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Exploring the Indian Knowledge System: Chemical Sciences in Tradition and

Modernity

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 EXPLORING THE INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM:
CHEMICAL SCIENCES IN TRADITION AND MODERNITY

Yashi Goyal
M.Ed. Scholar
Department of Education
University of Delhi

Abstract
This research delves into the rich legacy of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) with a specific
focus on its contributions to the field of chemistry. The primary objective is to bridge the gap
between traditional knowledge and modern scientific advancements. The methodology involves
a multi-pronged approach. An analysis of ancient Indian texts, archaeological evidence, and
scholarly works has been conducted to identify and understand documented chemical
processes and concepts. These findings have been compared and contrasted with established
scientific principles in modern chemistry. Case studies have been explored to showcase the
practical applications of traditional Indian chemical knowledge in various areas. The research
reveals a well-developed scientific tradition in ancient India, characterised by keen
observation, experimentation, and a holistic understanding of nature. The outcomes of this
research contribute to the revitalisation of IKS and its potential integration into mainstream
chemistry. It promises to foster scientific innovation, promote sustainable practices, and
cultivate a deeper appreciation for India’s scientific heritage.

Keywords
Chemistry, Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS), Scientific Principles, Sustainable, Traditional

Introduction
The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) systematically transmits knowledge from generation to
generation. It is a structured system and a knowledge transfer process rather than a tradition.
The IKS is based on the Vedic literature, the Upanishads, the Vedas, and the Upvedas
(Mandavkar, 2023). IKS encompasses a holistic worldview that integrates spirituality,
metaphysics, and empirical observation. This Indigenous intellectual tradition has significantly
influenced various aspects of Indian life, from art and culture to science and technology.
Historically, IKS has flourished due to intense intellectual curiosity and a deep reverence for
knowledge. Ancient India witnessed the rise of renowned universities like Nalanda and
Takshashila, hubs of learning and research. Scholars delved into diverse fields, including
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and metallurgy, laying the foundation for subsequent
advancements. However, with the advent of colonial rule, IKS faced a period of neglect and
marginalisation. Chemistry occupies a pivotal position within the realm of the IKS. It was
known by various names such as ‘Rasayana Shastra’, ‘Rasatantra’, ‘Rasakriya’, and
‘Rasavidya’. The ancient Indians possessed an astute understanding of matter, its
transformations, and its properties, including metallurgy, medicine, and the manufacture of
cosmetics, glass, dyes, and inks. The ancient Indians applied their knowledge of chemistry in
various aspects of life. This research aims to bridge the gap between traditional knowledge and
modern scientific advancements. An attempt has been made to compare IKS and modern
chemistry by studying texts, archaeological evidence, and scholarly works. It also explores the
practical applications of traditional Indian chemical knowledge in various areas. The
revitalisation of the IKS is significant for its potential integration into mainstream chemistry,
as suggested by the New Education Policy (NEP), 2020, which holds the promise of fostering
scientific innovation, promoting sustainable practices, and cultivating a deeper appreciation for
India’s scientific heritage.

Ancient Chemical Landscape of India

The origins of Indian chemistry can be traced back to ancient texts such as the ‘Rasashastra’, a
branch of Ayurveda that focuses on alchemy and medicinal chemistry. The Rigveda, one of
India’s oldest sacred texts, also references chemical processes and the preparation of various
substances, including extracting and processing metals like gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and
iron and their alloys. Ancient alchemists, known as ‘Rasayana-karas’, made significant
advances in understanding the properties of metals and minerals, forming the basis for later
developments in the field (Hussain, 2024). During the medieval period, the Indian subcontinent
experienced a renaissance of scientific knowledge under the patronage of various dynasties.
Notable among them was the Gupta Empire, often referred to as the Golden Age of Indian
science (Hussain, 2024). Influential works like Nagarjuna’s ‘Rasaratnakara’ and Acharya
Sushruta’s ‘Sushruta Samhita’ contributed to understanding chemistry, metallurgy, and
medicine. Other noteworthy works are Govind Bhagwatpad’s Rashrdayatantra, Siddha
Nityanatha’s Srasaratnakara, and an unidentified author’s Rasarnava. Rasendracintamani by
Dhundukanatha, Rasakaumudi by Sarvajnacandra, Rasabhesajakalpa by Surya Pandita,
Rasasamketakalika by Camunda, Rasaprakasasudhakara by Yasodhara, and
Rasasendracudamani by Somadeva (Rasashala: Ancient Indian Alchemical Lab - Google Arts
& Culture, n.d.). Other writings whose authorships and dates are still unknown include
Dhatukalpa, Dhatumanjari, Dhatumaranam, Rasgrantha, Rasakalpalata, Rasanibhandha, and
Suvaranatantra (Bose et al., 1971). Five stages in the evolution of Indian chemistry were
distinguished by the renowned chemist and historian Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861–
1944) (Sriram, 2021). There are six main periods: the pre-Vedic stage (up to 1500 BCE,
including the Harappan period), the Vedic and the Ayurvedic periods (lasting up to 700 CE),
the transitional period (700 CE to 1100 CE), the tantric period (700 CE to 1300 CE), and from
1300 CE to 1600 CE, the Iatrochemical period (Sriram, 2021). It is important to note that the
exact dates for these periods may not be definitive.
The ancient Indians made significant advancements in alchemy. Archaeological discoveries at
Taxila date back to the first known instances of alcohol distillation. Early attempts to make an
elixir and turn base metals into gold gave rise to ancient chemistry in India. Mercury and its
elixirs were used to transmute base metals into noble ones and purify and rejuvenate the body,
aiming to bring it to an imperishable and immortal state (Bose et al., 1971). Rasashalas were
primarily establishments dedicated to the practice of alchemy whose primary focus was on
transforming base metals into gold, creating the elixir of life, and studying the nature of matter.
Despite the mystical connotations, these pursuits were based on thorough experimentation and
observation. These ancient laboratories were equipped with distillation apparatus, crucibles,
furnaces, and various grinding and pulverisation tools, making them reminiscent of modern-
day chemical laboratories in some aspects. Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a renowned finance and
administration text from the 3rd or 4th century BCE, contains significant information on
contemporary chemical practices. Apart from talking about minerals and mines, it also explores
the details of valuable stones like beryl, ruby, and pearl as well as the making of fermented
drinks like sugarcane, jaggery, honey, jambu, jackfruit, and mango, as well as the process of
extracting oil (Bose et al., 1971). The ancient Ayurvedic texts, Charaka Samhita and Sushruta
Samhita, which may date back centuries before the common era, describe various chemical
practices, including sour fruit juices, liquids, spices, and vegetables. These books give
descriptions of various metals, minerals, metallic compounds, salts, and fermented drinks.
They also include thorough directions for making various alkalis. There are three types of
alkalis: mild (mridu), caustic (teekshna), and average (madhyama). The preparation of these
alkalis involves around 25 plants mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita. Additionally,
Varahamihira’s Brihat-Samhita from the 6th century CE contains detailed information on
creating perfumes, cosmetics, and recipes for preparing materials to be applied on the roofs of
Varahamihira’s buildings (Sriram, 2021).

Practical Applications of Indian Knowledge System (IKS) in Chemistry

The artisans of the Harappan civilisation demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of various
naturally occurring chemical substances, as evidenced by their expertly crafted pottery. They
conducted experiments with different mortars and types of cement, using materials such as
burnt limestone, gypsum, and mica. By finely crushing quartz and applying a silica coating,
possibly fused with soda, along with copper oxide, they created a vibrant turquoise glaze for
their synthetic faience material. Then, using iron and manganese oxide to create a variety of
hues, artisans fashioned this faience into a variety of ornaments and figurines. In an attempt to
unlock the glazing technique’s mystery, craftsmen used plant ash-based flux additives to
partially melt powdered rock quartz in high-temperature kilns (Kenoyer, 2003). A glassy frit
was obtained, which was reground into a fine paste and fired again at around 940 degrees
Celsius to obtain dense glazed faience, indicating that artisans had mastery over controlling the
kiln temperatures.
During the Vedic period, which predates 1500 BCE, the Rigveda referred to various fermented
drinks, fermentation techniques, and the use of different metals. The soma juice, derived from
the soma plant’s stems, was particularly revered and regarded as a divine beverage.
Additionally, Madhu and Suraa, brewed from barley grain, are mentioned (Knowledge
Traditions and Practices of India, 2024). The period is also linked to a kind of pottery that is
currently called “Painted Grey Ware,” which is distinguished by its thin, luxurious grey ceramic
that is usually wheel-made, glossy, well-burnt, and beautifully painted. The “Northern Black
Polished Ware” then appeared in the Gangetic plains’ eastern region. Moreover, other iron
artefacts dating back to a later era have been discovered all throughout India (Bose et al., 1971).
The discovery of glass beads from the 10th century BCE signifies the beginning of the ancient
glass industry. The exceptional artistry of the time is on display in over 30 sites throughout
India where archaeological discoveries have been made. These locations include Hastinapur,
Ahichchhatra, and Kopia in Uttar Pradesh; Taxila in modern-day Pakistan; Brahmagiri in
Karnataka; Nalanda in Bihar; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Nasik and Nevasa in Maharashtra;
and Arikamedu in Puducherry (Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India, 2024). These
findings include a variety of glass objects, such as beads in different hues, exquisite glass
vessels in green and blue, agate-banded flasks, bangles, ear reels, and eye beads. The
glassmakers certainly knew how to manipulate the fusion temperature as well as mould, anneal,
splotch, and foil gold. Silica (66.6%), alumina (7%), alkalies (Na2O) (21.7%), ferric oxide
(1.6%), lime (2.4%), manganese oxide (0.07%), and trace amounts of titania and magnesia
make up the chemical composition of a typical glass specimen from Kopia (Sriram, 2021). The
Taxila excavations yielded an ink jug, proving that ink has been used in India from the fourth
century. Ink colours were created using minium (also known as Sindoor), red lead, and chalk.
This ink-making formula may be found in Rasaratnakara by Nityanatha. Iron pots filled with
water were used to store the robust black ink made from nuts and myrobalans. Malabar and
other regions of the nation used it. Manuscripts written by Jain monks have utilised a special
ink composed of roasted rice, lamp black, sugar, and the juice of the herb kesurte. It appears
that Indians were aware, as early as the late Middle Ages, that adding ferric salts to a tannin
solution would turn it green or dark blue-black. They used this knowledge to make ink
(Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India, 2024).
Metallurgy has always been linked with chemistry in India. Wootz Steel is a legendary crucible
steel known for its sharpness and flexibility. The word was first used by European explorers in
the 17th century when they discovered that steel was produced in Southern India using crucible
procedures in what are now the states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka
(Srinivasan & Ranganathan, 2004). Wootz was the anglicisation of ‘ukku’, the Kannada word
for steel (Srinivasan & Ranganathan, 2004). Wootz steel is often associated with Damascus
steel due to its use in creating the legendary Damascus blades. These swords were renowned
for their sharpness, flexibility, and mesmerising patterns on their blades. As the world’s oldest
and most significant surviving iron forging, the Iron Pillar is considered a metallurgical marvel
due to its ability to withstand centuries of iron corrosion, earning it the moniker “rustless
wonder” (Srinivasan & Ranganathan, 2004). Its non-corrosive existence is attributed to a
protective coating of “misawite,” a compound consisting of iron, oxygen, and hydrogen atop
the steel pillar that contains phosphorus (Prakash, 2002). According to research conducted by
metallurgists led by Prof. R. Balasubramaniam of IIT Kanpur, the 1% phosphorus found in this
ancient iron is a result of the iron ore being smelted using charcoal, which was found in India
at the time. The pillar was created during the Gupta Dynasty, which ruled from 320 to 540 AD
(Singh, 2003). Steel produced by the current smelting process contains only 0.05 percent
phosphorus (Prakash, 2002). Archaeological investigations at pre-Harappan village sites
including Nal, Mehi, and Kot Diji have uncovered a number of axes, chisels, and mirrors. A
piece of an axe from Nal that was subjected to chemical examination turned out to be composed
of 94% pure copper and 5% nickel. This demonstrates the profound knowledge of copper
metallurgy possessed by the Indian subcontinent’s smiths and smelters who produced these
items (Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India, 2024). Pre-shaped, curved clay bricks
were used in the precise design and construction of the furnaces used to smelt iron. Locations
adjacent to the industrial site provided the refractory clay utilised to make the bricks. These
archaic furnaces’ construction parameters, like shaft taper, bosh to top diameter, and bosh angle,
are essentially the same as those of contemporary blast furnaces built between 1960 and 1970.
Since the old furnaces produced liquid slag and semi-solid sponge iron rather than molten cast
iron and slag, their hearth diameters are comparatively huge. After all, forging operation is
impossible on cast iron due to brittleness (Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India, 2024).

Indian Knowledge System (IKS) vs. Modern Chemistry

The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) and modern chemistry are two different ways of
understanding the material world. IKS has been developed for centuries through observation,
experimentation, and cultural transmission. On the other hand, modern chemistry is a product
of the scientific revolution and is characterised by rigorous experimentation. However, IKS
and modern chemistry are interested in comprehending the material world. While their
methodologies and terminologies may differ, both systems have developed sophisticated
frameworks to explain matter’s nature, properties, and transformations. A cornerstone of IKS
and modern chemistry is their reliance on empirical observations and experimentation. Indian
philosophers and practitioners meticulously observed natural phenomena, developing intricate
theories about the universe. Modern science, too, is rooted in observation, with scientists
carefully collecting data to formulate and test hypotheses.
Muni Kanada coined the term “Anu” in antiquity to refer to the tiniest particle, or “Kana”, and
it subsequently got linked to his name. Although the word “Anu” in modern chemical
nomenclature is frequently used to refer to molecules, Kanada may have been the first to
imagine the concept of the tiniest particle or atom, known as “Paramaanu” in modern chemical
terminology (Singh, 2003). The Vaisesika system, drawing from the Vedas, systematically
seeks to comprehend truth by categorising material substances into four elements: earth, air,
fire, and water. Additionally, non-material substances such as time, space, and ether and a
combination of material and non-material substances like mind and self are systematically
employed to explain the functions of all observed and unobserved components of the universe
(Singh, 2003). Contemporary chemistry likewise attempts to follow a similar path, categorising
materials with unique features in order to fully understand life and non-living stuff. Despite the
current knowledge of 118 elements, they are arranged based on shared characteristics.
However, unlike the holistic approach of Vedic knowledge, modern chemistry cannot directly
integrate material and non-material components to describe observable entities (Singh, 2003).
Chemistry is closely related to the study of substances under the Vaisesika School of Thought
in Vedic Knowledge, as both fields deal with matter. The nine substances in the Vaisesika
system include concepts that are not now included in the modern definition of a substance in
chemistry, such as time, space, mind, and self. Although time is not typically regarded as a
fundamental component of substances in modern chemistry, the concept of time’s influence on
substances is relatively straightforward to acknowledge. The impact of time on both living and
non-living substances is widely recognised as a determinant of their longevity and stability.
Everything changes with time, making time an indispensable element of substances with
distinctive attributes at each moment. From a chemical perspective, the stability of all forms of
matter is contingent on the passage of time (Singh, 2003).
Despite their shared interest in the material world, IKS and modern chemistry differ
significantly in their epistemological framework. IKS takes a holistic approach, emphasising
the importance of all elements’ interconnectedness and context. It frequently uses symbolic and
allegorical language to convey complex ideas. On the other hand, while acknowledging
interdependencies, modern chemistry tends to focus on isolating and studying individual
components. It heavily relies on mathematical equations and quantitative measurements for
precision and reproducibility.

Conclusion
The exploration of the Indian Knowledge System (IKS) in chemical sciences reveals a rich
reservoir of knowledge, practices, and philosophies that have profoundly influenced the
evolution of the discipline. From the foundational principles enunciated in ancient texts to the
innovative applications of traditional wisdom in contemporary times, the IKS is a testament to
India’s enduring intellectual prowess. By delving into the historical context of Indian
chemistry, this research underscores its pivotal role in shaping the global trajectory of chemical
sciences. The holistic approach, emphasis on natural products, and the intricate understanding
of matter and its transformations exhibited by ancient Indian scholars offer valuable insights
for modern scientific inquiry.
Moreover, the IKS holds immense potential for addressing contemporary challenges. Its
emphasis on sustainability, harmony with nature, and human well-being aligns seamlessly with
the pressing global concerns of our time. We can foster environmentally friendly and socially
beneficial innovations by integrating IKS principles into modern research and development.
Integrating IKS principles into modern scientific research offers exciting possibilities. We can
bridge the gap between ancient wisdom and cutting-edge technology by fostering
collaborations between traditional practitioners and modern scientists. Such collaborations can
lead to innovative solutions for pressing global issues. IKS texts contain extensive knowledge
about medicinal plants and their properties. Modern pharmacology can leverage this
information to discover new drug candidates. IKS materials science often explores natural
materials and their properties. This knowledge can inspire the development of eco-friendly and
biodegradable materials. IKS emphasises the interconnectedness of mind, body, and spirit.
Integrating IKS concepts into healthcare can lead to more comprehensive treatment
approaches.
There can be a knowledge exchange between traditional practitioners who can share their
empirical knowledge while scientists can provide scientific validation and mechanistic
insights. Combining traditional observational methods with modern analytical techniques can
lead to new research methodologies. Collaborative research can strengthen ties between
scientists and local communities, fostering trust and knowledge sharing. Joint efforts can result
in developing new products and services based on IKS principles. However, integrating IKS
into modern research requires careful consideration of ethical implications. Fair compensation
and recognition of the intellectual property rights of traditional knowledge holders are crucial.
There should be respect for the cultural and spiritual significance of IKS practices. The
unauthorised exploitation of IKS resources should be prevented. The unauthorised exploitation
of IKS resources should be prevented. There should be standards for the documentation and
validation of IKS knowledge.
The comparative analysis of IKS and modern chemistry reveals a complex interplay of
similarities, continuities, divergences, and differences. While the two systems share a common
ground in exploring the material world, their epistemological frameworks and methodologies
diverge significantly. However, by understanding these distinctions, one can appreciate the rich
 intellectual heritage of India and explore potential avenues for integrating traditional wisdom
with contemporary scientific inquiry.
The New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasises integrating IKS into school curricula. This
can be achieved through offering specialised courses on different aspects of IKS. The concepts
of IKS should be integrated into existing concepts of chemical sciences. Field trips, workshops,
and hands-on activities should be conducted to connect students with IKS practices. Equipping
teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills is essential to teach IKS effectively.
Community engagement can also strengthen the ties between traditional practices and modern
techniques. Incorporating IKS into education can cultivate a deeper appreciation for India’s
scientific heritage and inspire future generations to contribute to the nation’s holistic
development.
In conclusion, the IKS in chemical sciences is a valuable resource for scientific advancement
and societal progress. We can unlock its full potential by recognising its importance, investing
in research, and promoting collaborations. Preserving and promoting India’s rich scientific
heritage is imperative for future generations. Documenting, interpreting, and disseminating
IKS knowledge through rigorous research, education, and public outreach is essential. A
comprehensive understanding and integration of IKS can contribute to a more sustainable,
equitable, and holistic approach to scientific inquiry, ultimately enriching the human
experience.

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