, to kill one bird with two stones, I have returned your call, and at the same time
introducing Miss Tsiba to you.
Mr. Ony: (Shaking hands with Miss Tsiba) Pleased to meet you, Miss Tsiba.
Miss Tsiba: (Bashfully). I am very well, thank you sir.
Mr. Ony: Please excuse me one minute. (Goes to the door and turns round). Half Crown! Oh, there you
are. Go to Chutney’s and ‘Port Wine). Then go to them mami who make cake; buy some. There’s money
(Closes door and turns round)… ([Link].31)

Further instantiations where Sekyi engages his of the characters involved are seen in the following
characters in code switching to depict the social status extracts:

Extract 8:
Dr. Onw: (To Kwesi) Kornye no. Eye adze a]tse d[m bio a, mob]hwe wo ma eehu. K]! (Exit Kwesi. To
Dispenser) See that nobody goes to the operating room, except those who have a right to be there…..
(III.i.89)

In Extract 8, Dr. Onwieye speaks Fante with operating room. In Extract 9, Mr. Tsiba speaks his
Kwesi, who could be seen as an errand boy in the half-baked English to Doctor Onwieye but
hospital but Onwieye switches to Standard switches to Fante while addressing Miss Tsiba,
English while cautioning the hospital dispenser he daughter.
not to allow unauthorized persons into the

Extract 9:
Mr. Tsi: (To Dr. Onw).I am sadness. I am grief. Doctor, she is to be taken to chapel soon.………
Doctor, I beg. Don’t call police. I go. I go. Awoo ye yaw (To Miss Tsiba). B[sen ma y[nk]. Mab]
wohokawgyan. Egum’enyimase(Exeunt Mr. and Miss Tsiba) [III.i.100-101]

From the extracts above, we conclude thatthe practices and social order of their own society, but seek
employment of code switching inThe Blinkardsis to imitate English ways of life which they equally do not
influenced by the status of the characters engaging in understand.
interactions in specific contexts. Social and educational We also found instances of code mixing in The
status as well as the context of situationare therefore Blinkards. The examples below are sampled from the
quintessential in the use of code switching in The text to illustrate instances of code mixing in the novel
Blinkardsand Sekyi uses these stylistic strategies to (the code mixed expressions are boldened):
foreground the main theme and ridicule characters
who fail to understand the actual values, customary

Extract 10:
School Girl: Mopoonskuul no nnamemfeelyie, namabad[ ma me edur [III.i:93]
Dr. Onw: Bor]nyi y[ operationnaonyia no wu a, w]nnse no hwee; bibinyi a nky[ dede a w]b[y[ a!
[III.i.87]

Mr. Tsi: Iyi, erehamgyan. ]dze no rok] chapel [[Link].79]

Miss. Tsiba: I think I will take bor[dzentotoe. [I.i:37]

Miss Tsiba: Yes, Doctor. Mrs. Bor]fosem says it is kookoo. [III.i.95]

Miss Tsiba: (following). Na iyinso [? Talking Machine a? }se h]n a w]ak]sAbr]kyir. W]b[bana h]n
ndzeadan ay[ serewserew. Gyama aw]w no a [I.i.25]

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 Theresa Ennin et al. / The Eng Lit J. 2015, 2(4): 426-434

Perhaps, the inserted code-mixed structures equivalents in Fante. At best, such words are
(boldened) in the examples above are employed by transliterated.
Sekyi in order to Africanise the language or reflect the
Ghanaian setting of the text. For instance, Miss Tsiba’s Turning to I will Marry when I want, we found out that
use of “bor[dzentotoe” and “kookoo” rather than the novel abounds with code switched expressions.
saying “roasted plantain” and “piles” can be said to be Ngugi employs code switching mainly to conceal
an attempt by KobinaSekyi to reflect the Ghanaian information, to emphasize a point and to show identity.
setting of the [Link] times, the code switches are used An instance where Ngugi engages his characters in code
because there are no translational equivalents of the switching to emphasize an earlier statement is given
Standard English lexeme in the indigenous languages. below:
For instance, lexical words such as chapel,talking
machine andoperation do not have direct translation

Extract 11:
KIGUUNDA: Gathoni! (Gathoni looks at her father fearfully) Come here! (Gathoni makes only one step
forward still in fear)
If ever I see or hear that again …
utaona cha mtemakuni
Do you think we mine gold to enable us to educate boys and girls? Go away!
Na uchungemdomowako (p.17)

In Extract 11, Kiguunda code switches from English to emphasize his detest at what Gathoni said to her
Kikuyu while communicating with her daughter, mother. Another instance in the novel where code
Gathoni. The boldened insertions are seen as switching is employed in I Will Marry When I Want is
complementing the statements that precede them. In seen in Extract 12.
the final line of Extract 11, the code switched
expressioncan be said to be employed by the novelist to

Extract 12:
NJOOKI: Give us what you have cooked
WANGECI: The food is still cooking
KIGUUNDA: Karibu! Karibu!
WANGECI: Aren’t you sitting down? (p.31)

In Extract 12, code switching is used as a form of number of readers or audience (especially his fellow
showing solidarity and camaraderie as we see Kenyans) from varying socio-economical statuses.
Kiguunda welcoming Gicaamba and Njooki. The use of In another instance, Gicaamba code switches from
Karibu rather than the English equivalent, “Welcome!” English to the Gikuyu language as seen in the extract
can be an attempt by Ngugi to reach across to a large below:

Extract 13:
GICAAMBA: Remember also that it’s not only the industrial tycoons
Who are like that
Have you ever seen any tycoon sweating?
Except because of overweight
All the rich wherever they are
Tajiriwoteduniani
Are the same, one clan! (p.40)

In this extract, Gicaamba laments the negative effects Code mixing is also common in I Will Marry When I
the foreign-owned companies have began wrecking on Want. Here, the code mixing occurs because there is no
the indigenes. The code switched expression, English equivalent for the code mixed structures in the
Tajiriwoteduniani, is used to emphaise or re-echo the English language. The following examples illustrate the
fact that that the rich indigenes as well as the foreign use of code mixing in the novel:
investors have the same aim of taking their lands from
them.

Extract 14:
We have a haraambe(p.8)
The ones that came from America very recently / Those ones! / Their haraambe is not local (p.10)
Even if it’s a tenth of the maize or beans / You have grown in your small shama … (p. 10)

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 Theresa Ennin et al. / The Eng Lit J. 2015, 2(4): 426-434

Kiguunda: And you the children/ Amazing ones! / Sins! Sins! /Wapi! (p.50)
Gicammba: (To Njoki) Isn’t the Ngurario ceremony the true blessings?

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