INSTRUMENTS

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THE SIX PACK

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
Electronic Displays

Traditionally, aircraft instruments were placed on instrument panels, but this has shifted with the
advent of modern electronic displays. While displays in glass cockpits must remain on the ight
deck for crew visibility and operation, the computing and power units for these systems are
now housed remotely in a separate compartment, typically known as the Avionics Bay or the
Electrics and Electronics (E&E) Bay.

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Readability

A readable instrument should be designed with the pilot's eye reference point in mind, which is the
expected position for viewing the instrument under normal conditions. If the instrument has a
reference mark or index with a scale behind it, the eye, index, and scale must be aligned.
Misalignment, or parallax, occurs if the instrument is viewed from an angle rather than directly from the
front, leading to reading errors.

Colored Arcs

A standardized system of colour coding for operating ranges for conventional non-electronic
instrument is widely used. These are:
Green: Normal operating range
Yellow or Amber: Cautionary range
Red: Warning, or unsafe operating range

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
Pitot and Static Sources

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
 When an aircraft is at rest, it experiences static pressure, which is the normal atmospheric pressure. In
ight, the aircraft encounters dynamic pressure due to air resistance, which combines with the static
pressure to form total (or pitot) pressure. Dynamic pressure cannot be measured directly; instead,
instruments measure both total and static pressures and then subtract static pressure to determine the
dynamic pressure.

DYNAMIC = PITOT - STATIC

The following instruments require inputs of static and pitot:

Static Only Pitot and Static

Altimeter Airspeed Indicator

(ASI)
Vertical Speed Machmeter
Indicator (VSI)
Inside an aircraft, pressure and temperature are seldom the same as outside the aircraft so pitot and
static pressures must be sensed by devices mounted on the outside of the aircraft.
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 Pitot/Static Heads

A pitot tube, mounted in a pitot head, measures total

pressure (static plus dynamic) by capturing the airstream in
an open-ended tube facing into the air ow. The dynamic
pressure from the moving airstream combines with the
static pressure in the tube to provide total (pitot) pressure.

A static head, on the other hand, consists of a tube with

holes or slots on the sides, which measure only static
pressure since the slots do not face into the air ow.
However, due to suction effects, the static pressure sensed
will be slightly lower when the aircraft is moving. This static
pressure is used for the static line in pressure instruments.

Both static and pitot pressure sources can be combined

into one pressure head, with the static tube surrounding
the pitot tube, leading to separate pressure lines for the
instruments.

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Requirements of a Pitot Tube
The pitot tube must be positioned outside the aircraft's boundary layer, typically mounted on a strut
on the fuselage side or as a nose-mounted tube, aligned parallel to the air ow in normal ight. Air
entering the pitot probe can either be brought to rest against a stagnation wall or passed directly
into the pitot pipelines to the airspeed indicator (ASI) and Machmeter.

Measuring dynamic pressure is crucial for safe ight, as ying at too low a speed can cause a stall,
and too high a speed can overstress the aircraft. To prevent blockage due to ice, the pitot tube is
equipped with an electric anti-icing heater coil. Any errors from heating are minimized through
design and calibration. Additionally, drain holes are provided to prevent ice formation, though they
cause a slight pressure loss, which is accounted for in the design.

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Requirements of a Static Source
The static source, whether a simple hole or a combined probe, must be positioned at right angles
to the air ow to ensure it only senses static pressure without any in uence from dynamic pressure.
Some static sensors, particularly those in combined pitot/static probes, may be equipped with
electric heating to prevent icing.

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Position Error
As mentioned earlier, when an aircraft moves forward, the static
pressure sensed is slightly lower than when stationary due to
suction effects. This discrepancy increases with speed and is
in uenced by turbulent air ow around the pitot/static heads,
leading to position error (or pressure error). This error is more
pronounced at high angles of attack, typically associated with
lower airspeeds, where the pressure head is angled relative to the
airstream.

Position error depends on the positioning of the pressure head,

airspeed, and aircraft attitude. Turbulence, primarily affecting the
static pressure rather than the pitot pressure, led to the
introduction of the static vent as a more accurate source of static
pressure. The static vent is usually located on the fuselage side,
where true static pressure can be obtained across the aircraft's
speed range. Two vents, one on each side of the fuselage, are
interconnected to reduce errors caused by yawing.
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Advantages of the Static Vent

• The air ow in the region of the vents is less turbulent and the static pressure measured is more
accurate.

• Errors produced when side-slipping or yawing are reduced.

• Duplication of static vents either side of the fuselage reduces errors due to side-slip or yawing (cross
balancing of static vents).

High Speed Probes

At high Mach numbers, shock waves can cause signi cant errors in the
pressure sensed by a static vent. To mitigate this, modern high-speed
aircraft are often equipped with more sophisticated combined pitot/
static pressure heads to keep position error within acceptable limits.
The location of these probes or vents is critical and is chosen based on
the aircraft's aerodynamics. Common locations include ahead of a wing
tip, under a wing, ahead of the vertical stabilizer tip, at the side of the
fuselage nose section, and ahead of the fuselage nose section.
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Manoeuvre-induced errors arise from short-term pressure uctuations at static vents and delays in
pressure transmission to instruments. These errors, which can affect even servo altimeters and air data
computer systems, are mainly caused by changes in angle of attack and turbulence from ap or landing
gear adjustments. They often result in noticeable lags in pressure instrument readings, especially
during pitch attitude changes, such as at the start of climbs, descents, or during level-outs. These errors
are unpredictable and can persist for several seconds, making gyroscopic instruments the preferred
reference during in- ight manoeuvres. Error

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 Full Pitot/Static System

In modern aircraft, pressure readings are typically transmitted

from probes to instruments using electrical wires, though
older systems use pipelines, which often include water traps.
Modern systems often incorporate electronic pressure
transducers at the pitot and static sources, which convert
analogue measurements into digital form via analogue/
digital interface units (A/D IFUs). This digital data is then used
by devices like the air data computer.

Pitot systems are usually not cross-coupled, meaning the left

and right pitot sources serve only their respective
instruments. However, static systems are often cross-coupled,
with inputs from static vents on both sides of the fuselage
mixed to reduce errors caused by yawing and side-slipping.
Light aircraft typically have an alternate static source, usually
in the cabin, to be used if the primary static vents become
blocked. This alternate source is generally less accurate due
to aerodynamic suction and may require correction values
found in the aircraft's Operating Data Manual.

Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN
Pitot Covers and Static Vent Plugs

Pitot and static openings are highly sensitive to contaminants like

dirt, dust, and sand, which can severely distort their
measurements. Additionally, since these openings tend to be
warmer than the surrounding aircraft at night, they can attract
insects. To protect them when the aircraft is not in use, pitot
covers—usually made of canvas or rubber—are placed over the
pitot probe, and static plugs, which are typically rubber and
shaped like small corks, are inserted into the static ports.

To prevent leaving these covers in place during ight, they are

equipped with conspicuous streamers or ribbons up to a meter
long. Removing them is a crucial part of the pre ight external
checks.

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Pitot and Static Heaters

All aircraft are equipped with pitot heaters, and on combined pitot/static probes, the static opening
also receives some heating. Modern systems include alerts to warn if the heaters are not switched on
during ight.

Testing the pitot heater before ight is essential. This can be done by switching it on for about 30
seconds and carefully checking if the pitot probe has warmed up. On some aircraft, you can verify
operation by observing a rise in the ammeter current or a de ection in the magnetic compass. After the
check, turn the heater off to prevent burnout. It's crucial to remove pitot covers and static plugs before
testing the heaters to avoid burning or melting them.

Activating the pitot heaters is usually part of the pre-takeoff checks, and turning them off is part of the
after-landing checks.

Pre ight Checks of the Pitot/Static System.

• All covers and plugs removed and stowed.
• All tubes, holes, slots free of obstructions.
• Pitot head heater operating.

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Capt. N RAMAKRISHNAN