NOTES

CHAPTER 2- METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Psychology is regarded as a science because it applies systematic methods to study

behaviour and mental processes. The scientific method in psychology involves careful
observation, collection of data, and drawing conclusions based on evidence rather than
personal opinion or speculation. By using scientific methods, psychologists are able to
test theories, verify findings, and make predictions about human behaviour.

There are many scientific ways of data collection, they are:

1. Observation method- Controlled Observation, Uncontrolled Observation, Field Study,
Longitudinal Study, Cross-sectional Study

2. Experimental method

3. case study method

4. Survey Method

1) Observation Method

Observation is the most basic method of studying behaviour. Scientific observation refers
to the systematic and objective recording of behaviour as it occurs in natural or controlled
settings. Unlike casual observation, which can be subjective and biased, scientific
observation requires careful planning, clear objectives, and consistency in recording
information.

The types of observation methods are:

Controlled Observation:
Controlled observation is a method in which behaviour is studied in a structured and
organised environment where the researcher has control over different conditions.
Controlled observation is usually carried out in laboratories or specially arranged
environments. The purpose of this method is to reduce outside influences and focus only
on the variables that are relevant to the study.

For example, a psychologist who wants to study how people respond to stress might
create a controlled situation by asking participants to solve difficult puzzles under time
pressure, while recording their heart rate and body language. Since the situation is
designed by the researcher, the conditions can be repeated for different participants,
making the findings more reliable and easier to compare.

The advantage of controlled observation is that it provides greater accuracy, reliability,

and precision because the researcher can regulate what happens and when it happens.
However, its disadvantage is that behaviour in such an artificial environment may not
always reflect how people act in real-life situations. Participants may change their
behaviour simply because they know they are being observed, which is known as the
Hawthorne effect. Despite this, controlled observation remains one of the most useful
methods in psychology when the aim is to study behaviour under carefully monitored
conditions.

Uncontrolled Observation:

Uncontrolled observation refers to the study of behaviour in natural and everyday

settings, without manipulating or regulating the conditions in which the behaviour
occurs. Unlike controlled observation, this method does not involve a laboratory or
structured environment. Instead, the researcher simply records behaviour as it happens,
often without the participants being fully aware that they are being observed. This makes
the behaviour more genuine and spontaneous.

For example, a psychologist who wants to study how children interact with their peers
may observe them during free play in a school playground. Since the situation is not
arranged by the researcher, the behaviour recorded is more natural and realistic.
The advantage of uncontrolled observation is that it provides data that reflects real-life
behaviour. It captures authenticity and spontaneity, which may be lost in controlled
settings.

The disadvantage is that the lack of control over external factors may make the data less
accurate and more difficult to interpret. Variables that the researcher cannot control, such
as mood, environment, or unexpected events can influence the behaviour being studied.
Despite these limitations, uncontrolled observation is valuable when the aim is to
understand natural behaviour in everyday contexts.

Field Study:

A field study is a type of scientific observation in which behaviour is studied in its natural
setting without any manipulation by the researcher. Unlike laboratory-based methods,
field studies take place in real-life environments such as homes, schools, workplaces, or
public spaces. The main aim of this method is to observe individuals as they behave
naturally in everyday situations, which makes the data more authentic and ecologically
valid.

For example, a psychologist who wants to study social behaviour might observe how
students form groups in a school cafeteria or how pedestrians interact at a busy crossroad.
Since the behaviour occurs spontaneously and in a familiar environment, the information
obtained reflects genuine patterns of interaction.

The advantage of field studies is that they provide realistic and natural observations of
behaviour. They are particularly useful when the goal is to understand how people act in
real-world situations.

The disadvantage is that the researcher has very little control over external factors that
might influence the results. Unexpected events, distractions, or environmental changes
may affect the behaviour being studied. Additionally, since participants may not know
they are being observed, ethical concerns about consent and privacy can also arise.
Longitudinal Study:

A longitudinal study is a research method in which the same group of individuals is

studied over an extended period of time, sometimes lasting for years or even decades.
This method allows psychologists to observe changes and patterns of development in the
same participants, making it especially useful for studying growth, learning, or the
progression of psychological traits across the lifespan.

For example, a psychologist might follow a group of children from early childhood
through adolescence to study how their problem-solving skills develop. Because the same
individuals are observed repeatedly, the researcher can identify how behaviour changes
within a person over time rather than just comparing different people at different ages.

The advantage of longitudinal studies is that they provide rich, detailed information
about developmental trends and changes.

The disadvantage is that they are also very time-consuming, expensive, and difficult to
maintain, as participants may drop out of the study before it is completed.

Cross-sectional Study:

A cross-sectional study is a method in which individuals of different age groups or

categories are studied at a single point in time. Instead of following the same people
for years, the researcher compares groups of people of varying ages or characteristics to
draw conclusions about developmental differences.

For example, a psychologist who wants to study memory development might test a group
of 8-year-olds, 12-year-olds, and 16-year-olds during the same year and then compare
their performances. This gives a snapshot of differences across age groups without
waiting for years of change to occur.

The main advantage of cross-sectional studies is that they are quicker, easier, and less
expensive than longitudinal studies.

The disadvantage is that they cannot show how an individual changes over time, since
the groups studied are made up of different people.
Experimental method: The experimental method is considered the most scientific and
reliable method of psychological research because it allows the establishment of cause-
and-effect relationships between variables. In this method, the researcher deliberately
manipulates one variable, known as the independent variable, to observe its effect on
another variable, called the dependent variable. All other factors are kept constant so that
changes in the dependent variable can be directly attributed to the manipulation of the
independent variable. Experiments usually involve at least two groups: the experimental
group, which is exposed to the independent variable, and the control group, which is not.
By comparing the results of the two groups, the researcher can determine whether the
independent variable had a genuine effect.

The experimental method follows a series of systematic steps.

The first step is identifying the problem or research question. A clear and specific
question is formulated based on observations, previous research, or theoretical
frameworks. For example, a psychologist may ask: Does listening to music improve
concentration while studying?

The second step is to form a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction about the expected
outcome. Hypotheses are usually stated in the form of “if–then” statements, such as, If
students listen to soft instrumental music while studying, then their concentration levels
will be higher compared to students who study in silence.

The third step is identifying variables. In every experiment there are three types of
variables. The independent variable (IV) is the one manipulated by the researcher, such as
the presence or absence of music. The dependent variable (DV) is the outcome being
measured, such as concentration levels or test performance. Control variables are all the
other factors that are kept constant, such as the time of day, the type of task, or the study
environment, to ensure they do not influence the results.

The fourth step is selecting participants. The target population is identified, and a
sample is chosen using methods such as random sampling or stratified sampling to ensure
that it represents the larger population accurately. For instance, if the target population is
high school students, participants should be drawn fairly so that the findings can be
generalised.
The fifth step involves conducting the experiment. The experimental group is exposed
to the independent variable (for example, studying with music), while the control group is
not (studying in silence). The researcher ensures that all other conditions remain the same
for both groups so that the only difference is the presence or absence of music. The effect
on the dependent variable is then observed and measured.

The sixth step is recording and analysing data. The researcher collects either
quantitative data, such as test scores, or qualitative data, such as observations of
behaviour. Statistical methods are then used to analyse the data and to determine whether
the differences between groups are significant or could have occurred by chance.

The seventh step is interpreting results. At this stage, the researcher considers whether
the findings support the original hypothesis. For example, if the students in the music
condition performed significantly better than those in silence, the hypothesis is supported.

The final step is drawing a conclusion. The researcher states what the findings suggest
about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In addition, the
limitations of the study are acknowledged, and suggestions for future research are offered.
In our example, the conclusion may state that listening to music can improve
concentration in students, but further studies might be needed to see whether this applies
to different types of music or different age groups.

The main strength of the experimental method is its ability to identify cause-and-effect
relationships with accuracy.

One limitation is that experiments are often carried out in artificial settings, which may
reduce the naturalness of behaviour. Despite this, the experimental method remains a
cornerstone of psychological research because of the precision and reliability it provides.

Case Study Method

The case study method is one of the oldest and most widely used techniques in
psychology. It involves an in-depth, detailed, and systematic study of a single
individual, a small group, or a unique situation. Case studies aim to provide a holistic
and comprehensive understanding of the subject by collecting detailed information from
multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, personal records, medical histories,
and even discussions with family members, teachers, or colleagues.

Case studies are particularly useful in clinical psychology and counselling, where
psychologists need to understand the background, personality, and problems of an
individual in order to provide treatment. For example, a psychologist might conduct a
case study of a child experiencing severe learning difficulties. By gathering detailed
information about the child’s family environment, schooling, and personal history, the
psychologist gains a deeper insight into the possible causes of the problem and is able to
suggest appropriate interventions.

The major advantage of the case study method is that it provides rich, qualitative, and
detailed information that might not be obtainable through other methods. It allows
psychologists to explore rare or unusual conditions and can serve as the foundation for
generating new theories and hypotheses.

The disadvantage of this method is that its findings cannot always be generalised to a
larger population. Since it focuses on unique individuals or situations, the results may not
apply to others. Moreover, case studies are time-consuming, can sometimes be influenced
by researcher bias, and often depend heavily on the accuracy of the information provided.

Survey Method, Questionnaire and Self reports

The survey method is one of the most widely used techniques in psychology for
collecting information about people’s attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and behaviours. In this
method, data is gathered from a large number of individuals in a relatively short period of
time, making it an efficient tool for studying trends and patterns in human behaviour.
Surveys are particularly useful when the researcher is interested in obtaining broad,
generalizable information about a population, such as studying stress levels among high
school students or attitudes towards social media use.

A questionnaire is a written set of structured questions given to participants to gather

information. It is one of the most common tools used in surveys because it is simple, cost-
effective, and can be distributed to a large number of people at once. Questionnaires may
include closed-ended questions (such as multiple-choice or yes/no questions) that
produce quantitative data, as well as open-ended questions that allow participants to give
detailed responses in their own words, producing qualitative data.

For example, a questionnaire designed to study exam stress among students might include
closed questions like “Do you feel anxious before exams? (Yes/No)” as well as open-
ended questions like “Describe how you usually prepare for an exam.” This allows the
researcher to collect both numerical data and deeper personal insights.

The self-report method is another important technique in psychology, where participants

provide information about themselves directly, usually through questionnaires,
interviews, or rating scales. In self-reports, individuals describe their own thoughts,
feelings, behaviours, or experiences. For example, a psychologist studying sleep patterns
might ask participants to keep a daily sleep diary or fill out a questionnaire about their
sleep habits.

Their greatest advantage is that they provide direct access to individuals’ attitudes,
opinions, and personal experiences, making it possible to study topics that cannot be
directly observed, such as emotions or beliefs.

However, their main disadvantage is that the accuracy of the data depends heavily on the
honesty and self-awareness of participants. People may give socially desirable answers or
may not recall information correctly, which can reduce the reliability of the findings.

SAMPLE

In psychological research, it is not always possible to study an entire population because

the group may be too large or scattered. Instead, researchers select a smaller group from
the population, known as a sample, which is studied in order to draw conclusions about
the larger group. The accuracy of a research study largely depends on how well the
sample represents the population from which it is drawn. If the sample is chosen
carefully, the results of the study can be generalised to the entire population with
confidence.

There are different types of samples commonly used in psychology.

a) Random Sampling

A random sample is one in which every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected. This method reduces bias and ensures that the sample is more likely to
reflect the population as a whole. For example, if a school wants to study exam stress,
selecting students’ names randomly from the entire student body would give each student
an equal opportunity to be part of the study.

b) Representative sample

A representative sample is one that accurately reflects the important characteristics of

the population, such as age, gender, or social background. This type of sample ensures
that the findings can be generalised more reliably. For instance, when studying attitudes
towards social media in teenagers, the sample should include both boys and girls from
different schools and backgrounds to represent the larger group fairly.

c) Biased Sample

A biased sample is one that favours certain individuals or groups over others, either
intentionally or unintentionally. Such a sample does not reflect the true diversity of the
population and may lead to misleading conclusions. For example, studying exam stress by
including only the top-performing students of a school would produce biased results,
since it leaves out the experiences of average or struggling students.

Thus, the selection of a proper sample is crucial in psychological research, as it

determines whether the results can be applied to the wider population. Random and
representative samples increase the validity of findings, while biased samples reduce
accuracy and reliability.

Population

In psychological research, the term population refers to the entire group of individuals
about whom the researcher wants to draw conclusions. A population can be very large,
such as all high school students in a city, or it can be relatively small, such as all the
students in a particular classroom. Since it is usually not possible to study every member
of a population due to limitations of time, resources, and accessibility, researchers select a
smaller group, called a sample, which is meant to represent the larger population.

For example, if a psychologist wants to study exam stress among Indian teenagers, the
entire group of Indian teenagers would be considered the population. However, studying
all of them would be unrealistic, so the researcher might select a smaller group of 200
teenagers from different schools and cities. This group, or sample, would then be studied,
and the results would be generalised to the larger population.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

Psychological testing is one of the most important methods used in psychology to

measure and evaluate various aspects of human behaviour. A psychological test is a
standardised instrument designed to assess specific abilities, traits, or characteristics
such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, or achievement. Unlike casual observation,
which may be subjective, psychological tests provide an objective and systematic way of
gathering information about an individual. These tests are carefully developed,
standardised on large groups of people, and administered under controlled conditions to
ensure fairness and accuracy.

Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test

For a psychological test to be considered scientific and useful, it must possess certain
essential qualities. These characteristics ensure that the test provides accurate,
meaningful, and dependable results.

1. Objectivity
A good test should be free from the personal bias or judgment of the examiner. The
administration, scoring, and interpretation should not depend on individual opinions but
must follow a standard procedure. For example, in a multiple-choice intelligence test,
scoring is objective because there is only one correct answer for each item.
2. Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of a test. If the same test is given to the same
individuals on different occasions, it should yield similar results, provided the trait being
measured has not changed. A reliable test is therefore trustworthy. For example, an
aptitude test should give approximately the same results if repeated with the same group
after a reasonable period of time.

3. Validity
Validity means that the test measures what it is intended to measure. A test of intelligence,
for instance, should actually assess intelligence and not unrelated factors such as memory
or motivation. Validity ensures that the test fulfils the purpose for which it was developed.

4. Norms
Norms refer to the average performance of a representative sample on a given test. They
serve as a standard for interpreting an individual’s score. For example, if an intelligence
test has a norm indicating that most students score between 90 and 110, then a student
who scores 120 is above average. Norms make it possible to compare an individual’s
performance with that of others.

5. Practicability
A good test should also be practical in terms of time, cost, and ease of administration. It
should not be unnecessarily long, complicated, or difficult to score. For example, a
classroom test that can be completed within a reasonable time and scored quickly is more
practical than one that takes hours and requires complex scoring procedures.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

Psychological research involves the study of human participants, and therefore it is

essential that their rights, dignity, and welfare are protected. To ensure that research is
conducted responsibly, psychologists must follow ethical principles that safeguard
participants from harm and promote fairness. Some of the most important ethical issues in
research are described below.

Voluntary Participation
Participation in research must always be voluntary. Individuals should not be forced,
pressured, or deceived into taking part in a study. They must have the freedom to refuse
participation or to withdraw from the study at any point without facing negative
consequences. This ensures respect for individual autonomy.

Informed Consent
Informed consent means that participants must be given complete and accurate
information about the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the study
before they agree to take part. Consent should be obtained in writing whenever possible,
but more importantly, it must be based on clear understanding. For example, if
participants are asked to complete a memory test, they should be informed about what
will be required and how their data will be used.

Debriefing
After the study is completed, participants should be debriefed. This involves explaining
the true purpose of the research, answering any questions they may have, and ensuring
that no misconceptions remain. If deception was used during the study (for example, to
prevent participants from changing their behaviour), the researcher must clarify why it
was necessary and reassure participants.

Sharing Results of the Study

Participants have the right to know the outcomes of the research in which they took part.
While individual data is not disclosed, researchers should provide a summary of the
findings if participants request it. This practice ensures transparency and shows respect
for the contribution made by participants.

Confidentiality of Data
The personal information and responses provided by participants must always remain
confidential. Researchers are responsible for ensuring that data is stored securely and that
participants cannot be identified in published reports. For example, instead of using
names, researchers may use codes or numbers to represent participants. Confidentiality
protects the privacy of individuals and encourages honest participation.

Interpretation of Research Results – Use of Statistics

In psychological research, once data has been collected, it must be organised, analysed,
and interpreted so that meaningful conclusions can be drawn. Raw data by itself often
appears confusing and scattered. This is where statistics become important, as they
provide scientific methods for summarising information, testing hypotheses, and drawing
conclusions. Statistics help psychologists not only to describe the data but also to make
predictions and generalisations about human behaviour.

Why Statistics is Used in Psychology

Psychologists use statistics because behaviour is complex and cannot be understood by
looking at individual numbers alone. Statistics allow researchers to describe and
summarise data in an organised way, compare individuals or groups, investigate
relationships between variables, and make predictions about future behaviour. For
example, if psychologists want to study whether exercise reduces anxiety, statistics can
help them compare the anxiety levels of people who exercise with those who do not, and
determine whether the difference is meaningful or just due to chance. Thus, statistics
serve as a bridge between raw data and meaningful interpretation.

Types of Statistics

Statistics play a central role in psychological research because they provide tools for
organising, analysing, and interpreting data. Broadly, there are two main types of
statistics: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Both serve different purposes
but work together to help psychologists make sense of their findings.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are used to organise and summarise data in a meaningful way. They
describe what the data shows without going beyond it. For example, psychologists may
collect exam scores from a class of students. Instead of reporting all the individual scores,
descriptive statistics make it possible to present the information clearly by calculating
averages (mean, median, mode) or showing the distribution of scores in a graph or table.
Measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) indicate the typical or average
performance, while measures of variability (range, variance, and standard deviation)
show how spread out the scores are. Thus, descriptive statistics help in simplifying large
amounts of data so that patterns and trends become easy to see.

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics go beyond description and allow researchers to draw conclusions
about a larger population based on a smaller sample. Since it is usually not possible to
study an entire population, psychologists study a sample and then use inferential
techniques to estimate or predict how the population would behave. For instance, a
psychologist might study the effect of music on memory in a group of 50 students and
then use inferential statistics to generalise the results to all students of that age group.
Inferential statistics also help in testing hypotheses to determine whether observed
differences between groups (such as boys and girls, or experimental and control groups)
are significant or whether they may have occurred by chance.

Together, descriptive and inferential statistics ensure that data is not only organised and
presented clearly but also interpreted in a scientifically meaningful way. Descriptive
statistics summarise the information, while inferential statistics extend the findings
beyond the sample to the wider population.