RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Nature & Meaning of Research

In the modern complex world every society today is faced with serious social,
economic & political problems. These problems need systematic, intelligent and Practical
solutions. Problem solving is technical process. It requires the accumulation of new
knowledge. Research provides the means for accumulating knowledge & wisdom. In other
words, research is a systematic effort of gathering analysis & interpretation of problems
confronted by humanity. It is a thinking process and scientific method of studying a
problem and finding solution. It is an in-depth analysis based on reflective thinking.
Definitions
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also
define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic. Research is an academic activity and the term should be used in a technical sense.
a) -William Emory defines Research as "any organised enquiry designed and carried
out to provide information for solving a problem"
b) The new Oxford English Dictionary defines research is "the scientific
investigation into and study of material,
sources etc in order to establish facts and the reach new conclusions".
c) Redman and Mory defines, research as "a systematised effort to gain new
knowledge''.
d) "A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any
branch ofknowledge" Advanced Leaner's Dictionary.
Characteristics of Research
The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of Research
1. Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.
2. It is not mere compilation of facts.
3. It adopts scientific method.
4. It is objective & Logical
5. It is based on empirical evidence.
6. Research is directed towards finding answers to questions
7. It emphasis the generalisation of theories and principles.
Objectives of Research
The objectives of Research can be grouped under the following heads
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights to it.
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or a
 group.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated withsomething else.
4. To test a hypothesis or a casual relationship between variables.
Motivations in Research
What makes people to undertake research? The answer is as follows.
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in the solving the unsolved Problem.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to Society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
Importance of Research
"All progress is born of enquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to enquiry & enquiry leads to investigation". Research has an important role in
guiding social plan. Knowledge of the society & the cultural behaviour of the people
require proper planning for their well development. Because knowledge & cultural
behaviour of human being are interdependent. A reliable knowledge is needed for planning
& this is possible only through research.
Knowledge is a kind of power with which one can face the implication of a
particular Phenomenon.
Research provides the basis for all govt. policies in our economic system.
Research help us in making predictions. Eg. Chernobil Nuclear, nuclear plant
disastrour, Bhopal gas disastrour.
Research is equally important in seeking answer to various social problems In
addition tothis, the significance of research can be understood with the following points.
1. To the students who are to write a PHD; it is a careerism.
2. To Professionals in research methodology, research means a source of live
hood.
3. To Philosophers & thinkers research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights.
4. To literary man research means the development of new styles & creative work.
5. To the intellectuals research mean the generalisation of new theories.
Research Method & Research Methodology
It is necessary to explain the differences between research methods & research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods & techniques
that are used for conducting research. Research methods, thus refer to the methods the
researcher use in performing the research operations. In other words all those methods
which are used by the researcher during the course of
his research problem are termed as as research methods.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It
may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. Abraham
Kaplan defines research methodology in this way. Research methodology is "the
description, explanation & Justification of various methods of conducting research".
Research Methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a
part of Research Methodology. The scope of Research Methodology is wider than that of
research methods. "Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the
research methods but also considered the logic behind the methods we use in the context of
our particular method or technique & why we are not using others. So that research results
are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others" Why a
research study has been undertaken how the research problem has been defined in what
way & why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been adopted etc ate
usually answered when we talk of Research Methodology.

Social Science Research

Sciences are broadly divided into physical sciences & social sciences. Social
sciences include various disciplines dealing with human nature, human life, human
behaviour,
social groups & Social institutions. Example Anthropology, Commerce, Economics,
Geography, History, Law, Political science, Psychology, Sociology etc. All these branches
are separate but are interdependent.
Social Science Research is a systematic method of exploring analysing &
conceptualizing human life in order to extent, correct or verify the knowledge of human
behaviour & social life.
Social Research, "Seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to
clarify the doubtful & correct the misconceived facts social life"- Pauline. V. Young.
Objectives of Social Science Research
a) The aim of Social Science Research is to discover new facts or verify and test old
facts.
b) It tries to understand the human behaviour & its interaction with the
environment & Socialinstitutions.
c) It tries to find out causal connection between human activities and natural laws
governingthem
d) Another purpose of Social Science Research is to develop new tools and
techniques in socialscience.
Functions of Social Science Research
1. Discovery of facts & their interpretations - Research provides answer to questions of
what, where, when & how of man, social life and institutions. There are half truths
pseudotruths and superstitions. Discovery of facts enlights us.
 2. Diagnosis of problems- The developing countries face so many problems such as
poverty unemployment, Social tensions, law productivity etc. Social Science Research
helps todiscover solution to this problems.
3. Systematization of knowledge- The facts discovered through research are past &
parcel of the body of knowledge.
4. Prediction- Social Science Research aims at predicting social events.
5. Planning - Panning is needed for socio-economic development & Social Science
Research provides sufficient data for planning.
6. Social Welfare- Social Science Research unfold & identify the causes of social evils
& problems.
Good Research
I. James Harold Fox in "criteria of good research" says that scientific research should
satisfy the following conditions.
1. The purpose of Research should be clearly defined and common concepts should be
used
2. The Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of whathas been attained.
3. The design of the Research should be carefully planned
to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The Research report should be complete and should be frank and without any
flows.
5. Collection and analysis of data should be adequate and the reliability should be
checkedcarefully.
6. Conclusions should be justified by data
7. Researches must be an experienced person with goal reputation.
II.
1. Good Research is systematic
2. Good Research is logical
3. Good Research is empirical
4. Good Research is replicable (Denny N Bellenger and Burnet A Green Berg)
Computers are used in social science research in many ways, including:
 Data collection: Computers can be used to collect data from research subjects.
 Data management: Computers can store data in the form of spreadsheets, word files, or
statistical software data files.
 Data analysis: Computers can analyze quantitative and qualitative data, and help identify
patterns of relationships between variables.
 Communication: Computers can be used to communicate with colleagues.
 Visualization: Computers can be used to create graphs and other visual displays of
information.
 Writing: Computers can be used for word processing and document production.
 Access to information: Computers provide access to a wide range of information through the
World Wide Web.
Other applications of computers in social science research include:

 Searching and synthesizing literature

 Simulating, modeling, and planning
 Expert systems
 Artificial intelligence
THE ROLE OF COMPUTER IN RESEARCH

Introduction

Problem solving is an age old activity. The development of electronic devices

speciallythe computer has given added impetus to this activity. Problems which could
not be solved earlier due to sheer amount of computations involved can now be tackled
with the aid of computer accurately and rapidly. Today people use computer in all
walks of life. To the researcher the use of computer to analyse complex data had made
complicated research design practical. Electronic computers became an indispensible
part of research students in physical and behavioural sciences as well as in humanities.
A computer as the name indicates is nothing but a device that computes. In
this sense any device, however, sophisticated, but enables one to carryout
mathematical manipulation becomes a computer. Today we mean computer as
electronically operating machine which is used to carry out computations.
Important Characteristics of Computers
1. Speed :-Computers can perform calculations in just a few seconds that human
beings would need weeks to do by hand. This has led to many scientific projects
which were previously impossible.

2. Diligence:- Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human
traits of tiredness and lack of concentration. If two million calculations have to be
performed, itwill perform the two million calculations with exactly the same
accuracy and speed as the first.
3. Accuracy:- The computer’s accuracy is consistently high. Errors may occur
very rarelybut it can detected very easily. The errors are due to the imprecise
thinking by the programmer or due to in accurate poorly designed systems.

4. Automation:- Once a programme is in computers memory all that is needed is

the individual institution to it which are transferred one after the other, to the control
unit of execution. The CPU follows these instructions until it meets a last
instruction which says “stop programme execution”.

5. Binary Digits:- Computers use only the binary number system ( a system in
which all numbers are represented by a combination of two digits- one and zero)
 and thus operates to the base of two compared to the ordinary decimal arithmetic
which operates on a base of ten.

6. Storage:- Although the storage capacity of the present day computer is much
more than its earlier counterpart but even then the internal memory of the CPU is
only large enough to retain a certain amount of information just as the human brain
selects and retains what it feels to be important and regulates unimportant deatails to
the back of the mind or just forgets them. Hence it is impossible to store all types of
information inside the computer records. If need be all unimportant
information/data can be stored in auxiliary storage devices and the same may be
brought into the main internalmemory of the computer as and when required for
processing.
Computers and Researchers
Performing calculations almost at the speed of light, the computer has become
one of the most useful research tools in modern times. Computers are ideally suited
for data analysis concerning large research projects. Researchers are essentially
concerned with huge storage of data, their faster retrieval when required and
processing of data with the aid of various techniques. In all these operations,
computers are of great help. Their use, apart expediting the research work, has
reduced human drudgery and added to the quality of research activity.
Techniques involving trial and error process are quite frequently employed in
research methodology. This involves lot of calculations and work of repetitive
nature. Computer is best suited for such techniques, thus reducing the drudgery of
researchers onthe one hand and producing the final result rapidly on the other.
Thus, different scenarios are made available to researchers by computers is no time
which otherwise might have taken days or even months.
The storage facility which the computers provide is of immense help to a
researcher for he can make use of stored up data whenever he requires to do so.
Thus, computers do facilitate the research work. Innumerable data can be
processed and analysed with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the results obtained
are generally correct and reliable. Not only this, even the design, pictorical
graphing and report are being developed with the help of computers. Hence,
researchers should be given computer education and be trained in the line
so that they can use computers for their research work.
In spite of all this sophistication we should not forget that basically
computers are machines that only compute, they do not think. The human brain
remains supreme and will continue to be so for all times. As such, researchers
should be fully aware about the following limitations of computer-based
analysis:

1. Computerized analysis requires setting up of an elaborate system of

monitoring, collection and feeding of data. All these require time, effort and
money. Hence, computer based analysis may not prove economical in case of
small projects.

2. Various items of detail which are not being specifically fed to computer may
get lost sight of.

3. The computer does not think; it can only execute the instructions of a
 thinking person. If poor data of faulty programs are introduced into the
computer, the data analysis would not be worthwhile. The expression
“garbage in, garbage out” describes this limitations very well.

The Research Process :

The Research Process is the Paradigm of research project. In a research project

there are various scientific activities. The research process is a system of Interrelated
activities. Usually research begins with the selection of a problem. The various stages in
the research process are explained in the above diagram. Research is a cyclical process. If
the Data do not support the hypothesis, research is repeated again.
Given the following order concerning the Research Process.
1. Formulation the Research problem
2. Extensive Literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collection of Data

What Is a Research Problem Statement

A research problem statement is a clear, concise, and specific statement that describes the
issue or problem that the research project addresses. It should be written in a way that is
easily understandable to both experts and non-experts in the field.

To write a research problem statement

 Identify the general area of interest: Start by identifying the general area of research
that interests you.
 Define the specific problem: Narrow down the general area of interest to a specific
problem or issue.
 Explain the significance of the problem: Provide context for the problem by
explaining why it is important to study and what gap in current knowledge or
understanding it fills.
  Provide a clear and concise statement: State the problem in a clear and concise
manner, making sure to use language that is easily understood by your intended
audience.
 Use a scientific and objective tone: The problem statement should be written in a
neutral and objective tone, avoiding any subjective language and personal bias.

An Example of a Research Problem Statement

“The increasing prevalence of obesity in children is a growing public health concern.
Despite the availability of information on healthy eating and physical activity, many
children are still not engaging in healthy lifestyle behaviors. The problem this study
addresses is the lack of understanding of the barriers and facilitators to healthy lifestyle
behaviors in children.”

What Does a Research Problem Statement Include?

A research problem statement typically includes the following elements:

1. The research topic:

The general area of interest or field of study that the research project addresses.

2. The specific problem or issue:

A clear and concise statement of the problem or issue that the research project aims to
address.

3. The significance of the problem:

A discussion of why the problem is important and what gap in current knowledge or
understanding it fills.

4. The research questions:

A set of questions that the research project aims to answer, in order to address the problem
or issue.

5. The research objectives:

A set of specific and measurable objectives that the research project aims to achieve.

6. The scope of the research:

A description of the specific population, setting, or context that the research project will
focus on.

7. The theoretical framework:

A discussion of the theoretical concepts and principles that inform the research project.

8. The research design:

A description of the research methodologies that will be used to collect and analyze data in
order to address the research questions and objectives.
It’s important to note that the problem statement is usually brief and concise, typically a few
sentences or a short paragraph. But it should provide enough information to convey the
main idea of the research project.

Important Features of Research Problem Statement

1. Clarity
The problem statement should be clear and easy to understand. Write it in a way that is
accessible to both experts and non-experts in the field.

2. Specificity
The statement should be specific and clearly define the problem or issue that the research
project aims to address. It should be narrow enough to be manageable, but broad enough to
be of interest to others in the field.

3. Significance
The statement should explain why the problem is important and what gap in current
knowledge or understanding it fills. It should provide context for the research project and
help to justify its importance.

4. Relevance
The statement should be relevant to the field of study and address an issue that is currently
of concern to researchers.

5. Research questions
The statement should include a set of research questions that the research project aims to
answer in order to address the problem or issue.

6. Research objectives
The statement should include a set of specific and measurable objectives that the research
project aims to achieve.

7. Scope
The statement should define the specific population, setting, or context that the research
project will focus on.

8. Theoretical framework
The statement should provide an overview of the theoretical concepts and principles that
inform the research project.

9. Research design
The statement should provide an overview of the research methodologies. This will be
useful collect and analyze data in order to address the research questions and objectives.

HYPOTHESIS
When a researcher observes known facts and takes up a problem for analysis, he
first has to start somewhere and this point of starting is Hypothesis. In other words, one
has to proceed to formulate tentative solution. This purposed solutions constitute the
Hypothesis. The collection of facts (data) will be fruitful if they are either for or against
this proposed solution. The tentative explanation or solutions are the very basis for
research process.
Definition
1. In the words of George A. Lund Burg " a hypothesis is a tentative generalization the
validity of which remains to be tested………In its most elementary stage the
hypothesis may be very bunch, guess, imaginative data, which becomes the basis for
action or investigation".
2. Goode and Hatt defined it as " a proposition which can be put to test to determined
its validity".
3. Rummel " a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by verified or
rejected".
Need (importance) of Hypothesis
In all analytical and experimental studies hypothesis should be set up in order to
give a proper direction to them. Hypothesis are useful and the guide Research Process in
proper directions. In addition to put in the theory to test, a hypothesis has to perform
certain other functions.
In many ways it is a guiding print to research. Young says "Formulation of
hypothesis gives definite the point of enquiry aids in establishing direction in which to
proceed and help to delimit the field of enquiry".
The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of data
which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.
In the data collection hypothesis serves as the forerunner.
A Researcher based on hypothesis can save a lot of time and keep the researcher
from considerable amount of confusion.
Hypothesis is helpful in directing the researcher to find out order among facts.
Hypothesis have also certain practical values to society besides serving as a
means for seeking solution to various problems, they help in understanding the social
phenomena in theproper perspective.
Sources of Hypothesis
Hypothesis can be derived from various sources.
1. Theory
This is one of the main sources of hypothesis. It gives direction to research by
stating what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypothesis.
2. Observation
Hypothesis can be derived from observation. For example, from observation of
price behaviour in a market the relationship between price and demand of an article can
be hypothesised.
3. Analogies
Analogies are another sources of hypothesis. Julian Hexley has pointed out that
causal observation in nature or in the framework of another science may be a fertile
source of Hypothesis.
4. Intuition and personal experiences
Intuition and personal experiences may also contribute to the formulation of
hypothesis. Personal life and experience of person determine their perception and
conception these may, in term direct a person to certain hypothesis more quickly. The
story Newton and falling apple, the flash of wisdom to Sree Buddha under Banyan tree
Illustrate this accidental process.
5. Findings and Studies
Hypothesis may be developed out of the findings of other studies in order to
repeat the test.
6. Culture
Another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the researcher is nurtured For
example sociology as an academic discipline originated from western culture Over the
past decade a large part of the hypothesis on American society examine by researchers
were connected with violence. Indian society is caste-ridden riddled with inequalities and
privileges.
Characteristics of a Good hypothesis
What is a good hypothesis? What are the criteria of for judging it. An
acceptable should fulfillcertain conditions.
1. Conceptual Clarity
A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of clearly defined
andunderstandable concepts
2. Specificity
A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation between
variables and the conditions under which these relations will hold.
3. Testability
A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgement. It should be
possible to collect empirical evidences to test techniques.
4. Availability of techniques
Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will not be
researchable therefore the research must make sure that methods are available for testing
his proposed hypothesis.
5. Consistency
Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived should not be
contradictory
6. Objectivity
Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgment. The researcher system
of values has no placing Research.
7. Simplicity
A hypothesis should be as simple as possible.
Simplicity demands insight. The more in insight the researcher has into a problem, the
simpler will be his hypothesis. Types of Hypothesis
1. Descriptive Hypothesis
These are propositions, they described the characteristics of a variable. The
variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event. For ex. "The rate of
unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates".
2. Relational Hypothesis
These are propositions which describe the relationship b/w two variables. The
relation suggested many be positive or negative for ex. 'Families with higher income
spent more for recreation'. 'Upper class people have more children than lower class
people'.
3. Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis states that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes
for leads to an effect on other variable. The 1st variables is called independent variable
later the dependent variable.
4. Common Sense Hypothesis
These represent the commonsense ideas. They state the existence of empirical
uniformities received through day to day observations.
5. Analytical Hypothesis
These are concerned with the relationship of analytic
variables. These hypothesis occurs and the higher level of abstraction.
6. Null Hypothesis
Null means 'Zero' When a hypothesis is stated negatively. It is called Null
Hypothesis. The object of this hypothesis is to avoid the personal bias of the investigator.
In the matter of collection of data. A null hypothesis is used to collect additional support
for the known hypothesis.
7. False Hypothesis
A hypothesis which is bound to be unsatisfactory when verified is called a false
hypothesis.
8. Barren Hypothesis
A hypothesis from which no consequences can be deducted is called a Barren
Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which cannot to test. Ex. The child fell ill because a wicked
women's eye felt upon it.This is a baseless hypothesis because it cannot be verify.
Testing of Hypothesis
Science does not admit anything as valid knowledge until satisfactory test confirm
the validity. A hypothesis should be subjected to regrets test and. Type I and Type II
errors should be eliminated.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Meaning
"A Research Design is the logical and systematic planning in directing the
research. The design research from translating a general scientific model into varied
research
problem. But in practices in most of the basis it is just a plan of study. The research
design can either be formal or informal.
Definition
1. "It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data" -
PhilipsBernard S
2. It "provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow" -Best John
N
3. "The design research from controlling general scientific model into varied
researchprocedure"- P.V. Young
4. "A research design is "the programme that guides the investigator in the process of
collecting, analysis and interpreting observations". - David and Shava
A research design addressers itself to certain key issues such as:
a) What is the problem uncles study?
b) What is the major research question?
c) What is the area of the study?
d) How many people will be study?
e) How this people will be selected?
f) What methods and techniques will be used to collect data from them?
Features of Research Design
a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be tested.
b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
researchquestion.
c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysis of
data.
d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.
Features of a good Design
A good design has the following features.
1. Flexibility
2. Efficiency
3. Appropriate
4. Economical
5. Minimum error
6. Maximum reliability
7. Smallest experimental error
8. Maximum information Why a Research Design
1. Research Design is needed because it helps in the smooth sailing of Research
operations.
2. A Research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean voyage without mariners
compus.
3. The Research Design helps in providing direction our study.
4. It prevents welter in a study.
5. The use of Research Design prevents blind search.
6. A Research Design fixes clear cut boundaries to a research.
7. It makes the research systematic
8. It help us to meet unexpected events. Contents of a Research
Design
Usually a Research Design consist of the following
details
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What period of time will the studied include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What technique of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data we analyse?
10. In what style the report will be prepared?
By way of conclusion it can be said that research design must contain at least:
a) Statement of a problem
b) Procedure and techniques
c) Sampling frame
d) Processing and analysis of data
Types of Research Design
1. Exploratory Research Design (Formulative Research)
Exploratory Research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
Exploratory Research is preliminary study of an in familiar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor initial investigation of
patient suffering from an in familiar malady for getting some clues for identifying.
2. Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive study is fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is
the sample type of research. It is more specific than the exploratory study. As it has focus
on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is design to gather
descriptive informations and provides information for formulating more sophisticated
studies. Data are collected by using of appropriate methods.
3. Action Research
Action Research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study
of an action programme launched for solving a problem. Action research is otherwise
called Apply Research.
The following are the different phases in action research.
1. A base lane survey of the pre-action situation.
2. A feasibility study of the proposed action programme
3. Planning and launching the programme.
4. Concurrent evaluation of the programme
5. Making modifications and changes in the programme and its methods of
implementations in the light of research finding.
6. Final Evaluation

DATA COLLECTION
The search for answers to research questions is called collection of data. Data are
facts, and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and
analyses. The data needed for social science research may be broadly classified into (a)
Data pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organizations and (c) Data
pertaining to territorial areas.
Personal data or data related to human beings consist of
(1) Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, Sex, Race,
Social class, Religion, Marital status, Education, Occupation, Income, Family size,
Location of the household, Life style, etc., (2) Behavioral Variables: Attitudes, opinions,
awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc.
Organizational data consist of data relating to an organization's origin, ownership,
objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.
Territorial data are related to geophysical characteristics, resources endowment,
population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, structure, degree of development, etc. of
spatial divisions like villages, cities taluks, districts, state and the nation.
Importance of data
The data serve as the bases or raw material for analysis.
Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions
under study. Inference based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct
answers to research questions. The relevance adequacy and reliability of data determine
the quality of the findings of a study.
Data from the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a study. Data also
provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scale and tables,
which are analyses with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical
analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the
scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depended on the
availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for nay
research studies.
Sources of data
The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary
sources.
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects
data that have not been previously collected. Primary data are first-hand information
collected through various methods such as interviewing, mailing, observation etc.
Secondary sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily available compendia and already
compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researches for
their studies. E.g., census reports, annual reports and financial reports. Secondary
sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records.
Objective data and subjective data
Objective data is independent of any single person's opinion, whereas subjective
data can be an individual's opinion or it can be dependent upon the researcher.
Qualitative data and quantitative data
Qualitative data is the description of things made without assigning numeric
value. For example, facts generated from unstructured interview. It needs researcher's
interpretation.
Quantitative data entails measurements in which numbers are used directly to
represent properties of things. It is ready for statistical analysis. The larger sample is
required in quantitative data, and with proper sampling design, the ability to generalize is
also high.
Main methods of Data collection
Most research studies collect fresh data from the respondents even though already
existing data are utilized for developing the research design or supplementing the data to
be collected. There are various methods of data collection. 'Method is different from a
'Tool' while a method refers tothe way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument
used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important
methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing,
(c) mail survey (D) schedule. Observations involves gathering of data relating to the
selected research by viewing and or

listening. Interviewing involves face to face conversation between the investigator and
the respondent. Mailing is used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed by
respondents. Experimentation involves a study of independent variables under controlled
conditions. Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in field in a natural setting.
Simulation involves creation of an artificial situation similar to the actual life situation.
Projective methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of respondents by
presenting to them stimuli. Even method has its advantages and disadvantages.
A researcher can select one or more of the methods keeping in view the above
factors. No method is universal. Each method's unique features should be compared with
the needs and conditions of the study and thus the choice of the methods should be
decided.
Observation
Observation is a basic method of getting information about the world around us.
Observation part and parcel of our daily life but many types of data required as evidence
to support social research are also obtained through the observational method. The
greatest asset of observational technique is that it is possible to record the actual
occurrence of social events. While many research technique depend mainly if not
entirely on recalling the past events, observational method yields such as are related to
real life situations. A trained researcher can even observe and record all the minor
details of a community with the help of this
technique which to others might seem insignificant.
Observation means viewing or seeing. Most of such observations are just causal
and haveno specific purpose. But observation in a method of data collection is different
from such causal viewing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a
specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a
particular study. Observation as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing'. It is
accompanied by perceiving as well.
Observation is a classical method of scientific inquiry. Observation also plays a
major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social sciences. Behavioral scientists
observe interactions in small groups; political scientists observe the behavior of political
leaders and political institutions.
Observation may serve a variety of research purposes. It can be used in
exploratory research to develop a preliminary understanding of social phenomena. It can
be applied to study real life situations as well as to conduct experimental research. Again,
it can simply be used to collect supplementary data in support of other tools of data
collection. Observation includes the most causal and uncontrolled experiences as well as
exact recording as is done in experimentation. Infact, observation is useful for studying
simpler as well as complex research problems.
Observation becomes scientific, when it (a) serves a formulated research purpose,
(b) is planned deliberately, (c) is record systematically, and (d) is subjected to
check and
controls on validity and reliability. Validity refers to the extent to which the recorder
observations accurately reflect the construct they arc intended to measure. Validity is
assessed by examining how well the observations agree with alternative measures of the
same construct. Reliability entails consistency and freedom from measurement error.
Characteristics of observation method
Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and mental activity. The observing eye 'catches' many things
which are slighted, but attraction is focused on data that are pertinent to the given
study.
2. Observation is selective. Researcher does not observe anything and everything, but
selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and
objectives of his study
3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the specific purpose of
nothing things relevant to the study.
4. It captures the natural social context in which persons' behavior occurs.
5. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the
participants.
6. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research
such as observation
schedule, social-metric scale, and precision instruments, if any.
Types of observation
Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to
investigator's role, itmay be classified into
(a) participant observation, and (b) non-participant observation, in terms of mode of
observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation and (d) indirect observation.
With reference to the rigor of the system adopted, observation is classified into (e)
controlledobservation, and (f) uncontrolled observation.
Participant observation
In this observation, the observer is a part of the phenomena or group which is
observed and he acts as both an observer and a participant. The persons who are observed
should not be aware of the researcher's purpose. Then only their behavior will be
'natural'. The concealment of research objective and researcher's identity is justified on
the ground that it makes it possible to study certain aspects of the group's culture which
are not revealed to outsiders makes it possible to study certain aspects of the group's
culture which are not revealed to outsiders.
The advantages of participant observation are:
 1. The observer can understand the emotional reactions of the observed group, and
get adeeper insight of their experiences.
The observer will be able to record context which gives
meaning to the observed behaviorand heard statements.
Disadvantages
1. The participant observer narrows his range of observation.
2. To the extent that the participant observer participates emotionally, the
objectivity is lost.
Because of the above limitations, participant observation is generally restricted to
those cases where non- participant observation is not practical.
Non-participant observation
In this method, the observer stands apart and does not participate in the
phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the
observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed manner.
Direct observation
This means observation of an event personally by the observer when it takes
place. This method is flexible and allows the observer to see and record subtle aspects of
events and behavioras they occur. He can free to shift places, change the focused the
observation. A limitation of this method is that the observer's perception circuit may not
be able to cover all relevant events when the latter move quickly, resulting in the
incompleteness of the observation.
Indirect observation
This does not involve the physical presence of the
observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices.
This method is less flexible than direct observation, but it is less biasing and less erratic
in recording accuracy. It also provides a permanent record for an analysis of different
aspects of the event.
Controlled observation
This involves standardization of observational technique and exercise of
maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting experimental design
and systematically recording observations. Controlled observation is earned out either in
the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how
and when to observe. It is primarily used for inferring causality, and testing causal
hypothesis.
Uncontrolled observation
This does not involve control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables. It is primarily
used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical uncontrolled one.
Planning of observation
The use of observation method requires proper planning.
 First, the researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data needs of the selected study.

Second, he must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of
observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
Third, he must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events
and activities that have to be observed for the required data. The observation content
should include the relevant variables.
Fourth, for each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
Fifth, the observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode of
observation, recording, procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other details of
the task should be determined.
Last, observers should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must
have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and untrubusive nature.
Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training.
Observation Tools and Recording Devices
Systematic observation requires the use of observation schedule (or
observationnaire), diary and various mechanical recording devices.
Schedule: The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the problem, the
objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and the operational
definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of data to be collected
through observation are identified. A schedule is then constructed, covering those items
of data.

It should be constructed in such a manner as to make it possible to record the

necessary information easily and correctly. Enough space should be provided for
recording observations for each time. The item should appear in logical groupings and in
order in which the observer would observe them.
Field observation: This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of observation
is recorded under appropriate sub- heading. At the time of observation, rough noting may
be made, and at the end of the day, full log may be made. The card system is flexible and
facilities arrangement and re- arrangement of items in any desired order.
Mechanical devices: These may include cameras, tape recorders, videotapes and
electronic devices. Still, motion, sound, color and time lapse cameras give a permanent
record of events, Microscopic and telescopic lens may be used in cameras.
Advantages of observation
Observation has certain advantages
1. The main virtue of observation is its directness, it make it possible to study behavior
as it occurs.. The researcher need not ask people about their behavior and
interactions, he can simply watch what they do and say.
2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur
in their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the
 researched situation.

3. Observation is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate
meaningfully.
4. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and less biasing effect on their
conduct than does questioning.
Limitations of study
1. Observation is of no use of studying past events or activities. One has to depend
upon documents or narrations by people for studying such things.
2. It is not suitable for studying opinions and attitudes.
3. Observation poses difficulties in obtaining a representative sample.
4. Observation is a slow and expensive process. Requiring human observes and/or
costly surveillance equipments.
Interview
Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. An interview is a
face to face interaction between two individuals in which a person asks questions from
another person in order to gather information. Interview emerged as a tool of data
collection by the turn of the last century and has by now become an integral part of social
research. During earlier times, interviews were conducted more in the nature of probing
conversation. Guided by a careful observer this method was used as a powerful
instrument for obtaining information.
It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondent's
gestures, facial expressions and pauses,
and his environment. Interviewing requires face-to face contact or contact over telephone
and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured
guide.
Importance of interview
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in
studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from
illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from
factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person's
opinions, attitudes, and values, beliefs, past experience and future intentions. When
qualitative information is required or probingis necessary to draw out fully, and then
interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a
sufficient number of qualified interviews are available, personal interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data- gathering methods. People are usually
more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential
information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to
questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp
the behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator
 to seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, that for one reason or
another, respondents do not want to answer.

Characteristics of interview
Interview as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
1. The participants- the interviewer and the respondent- are strangers. Hence, the
investigator has to get him introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner.
2. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed beginning
and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary experience for
them.
3. Interview is not a mere causal conversational exchange, but a conversation with a
specific purpose, viz., and obtaining information relevant to study.
4. Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.
5. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be
on a face to face basis, because interview can be conducted over the telephone also.
6. Although interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not be
limited to single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of persons, such
as family members, or a group of children or a group of customers, depending on the
requirements of the study.
7. Interview is an interaction process. The interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent depends upon how they perceive each other.

Types of interview
The interviews may be classified into (a) structured or directive interview, (b)
unstructuredor non-directive interview,
(c) focused interview, and (d) clinical interview and (d) depth interview.
Structured, directive interview

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same

questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each questions is asked in
the same way each interview, promoting measurement reliability. This type of interview is
used for large-scale formalized surveys.

Unstructured or non-directive interview

This is least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely
about a given topic with a minimum of promoting or guidance. In this type of interview, a
detailed pre-schedule is not used. Only a broad interview guide is used.

Focused interview

This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the

discussions on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been
exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular
experience.
Clinical interview

This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle differences. While the
focused interview is concerned
with the effects of a specific experience, clinical interview is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individual's life experiences.
Depth interview
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondent's
opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much
more training inter-personal skills than structured interviewing. This deliberately aims to
elicit unconscious as well extremely personal feelings and emotions.
Advantages of interview
There are several real advantages to personal interview.
First, the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that
can be secured.
Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the
quality of information received than other method. He can note the conditions of the
interview situations, and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the
respondent's unwillingness, incorrect understanding of questions, suspicion, etc.
Third, the interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic
level, living conditions etc. Through observation of the respondent's environment.
Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and like in
order to improve the quality of interviewing.
Fifth, the accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can
be checked by observation and probing.
Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more control
can be exercised over the interview situation.
Limitations of Interview
First, Interview is not free from limitations. Its greatest drawback is that it is costly
both in money and time.
Second, the interview results are often adversely affected by interviewer's mode of
asking questions and interactions, and incorrect recording and also be the respondents
faulty perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc.
Third, certain types of personal and financial information may be refused in face-to
face interviews. Such information might be supplied more willingly on mail questionnaires,
especially if they are to be unsigned.
Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the
respondents, no foolproof system is available. Note taking is invariably distracting to both
respondent and the interviewer and affects the thread of the conversation.
 Last, interview calls for highly skilled interviewers. The availability of such
persons is limited and the training of interviewers is often a long and costly process.

Schedule
A schedule refers to set of questions related to a subject, printed or typed in a
definite order. It is a device for securing information whereby a person is asked to answer
the given set of questions.
The schedule is an important research tool which facilities the collection of data
from large, diverse and widely scattered groups of people. It can be used to collect
quantitative data as well as for secure g information of qualitative nature. In most empirical
studies the primary research tool is the schedule.
The schedule is administered by the research investigator. It is not self-
administered. In the case of the schedule, the answers are obtained from the respondent in a
face-to face situation. The responses or answers are noted down by the interviewer,
Moreover, the interviewer can act as a stimulus or can furnish on the spot clarifications to
the respondent if required. Thus, a schedule presupposes a face to face interaction
between the interviewer and the respondent. When the questions are self-administered and
require the respondent to answer all items. When the questions are self- administered and
require the respondent to answer all questions by himself it is called mailed questionnaire.
Such questions are often sent by mail/post to the respondent. Sometimes they are
distributed to a group of people who may have come to attend a conference, with the
request that they may fill it up and return the same.
Usually a schedule contains structured items. By structured is meant that questions
have fixed wording. They are also typed or printed in a definite order. Thus a particular set
of questions having exactly the same wording and sequence is administered to all the
respondents.
Important considerations in the construction of a schedule
A schedule should contain a limited number of questions. Only such questions as
are extremely important to fulfill the requirements of a study should be included. Questions
which may elicit some already known or obvious information should be deleted. Generally,
respondents do not like to devote sufficient time and energy for a long schedule.
A schedule is usually divided into several sections. Each section must contain a set
of questions related to a particular item or theme. In the light of requirement of the research
problem, some rationale must be developed to include each item or theme. Questions
relating to the same general theme must be placed together. Questions placed at the
beginning of a schedule should be such that they are able to draw the respondents complete
attention. They should be able to evoke his interest. However the opening question should
be neutral. In other words, the beginning should not contain any controversial issue as the
respondents may develop a negative orientation towards the whole questionnaire. This may
lead to tardy responses or even outright refusals.
The researcher should carefully determine the sequence of the different themes
covered in a schedule. A gradation of
themes starting from simpler ones and gradually leading to complex questions ones should
be made. There should be logical sequence of themes as well as questions. The transition
from one theme to the other should not be abrupt. Complex questions requiring serious
thinking are preferably placed somewhere in the middle of the schedule as the respondent
may develop fatigue towards the end and may not give to such questions the attention they
deserve.
A crucial aspect of a schedule relates to the formulation of questions. These should
be framed in such a way that the researcher may logically expect the answers to be
significant for his research problem. A good schedule grows from sound study of the
problem and review of literature on the subject. Every item included in the schedule must
be related to the objectives of the study. A tentative list of areas on which questions are to
be asked is drawn up. It is useful to consult knowledgeable people and conduct interviews
to arrive at greater clarity. In the beginning efforts should be made to cover as many items
as possible. Gradually the researcher may detect omissions, gaps or ambiguities. Also, he
may determine which items are most important and which are not. Any research venture
can adequately cover only a limited number of themes directly related to the research
objectives. Most of the questions should focus sharply on such important themes.
Theactual process of formulating questions requires great skill and expertise. A detailed
discussion on this aspect runs beyond the scope of this unit.
The amount of space needed for answering open ended
questions has to be determined. For example, suddenly the researcher may find that an open
ended question needs more space for the answer than has been provided in the printed
schedule. Some sort of preliminary exercise helps in assessing this requirement as well.
Telephone interviewing

Telephone interviewing is non-personal method of data collection. It may be used

as a major method or supplementary method.
It will be useful in the following situations:
1. When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in telephone
directories, e.g., business houses, business executive, doctors, other professionals.
2. When make the respondents are widely scattered and when there are many call backs
to make.
3. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents.
4. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided the units
of study are listed in telephone directory.
The advantages of telephone interview are:
1. The survey can be completed at very low cost, because telephone survey does not
involve travel time and cost and all calls can be made from a single location.
2. Information can be collected in a short period of time. 5 to 10 interviews can be
conducted per hour.
3. Quality of response is good, because interviewer bias is reduced as there is no face to
face contact between the interviewer and the respondent.
4. It has higher response rate.
5. It has greater sample control.
Telephone interview has several limitations.
1. There is a limit to the length of interview. Usually, a call cannot last over five
minutes. Only five or six simple questions can be asked. Hence, telephone cannot be
used for a longer questionnaire.
2. The type of information to be collected is limited to what can be given in simple,
short answers of a few words.
3. Hence, telephone is not suitable for complex surveys, and there is no possibility of
obtaining detailed information.
4. If the questions cover personal matters, most respondent will not cooperate with the
interviewer.
5. The respondent's characteristics and environment cannot be observed.
6. It is rather difficult to establish rapport between the respondent and the interviewer.
Mail survey
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method
involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and
return them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail
questionnaires should be simple so
that the respondents can easily understand the questions and answer them. It should
preferably contain mostly closed-end and multiple choice questions so that it could be
completed within a few minutes. The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the
questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents themselves and the responses are
recorded by them, and not by the investigator as in the case of personal interview method.
It does not involve face-to face conversation between the investigator and the respondent.
Communication is carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the
respondents than do verbal communication.
Procedure
The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected respondents by
collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of the association or organization to
which they belong. A covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. It must
explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of his cooperation to
the success of the project. Anonymity may be assured.
Alternative modes of sending questionnaires
There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the
respondents. They are: (1) Personal delivery, (2) Attaching questionnaire to product. (3)
Attaching questionnaire in a newspaper of magazine and (4) News stand inserts.
Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver

the questionnaires to the potential respondents with a request to complete them at their
convenience. After a day or two he can collect the completed questionnaires from them.
Often referred to as the self-administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages
of the personal interview and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be
delivered in person and the completed questionnaires may be returned by mail by the
respondents.
Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test- a firm test-marketing a product may
attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to
the firm. The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or a discount coupon.
Advertising the questionnaire: The questionnaire with the instructions for completion
may be advertised on a page of magazine or in a section of newspapers. The potential
respondent completes it tears it out and mails it to the advertiser.
News-stand inserts: This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and
self-addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a
newspaper or magazine.
Advantages of mail surveys are:
1. They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same
throughout the country, irrespective of distances.
2. They can cover extensive geographical areas.
3. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are
Difficult to reach in any other way.
4. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their conveniences.
5. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal
interviews.
6. Mail survey is totally free from the interviewer bias, as there is no personal contact
between therespondents and the investigator.
7. Certain personal and economic data may be given more accurately in an unsigned
mailquestionnaire.
Disadvantages of mail surveys are:
1. The scope for mail survey is very limited in a country like India where the
percentage ofliteracy is very low.
2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be
arepresentative one.
3. It is difficult to determine the degree of representativeness of a
sample obtained by mail.
4. The causes for inadequate and non-responses cannot be known, and no probing is
possible.
5. Information on the personal characteristics of the respondent and his
environment cannotbe secured.
Respondent may not cooperative if the mail questionnaire is long
or complex

6. Several returned questionnaires may contain unanswered questions and

incompleteresponses.
Tools for Data collection
The various methods of data gathering involve the use of appropriate recording
forms. These are called tools or instruments of data collection. They consist of-
Questionnaire, observation schedule, interview guide, interview schedule and mailed
questionnaire.
Each of the above tools is used for specific method of data gathering: Observation
schedule for observation method, interview schedule and interview guide for interviewing,
questionnaire for mail survey.
Functions
The tools of data collection translate the research objectives into specific
questions/items, the response to which will provide the data required to achieve the
research objectives. In order to achieve this purpose, each question/item must convey to the
respondent the respondent the idea or group of ideas required by the research objective
research objects, and each item must obtain a response which can be analyzed for fulfilling
the research objectives.
Information gathered through the tools provides descriptions of individuals,
institutions or other phenomenon under study. The characteristics may help to explain
differences in behavioral pattern and performance of objects under study.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire depends upon research objectives. For each objective or research
questions, list all the associated questions that a researcher wants to answer through study.
Then the information required to answer them is listed, and finally, the questions are listed.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. The
questionnaire is used during structured surveys or interviews. The respondent read the
questions, interpret what is expected, and then write down the answers themselves. It is
also called an interview schedule when the researcher asks the questions and records the
respondents reply on the interview schedule. Here, the researcher may have to explain
questions to the respondents.
There are many options before the researchers adopt this method, but questionnaires
should be developed and tested carefully before being administered on a large scale. There
are three basic types of questionnaires, closed-ended open ended, and a combination of
both.
1. Closed-ended questionnaire: closed-ended questionnaires generally
include multiple choice questions or scale questions. This type of questionnaire can
 be at, the administered to a large number of
respondents or sample size. As there is set format, the data generated from
questionnaire can be easily fed into a computer system for the purpose of analysis.
2. Open-ended questionnaire: open-ended questionnaires offer the flexibility to
respondents to answer in their own words. It may leave a blank section to write an
answer. Closed-end questionnaires might be used to find out how many people use
metro rail service in New Delhi, but open-ended questionnaires might be used to find
out what people think about the quality of service.
3. Combined questionnaire: in this method, it is possible to find out how many people
use a service and what they think of the service in the same form. The combined
questionnaire may begin with a series of closed-end questions, with boxes to tick or
scales to rank, andthen finish with a section of open-ended questions or a more
detailed response.
Observation schedule or Observationnaire
This is form on which each unit observation for observations of an object or a
phenomenon is recorded. This item to be observed is determined with reference to the
nature and objectives of the study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and listed
in the schedule in the order in which the observer would observe them.
The items are structured with possible alternatives. Space is each unit observation
for encircling or checking, or recording, as the case may be.
Provision is made for the correct identifications of each case observed and of the
observer.
The schedule should be so constructed as to make it possible to record the
observations easily and correctly and to tabulate and analysis effectively.
The schedule must be as devised as to provide the required verifiable and
quantifiable data and to avoid selective bias and misinterpretations of observed items. The
units of observation must be simple, and meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and
uniform recording.
Interview Guide
This is used for non-directive and depth interviews. It does not contain a complete
list of it on which information has to be elicited from a respondent; it just contains only the
broad topics or areas to be covered in the interview.
Interview guide serves as a suggestive reference or promoter during interview. It
aids in focusing attention on salient points relating to the study and in securing comparable
data in different interviews by the same or different interviewers.
There is considerable flexibility as to the manner, and order language In which the
interviewer asks the questions. If the interviewer has to refer the guide very often, it would
defeat its own purpose. The interviewer cannot listen closely and analytically if his
attention rests on the guide. He may fail to respond to the cues and implications of the
 interviewee's remarks.

Interview schedule and mailed Questionnaire

Both these tools are widely used in surveys. Both are complete lists of questions on
which information is elicited from the respondent's. The basic difference between them lies
In recording responses. While a schedule is filled out by the interviewer, a questionnaire is
completed by the respondent.

a) Dichotomous Questions (two choice questions)

Dichotomous Questions result in Yes or No answers. For eg..Are you a
member of lions club?

b) Multiple choice questions

Here the answer Is selected from among several
alternatives

c) Ranking questions
Questions not to be asked

d) Vague questions should be avoided

e) Leading questions should be avoided.

f) Presuming questions should not be included.

g) Hypothetical questions should not be included.

SAMPLING

Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.
For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could
survey a sample of 100 students. In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about
the characteristics of a population.

There are several sampling techniques used in research, including:

 Simple random sampling
A probability sampling technique that gives every member of a population an equal
chance of being selected. This method is used in market research to ensure reliable
and fair data collection.
 Convenience sampling
A non-probability sampling method where the researcher selects units that are
easiest for them to include in the sample.
 Non-probability sampling
 A method often used in exploratory and qualitative research to gain a preliminary
understanding of a small or understudied population.
 Probability sampling
A method used in scientific research, particularly in surveys, experiments, and
social science research, to collect data that accurately reflects the population.
 Quota sampling
A method where the researcher chooses sample subsets to represent the
population based on specific traits or qualities.
 Cluster sampling
A method used when it's too expensive, impossible, or complicated to randomly
sample an entire population.
 Systematic sampling
A method where selection is made at regular intervals from an ordered list. This
method can reduce the risk of selection bias, but it can introduce bias if the list has
an underlying pattern.
 Snowball sampling
A recruitment technique where research participants help identify other potential
subjects.
 Stratified sampling
A method that improves the accuracy and representativeness of results by reducing
sampling bias. However, it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to
stratify by.

PROBLEM FORMULATION

In Research process, the 1st and foremost step is that of selecting properly and
defining a research problem. The researchers must find the problem and formulate it so
that it becomes susceptible research like a doctor a researches must examine all the
symptoms concerning a problem before he can diagnosis correctly.
“A problem well put is half solved. This saying highlights the importance of proper
formulation of the selected problem. The primary task of Research is the collection of
relevant data and the analysis of data or finding answers to research questions.
The proper performance of this task depends upon the identification of correct data
and information required for the study. Once the problem is formulated he can execute
the other steps without any vaste of time and energy. Thus formulation is a direction
and specific focus to research effort. It helps to delimit the field of enquiry and prevent
blind research and indiscriminate gathering of data. A proper formulation help to solve
all major tasks for research like sampling, collection of data, construction of tools, plan
of analysis etc.
 What is a Research Problem?
A Research problem in general refers to some difficulty

the researches experiences in the context of a theoretical or practical situation

and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
“The term problem means a question or issue to be examined”
The term problem originate from the Greek word ‘Probellim’ – meaning anything
that thrown forwards, a question proposed for solution, a matter stated for examination.
What is formulation?
Formulation means “translating and transforming the selected Research problem in
to a scientifically researchable question”.
An illustration
Let us suppose that a Research problem in general way as follows “Why is
productivityin Japan so much higher than India.

In this form of question has a number of ambiguities such as: what sort of
productivity is being refered to? With industries the same is related? With what period
of time the productivity is being talked about? In view of all such ambiguities the given
statements or the question is too much general to be amenable to analysis, Rethinking
and discussion about the problem may resulting narrowing down the question to “what
factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manufacturing
Industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing Industries”?
This version of the problem is definitely an improvement over its earlier versions for
the various ambiguities have been removed to the extend possible. Further rethinking
andrephrasing of the problem will become in this form.
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of
India in respect of 15 selected manufacturing Industries? What factors were responsible
for the productivity differentiates between the two countries by Industries?
With this sort of formulation, the various terms involves such as ‘labour
productivity’, ‘productivity differentials etc are explained clearly. The time period, the
need of data etc are considered in this type of formulation.
Selection of a Problem
The Research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected the
task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to this. So in this connection
researcher can seek the help of a guide. However the research problem cannot be
borrowed. A problem must spring from the mind of researcher like a plant spring
from its seed. A research guide can only help a researcher to choose the subject. The
following paints may be observed by the researcher in selecting a research problem.

1. Subject which is overdone should not be chosen.

2. Controversial subjects should not be taken.
3. Too narrow or too wide problems should be avoided.
 4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible.
5. The subject should be within our time limit.
6. The subject should be within our affordable budget.
Sources of Problem
The sources from which one may be able to identity research problems are:
1. Reading
When we critically study books and articles relating to subject of our
interest, pertinent questions may arise in our mind. Similarly areas of research may
strike to our mind when we read research reports.
2. Academic Experiences
Classroom lectures, class discussions seminar discussions and out –of-class
exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors will suggest many
stimulating problemsto be studied.
3. Daily Experience
Life is dynamic. We learn new things and undergo new experiences every
day. It we are all inquisitive and sensitive to like situation we may bit upon
questions worth of investigation. The story about Newton testifies to this. Apples
have fallen on the beads of people before Newton. But it was sensitive Newton
alone raised the question regarding fall of apple which led to the discovery of Law
of gravitation.
4. Consultation
Discussion with experts, researchers etc. will help to identify meaningful
problems of research.
5. Field situation
 Field visits, training and extension work provide exposure to
problems which call for study.
6. Brain storming
Intensified discussion within a group of interested person may often
be a means ofidentifying pertinent questions and of developing new ideas
about a problem.
7. Intuition
Sometimes new ideas may strike to one’s mind like a flash reflective
mind is spring of knowledge. Eg. Sri Buddha.
Techniques of formulating Research Problem

How to define a Research Problem is undoubtedly a herculian task. However

it is a task that must be talked intelligently. The usual approach is that the
Researcher should himself pose a question and set techniques and procedure for
throwing tight non the problem.
Defining a Research Problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of
Research study and must in no case should accomplished hurriedlly. However in
practice this is frequently overlooked. The techniques involved in defining and
formulating a Research problem are as follows.
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing ideas through discussion
5. Rephrasing the Research Problem.
1. Statement of the problem in a General way
First of all the problem should be stated in broad general way keeping in
view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interests. For
the purpose the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject
matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In Research, some
preliminary survey or Piolot Survey is desirable. Then he can himself states the
problem or be can seek the help of a guide. Ofter the guide putsforth the problem
in general terms, and then it is upto the Researcher to narrow it down and phrase
the problem in operational term. The stated problem may have various
ambiguities that must be resolved by cool thinking and thinking at the same time
the feasibility of particular solutions has to be consider and the same should be
kept in view wild stating the problem.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem.
The next step in defining the problem is to understand its orgin and
nature clearly. The best way of understand the problem is to discuss it with those
who 1st raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came out and
with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself,
he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a
general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the
nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have
a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The
researcher should also keeping you the environment within which the problem is
to bestudied or understood.
 3. Surveying the available literature

All the available literature concerning the problem at hand must

necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of research problem is
given. He must be conversant with relevant theories in the field, report and the
records as also of all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in
reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to
findout what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational
purposes. This would also help the researcher to know if there are certain gaps in
the theories or whether the existing theory applicable to the problem study are in
consistent with each other, or whether the findings of different studies donot
follow pattern consistent with the theoretical expedition and so on. All these
enable a research to take new strides in the field of Furtherance of knowledge
that he can move to starting from the existing premise studies on related
problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be
encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical short coming. At
times such studies also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the
present problem.
4. Developing ideas through discussion
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information.
Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise, hence, a
researcher must discuss him problems with his colleagues and others who have
enough of experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This
is known as experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to
enlightened the researcher firm
5. Rephrasing the Research Problem
Finally the researcher must patiently sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition- Once the nature of the problem has been
clearly understood, the environment (with in which the problem has to be
studied) has been defined, discussion over the problem have taken place and the
available literature has been surveyed and examined rephrasing the problem into
analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing the
researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it
may become operationable and may help in the development of working
hypothesis.
While defining a Research Problem the following points also may
be noted.
a) Technical terms should be clearly defined
b) Basic Assumptions should be clearly defined
c) A straight forward approach should be provided
d) The suitability of time period and the source of data must be
considered.

e) The scope of investigation and the limit of investigation should also

we defined.
 TYPES OF ESEARCH
Research is classified into different forms on the basis of intent & methods.
The following are the different types of research.

1. Descriptive Vs Analytical
Descriptive research includes Surveys or fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research description of the state of affairs as
it exist at present. The main characteristics of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; He can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
In Analytical research, on the other hand the researcher has to use facts or
informationalready available & analyse this to make a critical evaluation, of the
material.

2. Applied Vs Fundamental
Research can either be applied (or action) research fundamental (or pure)
research Applied Research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an organisation whereas Fundamental Research is mainly
concerned with Generalisation and with the formulation of a theory. ‘Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’ is termed pure research. Research studies concerning
natural phenomenon, human behaviour etc are examples of Fundamental Research.
But Research aims at certain conclusion facing a concrete social problems is an
example of applied Research.
3. Qualitative Vs Quantitative
Quantitative Research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It
is applicable to a phenomenon that is phenomenon relating to or involving quality or
kind. Qualitative Research is specially important in the behavioural sciences were
the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.

4. Conceptual Vs Empirical
Conceptual Research is that related to some abstract ideas for theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop the new concepts or to
interpret existingones.
On the other hand Empirical Researches relie on experiments or observation
alone, often without due regard for system of theory. It is data based research
coming up with conclusions which are capable of been variable of observation and
experiment.

5. One Time Research or Longitudinal Research

In the formal case the research is confined to a single time period, whereas the
later case the research is carried on over several time periods.

6. Laboratory Research and Field setting Research

This classification is based on the environment in which research is carried
out.

7. Historical Research
Historical Research is that which utilities historical
 sources like documents remainsetc to study events ideas of the past including
the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time

SURVEY RESEARCH
Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research involving collection
of data directly from a population or sample thereof at particular time. It must not be
confused with mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires
expert and imaginative planning carefull analysis and rational interpretation of the
findings.
Definitions
1. Mark Abraham defines survey as “a social survey is a process by
whichQuantitative facts are collected about the social aspects of a community
composition and activities”.

2. Herman N Morse defines It as “a method of analysis on scientific and orderly

form for defined purpose of given social situations and activities.”
The Characteristics of Survey

1. It is a field study; It is always conducted in a natural setting.

2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.

3. It can cover a very large population.

4. A survey involves an extensive and intensive study.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area, city, a district or a state
Steps involved in a Survey
The sequences of the task involved in carried out a survey from the 1st
stage of planning to theFinal stage of preparing the report is presented below.

a) Selection of problem and its formulation

b) Preparation of the research design.

c) Operationalisation of concepts and construction of measuring indexes and

states.

d) Sampling

e) Construction of tools for collection of data and there pre- test.

f) Field work and collection of data

g) Processing of data and tabulation

h) Analysis of data

i) Reporting
The Purpose of the Survey

1. The purpose of survey is to provide information’s do government or

 planners or business enterprises.

2. Many enquiries aim to explain phenomenon

3. Surveys may be designed to make comparison of demographic groups.
4. Surveys are useful for making predictions Types of Survey

1. General or Specific survey

When a survey is conducted for collecting general information about
population institution or phenomenon without any particular object or hypothesis it
is known as general survey.

Specific survey are conducted for specific problems or for testing the
validity of some theory or hypothesis.

2. Regular and Adhoc Survey

Some surveys are regular in nature and must be repeated after regular
intervals. Such a survey is called Regular Survey.
Adhoc survey is are undertaken ones for all.

3. Preliminary And Final Survey

A Preliminary survey is generally known as ‘Pilot study’ and it is a fore run
of the FinalSurvey. Final survey is made after the pilot study has completed.

4. Senses and Sample Survey

A survey make our all the units of a given universe then it is called a sense
survey. Ifthe survey covers only a fraction of the universe, then it is called sample
survey.
Advantages of Survey
The major advantages of the survey method are

1. The versatility of the survey method is its greatest strength. It is the only
practicalway to collect many types of informations from individuals, socio-
economic data, attitudes, opinions, experience and expectations.

2. The survey method facilitates drawing generalisations about large populations

on the basis of studies of representative sample.

3. The survey method is flexible to permit the use of various methods of collection
of data.

4. The survey help the researches to face unanticipated problems.

5. Survey is useful in verifying theoriesLimitations of Survey

1. Survey method is primarily meant for collection of data from primary sources.
So itssuccess depends upon the willingness and co-operations of the
respondents.

2. The survey method depends primarily on verbal behaviour. The

respondent can givemisleading answers.

3. A sample survey is subject to sampling error.

4. There is a limit of the number of items of information that can be collected in a
singlesurvey. There is an optimal length of time for an interview.

5. A survey is very expensive in terms of time and cost.

DESIGN ESEARCH

Meaning

“A Research Design is the logical and systematic planning in directing

the research. The design research from translating a general scientific model
into varied research problem. But in practices in most of the basis it is just a
plan of study. The research design can either be formal or informal.
Definition

1. “It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data” -Philips Bernard S

2. It “provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow” -

Best John N

3. “The design research from controlling general scientific model into varied
researchprocedure”- P.V. Young

4. “A research design is “the programme that guides the investigator in the

process ofcollecting, analysis and interpreting observations”. – David and
Shava
A research design addressers itself to certain key issues such as:
a) What is the problem uncles study?

b) What is the major research question?

c) What is the area of the study?

d) How many people will be study?

e) How this people will be selected?

f) What methods and techniques will be used to collect data from them?
Features of Research Design
a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be
tested.

b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information

relevent to the research question.

c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and

analysis ofdata.

d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.

 Features of a good Design
A good design has the following features.

1. Flexibility
2. Efficiency
3. Appropriate

4. Economical

5. Minimum error

6. Maximum reliability
7. Smallest experimental error

8. Maximum informationWhy a Research Design?

1. Research Design is needed because it helps in the smooth sailing of

Researchoperations.
A Research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean voyage without
marinerscompus.

2. The Research Design helps in providing direction our study.

3. It prevents welter in a study.

4. The use of Research Design prevents blind search.

5. A Research Design fixes clear cut boundaries to a research.

6. It makes the research systematic

7. It help us to meet unexpected events. Contents of a

Research Design
Usually a Research Design consist of the following details

1. What is the study about?

2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What period of time will the studied include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What technique of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data we analyse?
10. In what style the report will be prepared?
By way of conclusion it can be said that research design must contain at
 least:
a) Statement of a problem
b) Procedure and techniques

c) Sampling frame
d) Processing and analysis of data Types of Research Design

1. Exploratory Research Design (Formulative Research)

Exploratory Research studies are also termed as formulative research
studies. Exploratory Research is preliminary study of an in familiar problem about
which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor initial
investigation of patient suffering from an in familiar malady for getting some clues
for identifying.
2. Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive study is fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation.
It is the sample type of research. It is more specific than the exploratory study. As
it has focus on particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is design
to gather descriptive informations and provides information for formulating more
sophisticatedstudies. Data are collected by using of appropriate methods.

3. Action Research
Action Research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation
study of an action programme launched for solving a problem. Action research is
otherwise calledApply Research.

The following are the different phases in action research.

1. A base lane survey of the pre-action situation.

2. A feasibility study of the proposed action programme

3. Planning and launching the programme.

4. Concurrent evaluation of the programme

5. Making modifications and changes in the programme and its methods of

implementations in the light of research finding.

6. Final Evaluation
(The Researcher can design his research depends upon the nature of the
research being conducted.)
SCALING TECHNIQUES: SCALING IN RESEARCH, MEANING OF MEASUREMENT
SCALES AND SCALING, SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES, IMPORTANT SCALING
TECHNIQUES, SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Introduction

Measurement of Variables is an integral part of research and an important

aspect of research design. The characteristic of individual and business vary
from individual to individual and from entity to entity. In the case of human
 beings, there are certain physical or quantitative characteristics like height,
weight and there are certain abstract or qualitative characteristics like
intelligence, integrity, attitude creativity, etc., In case of business organization
also there are physical characteristics like employees, sales, profit, etc. which
are easily measureable. However, there are certain abstract characteristics like
reputation, image of the entity, motivation, customer perceptions. The
perceptions and feelings of customers and employees are extremely important
because they help the company to stay afloat and grow.

Measurement means assigning numbers or symbols to the characteristics of

certain objects. We do not measure the object but some characteristics of it.
Therefore in research people or consumers are not measured; what is
measured only are their perceptions, attitude or any other relevant
characteristics. There are two reasons for which numbers are usually assigned.
First of all, numbers permit statistical analysis of the resulting data and
secondly, they facilitate the communication of measurement results. The
assignment of numbers to the characteristics must be isomorphic. Scaling is
an extension of measurement. It involves creating a continuum on which
measurement of objects are located. Suppose you want to measure the
satisfaction level towards coffee day and scale of 1 to 11 is used for the said
purpose. This scale indicates the degree of dissatisfaction, with 1=extremely
dissatisfied and 11=extremely satisfied. Measurement is the actual assignment
of a number from 1 to 11 to each respondent. Scaling describes the procedures
of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts. This can be done in two ways viz, (i) making a judgment about
some characteristic of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale
that has been defined in terms of thatcharacteristic (ii) Constructing
questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s responses assigns
him a place on a scale.

2. Characteristics or goodness of instruments / measurement scales

A measurement scale has to have certain desirable characteristic or criteria

to judge its “goodness” so that one could have faith or trust in the scale that it
will measure what it is intended to measure. The following are the main
characteristics of measurement scales. They are

 Accuracy and Precision

 Reliability
 Validity
 Practicality

2.1 Accuracy and Precision

The characteristics of accuracy in measurement scale means it should be a

true representative of the observation of underlying characteristic. The
 precision, however, means the power to discriminate/distinguish and indicate
the extent of accuracy that can be achieved with the measurement scale.

Eg: The examination is conducted to measure the knowledge and

understanding of the student. The marks scored out of say 100, would provide
better accuracy and precision than simply grading the students A+, A, B+, B
and C

2.2 Reliability

Reliability indicates the confidence one could have in the measurement

obtained with a scale. It tests how consistently a measuring instrument
measures a given characteristic/attitude is measured again and again, leading
to about the same conclusion. However, it may be emphasized that reliability
does not necessarily imply that the measuring instrument is also accurate. All
it means is consistency in drawing conclusion.

2.3 Validity

The validity of a measuring instrument indicates the extent to which an

instrument scale tests or measures what it is intended to measure. For
example, if we intent to measure intelligence, the instrument, say question
paper, ought to be such that it results in measuring true intelligence; if the
paper tests only general knowledge, the instrument is not valid.

2.3.1 Types of validity

 Content validity
 Criterion validity
 Construct validity

￭Content validity

It indicates the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate

coverage of the issues that are under study.

￭Criterion validity

These are two types. One indicates the success of the measuring instrument
used for predicting. The other, also called concurrent validity, is used to
estimate the present status.

￭Construct validity
 It is one of the most significant aspects in the development of measurement
theory and practice. It links psychometric notions and practices to theoretical
notions. It attempts to explain the variation observed on several individuals.

Eg: If a test of intelligence is conducted on individuals, and if the test scores

obtained by a measurement scale vary from individual to individual, one
would like to know the factors to construct behind this phenomenon.

2.4 Practicability

From theoretical viewpoint, a measure is ought to be reliable and valid.

However, from practical viewpoint, the measure should be

 Economical
 Convenient
 Interpretable

The economic consideration leads to a comparison between ideal research

project and availability of budget for a study. Thus, the measuring instrument
has to take cognizance this aspect and designed accordingly.

The convenience implies the ease with which an instrument like

questionnaire could be easily administered to the
subjects/participants/respondents. In this one should give due attention to the
proper layout of the measuring instrument. This poses more challenge in the
situation whereas the concepts and constructs are rather difficult to
understand.

The interpretability of an instrument, like questionnaire, is the ease with

which the researcher is able to interpret the responses from the
subjects/respondents/participants.

3. Properties of scales

 Distinctive classification
 Order
 Equal Distance
 Fixed Origin

3.1 Distinctive classification

A measure that can be used to classify objects or their characteristics into

distinctive classes or categories is said to have this property. This is the
minimum requirement for any measure. Eg: Gender classifies the individuals
into two distinctive groups, male and female.
 3.2 Order

A measure is set to have an order if the objects or their characteristics can

be arranged in a meaningful order. Eg: Marks of the student can be arranged
in an ascending or descending order.

3.3 Equal Distance

Thedifference between any two consecutive categories of a measured

tribute, are equal, then the measure is said to have equal distance. Eg: The
time difference between 2 pm to 3 pm is same as the difference between 3 pm
and 4 pm.

3.4 Fixed Origin

A measurement for measuring a characteristic is said to have a fixed origin

if there is a meaningful zero or “absence” of characteristic. Ex: Income of an
individual, Sales of a Company.

4. CLASSIFICATION OR TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

SCALES The most widely used classification of measurement scales are

 Nominal Scale
 Ordinal Scale
 Interval Scale
 Ratio Scale

4.1 Nominal Scale

The qualitative scale without order is called nominal scale. The nominal
scale involves classification of measure objects into various categories such as
‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘pass’ or ‘fail’. Numeric value is assigned to these classified
categories like house number, telephone number, and roll number of the
student. The data collected through a nominal measure scale is called nominal
data.

4.2 Ordinal Scale

A qualitative scale with order is called an ordinal scale, it tells whether an

object has more or less of characteristics than some other objects. It is a scale
that does not measure values of the characteristics but indicates only the order
or rank like 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc. Some examples are Ratings of hotels,
restaurants, and movies. The data obtained using ordinal scale is termed as
ordinal data.

4.3 Interval Scale

 A measurement scale whose successive values represent equal value or
amount of characteristic that is being measured and whose base value is not
fixed is called an interval scale. It provides more powerful measurement than
ordinal scales. It also incorporates the concept of equality of interval. This is a
quantitative scale of measure without a fixed or true zero. It is a quantitative
data that can be measured on a numerical scale. However, the zero point does
not mean the absence of the characteristic being measured. Some examples
are temperature, time, longitude, latitude, etc. The data obtained from an
interval scale is termed as interval data.

4.4 Ratio Scale

This is the highest level of measurement and has all the four properties of a
scale. Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Ratio scales are
quantitative measures with fixed or true zero. The data obtained from ratio
scales are referred to as ratio data. Ratio is also a quantitative data that can be
measured on a numerical scale but, here the zero point is fixed and implies the
absence of what is being measured. In fact, if a scale has all the features of an
interval scale, and there is a true zero point, then it is called a ratio scale.

Table 1 Examples of measurement scales

Statistical Analysis based on Scales

Depending on the property of the scales, there is a limitation on the

descriptive statistics one can perform on the scales.

Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics that can be used on the

type of scales

5. SCALING TECHNIQUES

Several scales formats have been developed to enable a researcher in

collecting appropriate data for conducting a study. The scales are broadly
divided into two categories viz.

 Conventional scaling
 Unconventional scaling

The conventional scales are used in the questionnaire format and are most
common. The unconventional scales are used for unconventional collection of
data through games, puzzles, etc.

The conventional scales are of two types viz, Comparative Scaling

techniques and Non comparative techniques.
 5.1 COMPARATIVE SCALING TECHNIQUES

The comparative scale involves direct comparison of the different objects.

Comparative scale data are measured on ordinal scale and interpreted in
relative terms and such as they generate non metric or non-numerical data.

Types of comparative scaling techniques

 Paired comparison
 Rank order
 Constant Sum

5.1.1 Paired Comparison

In paired comparison scales, the respondent is asked to select one object

from the list of two objects, on the basis of some criteria. This forces the
respondents to compulsorily select one of the two. Such scales are used when
the study requires to distinguish between the two specified objects.

Example

In the study of consumer preferences about two brands of glucose biscuits

viz, Parl-G and Tiger.
Select any one of the two brands.
Which Glucose biscuits do you prefer on the basis of ‘Taste’?

1 Parle-G 1 Tiger

Which Glucose biscuit do you prefer on the basis of ‘Price’?

1 Parle-G 1 Tiger

Which Glucose biscuits do you prefer on the basis of ‘Taste’?

1 Parle-G 1 Tiger

This scaling technique is useful when the researcher wants to compare two
or more objects. In the above example we have compared two brands over
three factors. Hence the number of comparison is three.

5.1.2 Rank order scaling

In the rank order scaling, respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It
is also termed as forced ranking scale. Unlike paired comparison, rank order
scaling technique prompts respondents to rank a given list of objects.
 Example
Rank the following services in the order of importance attached by you,
while selecting a new mobile services provider. The most preferred can be
ranked 1, the next as 2 and so on. The least preferred will have the last rank.
Do not repeat the ranks.

5.1.3 Constant Sum Rating Scale

When it is to assess the relative importance attached by a respondent to the

objects in a list, the constant sum scaling technique is used. In this technique,
a respondent is asked to allocate certain points, out of a fixed sum of points,
for each object according to the importance attached by him/her to that object.
If the object is not so important, the respondent can allocate zero point, and if
an object is most important he/she may allocate maximum points out of the
fixed points. Generally, the total fixed points are 100 for simplicity but it may
be taken as some other value depending on the study.

Example

Allocate the amount you would like to spend on your birthday on the
following items, out of total amount of Rs.10000/- (Please note that total
amount allocated should be exactly Rs.10000).

Check your progress:

State whether the following statements are true or false

 Nominal scale can only involve the assignment of numbers. Alphabets or

symbols cannot be assigned
 A comparative rating scale attempts to provide a common frame of
reference to all respondents

5.2 NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES

In the non-comparative scales, the respondents do not make use of any

frame of reference before answering the questions. The resulting data is
generally assumed to be interval or ratio scale.

For eg: The respondent may be asked to evaluate the quality of food in a
restaurant on a five point scale (1=very poor, 2=poor and 5=very good).

TYPES OF NON-COMPARITIVE SCALES

 Graphic rating scales
 Itemized rating scales:
 Likert scale
 Semantic differential scale
 Stapel scale

5.2.1 Graphic rating scale

This is a continuous scale, also called graphic rating scale. In the graphic
rating scale the respondent is asked to tick his preference on a graph.

Eg: Please put a tick mark on the following line to indicate your preference
for fast food.

To measure the preference of an individual towards the fast food, one has to
measure the distance from the extreme left to the position where the tick mark
has been put. Higher the distance, higher would be the individual preference
for fast food. The basic assumption in this scale is that the respondents can
distinguish the fine shade in differences between the preference or attitude
which need not be the case. Further, the coding, editing and tabulation of data
generated through such a procedure is a very tedious task and the researchers
would try to avoid using it.

Another version of graphic scale could be:

Eg: Please put a tick mark on the following line to indicate your preference
for fast food.

This is a slightly better version than the one discussed earlier. For eg: if a
respondent had earlier ticked between 5 and 6, it is likely that he would
remember the same and the second time, he would tick very close to where he
did earlier. This means that the difference in the two response could be
negligible.

5.2.2 Itemized rating scale

In the Itemized rating scale, the respondents are provided with a scale that
has a number of brief descriptions associated with each of the response
categories. It is widely used in survey research. There are certain issues that
should be kept in mind while designing the itemized rating scale. These issues
are:

Number of categories to be used

 There is no hard and fast rule as to how many categories should be used in
an itemized rating scale. However, it is a practice to use five or six categories.
It is a fact that the additional categories need not increase the precision with
the attitude of being measured.

Odd or even number of categories

By using even number of categories the scale would not have a neutral
category and the respondent will be forced to choose either the positive or the
negative side of the attitude. If the odd numbers of categories are used, the
respondent has the freedom to be neutral if he wants to be so.

Balanced versus unbalanced scales

A balanced scale is the one which has equal number of favorable and
unfavorable categories.

Example for balanced scale:

How important is price to you in buying a new car? Very important

Relatively important

Neither important nor unimportant Relatively unimportant

Very unimportant

Example for unbalanced sale:

How important is price to you in buying a new car? More important than
any other factor Extremely important Important Somewhat important
Unimportant

Nature and degree of verbal description

Verbal descriptions must be clearly and precisely worded so that the

respondents are able to differentiate between them.

Forced versus Non-forced scales

In a forced scale, the respondent is allowed to take a stand, whereas in the

non- forced scale, the respondent can be neutral if he/she so desires. Paired
comparison scale, rank order scale and constant sum rating scales are
examples of forced scales.

Physical Form
 There are many options that are available for the presentation of the scales.
It could be presented vertically or horizontally. The categories could be
expressed in boxes, discrete lines or as units on a continuum. They may or
may not have numbers assigned to them. The numerical values, if used, may
be positive, negative or both.

Eg: Suppose we want to measure the perception about Jet airways using a
multi-item scale.

i) Likert scale

The Likert scale is the most frequently used variations of the summated
rating scale commonly used in the studies relating to attitudes and
perceptions. Summated rating scales comprise statement that expressed either
a favorable or an unfavorable attitude toward the objective of interest on a 5
point, 7 point ot on any other numerical value. The respondents are given a
certain number of items (statements) on which they are asked to express their
degree of agreement or disagreement. Likert scale is also called a summated
scale because the scores on individual items can be added together to produce
a total score for the respondent.

Likert scale statements to measure the image of the company

Likert scale has several advantages that make it more popular. It is relatively
easy and quick to compute. Further, it is more reliable and provides more data
for a given amount of respondent’s time, as compared to other scales. The
data gathered is interval data.

ii)Semantic differential scale

This scale is widely used to compare the images of competing brands,

companies or services. In semantic differential scale, a respondent is required
to rate each attitude object on a number of five-or-seven point rating scales.
The difference between likert and semantic differential scale is that, in a likert
scale, a number of statements are presented to the respondents to express their
degree of agreement or disagreement. However, in semantic differential scale,
bipolar adjectives or phrases are used. The advantage of semantic differential
scale is that it is versatile and gives multi dimension advantage. It is widely
used to compare image of brands, products, services and companies. The data
generated from this scale can be considered as numeric in some cases, and can
be summed to arrive total scores.

iii) Stapel scale

 Stapel scale is used to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude.
The scale generally has 10 categories involving numbering -5 to +5 without a
neutral point and is usually presented in a vertical form.

Eg: Suppose a restaurant is to be evaluated on quality of food and quality of

service, and then the staple scale would be presented as:

 The data generated in staple scale is interval data.

 It can be used to collect data through telephonic interview.
 This method is most applicable were evaluative responses are to be rated on
a single dimension.
 The scale is most economical were several items are all to be rated on the
same dimension.

CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION OF DATA

Classification and Tabulation of Data are fundamental processes in the

field of statistics, especially in the context of economics. They transform raw data
into a structured form, enabling better analysis, interpretation, and presentation
of economic data. Proper classification ensures that data is grouped meaningfully,
while effective tabulation presents this data clearly and concisely.

Table of Content
 What is Classification of Data?
 Advantages of Classification of Data
 What is Tabulation of Data?
 Advantages of Tabulation of Data
 Classification of Data vs Tabulation of Data
Difference Between Classification and Tabulation of Data

 Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

What is Classification of Data?

Various kinds of data are gathered by the investigator or analyst to perform

statistical analysis. The information gathered is usually in raw form which is
difficult to analyze. To make the analysis meaningful and easy, the raw data is
converted or classified into different categories based on their characteristics. This
classification of data is known as the classification of data into different categories
or classes with similar or homogeneous characteristics. Each division or class of
the gathered data is known as a Class. The different bases of classifications of
statistical information are Geographical, Chronological, Qualitative (Simple and
Manifold), and Quantitative or Numerical.

For example, suppose an investigator wants to determine the poverty level of a

state. In that case, he/she can do so by gathering the information of people of that
state and then classifying them based on their income, education, etc.

According to Conner, “Classification is the process of arranging things (either

actually or notionally) in groups or classes according to their resemblances and
affinities, and gives expression to the unity of attributes that may exist amongst a
versity of individuals.“

Advantages of Classification of Data

 Classification helps in breaking down large sets of data into smaller,

manageable categories, making it easier to understand and analyze.
 By grouping similar data, classification aids in recognizing patterns, trends,
and relationships within the data.
 Classification allows for easier comparison of different data sets by organizing
them into coherent groups based on shared characteristics.
 Grouping data into categories streamlines the analytical process, enabling
more accurate and efficient data analysis.
 Well-classified data provides clear insights, supporting informed decision-
making processes in various fields like business, research, and policy-making.
 Classification brings order to data, arranging it in a structured format that is
easy to navigate and reference.
What is Tabulation of Data?

Now, to analyze the collected data, it is essential to present it in an easy-to-

understand and interpretable way. The different ways the classified data can be
presented are textual, tabular, diagrammatic, and graphical. Tabular
Presentation or Tabulation is a systematic way of presenting numerical data in
rows and columns. The tabular presentation helps the investigator in simplifying
the presentation and facilitating analysis. It can bring the related information close
to each other such that the investigator can easily make comparisons between
them, and also helps in further statistical analysis and interpretation of the data.

According to L.R. Connor, “Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic

presentation of numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under
consideration.“

Advantages of Tabulation of Data

 Tabulation arranges data systematically in rows and columns, making it easier

to read and understand.
 Data presented in tables allows for straightforward comparison across
different categories or groups.
 Tabulated data is easier to analyze, as it provides a clear and concise format
that highlights key information.
 Tables condense large amounts of data into a compact format, saving time for
those who need to interpret or analyze the data.
 By presenting data in a structured format, tabulation eliminates confusion and
makes it easier to identify trends and patterns.
 Well-tabulated data provides a clear overview, aiding in quicker and more
informed decision-making.
 Tables are essential for performing various statistical analyses, providing a
foundation for calculations and evaluations.
Classification of Data vs Tabulation of Data

Generally, classification of data and tabular presentation of data are

misunderstood as the same; i.e., a device to present and summarize data. However,
in technical terms, both concepts are different from each other. The difference
between the classification of data and the tabular presentation of data is as follows:

1. Tabulation succeeds classification of data. It means that tabular presentation of

data can be done only when it is classified into different classes.
2. Classification of data includes classifying the given set of data into different
classes according to their similarities and differences. However, tabular
presentation of data includes arranging the classified data into rows and
columns with suitable heads and subheads.
3. Classification is a method of statistical analysis. However, tabular presentation
of data is a method of presenting data.
Difference Between Classification and Tabulation of Data

Aspect Classification of Data Tabulation of Data

The process of organizing

The process of arranging data
data into categories or
Definition in a table format for easy
groups based on shared
reference and analysis.
characteristics or attributes.

To simplify complex data,

To systematically present data
making it easier to
in rows and columns for
Purpose understand and analyze by
comparison, analysis, and
grouping similar items
interpretation.
together.

Nature Qualitative or Quantitative Quantitative

Used to identify patterns, Used to display data clearly

Usage relationships, and trends and concisely for quick
within data. reference and analysis.

Grouped into categories Arranged in rows and columns,

Format such as age groups, income often with headings and
brackets, etc. subheadings.

Showing the number of survey

Grouping survey
respondents in a table with age
Example respondents by age range
ranges as row headings and
(e.g., 18-25, 26-35, etc.)
responses as column headings.
Aspect Classification of Data Tabulation of Data

Helps in understanding the

Analysis Helps in comparing data across
distribution and frequency
Facilitation different categories or groups.
of data.

May use charts, graphs, and

Data Primarily uses tables to
lists to represent grouped
Representation represent data.
data.

Can be complex as it Relatively simple as it involves

Complexity involves categorizing data arranging data in a structured
based on multiple criteria. format.

Useful in research studies, Useful in reporting,

Application market analysis, and data documentation, and
mining. presentations.

Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

Classification of data is also used in tabular presentation and is of four types; viz.,
Geographical or Spatial Classification, Chronological or Temporal Classification,
Qualitative Classification, and Quantitative Classification.

1. Spatial Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

Spatial Classification of data means to classify data based on the geographical

location, place, or region such as state, district, town, city, country, etc. For
example, a number of students from different states at Delhi University. The
Tabular presentation of the same can be shown as follows:
2. Temporal Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

Temporal Classification of data means to classify data based on the time period.
It means that time becomes the classifying variable in the case of temporal
classification. For example, the sale of Laptops by a manufacturer in different
years. The tabular presentation of the same can be shown as follows:

3. Qualitative Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

Qualitative Classification of data means to classify data based on qualitative

characteristics or attributes. For example, data of the students of Class XI can be
classified on qualitative attributes like male or female, and Commerce or
Science. The tabular presentation of the same can be shown as follows:

4. Quantitative Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation

Quantitative Classification of data means to classify data based on quantitative
characteristics. For example, data on the number of players playing different
sports in a school. The tabular presentation of the same can be shown as follows:

People Also Read:

 Classification of Data in Statistics | Meaning and Basis of Classification of

Data
 Objectives and Characteristics of Classification of Data
 Tabular Presentation of Data: Meaning, Objectives, Features and Merits
 Different Types of Tables
FAQs on Classification and Tabulation of Data

What is Classification of Data?

Classification of Data is the process of organizing data into categories or groups

based on shared characteristics or attributes. This helps in simplifying complex
data sets, making them easier to analyze and interpret.

Why is data classification important in economics?

Data classification in economics is important because it helps in identifying

patterns, making comparisons, and drawing meaningful conclusions. It allows
economists to organize raw data into a structured format that can be used for
statistical analysis and decision-making.

What are the types of data classification?

The main types of data classification are:

 Qualitative Classification: Based on attributes or qualities (e.g., gender,

nationality).
 Quantitative Classification: Based on numerical values (e.g., income, age).
 Geographical/Spatial Classification: Based on location (e.g., regions,
countries).
 Chronological/Temporal Classification: Based on time (e.g., years, quarters).
What is the difference between primary and secondary data in classification?

Primary data is data collected firsthand for a specific purpose, while secondary
data is data that has already been collected and published for other purposes.
Classification applies to both types, organizing them into useful categories for
analysis.
 What is tabulation of data?

Tabulation is the process of arranging data in a systematic and logical manner,

typically in rows and columns, to facilitate analysis and interpretation. It
provides a clear and concise way to present large amounts of data.

What are the main types of tables used in tabulation?

The main types of tables are:

1. Simple Table: Presents data on a single characteristic.

2. Complex Table: Presents data on multiple characteristics, which can be

further classified into:

 Double or Two-Way Table: Shows data on two characteristics.

 Triple or Three-Way Table: Shows data on three characteristics.
 Manifold Table: Shows data on more than three characteristics.
How do classification and tabulation complement each other in data analysis?

Classification organizes data into categories, making it manageable, while

tabulation arranges this classified data into tables, making it easier to analyze
and interpret. Together, they enhance the clarity, accuracy, and efficiency of
data analysis in economics.

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CHI-SQUARE TEST

What is the chi-square test in research methodology?

A chi-square test is a statistical test used to compare observed results with
expected results. The purpose of this test is to determine if a difference
between observed data and expected data is due to chance, or if it is due to a
relationship between the variables you are studying.

Conditions for the chi-square test

For the chi-square test to be performed, the following conditions are
to be satisfied:
1. The observations are to be recorded and collected on a random
basis.
2. The items in the samples should all be independent.
3. The frequencies of data in a group should not be less than 10. Under
such conditions, regrouping of items should be done by combining
frequencies.
4. The total number of individual items in the sample should also be
reasonably large, about 50 or more.
5. The constraints in the frequencies should be linear and not
containing squares or higher powers.
Chi-square distribution
 Chi-square distribution in statistics is the distribution of a sum of the
squares of independent normal random variables.
 This distribution is a special case of the gamma distribution and is
one of the most commonly used distributions in statistics.
 This distribution is used for the chi-square test for testing the
goodness of fit or testing the independence.
 Chi-square distribution is a part of the t-distribution, F-distribution
used for t-tests, and ANOVA
Chi-square table
The following is the chi-square distribution table:
 Chi-square test of independence
 When the chi-square test is used as a test of independence, it allows
the researcher to test whether the two attributes being tested are
associated or not.
 For this test, a null and alternative hypothesis is formulated where
the null hypothesis is that the two attributes are not associated, and
the alternative hypothesis is that the attributes are associated.
 From the given data, the expected frequencies are then calculated,
followed by the calculation of chi-square value.
 Based on the calculated value of chi-square, either the null or
alternative hypothesis is accepted.
 Here, if the calculated value of chi-square is less than the value in the
table at the given level of significance, the null hypothesis is
accepted, indicating that there is no relationship between the two
attributes.
 However, if the calculated value of chi-square is found to be higher
than the value in the table, the alternative hypothesis is accepted,
indicating that there is a relationship between the two attributes.
Chi-square test of goodness of fit
 Chi-square test is performed as a test of goodness of fit, which helps
the researcher to compare the theoretical distribution with the
observed distribution.
 When the calculated value of chi-square is found to be less than the
table value at a certain level of significance, the fit between the data
is considered to be good.
 A good fit indicates that the variation between the observed and
expected frequencies is due to fluctuations during sampling.
 However, if the calculated value of chi-square is greater than the
table value, the fit is considered not to be as good.
Chi-square test examples
 A chi-square test performed to determine if a new medication is
effective against fever or not is an example of a chi-square test as the
test of independence to determine the relationship between
medicine and fever.
 Another example of the chi-square test is the testing of some genetic
theory that claims that children having one parent of blood
type A and the other of blood type B will always have the blood
group as one of three types, A, AB, B, and that the proportion of
three types will on an average be as 1: 2: 1. On the basis of expected
and observed outcomes, the goodness of fit of the hypothesis can be
determined
Chi-square test applications
 A Chi-square test is used in cryptanalysis to determine the
distribution of plain text and decrypted ciphertext.
 Similarly, it is also used in bioinformatics to determine the
distribution of different genes like disease genes and other important
genes.
 A Chi-square test is performed by various researchers of different
fields to test the minor or major hypothesis.
A chi-squared test (symbolically represented as χ2) is basically a data analysis
on the basis of observations of a random set of variables. Usually, it is a
comparison of two statistical data sets. This test was introduced by Karl
Pearson in 1900 for categorical data analysis and distribution. So it was
mentioned as Pearson’s chi-squared test.

The chi-square test is used to estimate how likely the observations that are
made would be, by considering the assumption of the null hypothesis as true.

A hypothesis is a consideration that a given condition or statement might be

true, which we can test afterwards. Chi-squared tests are usually created from a
sum of squared falsities or errors over the sample variance.

Table of contents:

 Chi-squared Distribution
 P-Value calculation
 Properties
 Formula
 Test of Independence
 Example
 Degrees of Freedom and P-Values Table
 Solved Problem
 FAQs

Chi-Square Distribution

When we consider, the null speculation is true, the sampling distribution of the
test statistic is called as chi-squared distribution. The chi-squared test helps
to determine whether there is a notable difference between the normal
frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more classes or categories.
It gives the probability of independent variables.

Note: Chi-squared test is applicable only for categorical data, such as men and
women falling under the categories of Gender, Age, Height, etc.
Finding P-Value
P stands for probability here. To calculate the p-value, the chi-square test is
used in statistics. The different values of p indicates the different hypothesis
interpretation, are given below:

 P≤ 0.05; Hypothesis rejected

 P>.05; Hypothesis Accepted

Probability is all about chance or risk or uncertainty. It is the possibility of the

outcome of the sample or the occurrence of an event. But when we talk about
statistics, it is more about how we handle various data using different
techniques. It helps to represent complicated data or bulk data in a very easy
and understandable way. It describes the collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and organization of data. The concept of both probability and
statistics is related to the chi-squared test.

Also, read:

 P Value
 Data Handling
 Population and Sample
 Variance
 Standard Deviation

Properties

The following are the important properties of the chi-square test:

 Two times the number of degrees of freedom is equal to the variance.

 The number of degree of freedom is equal to the mean distribution
 The chi-square distribution curve approaches the normal distribution when the
degree of freedom increases.

Formula

The chi-squared test is done to check if there is any difference between the
observed value and expected value. The formula for chi-square can be written
as;
or

χ2 = ∑(Oi – Ei)2/Ei

where Oi is the observed value and Ei is the expected value.

Chi-Square Test of Independence

The chi-square test of independence also known as the chi-square test of

association which is used to determine the association between the categorical
variables. It is considered as a non-parametric test. It is mostly used to test
statistical independence.

The chi-square test of independence is not appropriate when the categorical

variables represent the pre-test and post-test observations. For this test, the
data must meet the following requirements:

 Two categorical variables

 Relatively large sample size
 Categories of variables (two or more)
 Independence of observations

Example of Categorical Data

Let us take an example of a categorical data where there is a society of 1000

residents with four neighbourhoods, P, Q, R and S. A random sample of 650
residents of the society is taken whose occupations are doctors, engineers and
teachers. The null hypothesis is that each person’s neighbourhood of residency
is independent of the person’s professional division. The data are categorised
as:

Categories P Q R S Total

Doctors 90 60 104 95 349

Engineers 30 50 51 20 151

Teachers 30 40 45 35 150

Total 150 150 200 150 650

Assume the sample living in neighbourhood P, 150, to estimate what proportion

of the whole 1,000 people live in neighbourhood P. In the same way, we take
349/650 to calculate what ratio of the 1,000 are doctors. By the supposition of
independence under the hypothesis, we should “expect” the number of doctors
in neighbourhood P is;

150 x 349/650 ≈ 80.54

So by the chi-square test formula for that particular cell in the table, we get;

(Observed – Expected)2/Expected Value = (90-80.54)2/80.54 ≈ 1.11

Some of the exciting facts about the Chi-square test are given below:

The Chi-square statistic can only be used on numbers. We cannot use them for
data in terms of percentages, proportions, means or similar statistical contents.
Suppose, if we have 20% of 400 people, we need to convert it to a number, i.e.
80, before running a test statistic.

A chi-square test will give us a p-value. The p-value will tell us whether our test
results are significant or not.

However, to perform a chi-square test and get the p-value, we require two
pieces of information:

(1) Degrees of freedom. That’s just the number of categories minus 1.

(2) The alpha level(α). You or the researcher chooses this. The usual alpha
level is 0.05 (5%), but you could also have other levels like 0.01 or 0.10.

In elementary statistics, we usually get questions along with the degrees of

freedom(DF) and the alpha level. Thus, we don’t usually have to figure out what
they are. To get the degrees of freedom, count the categories and subtract 1.

Table

The chi-square distribution table with three probability levels is provided here.
The statistic here is used to examine whether distributions of certain variables
vary from one another. The categorical variable will produce data in the
categories and numerical variables will produce data in numerical form.

The distribution of χ2 with (r-1)(c-1) degrees of freedom(DF), is represented in

the table given below. Here, r represents the number of rows in the two-way
table and c represents the number of columns.

DF
Value of P
0.05 0.01 0.001

1 3.84 6.64 10.83

2 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 7.82 11.35 16.27

4 9.49 13.28 18.47

5 11.07 15.09 20.52

6 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 15.51 20.09 26.13

9 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 18.31 23.21 29.59

11 19.68 24.73 31.26

12 21.03 26.22 32.91

13 22.36 27.69 34.53

14 23.69 29.14 36.12

15 25.00 30.58 37.70

16 26.30 32.00 39.25

17 27.59 33.41 40.79

18 28.87 34.81 42.31

19 30.14 36.19 43.82

20 31.41 37.57 45.32

21 32.67 38.93 46.80

22 33.92 40.29 48.27

23 35.17 41.64 49.73

24 36.42 42.98 51.18

25 37.65 44.31 52.62

26 38.89 45.64 54.05

27 40.11 46.96 55.48

28 41.34 48.28 56.89

29 42.56 49.59 58.30

30 43.77 50.89 59.70

31 44.99 52.19 61.10

32 46.19 53.49 62.49

33 47.40 54.78 63.87

34 48.60 56.06 65.25

35 49.80 57.34 66.62

36 51.00 58.62 67.99

37 52.19 59.89 69.35

38 53.38 61.16 70.71

39 54.57 62.43 72.06

40 55.76 63.69 73.41

41 56.94 64.95 74.75

42 58.12 66.21 76.09

43 59.30 67.46 77.42

44 60.48 68.71 78.75

45 61.66 69.96 80.08

46 62.83 71.20 81.40

47 64.00 72.44 82.72

48 65.17 73.68 84.03

49 66.34 74.92 85.35

50 67.51 76.15 86.66

51 68.67 77.39 87.97

52 69.83 78.62 89.27

53 70.99 79.84 90.57

54 72.15 81.07 91.88

55 73.31 82.29 93.17

56 74.47 83.52 94.47

57 75.62 84.73 95.75

58 76.78 85.95 97.03

59 77.93 87.17 98.34

60 79.08 88.38 99.62

61 80.23 89.59 100.88

62 81.38 90.80 102.15

63 82.53 92.01 103.46

64 83.68 93.22 104.72

65 84.82 94.42 105.97

66 85.97 95.63 107.26

67 87.11 96.83 108.54

68 88.25 98.03 109.79

69 89.39 99.23 111.06

70 90.53 100.42 112.31

71 91.67 101.62 113.56

72 92.81 102.82 114.84

73 93.95 104.01 116.08

74 95.08 105.20 117.35

75 96.22 106.39 118.60

76 97.35 107.58 119.85

77 98.49 108.77 121.11

78 99.62 109.96 122.36

79 100.75 111.15 123.60

80 101.88 112.33 124.84

81 103.01 113.51 126.09

82 104.14 114.70 127.33

83 105.27 115.88 128.57

84 106.40 117.06 129.80

85 107.52 118.24 131.04

86 108.65 119.41 132.28

87 109.77 120.59 133.51

88 110.90 121.77 134.74

89 112.02 122.94 135.96

90 113.15 124.12 137.19

91 114.27 125.29 138.45

92 115.39 126.46 139.66

93 116.51 127.63 140.90

94 117.63 128.80 142.12

95 118.75 129.97 143.32

96 119.87 131.14 144.55

97 120.99 132.31 145.78

98 122.11 133.47 146.99

99 123.23 134.64 148.21

100 124.34 135.81 149.48

Solved Problem
Question:

A survey on cars had conducted in 2011 and determined that 60% of car
owners have only one car, 28% have two cars, and 12% have three or more.
Supposing that you have decided to conduct your own survey and have
collected the data below, determine whether your data supports the results of
the study.

Use a significance level of 0.05. Also, given that, out of 129 car owners, 73 had
one car and 38 had two cars.

Solution:

Let us state the null and alternative hypotheses.

H0: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars is 0.60, 0.28 and
0.12 respectively.

H1: The proportion of car owners with one, two or three cars does not match the
proposed model.

A Chi-Square goodness of fit test is appropriate because we are examining the

distribution of a single categorical variable.

Let’s tabulate the given information and calculate the required values.

Observed (Oi) Expected (Ei) Oi – Ei (Oi – Ei)2 (Oi – Ei)2/Ei

One car 73 0.60 × 129 = 77.4 -4.4 19.36 0.2501

Two cars 38 0.28 × 129 = 36.1 1.9 3.61 0.1

Three or more cars 18 0.12 × 129 = 15.5 2.5 6.25 0.4032

Total 129 0.7533

Therefore, χ2 = ∑(Oi – Ei)2/Ei = 0.7533

Let’s compare it to the chi-square value for the significance level 0.05.
The degrees for freedom = 3 – 1 = 2

Using the table, the critical value for a 0.05 significance level with df = 2 is
5.99.

That means that 95 times out of 100, a survey that agrees with a sample will
have a χ2 value of 5.99 or less.

The Chi-square statistic is only 0.7533, so we will accept the null hypothesis.

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Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What is the chi-square test write its formula

When we consider the null hypothesis is true, the test statistic’s sampling distribution is
called chi-squared distribution. The formula for chi-square is:
χ^2 = ∑(O_i – E_i)^2/E_i
Here,
O_i = Observed value
E_i = Expected value

How do you calculate chi squared

The value of the Chi-squared statistic can be calculated using the formula given below:
χ^2 = ∑(O_i – E_i)^2/E_i
This can be done as follows.
For each observed number in the data, subtract the corresponding expected value, i.e. (O
— E).
Square the difference, (O — E)^2
Divide these squares by the expected value of each observation, i.e. [(O – E)^2 / E].
Finally, take the sum of these values.
Thus, the obtained value will be the chi-squared statistic.

What is a chi-square test used for

The chi-squared test is done to check if there is any difference between the observed value
and the expected value.

How do you interpret a chi-square test

For a Chi-square test, a p-value that is less than or equal to the specified significance level
indicates sufficient evidence to conclude that the observed distribution is not the same as
the expected distribution. Here, we can conclude that a relationship exists between the
given categorical variables.

What is a good chi-square value

A good chi-square value is assumed to be 5. As we know, for the chi-square approach to
be valid, the expected frequency should be at least 5.
 No. Footnote Endnote
1. Located at the bottom of the page. Located at the end of a section/chapter
or the document.
2. Easier for quick referencing. Requires navigating away from the main
text.
3. Can potentially disrupt page layout and design. Maintains a clean page layout.
4. Can be distracting if there are too many on one page. Prevents clutter and reduces distraction.
5. Ideal for short documents or articles. Ideal for lengthy documents or books.
6. Immediate access to additional information. Delays access to additional information.
7. Requires more frequent page breaks. Requires fewer page breaks.
8. More commonly used in academic papers. Often used in books and lengthy reports.
9. Provides a smoother reading experience if references May interrupt reading flow as readers
are essential to understand the text. need to flip to the end.
10. Can make pages look 'busy'. Gives a more streamlined look to pages.

Footnotes: Examples
As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a
glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.

 A text may mention the name of an organisation and use a footnote to explain that
the organisation had a different name in the past.
 A text may mention a certain sum of money in Korean Won, and the corresponding
footnotes will indicate the equivalent sum in US dollars.

Endnotes: Examples
As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too
are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.

 While you may describe a certain method in your main text, you might use an
endnote to outline in more detail some other tangential studies, perhaps from a
slightly different field, which used that same method, the results they produced and
why this may be of interest.
 You might cite an important quotation within the main body of your text and then
include in a related endnote the full paragraph or section from which that
quotation was taken, thus enabling interested readers to explore the wider context
and additional insights if they wish.

How to Write a Bibliography

The bibliography, commonly referred to as the “works cited” list, is a crucial section
where you include relevant information about the sources referenced in your paper. It is
mandatory to list every source used in your paper in the bibliography, without any
exceptions
Adhere to these guidelines when creating your bibliography

 The bibliography should always have its own page and be numbered accordingly,
following the pages of the essay. In some cases, if the list is short, it may be included on
the final page of the essay, but a separate page is generally preferred. The title of the
bibliography, either “Bibliography” or “Works Cited,” should be centered, following
the proper MLA heading guidelines.
 The entire bibliography should be double spaced, or have the same spacing alignment
as the rest of the essay, such as 1.5 or 2.0. Each entry should have a hanging indent,
where the first line is flush with the margin and subsequent lines are indented five to
seven spaces or using the Tab key.Unlike other citation styles, MLA format requires
entries to be alphabetized by the author’s surname. In cases where the author’s surname
is not known, titles should be listed alphabetically. When citing multiple works by the
same author, they should be alphabetized by title and the author’s name included in the
first entry.

Footnotes and Endnotes

 MLA Footnotes and Endnotes are essential for acknowledging sources of any material
used in a paper, whether it is quoted, summarized, or paraphrased. These notes guide
readers to the specific pages of the works listed in the Works Cited, References, or
Bibliography section.
 Footnotes are additional notes placed at the end of a page to provide statements or cite
references related to a particular part of the text in the body of the paper. These notes
can include interesting facts or comments that may be irrelevant to the main argument
of the paper. In this case, the author can include the information in a footnote by
embedding an image as a placeholder for the footnote at the end of the sentence being
commented on, and reprinting the symbol and their comment in the footnote.
 The primary difference between Footnotes and Endnotes is that Footnotes are placed
numerically at the bottom of the same page where direct references are made, while
Endnotes are placed numerically at the end of the essay on a separate page titled
“Endnotes” or “Notes.”
 If using a typewriter, a superscript number is typed half a space above the line after the
last word of the quotation, e.g., “The information Superhighway is giving way to a
Commercial Superhighway.”1. If using a word processor, the superscript feature can be
accessed. To create a Footnote citation, the same superscript number is placed at the
beginning of the Footnote at the bottom of the same page where the quotation occurs.
 When citing work for the first time, a complete and full Footnote or Endnote entry
should be made.
 The process for including Footnotes or Endnotes is similar for most types of texts, but
what about including footnotes on digital media such as websites and blogs?

How to Footnote a Website

Since technology is constantly evolving, there is no established approach for citing
websites. Nevertheless, several influential figures assert that adding website footnotes
can enhance a site’s credibility and help readers access the original sources for further
information. Fortunately, creating a website footnote is a simple process.

1. To create a website footnote, first, navigate to the website you wish to cite. If
possible, identify the author of the webpage and note down the name of the site,
the date it was published online, the URL, and the date you accessed it.
2. Arrange this information in the following order, separated by commas: author’s
name (if available), “title of webpage,” date published (if available), URL
(enclosed in angle brackets), and date accessed.
3. If the website does not have a date of publication, use “n.d.” in place of the date.
For example: John Smith, “The New Summer Sidewalk,” 2009, (accessed
September 25, 2010).
It is important to remember that Footnote and Endnote citations should only include one
sentence and one period, while Bibliography entries should consist of at least three
sentences and periods for the author, title, and publication information.
Use of Superscript:
To format Footnote and Endnote entries, use a 5-space indentation or [Tab] from the
left margin. Keep one space between the superscript number and the entry. Avoid
indenting second and subsequent lines. Double-space between entries. Number
Footnotes and Endnotes in sequence using superscripts, such as 1, 2, 3, and so on.
For Endnotes, use the same superscript number as in the text for each Endnote in your
Endnotes list. Start your Endnotes list on a new page after your essay. It’s best to place
the Endnotes page before the Bibliography, Works Cited, or References page.
Refer to examples for formatting first Footnotes or Endnotes, subsequent Footnotes or
Endnotes, and listings on Works Cited or References page.