SOIL IMPROVEMENT AND GROUND MODIFICATION
METHODS
SOIL
Unconsolidated material
Composed of solid particles
Void spaces may contain air, water or both
May contain organic matter
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Branch of CE that deals with the engineering behavior of earth materials
MOST COMMON EFFECTS OF SOIL BEHAVIORS OR RESPONSES
Shear strength of soils
Compressibility of soils
Permeability of soils
Shrink and swell of soils
Alternative to poor soil conditions
1. Abandon the project
2. Excavate and replace the existing poor soil
3. Redesign the project design
4. Modify the soil
Ground/soil improvement
Carried out to improve the geotechnical properties of the soil at the site
Improvements in the three phases of a project
1. Preconstruction improvements
2. Part-of-construction improvements
3. Post construction improvements
Categories of Ground Improvement
Mechanical Modification
Hydraulic Modification
Physical and Chemical Modification
Modification by inclusions, confinement, and reinforcement
1. Mechanical modification
Soil Compaction
Drum Roller
Vibrating Plate Compactor
Sheeps foot roller
2. Hydraulic Modification
3. Physical and Chemical Modfication
4. Modification by inclusions, confinement, and renforcements
Factors affecting choice of improvement methods
1. Soil type
2. Area, depth, and location of treatment
3. Desired/required soil properties
4. Availability of materials
5. Availability of skills, local experience, and local preferences
6. Environmental concerns
7. Economics
Soil Classifcation System
1. USCS (Unified Soil Classification System)
2. AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation)
3. USDA (US Department of Agricuture)
4. MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Shear Strength – maximum shear stress soil may sustain without failure
Bearing Capacity – Ability of the ground to support load without failing
Slope Stability – Degree fo safety for a soil slope to resist failure.
Durability – Resisance to freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycles
Liquefaction resistance – ability of a soil to withstand dynamic loads without liquefying
Process of identifying fundamental project parameters
1. Establish the scope of the problem
2. Investigate the conditions
3. Establish or model for the substance to be analyzed
4. Determining required soil properties
5. Formulating design to solve the proble
Main purpose of conducting site investigations:
Evaluate the suitability of the site for the proposed project.
Obtain physicals and mechanical properties of the subsurface
Enable safe and economical design
Obtain groundwater conditions
Identify the potential problems
Field Tests
Standard Penetration Tests
Cone Penetration Tests
Flat Plate Dilatometer Test
Pressuremeter Test
Vane Shear Test
HYDRAULIC MODIFICATIONS
Pore water (freewater present in soil)
Forced out of the soil via drains
Achieved by lowering the groundwater level through pumping from boreholes and trenches
Hydraulic modifications can be termed as dewatering (lowering the water table, redirecting seepage or
reducing its water content.)
Purpose of dewatering:
1. Provide suitable working surface
2. Increase the effective weight of the soil and consolidate soil layers
Types of vertical drains
1. Sand drains
2. Prefabricated sand drains (wick drains)
Sand Drains
Reinforces good to poor soils, including soft to stiff clay and silt, loose to dense sand, organic silt
and peat.
Reinforce and stiffen compressible foundation soils and increase the time rate of settlement by
expulsion of porewater pressure.
Three different techniques for installation of sand drains
1. Mandrel drive – Closed end pipe is driven to the bottom of the soil to be consolidated, filled
with sand with pressure then gradually lifted off the ground then the bottom is opened
2. Hollow stem continuous flight auger – Auger is rotated into the soil, since the auger is formed
around a hollow pipe, sand under pressure can be introduced into it.
3. Jetted hollow or closed end pipe – Via water jetting
Process of construction of sand drains
1. Driven casing is withdrawn after being filled with sand then a sand blanket is placed over the top
of the sand drains to connect all the sand drains.
2. Surcharge load is placed over the sand blanket to accelerate the drainage.
Mechanism of Consolidation
1. Pore water pressure is increased by the applied surcharge load in the embankment.
2. The drainage occurs in the vertical and horizontal directions because of the sand drains.
3. Sand drain accelerates the dissipation of excess pore water created by the surcharge.
Spacing of sand drains
Typically laid in either a square or triangular pattern
Design parameters
o Spacing of sand drains 2-5m
o Depth of sand drains 3-35m
o Radius of sand drains well 0.2-0.3m
o Thickness of sand blanket 0.6 – 1m
Application of Sand Drains
1. Airport Runways
2. Golf Courses
3. Mine Tailings Consolidation
4. Tailing Ponds
5. Swampland/Wetland Development
6. Building Foundations
7. Retaining Walls
8. Parking Lots
9. Landfills
Advantages
1. Drainage of pore water pressure in radial direction
2. Faster consolidation
3. Long term structure stability is increased
Disadvantages
1. Requires frequent maintenance
2. Process can take years based on soil type
3. Sand drains may have discontinuities if mandrel is withdrawn too fast
Wick drains
Pre-fabricated vertical drains
Composed of polypropylene strips with drainage channels wrapped in geotextile filter fabric
Accelerates consolidation of compressible soils
Geotextile filter prevents soil particles from entering channels and clogging the drain
Applications of Wick drains
1. Roadway embankments
2. Bridge approaches and overpasses
3. Storage tanks
4. Dams
5. Residential Buildings
6. Railway embankments
7. Mining wastes and tailings
Installation procedure of wick drains
1. Working surface must be prepared to ensure stability
2. Sand or gravel blanket may be needed to provide support for the equipment
3. Sand and gravel may also act as a drainage blanket to direct water away from the treatment
area
4. Installation force is typically provided by vibratory hammers, static force methods, or a
combination of these
5. Mandrel is used to install PVD (Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains)
6. Mandrel is then extracted while PVD remains in its position within the ground
Wick drain material
4-in x 0.25-in (100mm x 0.64mm) thick plastic band shaped conduit
Spacing
Laid out in either Triangular or Square grid patterns
Ranges from 2.5 – 8 ft on centers.
PVD Installation Sequence
1. Position Rig at Drain Location
2. Place Anchor on Drain End
3. Penetrate Mandrel to Desired Depth
4. Withdraw Mandrel
5. Cut Drain Material Above Drainage Blanket
Advantages
No risks of PVDs breaking installation unlike sand drains when mandrel is withdrawn too fast
No risk of shear failures of PVDs during settlement
PVDs are factory produced material and area quality controlled
Disadvantages
If compressions layer is overlain by dense fills, sands, or very stiff clay (or other
obstructions), it may require predrilling, jetting, and/or use of a vibratory hammer. It may
not be even feasible.
Cost is more.
Dewatering
Term for control of groundwater by pumping
“Construction dewatering” (on construction sites)
“Mine dewatering” (on mines)
Defined as pumping from well or sumps to temporarily lower groundwater levels.
Purpose of Dewatering
Dry excavation
Work efficiently
Decrease seepage and pore water pressure
Improve characteristics of foundation materials
Increase stability of slopes
Prevent frost heaving in pavements
Factors Controlling Selection
1. Nature and permeability of ground
2. Geological conditions of soil
3. Extent of area to be dewatered
4. Depth of water table below ground level
5. Amount by which it has to be lowered
6. Proposed methods of excavation and ground support
7. Proximity of existing structure
How is it done?
1. Collection of water
2. Pumping
3. Filtering and Removing Silt and Impurities
4. Discharge at proper location
Methods of Dewatering
1. Sumps and ditches
2. Well point systems
3. Deep well drainage
4. Vacuum Dewatering Systems
5. Electro Osmosis
Open sumps and ditches
Sump below the ground level of the excavation at one or more corner or sides
Most widely used and economical of all methods
Very shallow dewatering (less than 3 feet)
Works best with fine-grained soils, very coarse boulder deposits
Advantages
1. Widely used method
2. Most economical method
3. Can be applied to most soil and rock conditions
4. Most appropriate method where boulders or massive obstructions are met within the ground
Disadvantages
1. Groundwater flows towards the excavations, risk of collapse of sides
Well point systems
Consists of series of small diameter tubes (well points)
Pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe, drawing water up out of the ground
For dewatering deeper excavations, requires two or more stages (single stage unit, double stage
unit)
Setup and Procedure of working:
Well-pint is a 5 to 7.5 cm diameter metal or plastic pipe 60cm to 120cm long which is perforated
and covered with a screen.
Lower end of the pipe has a driving head with water holes for jetting.
The ground water is drawn by the pump into the wellpoints through the header.
Advantages
1. Effective in sandy soils
2. Up to 5-6 meters in sand, and 5 meters in silty soil
3. Cheap and flexible
4. Installation is rapid
5. Water is filtered and carries little to no soil particles
6. Less danger of subsidence
Disadvantages
1. Not effective beyond 4-6 meters
2. May require multiple stages of well installation
Deep well
Consists of bored wells and submersible or turbine pumps
May be combined with wellpoint systems
Dewatering capacity of deep well point system
2100 to 31000 gallons per minute, or 60,000 gallons per minute with the total system
Can lift water 30m or more in a single stage
Requires no pump as the water is forced to the surface by its own pressure.
Design considerations of deep well point dewatering systems
1. Soil investigation report
2. Grain size analysis and permeability tests
3. Hydrology of the area
4. Topography
5. Space limitations of the site
6. Projected method of excavation
7. Construction schedule
Advantages
1. No limits on drawdown
2. Fewer wells required than other systems
Disadvantages
1. Expensive to install
Vacuum Dewatering Systems
Effective in fine-grained soils
Requires well point screens, riser pipes with filter sand
Most suitable in layered or stratified soils
Developed by L. Casagrande
Electro osmosis
Done through the use of cathodes and anode with passage of electrical currents
Movement of water through a porous material by applying a direct current field
Only effective method in deep clay soils, silty clays, silts, and some peats.
Mechanism of Electro Osmosis
Soil water will travel from positive electrode (anode) to negative electrode (cathode)
Cathode is made in the form of well point or metal tube
Advantages
1. Provides uniform pore water movement in most types of soil
2. Entire soil mass between the electrodes I basically treated equally
Disadvantages
1. Installation and running costs are usually high
Eductor system
AKA jet educator system or ejector system
Features a series of small diameter wells equipped with a nozzle/venture
Recution in pressure draws water through the large diameter riser pipe
Advantages
1. Useful in low permeability soils when close spacing is required
2. Low maintenance/tuning required
3. Not limited by suction lift – suited for deep excavations
4. Useful for dewatering stratified soils
5. Eliminates the need to install from a sub-cut bench
Limitations
1. Volume limited, not suited for high volume applications
2. More labor intensive
3. Pump stations can have higher power requirements
Ground freezing
Converts in situ pore water to ice through the circulation of a chilled liquid via system of small
diameter pipes
Construction of shafts, mines, tunnels to provide temporary earth support
Dewatering methods and their suitability
Method Suitability of soil
Sump Pumping Gravel or well-graded sandy gravel, partially
cemented material, porous rock formation
Well Point systems Sandy soil drawdown limit is 15 ft
Ejector system Fine sand dewater up to depth of 100 ft
Ground Freezing For tunnel excavation, arrest landslides, and to
stabilize mineshafts
Deep (bored Wells) 3000 to 60000 gallons per minute, up to depth of
300 ft
Design steps for dewatering system
1. Subsoil investigation
2. Source and water table details
3. Distance of well points
4. Determination of effective wall radius
5. Discharge computations
Factors when choosing a dewatering system
Type of excavation
Geological and Soil Conditions
Depth of groundwater lowering
Reliability Requirements
Required rate of pumping
Intermittent pumping
Effect of groundwater lowering on adjacent structures and wells
Dewatering cutoffs and other procedures
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES
Four General Categories
1. Surface Mixing
2. Layering (or surface placement) for quicklime piles
3. In situ mixing
4. Grouting (primarily jet grouting for admixture application)
Benefits of admixtures in subsurface pavement layers:
1. Cost savings in materials through reduction in required layer thickness
2. Reduction in deterioration rate
3. Reduced maintenance
4. Improved drainage characteristics
Recycled Roadway Materials
ASTM or AASHTO Specifications:
o Recycled roadway materials acceptable to use up to 25% reclaimed asphalt concrete
pavement in “new” pavement systems
Portland Cement Association (PCA)
o Full Depth Reclamation (FDR) – A process of recycling the entire thickness of existing
roadway layers.
Benefits of recycling roadway materials
o Saves money and natural resources
o NO need to haul and dispose of the old pavement materials
o Little to no waste when utilizing reclaimed asphalt concrete pavements
o Cost of rehabilitating a recycled material is 25-50%
o Recycled base is generally stronger, more uniform, and more moisture resistant
o Recycled base materials can also be treated with other chemical stabilizers with similar
improved resutls.
Surface Mixing
Admixture is applied at the ground surface
When surface loads are relatively small or when moderate improvement of the surface soils is
adequate
Shallow surface mixing – widely used for treatment and upgrading of roadway/pavement layers
for major highways and airport runways.
Traditional Disk Harrows
o Used for mixing and blending admixture materials, followed by grading and compaction
o For low use secondary and unpaved roads
Traveling mixers (recyclers)
o For intimate blending
o Ideal for roadway stabilization or rehabilitation for small to moderate-sized projects.
Central Mixing plant
o For large projects that do not extend great distances
o Soil may be excavated and transported to a mixing plant to be blended then transported
back to the site
Layering (Surface Placement) and Quicklime Piles
Placing and compacting quicklime in predrilled holes – A method of lime treatment that does
not require mixing with the soil
o Strength is gained by absorbing pore water from the surrounding soil while expanding
the volume of the lime “pile”.
o Consolidates the surrounding soil, increasing its strength and adding lateral pressures
while the quicklime pile itself also hardens.
Lime sandwich method – Without mixing. Application of relatively thin layers of quicklime
between placed clay layers.
In Situ Mixing
Involves:
o Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM)
o Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) – 100 ft (or more)
SSM vs DSM
o Process is essentially the same
o SSM (10-15m depths) and may create larger diameter individual columns
Major Advantages of In-situ mixing
o Poor soils can e utilized without excavation or disposal
o Low volume of spoils is typical (dependent on soil type)
o No dewatering required
o Generally reduced noise and vibrations during construction
Materials used in in situ mixing (but not limited to)
o Lime
o Cement
o Fly ash
o Furnace slag
Deep Soil Mixing
o Used extensively in Japan and Europe in the 1960s – 1980s.
For construction Foundation support and earth retention structures
Dry Soil Mixing
o Applying Dry Admixture
o Best suited for soils with moisture content >60% and near liquid limit
Wet Soil Mixing
o Better suited for dryer soils
Cutoffs and Slurry Walls
o Cutter soil mixing
Uses a tool that can cut through difficult soils, including stiff clays, gravels, and
cobbles
A slurry of admixture is injected between the cutting/mixing wheels
Two soil characteristics when choosing an admixture
Grain size distribution
Soil Plasticity
Laboratory Testing
MDTP (Mixture Design and Testing Procedure) – Developed by the National Lime Association
o If there is >25% passing the #200 sieve, and if soil PI >10, lime treatment shall be
considered first
Soil-lime ph determination
o The amount of lime needed to raise the pH of the soil pore water to about pH = 12.4
Optimum Moisture Content – MDD and OMC
Standard Proctor Test
Unconfined Compression Test - minimum of 700 kpa is required
Expansion (swell) test – Determine the swell potential of a compacted specimen
Grouting
Method of adding material to the ground, usually by injecting a fluidized material under
pressure
Generally refers to jet grouting
