Chapter2: sustainable development issues

Population growth
Introduction

Population growth is one of the most significant challenges to achieving sustainable

development. While a growing population can contribute to economic development by
providing a larger workforce, uncontrolled growth can lead to environmental degradation,
resource scarcity, and social inequalities.

According to the United Nations World Population Prospects 2022, the global population
reached 8 billion in November 2022 and is projected to hit 9.7 billion by 2050. Such rapid
growth puts immense pressure on food, water, energy, and biodiversity, threatening the
achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Global Population Growth: Facts and Figures

Year Global Population Key Milestones

1950 2.5 billion Post-WWII economic boom
1987 5 billion Rapid industrialization
2011 7 billion Population doubled in just 50 years
2022 8 billion UN World Population Prospects
2050* ~9.7 billion Projected
2100* ~10.4 billion Projected stabilization

Source: United Nations, World Population Prospects 2022

• 90% of population growth between 2022 and 2050 will occur in developing countries,
mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and parts of Latin America.
• India overtook China in 2023 to become the world’s most populous country with 1.43
billion people.
• Nigeria is projected to become the third most populous country by 2050.
Causes of Rapid Population Growth

1. Declining Mortality Rates

• Advances in medicine, nutrition, and sanitation reduced global infant mortality rates
from 93 per 1,000 births (1990) to 37 (2021). (World Bank Report 2023)

2. High Fertility Rates

• Sub-Saharan Africa averages 4.6 births per woman compared to the global average of
2.3.
• Lack of family planning and cultural norms contribute significantly.

3. Poverty and Illiteracy

• In low-income countries, larger families are often seen as a source of labor and financial
security.
• Lack of education — especially for women — correlates with higher fertility rates.

4. Limited Access to Contraception

• As per the UNFPA 2022 Report, around 257 million women worldwide have unmet
needs for family planning.

Impacts of Population Growth on Sustainable Development

1. Environmental Impacts

• Deforestation: Around 10 million hectares of forest are lost annually due to expanding
agriculture and settlements. (FAO 2020 Report)
• Biodiversity Loss: The WWF Living Planet Report 2022 notes a 69% decline in
global wildlife populations since 1970.
• Climate Change: Population growth drives higher fossil fuel consumption, increasing
CO₂ emissions.
o Example: Between 1990 and 2019, global carbon emissions rose by 60%.
• Pollution: Overpopulation worsens air and water pollution, leading to public health
crises.
2. Resource Scarcity

• Water Crisis: By 2030, 40% of the world’s population will face severe water
shortages. (UNESCO World Water Report 2021)
• Food Security: According to the FAO 2022 Report, nearly 735 million people face
chronic hunger, exacerbated by growing demand.
• Energy Demands: Global energy consumption is projected to rise by 50% by 2050 if
current trends continue. (IEA World Energy Outlook 2022)

3. Social and Economic Challenges

• Urbanization Pressures: By 2050, 68% of the global population will live in urban
areas, creating megacities with inadequate housing, transport, and waste management.
• Unemployment: Rapid growth strains job markets, leading to rising youth
unemployment, especially in Africa and South Asia.
• Health Challenges: Overburdened healthcare systems struggle to meet growing
demands, particularly during pandemics.

Case Studies

Case Study 1: India

• Population: 1.43 billion (2023). (UN WPP 2022)

• Faces resource scarcity, air pollution, and water shortages.
• Implemented the National Family Planning Program, promoting contraceptive use and
maternal health services.
• Despite efforts, fertility rates remain above replacement levels in some northern states.

Case Study 2: Nigeria

• Projected to reach 400 million people by 2050.

• Struggles with food insecurity, youth unemployment, and urban congestion.
• Population growth is outpacing economic growth, deepening poverty.

Case Study 3: China

• Successfully implemented the One-Child Policy (1979–2015), slowing population

growth.
• However, it led to an ageing population crisis — 28% of Chinese citizens will be
above 60 years by 2040.
• Now shifted to a Three-Child Policy (2021) to stabilize demographics.
Strategies to Manage Population Growth for Sustainable Development

1. Promote Family Planning

• Provide universal access to contraception and reproductive health services.

• Example: Bangladesh successfully reduced fertility from 6.9 births/woman (1971) to
2.1 (2021) via widespread family planning programs.

2. Empower Women

• The UNDP Human Development Report 2021 shows that higher female literacy rates
lead to lower fertility rates.
• Investing in education and employment opportunities for women is key.

3. Strengthen Education Systems

• Universal education raises awareness of environmental impacts and promotes

responsible family size.

4. Sustainable Urban Planning

• Develop eco-friendly infrastructure and ensure better waste management in expanding

cities.

5. International Cooperation

• Implement global frameworks like:

o UN SDG 3 → Ensure good health and well-being.
o UN SDG 6 → Clean water and sanitation.
o UN SDG 13 → Climate action.

Conclusion

Population growth is a double-edged sword. While it can drive economic development,

uncontrolled expansion threatens resource security, environmental health, and social
stability.

Reports like the UN World Population Prospects (2022) and IPCC Climate Reports highlight
that managing population growth is crucial to achieving the UN Sustainable Development
Goals.

Strategies like family planning, women’s empowerment, universal education, and green
urban planning are essential to balance human needs with the planet’s carrying capacity.
Poverty
Introduction

Poverty is one of the most critical challenges to achieving sustainable development. It refers to
a state where individuals lack access to basic necessities such as food, clean water, healthcare,
education, shelter, and income.

According to the World Bank Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report 2022, around 659
million people — approximately 8.4% of the global population — live in extreme poverty,
surviving on less than $2.15 per day.

Poverty is closely linked to environmental degradation, population growth, and climate

change and remains a major obstacle to achieving the United Nations Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 1: No Poverty.

Global Poverty: Facts and Figures

Year Global Poverty Rate People in Extreme Poverty

1990 36% ~1.9 billion
2015 10% ~734 million
2020 9.3% ~719 million
2022 8.4% ~659 million
2030* ~7% (projected) ~575 million (if SDGs are met)

Source: World Bank, Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report 2022

However, progress has been uneven:

• Sub-Saharan Africa: 40% of people live in extreme poverty.

• South Asia: Around 216 million people remain poor.
• Developed nations have low poverty rates but face relative poverty and income
inequality.

Causes of Poverty

1. Population Growth

• Rapid population expansion in developing countries increases pressure on resources.

• For example, Nigeria’s population is growing faster than job creation, deepening
poverty levels.
2. Unemployment and Underemployment

• International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates 208 million people were

unemployed globally in 2023.
• Informal employment dominates in many low-income countries, limiting income
stability.

3. Lack of Education

• As per UNESCO (2023), 244 million children and youth are out of school.
• Lack of education perpetuates low-skilled, low-income jobs.

4. Climate Change and Environmental Degradation

• Extreme weather events cause crop failures, water shortages, and disasters that push
millions into poverty.
• IPCC 2023 Report highlights that climate change could push 132 million more people
into poverty by 2030.

5. Political Instability and Conflict

• Wars and civil unrest displace millions, reducing access to livelihoods.

• Example: The Syrian conflict pushed 90% of its population into poverty (UNHCR
2022).

6. Inequality and Resource Mismanagement

• Wealth concentration among elites worsens poverty.

• In 2023, Oxfam reported that the richest 1% own nearly 45% of global wealth.

Impact of Poverty on Sustainable Development

1. Environmental Impacts

• Deforestation and Overexploitation: Poor communities depend on forests and natural

resources for survival, causing environmental degradation.
• Pollution: Lack of waste management infrastructure in slums worsens urban pollution.
2. Social Impacts

• Poor Health:
o In 2021, 5 million children under five died from preventable causes linked to
poverty. (WHO Report 2022)
• Hunger and Malnutrition:
o FAO 2023 estimates 735 million people suffer from chronic hunger.
• Inequality: Poverty perpetuates gender inequality and social exclusion.

3. Economic Impacts

• Reduces labor productivity and slows GDP growth.

• In Africa, poverty traps millions in low-productivity agriculture, hindering
industrialization.

Poverty and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Poverty directly impacts multiple SDGs:

SDG Relation with Poverty

SDG 1 Ending poverty in all forms is the core target.
SDG 2 Poverty leads to hunger and malnutrition.
SDG 3 Poor health outcomes are closely linked to poverty.
SDG 4 Poverty restricts access to quality education.
SDG 6 Poor households lack clean water and sanitation.
SDG 13 Climate change worsens poverty in vulnerable regions.

Case Studies

Case Study 1: India

• India reduced extreme poverty from 45% in 1993 to 10% in 2020.

• National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) provides 100 days of paid
work annually to rural households.
• However, climate risks and income inequality persist — 21% of Indians remain
multidimensionally poor. (UNDP 2022)
Case Study 2: Sub-Saharan Africa

• Home to 60% of the world’s extreme poor.

• Climate change, conflicts, and low economic diversification worsen poverty.
• Example: In Somalia, prolonged droughts displaced millions, leading to widespread
famine.

Case Study 3: Bangladesh

• Once one of the poorest nations, Bangladesh reduced poverty from 43% (1991) to 18%
(2022).
• Investments in microfinance, women’s empowerment, and export-led growth drove
success.
• Grameen Bank pioneered microcredit schemes, lifting millions out of poverty.

Strategies to Eradicate Poverty for Sustainable Development

1. Promoting Inclusive Economic Growth

• Invest in infrastructure, industries, and jobs.

• Example: China lifted 800 million people out of poverty since the 1980s through
industrial growth.

2. Education and Skill Development

• Provide universal access to quality education and vocational training.

• Educated populations contribute more effectively to economic progress.

3. Social Protection Measures

• Implement cash transfer programs and subsidies for vulnerable groups.

• Example: Brazil’s Bolsa Família Program reduced poverty by 12% between 2003 and
2014.

4. Climate-Resilient Policies

• Invest in sustainable agriculture, water management, and renewable energy to protect

livelihoods.

5. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment

• World Bank studies show empowering women boosts household income and reduces
poverty rates.
6. International Cooperation

• Increased aid, technology transfer, and capacity-building in developing countries.

• Alignment with SDGs ensures global collective action.

Conclusion

Poverty is both a cause and a consequence of unsustainable development. It undermines

progress across environmental, social, and economic dimensions. Reports like the World Bank
2022 Poverty Report and UNDP Human Development Report 2023 warn that without urgent
measures, climate change, resource depletion, and conflicts will push millions more into
poverty.

Achieving sustainable development requires:

• Equitable economic growth

• Universal education
• Environmental protection
• Social security
• International cooperation

Eliminating poverty isn’t just an SDG; it’s the foundation for achieving all other sustainability
goals.

Biodiversity Loss and Its Conservation

Introduction
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, including diversity within
species, between species, and of ecosystems. It is essential for maintaining ecological balance,
human survival, and sustainable development.

However, biodiversity is declining at an alarming rate due to human activities and climate
change. According to the UN Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Report 2019, around 1 million species are currently at risk
of extinction, many within decades, unless urgent action is taken.

Types of Biodiversity
 1. Genetic Diversity → Variation of genes within a species.
Example: Different rice varieties in India.
2. Species Diversity → Variety of species within an ecosystem.
Example: Amazon rainforest houses 10% of all known species.
3. Ecosystem Diversity → Variety of ecosystems like forests, wetlands, deserts, coral reefs,
etc.

Status of Global Biodiversity

Region Key Facts

69% decline in wildlife populations since 1970 (WWF Living Planet Report
Global
2022)
Among 17 megadiverse countries, hosting 7-8% of global species
India
(MoEFCC, India)
Coral Reefs Nearly 50% of coral reefs lost since the 1950s (UNESCO, 2022)
Tropical Forests Losing 10 million hectares annually (FAO Forest Report 2020)
Freshwater
Population declined by 83% since 1970 (WWF 2022)
Species

Causes of Biodiversity Loss

1. Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation

• Deforestation, urbanization, industrialization, and infrastructure projects destroy

natural habitats.
• Example: Amazon rainforest lost 17% of its cover in the last 50 years.

2. Climate Change

• Rising global temperatures alter species distributions and breeding patterns.

• Coral bleaching events linked to warming seas threaten marine biodiversity.

3. Overexploitation of Resources

• Excessive hunting, fishing, logging, and mining reduce species populations.

• Example: Atlantic cod population collapsed due to overfishing in the 1990s.

4. Pollution

• Plastic pollution, oil spills, and chemical runoff damage ecosystems.

• Example: Around 11 million metric tonnes of plastic enter oceans yearly (UNEP 2021).
5. Invasive Alien Species

• Introduction of non-native species disrupts local ecosystems.

• Example: Water hyacinth invasion in India’s water bodies suffocates aquatic species.

6. Agricultural Expansion

• Conversion of forests and grasslands into monoculture farms destroys natural habitats.
• Use of pesticides harms pollinators and soil biodiversity.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

1. Ecological Impacts

• Disruption of food chains and ecosystem services.

• Increased vulnerability to natural disasters due to degraded ecosystems.

2. Economic Impacts

• IPBES 2019 Report: Loss of biodiversity could reduce global GDP by 10% by 2050.
• Decline in fisheries and forest products threatens livelihoods.

3. Social and Health Impacts

• Loss of medicinal plants affects healthcare.

• Increased risk of zoonotic diseases (e.g., COVID-19) due to disturbed wildlife habitats.

Global Reports and Agreements on Biodiversity

Report/Convention Year Significance

Convention on Biological Diversity Adopted at Rio Earth Summit; aims to conserve
1992
(CBD) biodiversity and ensure fair benefit sharing.
20 global targets set for 2011–2020 under the
Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2010
CBD; limited success achieved.
Kunming-Montreal Global New global plan to protect 30% of land and
2022
Biodiversity Framework (GBF) oceans by 2030 (“30x30” target).
IPBES Global Assessment 2019 Warned that 1 million species face extinction.
Documented a 69% decline in wildlife
WWF Living Planet Report 2022
populations since 1970.
Case Studies

Case Study 1: Western Ghats, India

• UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• Biodiversity under threat from mining, urbanization, and deforestation.
• Conservation efforts include Eco-Sensitive Zones and Community Forest Rights.

Case Study 2: Coral Bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef

• Mass bleaching events caused by rising sea temperatures.

• According to UNESCO 2022, nearly 90% of reefs have been affected since 2016.

Case Study 3: Project Tiger (India)

• Launched in 1973 to conserve Bengal tigers.

• Increased tiger population from 1,411 (2006) to 3,682 (2023) (National Tiger
Conservation Authority).
• A model of successful species-specific conservation.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

1. In-Situ Conservation

Protecting species within their natural habitats:

• Establishing national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.

• Example: Sundarbans National Park protects the Royal Bengal Tiger.

2. Ex-Situ Conservation

Protecting species outside their natural habitats:

• Seed banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and gene banks.

• Example: Millennium Seed Bank Project (UK) preserves over 40,000 plant species.

3. Legal and Policy Measures

• Wildlife Protection Act (India, 1972).

• Biological Diversity Act (India, 2002).
• Strengthening environmental impact assessments (EIA) before development projects.
4. Sustainable Resource Management

• Promoting community-based forestry and eco-friendly agriculture.

• Supporting indigenous knowledge systems in biodiversity management.

5. Public Awareness and Education

• Engaging citizens through eco-clubs, conservation campaigns, and eco-tourism.

6. Global Collaboration

• Implementing frameworks like the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity

Framework.
• Sharing technology and financial resources among nations.

Conclusion

Biodiversity loss is a critical challenge that threatens ecosystem stability, economic

development, and human survival. Reports like the IPBES 2019 Assessment and WWF
Living Planet Report 2022 warn that urgent, coordinated action is needed to reverse current
trends.

Conservation strategies must integrate in-situ and ex-situ approaches, robust policy
frameworks, and global cooperation. Achieving targets like the 30x30 goal under the
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework is essential for ensuring a sustainable
future where humans and nature coexist harmoniously.

Energy Security ( Energy Conservation, and Alternative Energy

Resources)

Introduction
Energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy at affordable prices and in
an environmentally sustainable manner. It is a key pillar of sustainable development because
energy is central to economic growth, social welfare, and environmental health.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2023:

• Global energy demand has tripled since 1971.

• Fossil fuels still account for nearly 82% of total energy consumption.
 • By 2050, global energy demand is projected to rise by 50%, largely driven by
population growth and industrialization.

The heavy dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) has caused:

• Energy insecurity due to price volatility and supply disruptions.

• Environmental problems, including climate change and air pollution.

Thus, achieving energy security requires energy conservation and a transition towards
alternative energy resources.

Global Energy Scenario: Facts & Figures

Energy Source Share in Global Supply (2023) Issues

Oil 31% Price volatility, geopolitical risks
Coal 27% High CO₂ emissions, air pollution
Natural Gas 24% Methane leakage, supply dependency
Renewable Energy 16% Growing but still underutilized
Nuclear Energy 2% Safety concerns, radioactive waste

Source: International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook 2023

Energy Security Challenges

1. Overdependence on Fossil Fuels

• 80% of global energy comes from fossil fuels, which are finite.
• Reserves are concentrated in limited regions → geopolitical energy conflicts.

2. Rising Global Energy Demand

• Driven by population growth, urbanization, and industrialization.

• According to IEA, global electricity demand is expected to double by 2050.

3. Climate Change and Environmental Degradation

• Energy production contributes to 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

• Rising global temperatures worsen droughts, floods, and extreme weather.

4. Energy Inequality

• Around 775 million people (mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia) lack access
to electricity. (IEA, 2023)
5. Geopolitical Risks

• Energy dependence causes vulnerability to price shocks and supply disruptions.

• Example: The Russia–Ukraine war (2022) triggered a global energy crisis.

Energy Conservation

Energy conservation means reducing energy consumption through efficient usage and
behavioral changes without compromising economic growth.

Importance of Energy Conservation

• Reduces greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.

• Minimizes dependence on imported fossil fuels.
• Saves costs and enhances energy security.

Strategies for Energy Conservation

1. Improving Energy Efficiency

• Use LED lighting, energy-efficient appliances, and smart meters.

• Promote fuel-efficient vehicles and electric mobility.

2. Green Building Design

• Use natural lighting, solar architecture, and energy-saving insulation.

• Example: India’s Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) promotes green
construction.

3. Public Transport Systems

• Invest in mass transit to reduce fossil fuel use.

• Example: Delhi Metro reduces CO₂ emissions by ~630,000 tonnes annually (CSE,
2022).

4. Industrial Optimization

• Adopt waste heat recovery systems, automation, and energy audits in industries.

5. Awareness Campaigns

• Educate communities about efficient energy usage and promote lifestyle changes.
Alternative Energy Resources

Transitioning from fossil fuels to alternative energy resources is key to ensuring long-term
energy security and environmental sustainability.

1. Solar Energy

• Global capacity reached 1,185 GW in 2023 (IRENA).

• Example: India’s National Solar Mission aims for 280 GW solar capacity by 2030.
• Benefits: Abundant, clean, and cost-effective in the long run.

2. Wind Energy

• Global installed capacity surpassed 900 GW in 2023 (GWEC).

• Example: Denmark meets over 50% of its electricity needs from wind power.
• Offshore wind farms hold huge untapped potential.

3. Hydropower

• Provides about 16% of the world’s electricity (IEA, 2022).

• Example: Three Gorges Dam (China) generates 22.5 GW of renewable energy.
• Challenges: Large dams can cause ecological disruption and displacement.

4. Biomass Energy

• Derived from agricultural waste, wood, and biofuels.

• Example: Brazil’s ethanol program supplies 50% of its transport fuel needs.

5. Geothermal Energy

• Taps the Earth’s internal heat for power generation.

• Example: Iceland meets 100% of its heating needs from geothermal energy.

6. Nuclear Energy

• Produces clean electricity but raises safety and waste management concerns.
• Example: France generates over 70% of its electricity from nuclear power.
Case Studies

Case Study 1: Germany’s “Energiewende” (Energy Transition)

• Aims to phase out nuclear power and coal while boosting renewables.
• In 2023, renewables contributed 46% of Germany’s electricity generation.

Case Study 2: India’s Renewable Energy Push

• India is the third-largest producer of renewable energy.

• Installed renewable capacity: 175 GW (2023) (MNRE).
• Goal: Achieve 500 GW of renewable capacity by 2030.

Case Study 3: China’s Solar Revolution

• China contributes nearly 40% of global solar installations.

• Investments in photovoltaic manufacturing made solar power affordable worldwide.

Global Initiatives on Energy Security

Initiative / Agreement Year Objective

Kyoto Protocol 1997 Reduce global GHG emissions.
Paris Climate Agreement 2015 Limit warming to 1.5°C.
Ensure affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern
SDG 7 2015
energy for all by 2030.
International Solar Alliance
2015 Promote solar energy adoption globally.
(ISA)

Conclusion
Ensuring energy security is vital for achieving sustainable development. The heavy reliance
on fossil fuels has led to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and geopolitical
tensions.

To meet growing energy demands sustainably, the world must:

• Embrace energy conservation.

• Transition to renewable energy.
• Invest in clean technologies.
• Strengthen international cooperation.

By integrating energy efficiency, alternative energy sources, and sustainable policies, we can
secure a clean, affordable, and reliable energy future while mitigating climate change.
Urbanization and Sustainable Cities
Introduction

Urbanization is the process of increasing the population in urban areas due to migration,
industrialization, and economic development. While urbanization drives economic growth
and technological advancement, it also creates serious environmental, social, and
infrastructural challenges if not managed sustainably.

According to the United Nations World Urbanization Prospects (2023):

• In 1950, only 30% of the world’s population lived in urban areas.

• In 2023, 56% of people live in cities.
• By 2050, nearly 68% of the global population** will be urbanized.

This rapid urban growth poses significant challenges such as pollution, traffic congestion,
waste mismanagement, housing shortages, and climate vulnerability. Therefore, sustainable
cities are essential for achieving SDG 11: “Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, and
sustainable.”

Urbanization Trends: Global & Indian Context

Region Urban Population (%) 2023 Projected Urban Population (%) 2050
Global 56% 68%
India 36% 50%
China 65% 80%
Africa 44% 60%

Source: UN World Urbanization Prospects 2023

Environmental Impacts of Urbanization

1. Air Pollution

• Cities are major contributors to GHG emissions and air pollution.

• WHO (2022): Around 99% of the global population breathes air exceeding WHO
safety limits.
• Example: Delhi and Beijing often record PM2.5 levels several times above WHO
standards.

2. Water Scarcity and Pollution

• Overdrawing of groundwater and river pollution due to industrial waste.

• Example: Yamuna River (India) suffers from severe pollution due to untreated sewage.
3. Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect

• High-density cities absorb heat due to concrete surfaces and lack of greenery.
• Example: Tokyo recorded an average 3°C higher temperature than surrounding rural
areas (Japan Meteorological Agency, 2022).

4. Solid Waste Management

• Urban areas generate about 2.24 billion tonnes of solid waste annually (World Bank,
2022).
• By 2050, waste generation will increase by 73%, requiring effective management
strategies.

5. Biodiversity Loss

• Urban sprawl destroys natural habitats and wetlands.

• Example: Bengaluru’s lakes shrunk from 262 in 1960 to 33 in 2023 due to rapid
construction.

Challenges to Sustainable Urban Development

1. Infrastructure Overload

• Inadequate roads, housing, and sanitation facilities lead to slums and informal
settlements.
• According to UN-Habitat (2022), 1 billion people globally live in slums.

2. Energy Demands

• Urban areas consume 75% of global energy and produce 70% of CO₂ emissions (IEA,
2023).

3. Inequality and Poverty

• Urbanization creates wealth but also deepens the divide between rich and poor.
• Example: Mumbai’s Dharavi is one of Asia’s largest slums, housing 1 million people in
2.1 sq km.

4. Climate Change Vulnerability

• Coastal megacities like Mumbai, Jakarta, and Miami are at high risk of sea-level rise
and flooding.
Sustainable Cities: Concept and Goals

A sustainable city is designed to balance economic growth, environmental protection, and

social equity while minimizing resource consumption and carbon footprint.

According to SDG 11 (UN Sustainable Development Goals), the objectives of sustainable

cities are:

• Ensure affordable housing and basic services.

• Provide sustainable public transportation.
• Reduce environmental impact (air, water, and waste).
• Build resilient infrastructure and green spaces.
• Enhance disaster preparedness and climate resilience.

Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development

1. Green Infrastructure and Urban Planning

• Integrate parks, green belts, and eco-friendly architecture.

• Example: Singapore has 47% green cover, making it a global model for sustainable
urban design.

2. Smart Cities

• Use IoT, AI, and data analytics to optimize traffic, waste, and energy systems.
• Example: India’s Smart Cities Mission (2015) aims to develop 100 smart, tech-driven
urban centers.

3. Renewable Energy Integration

• Promote solar rooftops, wind farms, and waste-to-energy plants.

• Example: Masdar City (UAE) runs primarily on solar energy and sustainable design
principles.

4. Sustainable Public Transport

• Expand metro rail, electric buses, and cycling lanes.

• Example: Copenhagen targets 50% of all trips by bicycle by 2030.

5. Efficient Waste Management

• Implement 3Rs — Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

• Promote segregation at source and composting.
6. Water Management

• Rainwater harvesting, recycling wastewater, and desalination.

• Example: Chennai mandates rainwater harvesting in all new constructions.

7. Climate-Resilient Infrastructure

• Use flood-resistant materials, elevated roads, and disaster-ready drainage systems.

• Example: Rotterdam (Netherlands) uses floating houses to adapt to rising sea levels.

Conclusion

Urbanization is inevitable but needs to be sustainable to avoid environmental degradation and

social inequalities. Sustainable cities are central to achieving climate goals, resource
efficiency, and better quality of life.

By integrating green technologies, renewable energy, efficient transport systems, and

inclusive urban policies, we can build cities that are resilient, livable, and environmentally
sustainable.

Carrying Capacity and Ecological Footprint

Introduction

The concepts of carrying capacity and ecological footprint are central to understanding the
relationship between humans and the environment.

• Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size of a species that an environment

can support indefinitely without degrading natural resources or ecosystem services.
• Ecological Footprint: The measure of human demand on Earth’s ecosystems,
expressed in terms of the land and water area required to produce the resources we
consume and absorb the waste we generate.

Both concepts are essential for promoting sustainable development, ensuring that economic
growth and resource consumption remain within the planet’s ecological limits.
Carrying Capacity

Carrying capacity refers to the threshold beyond which an ecosystem cannot sustainably
support a species population without environmental degradation.

Formula:
K = R / (E × P)
Where:

• K = Carrying Capacity
• R = Available resources
• E = Per capita resource consumption
• P = Waste generated per person

Factors Influencing Carrying Capacity

1. Availability of Natural Resources

o Freshwater, fertile soil, forests, and minerals.
2. Technological Advancements
o Innovations can temporarily increase carrying capacity.
3. Population Growth
o Rising populations increase pressure on resources.
4. Consumption Patterns
o Overconsumption accelerates resource depletion.
5. Environmental Degradation
o Deforestation, pollution, and climate change lower carrying capacity.

Global Trends

• In 1900, Earth supported 1.6 billion people sustainably.

• Today (2023), with 8 billion people, global consumption exceeds Earth’s carrying
capacity by about 1.7 times (Global Footprint Network, 2023).
• This overshoot leads to resource scarcity, habitat destruction, and climate stress.

Ecological Footprint

The ecological footprint measures how much biologically productive land and water an
individual, community, or country requires to:

• Produce the resources it consumes.

• Absorb its waste (especially CO₂ emissions).

It is expressed in global hectares (gha).

Key Components of Ecological Footprint

1. Carbon Footprint – Land required to absorb CO₂ emissions.

2. Food Footprint – Land needed for crops, grazing, and fisheries.
3. Housing Footprint – Land for infrastructure and settlements.
4. Goods & Services Footprint – Land and energy required for production and transport.

Global Ecological Footprint Status

Indicator Value (2023)

Earth’s Biocapacity ~ 1.6 gha per person
Average Global Footprint ~ 2.8 gha per person
Ecological Deficit ~ 1.2 gha per person
Earth Overshoot Day 2023 August 2, 2023 (after this day, humanity lives on “credit”)

Source: Global Footprint Network (2023)

Country-wise Ecological Footprint (2023)

Country Footprint (gha/person) Biocapacity (gha/person) Status

USA 8.0 3.5 High deficit
India 1.1 1.2 Near balance
China 3.6 1.0 Deficit
Brazil 2.7 9.0 Ecological reserve

Relationship Between Carrying Capacity and Ecological Footprint

• If ecological footprint > biocapacity, it means we are exceeding carrying capacity.
• This situation is called ecological overshoot.
• Continuous overshoot results in:
o Deforestation
o Soil degradation
o Loss of biodiversity
o Water scarcity
o Climate change intensification
Case Studies

Case Study 1: China’s Urban Expansion

• China’s ecological footprint has surged due to rapid industrialization and urbanization.
• Its per capita footprint rose from 1.5 gha in 1990 to 3.6 gha in 2023.
• Consequences include air pollution, water scarcity, and farmland loss.

Case Study 2: Earth Overshoot Day

• In 1970, Earth Overshoot Day fell on December 29.

• In 2023, it came on August 2, showing we now consume resources 1.7 times faster than
Earth can regenerate.
• This illustrates how humanity has surpassed Earth’s carrying capacity.

Case Study 3: India’s Balancing Act

• India’s ecological footprint per person (~1.1 gha) is close to its biocapacity (~1.2 gha).
• However, population pressure and urbanization may push India into ecological deficit
by 2030 unless sustainable practices are adopted.

Strategies to Reduce Ecological Footprint and Maintain Carrying Capacity

1. Sustainable Resource Management

• Afforestation and reforestation.

• Efficient use of water, land, and energy resources.

2. Promoting Renewable Energy

• Solar, wind, and biomass to reduce carbon footprints.

• Example: India’s National Solar Mission targets 280 GW solar capacity by 2030.

3. Circular Economy Practices

• Reuse, recycle, and reduce resource waste.

• Encouraging waste-to-energy systems.

4. Sustainable Agriculture

• Promote organic farming and reduce chemical dependency.

• Example: Sikkim, India became the world’s first 100% organic state in 2016.
5. Urban Sustainability Measures

• Green buildings, mass transit systems, and smart waste management.

6. Global Cooperation

• Implementation of international frameworks:

o Paris Climate Agreement (2015)
o Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
o Agenda 2030.

Conclusion

The concepts of carrying capacity and ecological footprint are critical for understanding
humanity’s pressure on the planet.

• Currently, we are living in an ecological overshoot, consuming 1.7 Earths’ worth of

resources annually.
• If current trends continue, we may require two Earths to meet our needs by 2050.
• By adopting sustainable production, renewable energy, circular economy principles,
and responsible consumption, we can restore balance between human demands and the
planet’s ecological limits.

Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture

Introduction

Food security is the condition in which all people, at all times, have physical, social, and
economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs for a healthy
and active life.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food security has four key
dimensions:

1. Availability → Sufficient quantity of food.

2. Accessibility → Economic and physical access to food.
3. Utilization → Proper nutritional value and safe consumption.
4. Stability → Consistent access to food over time.

However, increasing population, climate change, soil degradation, and water scarcity
threaten food security globally. Sustainable agriculture offers a way forward by promoting
environment-friendly farming practices that ensure long-term productivity without harming
ecosystems.
Global Scenario of Food Security

Key Facts and Figures

• According to the FAO’s State of Food Security and Nutrition Report (2023):
o Around 735 million people faced chronic hunger in 2022.
o 2.3 billion people (~29.6% of the global population) experienced moderate or
severe food insecurity.
o Nearly 45 million children under 5 suffer from wasting (low weight for height).
• By 2050, the global population is projected to reach 9.7 billion (UN DESA, 2023),
requiring a 60% increase in food production.

Challenges to Food Security

1. Population Growth

• Growing population increases demand for food, especially in developing countries.

• Example: India adds approximately 15 million people annually, exerting immense
pressure on food systems.

2. Climate Change

• Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and frequent droughts reduce crop yields.
• IPCC AR6 Report (2023) warns that crop productivity could decline by up to 25% by
2050 in South Asia.

3. Soil Degradation

• About 33% of the world’s soil is degraded due to erosion, salinization, and nutrient
depletion (FAO, 2022).
• In India, 30% of agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.

4. Water Scarcity

• Agriculture accounts for 70% of global freshwater use (World Bank, 2023).
• In India, groundwater depletion is severe in states like Punjab and Haryana due to
excessive irrigation.

5. Food Wastage

• 1.3 billion tonnes of food is wasted annually, roughly 30% of global production (FAO,
2021).
• In India alone, food wastage is estimated at 67 million tonnes per year, valued at
₹92,000 crores.
Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture refers to farming systems that meet the current food needs while
ensuring that natural resources like soil, water, and biodiversity are preserved for future
generations.

Goal: Balance food production, environmental health, economic viability, and social equity.

Principles of Sustainable Agriculture

1. Environmental Sustainability
o Minimize pollution and conserve biodiversity.
2. Economic Viability
o Provide stable income for farmers.
3. Social Equity
o Ensure fair access to food and resources.
4. Resilience
o Adapt farming systems to climate change and disasters.

Key Sustainable Farming Practices

1. Organic Farming

• Avoids synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

• Example: Sikkim became the world’s first fully organic state in 2016.

2. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

• Uses biological controls and minimizes chemical pesticides.

3. Crop Diversification

• Reduces risk of crop failure and improves soil health.

• Example: Millet cultivation in India revived under the International Year of Millets
2023.

4. Precision Agriculture

• Uses IoT, AI, and satellite data for efficient water and fertilizer use.
• Example: Israel practices drip irrigation, improving water efficiency by up to 40%.

5. Conservation Agriculture

• Practices like zero tillage, mulching, and crop rotation enhance soil fertility.

6. Agroforestry
 • Integrates trees with crops to improve biodiversity and soil health.
• Example: Kenya’s Green Belt Movement, led by Wangari Maathai, planted 50
million trees.

7. Water-Efficient Farming

• Techniques like micro-irrigation and rainwater harvesting.

• India’s Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana promotes “Per Drop More Crop”.

Global Initiatives for Food Security

Initiative Year Objective
World Food Summit 1996 Reduce global hunger by 50% by 2015.
Sustainable Development Goal 2
2015 “Zero Hunger” by 2030.
(SDG-2)
Reduce climate impacts affecting food
Paris Climate Agreement 2015
production.
UN Committee on World Food
Ongoing Ensures global food policy coordination.
Security

Case Studies
Case Study 1: Brazil’s Zero Hunger Program

• Launched in 2003, aimed at eradicating hunger and poverty.

• Achievements:
o Reduced child malnutrition by 61%.
o Lifted 36 million people out of extreme poverty.
• Recognized as a global model by the FAO.

Case Study 2: India’s Public Distribution System (PDS)

• Provides subsidized grains to 800+ million people.

• Enhanced under the National Food Security Act (2013).
• However, challenges remain in leakages and inefficiencies.

Case Study 3: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

 • Developed climate-resilient rice varieties like Swarna Sub1, which withstand floods.
• Benefited millions of smallholder farmers in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal.

Way Forward
1. Climate-Smart Agriculture
o Combine adaptation and mitigation strategies to enhance resilience.
2. Reducing Food Wastage
o Improve supply chains and promote food recovery programs.
3. Strengthening Farmer Support
o Fair pricing, crop insurance, and technology adoption.
4. Promoting Millets and Nutri-Cereals
o Highly nutritious and climate-resilient grains.
5. Enhancing Global Cooperation
o Partnerships between governments, NGOs, and the private sector.

Conclusion
Ensuring food security while protecting natural resources is one of the greatest challenges of
the 21st century. Sustainable agriculture offers a path to:

• Meet the rising food demand.

• Mitigate the impacts of climate change.
• Conserve soil, water, and biodiversity.
• Achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability is critical to feeding 9.7 billion
people by 2050 without exhausting the planet’s resources.